Wikiversity talk:Main Page

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      <comment>Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-37117-90|~2026-37117-90]] ([[User_talk:~2026-37117-90|talk]]) to last version by [[User:NDG|NDG]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]]</comment>
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{{attention}} To request an edit to the [[Wikiversity:Page protection|protected]] Main Page, add {{tl|editprotected}} to your request. Such requests should either be obvious or uncontroversial, or be discussed to show consensus, so please do not make vague requests here. If possible, describe exactly what changes should be made so that any custodian can quickly satisfy the request.&lt;br&gt;
{{attention}} To raise general topics about [[Wikiversity]], make general suggestions about Wikiversity, to ask questions, or to talk about anything else of a general nature, use the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|Colloquium]].&lt;br&gt;
{{attention}} To discuss the structure, appearance, etc. of the [[Wikiversity:Main Page|Main Page]], go to the [[Wikiversity:Main page learning project]] and the [[Wikiversity talk:Main page learning project|talk page for the main page learning project]].
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'''''If you wish to post something below, go ahead. It's a talk page. But you are more likely to get a response by going to the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|Colloquium]], which is where the main talking at Wikiversity goes on! See you there.'''''

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== The Wikiversity:Main page learning project ==

The [[Wikiversity:Main page learning project]] was launched after the redesign of the main page in December 2007. The [[Wikiversity:Main page learning project]] has as its goal &quot;the promotion of responsible involvement of the Wikiversity community in an efficient, productive, open and inclusive maintenance of the Wikiversity main page as a flagship of the activity and values of the Wikiversity community&quot;. If you would like to get involved in the design of the main page, this is where to go. 

If you have general comments about the main page, but you don't especially want to get involved in the main page project, then you can also leave comments on the [[Wikiversity_talk:Main page learning project|talk page for the main page learning project]].

:I've suggested that it might be time to retire the &quot;quote of the day&quot; project and remove the quotes from the Main Page. See: [[Wikiversity talk:Main page learning project/QOTD]]. It might also be appropriate to deprecate the inactive [[Wikiversity:Main page learning project]] and archive it. Thoughts? --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 23:37, 29 November 2019 (UTC)

== add new language university ==
Now that Chinese Wikiversity is created, please add a cross-wiki link to it. --[[User:WQL|WQL]] ([[User talk:WQL|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/WQL|contribs]]) 12:52, 12 August 2018 (UTC)

:{{Done}} -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 14:29, 12 August 2018 (UTC)
::What about zulu language [[User:Lucky Shabalala|Lucky Shabalala]] ([[User talk:Lucky Shabalala|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lucky Shabalala|contribs]]) 05:57, 30 April 2025 (UTC)

== Edit request from 204.234.101.112, 14 February 2019 ==

&lt;nowiki&gt;{{editprotected}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
&lt;!-- Begin request --&gt;


&lt;!-- End request --&gt;
[[Special:Contributions/204.234.101.112|204.234.101.112]] ([[User talk:204.234.101.112|discuss]]) 21:17, 14 February 2019 (UTC)

:{{Not done}} Empty request -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 01:11, 15 February 2019 (UTC)

== Georgian (ka) wikiversity ==
PLEASE 

Help me to make Georgian (ka) wikiversity--[[User:ჯეო|ჯეო]] ([[User talk:ჯეო|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ჯეო|contribs]]) 17:23, 1 March 2019 (UTC)

:{{at|ჯეო}} See https://beta.wikiversity.org/wiki/Main_Page. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 23:00, 1 March 2019 (UTC)

დიდი მადლობა (Didi Madloba-Thank You)!--[[User:ჯეო|ჯეო]] ([[User talk:ჯეო|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ჯეო|contribs]]) 08:44, 2 March 2019 (UTC)

::Please see [[betawikiversity:Category:KA]]. That is the appropriate place to create learning pages in this language. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 14:11, 10 March 2019 (UTC)

== new langueages ==

we should admit crosing of languajes to have a better understanding--[[Special:Contributions/201.208.239.198|201.208.239.198]] ([[User talk:201.208.239.198|discuss]]) 19:34, 25 July 2019 (UTC)

:This is the English Wikiversity. See [[:es:Portada|Wikiversidad]] for Wikiversity in Spanish. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 22:39, 25 July 2019 (UTC)

== How to change an username? ==

How to change an username? --[[User:Josephina Phoebe White|Josephina Phoebe White]] ([[User talk:Josephina Phoebe White|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Josephina Phoebe White|contribs]]) 07:27, 28 August 2019 (UTC)
*{{ping|Josephina Phoebe White}} You can request at [[Special:GlobalRenameRequest]] --[[User:94rain|94rain]] ([[User talk:94rain|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/94rain|contribs]]) 07:29, 28 August 2019 (UTC)
Thanks. --[[User:Josephina Phoebe White|Josephina Phoebe White]] ([[User talk:Josephina Phoebe White|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Josephina Phoebe White|contribs]]) 07:45, 28 August 2019 (UTC)

==Religious user names allowed in Wikiversity?==

https://en.m.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Username

Names of religious figures such as &quot;God&quot;, &quot;Jehovah&quot;,&quot;Buddha&quot;,&quot;Jainism&quot;,&quot;Bonadea&quot;,Hinduism or &quot;Allah&quot;, which user names prohibited

Please answer for my question. This Wikiversity user name policy still alive? Religious user names are prohibited? 

:It isn't a policy, but it's a guideline for people who are wanting to register an account are recommended to follow (as per the page, which could be changed with community consensus). I see no reason for this statement to be &quot;dead&quot;. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 00:15, 2 September 2019 (UTC)
::: Yes: Religious user names are under hedding &quot;Inflammatory usernames&quot;, will be blocked and not allowed.

== LinkedIn ==

I insist that a Wikiversity page should be added on LinkedIn. Wikimedia has its LinkedIn page; Wikipedia, too. But not Wikiversity. I tried to show my Swedish studies but could not choose Wikiversity as the Institution. Why not? Even when it is not a &quot;granting degree&quot; Institution, is is still an Institution, right? When I contacted LinkedIn about this, they sent me the link so that I can create myself the Wikiversity page. But then there is box I must tick: &quot; I confirm I am an approved authority of this Institution to create this page&quot;, which is not the case. But I think there are many Wikiversity experts on here that woud qualify as Wikiversity Linkedin page creators. I can create the page if someone here approves, but I would need some info: # of employees, etc. --[[User:Leonardo T. Cardillo|Leonardo T. Cardillo]] ([[User talk:Leonardo T. Cardillo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leonardo T. Cardillo|contribs]]) 23:34, 18 January 2020 (UTC)

:The information would go here [https://www.linkedin.com/company/setup/new/ Wikiversity institution] but it probably should have a bureaucrat or someone from the WMF tick &quot;I verify that I am an authorized representative of this organization and have the right to act on its behalf in the creation and management of this page. The organization and I agree to the additional terms for Pages.&quot; The number of employees (volunteers is not an option but we are unpaid) for our Wikiversity I guess could be the number of active users 201-500. The current logo is File:Wikiversity logo 2017.svg. The website can be https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page.--[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 00:16, 19 January 2020 (UTC)

{{At|Leonardo T. Cardillo}} Wikiversity is a community. None of us gets to insist that anything happen on behalf of the community unless there is consensus to do so. This requires a discussion in the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium]] and a vote for support or lack thereof. Because this request involves an outside organization, it may also require support from the WMF.

I have some concerns at this point that your passion regarding this issue far exceeds your demonstrated commitment to either Wikiversity or the wider Wikimedia community. It might be better to let this rest for a bit and learn more about how Wikiversity functions before insisting that this be discussed. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 03:29, 19 January 2020 (UTC)

:{{At|Dave Braunschweig}}: I apologize for the use of the word &quot;insist&quot;, I have taken note to not use it anymore here to avoid distractions from the main topic of conversation. Also, I do not like you judge how much my passions should go against my level of contributions. With that being said, and for my personal learning on this environment, can someone please guide me on the very first step I should take to have a Wikiversity page created on LinkedIn? I think you mentioned something like a &quot;poll&quot;, how do I do that? --[[User:Leonardo T. Cardillo|Leonardo T. Cardillo]] ([[User talk:Leonardo T. Cardillo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leonardo T. Cardillo|contribs]]) 04:38, 19 January 2020 (UTC)

::{{At|Leonardo T. Cardillo}} I have already guided you on the next step to take. Please read my response carefully. Then slow down and learn more about Wikiversity. We often have people come in with high passions and quick fixes that Wikiversity must make in order to improve. They're typically gone within a month and we're left having to clean up after them. That's not to suggest that this is or isn't a good idea. It is simply to point out that this is a community. You must first learn to work with the community before you try to change it. We look forward to working with you as you figure this out. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 15:31, 19 January 2020 (UTC)

:::{{At|Dave Braunschweig}} Thanks so much for your inputs. I have created this: https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Colloquium#LinkedIn. Please indicate if that is the next step that was intended to be created. Also, please guide on the following ones. Best regards, --[[User:Leonardo T. Cardillo|Leonardo T. Cardillo]] ([[User talk:Leonardo T. Cardillo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leonardo T. Cardillo|contribs]]) 16:27, 19 January 2020 (UTC)

== Add New Language ==

Why not bn.wikiversity?  But there is Hindi!  Make it, please.  I am ready to cooperate if needed. [[User:Hirok Raja|Hirok Raja]] ([[User talk:Hirok Raja|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Hirok Raja|contribs]]) 03:07, 1 August 2020 (UTC)

:[[User:Hirok Raja|Hirok Raja]]: please see [[:betawikiversity:|Wikiversity Beta]]. &amp;mdash;Hasley&amp;nbsp;[[user talk:Hasley|&lt;span style=&quot;color: #0645AD; vertical-align: super; font-size: smaller;&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]] 13:04, 1 August 2020 (UTC)

:{{At|Hirok Raja}} Also see [[meta:Wikiversity]]. We are the English Wikiversity. We have no role in setting up new Wikiversity languages. When bn.wikiversity is added, please let us know, and we will add it to our main page. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:59, 1 August 2020 (UTC)

== I'm learning Turkish🤩 ==

Hi(to the person reading this)! I'm learning Turkish and I would like someone(native Turkish speaker) to teach how to pronounce Turkish. I do know some words,alphabets and number☺️ and I'm still learning and I hope someone is willing to help me🥺.

@JinahJady! [[User:JanehJody|JanehJody]] ([[User talk:JanehJody|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JanehJody|contribs]]) 18:14, 4 February 2021 (UTC)

:Hi. Welcome to Wikiversity! Please see our [[Turkish|resources relating to the study of the Turkish language]]. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 19:41, 4 February 2021 (UTC)
::Hi,@[[User:JanehJody|JanehJody]] can i help you ::) [[User:MexmetW|MexmetW]] ([[User talk:MexmetW|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MexmetW|contribs]]) 07:47, 28 September 2022 (UTC)
:Hi,@[[User:JanehJody|JanehJody]] I would love to help you to learning turkish :) [[Special:Contributions/85.105.185.109|85.105.185.109]] ([[User talk:85.105.185.109|discuss]]) 07:31, 28 September 2022 (UTC)

== Is it Wikipedia remodeled or a copy of wikipedia? ==

I am confused--[[User:Noukden|Noukden]] ([[User talk:Noukden|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Noukden|contribs]]) 20:45, 24 May 2021 (UTC)

:{{At|Noukden}} None of the above. See [[What is Wikiversity?]] and [[What Wikiversity is not]]. Wikiversity is learning projects. Link to Wikipedia rather than duplicating it and then add hands-on activities so users can learn by doing. See [[IT Fundamentals]] for one approach. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 00:15, 25 May 2021 (UTC)

== Action in the earliest? ==

I want to know much more of all action that happend in the earliest centuries. [[User:Dilbkhay|Dilbkhay]] ([[User talk:Dilbkhay|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dilbkhay|contribs]]) 14:57, 21 August 2021 (UTC)

:Depending upon what you mean by &quot;earliest&quot;, have a look at [[Paleanthropology]] or [[Philosophy/Sciences]]. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 21:07, 20 September 2021 (UTC)

== Biology ==

What are the basic principles of ecology [[User:Aludriyo Dominic|Aludriyo Dominic]] ([[User talk:Aludriyo Dominic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Aludriyo Dominic|contribs]]) 18:25, 25 January 2022 (UTC)

:{{At|Aludriyo Dominic}} Welcome! See [[Wikipedia:Ecology]]. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 00:17, 26 January 2022 (UTC)
:{{ping|Aludriyo Dominic}} I invite you to read [[User:Atcovi/Science/Ecology]] if you're interested in learning about the basics of Ecology. Also check out the wikipedia link above and [[:Category:Ecology|this category]]. Thanks and weclome! —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 03:44, 26 January 2022 (UTC)

I will try to study [[User:Aludriyo Dominic|Aludriyo Dominic]] ([[User talk:Aludriyo Dominic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Aludriyo Dominic|contribs]]) 05:41, 28 January 2022 (UTC)

== Physics ==

Physics Can Be defined as A Pure Science Subject That deals with the Measurement Of Matter In relation to energy. --{{Unsigned|Oyeyemi Abdul-warith|29 January 2022}}

: Welcome to Wikiversity! Here is a landing page that may be helpful: [[Physics]]. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 16:42, 29 January 2022 (UTC)

== Popularize ==

Can someone popularize California or the State of Washington on the Main Page? [[Special:Contributions/2604:3D08:6286:7500:B441:2710:77A4:1304|2604:3D08:6286:7500:B441:2710:77A4:1304]] ([[User talk:2604:3D08:6286:7500:B441:2710:77A4:1304|discuss]]) 03:33, 26 June 2022 (UTC)

:No, sorry, promotion isn't part of the [[Wikiversity:Mission]]. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 12:06, 26 June 2022 (UTC)

== [[w:Armistice of WWI|Armistice of WWI]], [[w:Paris Peace Conference|Paris Peace Conference]] and Aftermath ==

The best time to feature this on the main page was last week or yesterday;  the second best time is today.

* [[w:Template:First_World_War_treaties]]  (this template should get transcluded or copied to wikiversity, since this doesn't work: {{w:First_World_War_treaties}} although I wish it would)
* [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#Proclaiming_Armistice_of_WWI_Remembrance_and_Veterans_Day_for_11th_Nov]] our course on WWI is woefully inadequate, but this is a good time to start improving it!
[[User:Jaredscribe|Jaredscribe]] ([[User talk:Jaredscribe|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jaredscribe|contribs]]) 10:22, 12 November 2023 (UTC)

== Can you please add isiZulu plz ==

Because all othere languages her so i can umderstand batter  [[User:Lucky Shabalala|Lucky Shabalala]] ([[User talk:Lucky Shabalala|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lucky Shabalala|contribs]]) 06:06, 30 April 2025 (UTC)

:Add it how? Add more resources to learn the language? I think that would be fantastic, but it's very labor-intensive and I doubt anyone here has the competence to add that kind of material. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 08:40, 30 April 2025 (UTC)

== banner ==

says set learning free, propare grammer would be Start learning for free [[User:Ducklan|Ducklan]] ([[User talk:Ducklan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ducklan|contribs]]) 20:21, 3 February 2026 (UTC)

:I'm a native American English speaker and this banner is grammatical. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 08:52, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
::That’s not the problem. I’m wondering if we should more clearly emphasize what Wikiversity is on this banner. Idk maybe it’s fine as it is I would just like it to be clearer[[User:Ducklan|Ducklan]] ([[User talk:Ducklan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ducklan|contribs]]) 16:15, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
:::nevermind i just got the banner thought it was supposed to say start learning free, but its actually set learning free(like release learning) [[User:Ducklan|Ducklan]] ([[User talk:Ducklan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ducklan|contribs]]) 16:12, 6 February 2026 (UTC)</text>
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{{attention}} To request an edit to the [[Wikiversity:Page protection|protected]] Main Page, add {{tl|editprotected}} to your request. Such requests should either be obvious or uncontroversial, or be discussed to show consensus, so please do not make vague requests here. If possible, describe exactly what changes should be made so that any custodian can quickly satisfy the request.&lt;br&gt;
{{attention}} To raise general topics about [[Wikiversity]], make general suggestions about Wikiversity, to ask questions, or to talk about anything else of a general nature, use the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|Colloquium]].&lt;br&gt;
{{attention}} To discuss the structure, appearance, etc. of the [[Wikiversity:Main Page|Main Page]], go to the [[Wikiversity:Main page learning project]] and the [[Wikiversity talk:Main page learning project|talk page for the main page learning project]].
&lt;/div&gt;

----
'''''If you wish to post something below, go ahead. It's a talk page. But you are more likely to get a response by going to the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|Colloquium]], which is where the main talking at Wikiversity goes on! See you there.'''''

{{archive box|
{{center top}}'''List of talk archives'''{{center bottom}}
{{Col list|3|
{{Special:Prefixindex/Wikiversity talk:Main Page/Archive |hideredirects=1|stripprefix=1}}
}}
{{SearchWithPrefix|prefix=Wikiversity talk:Main Page/|resourceName=talk archive}}
}}

== The Wikiversity:Main page learning project ==

The [[Wikiversity:Main page learning project]] was launched after the redesign of the main page in December 2007. The [[Wikiversity:Main page learning project]] has as its goal &quot;the promotion of responsible involvement of the Wikiversity community in an efficient, productive, open and inclusive maintenance of the Wikiversity main page as a flagship of the activity and values of the Wikiversity community&quot;. If you would like to get involved in the design of the main page, this is where to go. 

If you have general comments about the main page, but you don't especially want to get involved in the main page project, then you can also leave comments on the [[Wikiversity_talk:Main page learning project|talk page for the main page learning project]].

:I've suggested that it might be time to retire the &quot;quote of the day&quot; project and remove the quotes from the Main Page. See: [[Wikiversity talk:Main page learning project/QOTD]]. It might also be appropriate to deprecate the inactive [[Wikiversity:Main page learning project]] and archive it. Thoughts? --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 23:37, 29 November 2019 (UTC)

== add new language university ==
Now that Chinese Wikiversity is created, please add a cross-wiki link to it. --[[User:WQL|WQL]] ([[User talk:WQL|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/WQL|contribs]]) 12:52, 12 August 2018 (UTC)

:{{Done}} -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 14:29, 12 August 2018 (UTC)
::What about zulu language [[User:Lucky Shabalala|Lucky Shabalala]] ([[User talk:Lucky Shabalala|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lucky Shabalala|contribs]]) 05:57, 30 April 2025 (UTC)
::မင်းတို့တရုတ်ရောအမေရိကန်ရောငါဖျက်ဆီးမှာ [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-37117-90|&amp;#126;2026-37117-90]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-37117-90|talk]]) 11:17, 28 June 2026 (UTC)

== Edit request from 204.234.101.112, 14 February 2019 ==

&lt;nowiki&gt;{{editprotected}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
&lt;!-- Begin request --&gt;


&lt;!-- End request --&gt;
[[Special:Contributions/204.234.101.112|204.234.101.112]] ([[User talk:204.234.101.112|discuss]]) 21:17, 14 February 2019 (UTC)

:{{Not done}} Empty request -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 01:11, 15 February 2019 (UTC)

== Georgian (ka) wikiversity ==
PLEASE 

Help me to make Georgian (ka) wikiversity--[[User:ჯეო|ჯეო]] ([[User talk:ჯეო|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ჯეო|contribs]]) 17:23, 1 March 2019 (UTC)

:{{at|ჯეო}} See https://beta.wikiversity.org/wiki/Main_Page. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 23:00, 1 March 2019 (UTC)

დიდი მადლობა (Didi Madloba-Thank You)!--[[User:ჯეო|ჯეო]] ([[User talk:ჯეო|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ჯეო|contribs]]) 08:44, 2 March 2019 (UTC)

::Please see [[betawikiversity:Category:KA]]. That is the appropriate place to create learning pages in this language. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 14:11, 10 March 2019 (UTC)

== new langueages ==

we should admit crosing of languajes to have a better understanding--[[Special:Contributions/201.208.239.198|201.208.239.198]] ([[User talk:201.208.239.198|discuss]]) 19:34, 25 July 2019 (UTC)

:This is the English Wikiversity. See [[:es:Portada|Wikiversidad]] for Wikiversity in Spanish. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 22:39, 25 July 2019 (UTC)

== How to change an username? ==

How to change an username? --[[User:Josephina Phoebe White|Josephina Phoebe White]] ([[User talk:Josephina Phoebe White|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Josephina Phoebe White|contribs]]) 07:27, 28 August 2019 (UTC)
*{{ping|Josephina Phoebe White}} You can request at [[Special:GlobalRenameRequest]] --[[User:94rain|94rain]] ([[User talk:94rain|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/94rain|contribs]]) 07:29, 28 August 2019 (UTC)
Thanks. --[[User:Josephina Phoebe White|Josephina Phoebe White]] ([[User talk:Josephina Phoebe White|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Josephina Phoebe White|contribs]]) 07:45, 28 August 2019 (UTC)

==Religious user names allowed in Wikiversity?==

https://en.m.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Username

Names of religious figures such as &quot;God&quot;, &quot;Jehovah&quot;,&quot;Buddha&quot;,&quot;Jainism&quot;,&quot;Bonadea&quot;,Hinduism or &quot;Allah&quot;, which user names prohibited

Please answer for my question. This Wikiversity user name policy still alive? Religious user names are prohibited? 

:It isn't a policy, but it's a guideline for people who are wanting to register an account are recommended to follow (as per the page, which could be changed with community consensus). I see no reason for this statement to be &quot;dead&quot;. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 00:15, 2 September 2019 (UTC)
::: Yes: Religious user names are under hedding &quot;Inflammatory usernames&quot;, will be blocked and not allowed.

== LinkedIn ==

I insist that a Wikiversity page should be added on LinkedIn. Wikimedia has its LinkedIn page; Wikipedia, too. But not Wikiversity. I tried to show my Swedish studies but could not choose Wikiversity as the Institution. Why not? Even when it is not a &quot;granting degree&quot; Institution, is is still an Institution, right? When I contacted LinkedIn about this, they sent me the link so that I can create myself the Wikiversity page. But then there is box I must tick: &quot; I confirm I am an approved authority of this Institution to create this page&quot;, which is not the case. But I think there are many Wikiversity experts on here that woud qualify as Wikiversity Linkedin page creators. I can create the page if someone here approves, but I would need some info: # of employees, etc. --[[User:Leonardo T. Cardillo|Leonardo T. Cardillo]] ([[User talk:Leonardo T. Cardillo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leonardo T. Cardillo|contribs]]) 23:34, 18 January 2020 (UTC)

:The information would go here [https://www.linkedin.com/company/setup/new/ Wikiversity institution] but it probably should have a bureaucrat or someone from the WMF tick &quot;I verify that I am an authorized representative of this organization and have the right to act on its behalf in the creation and management of this page. The organization and I agree to the additional terms for Pages.&quot; The number of employees (volunteers is not an option but we are unpaid) for our Wikiversity I guess could be the number of active users 201-500. The current logo is File:Wikiversity logo 2017.svg. The website can be https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page.--[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 00:16, 19 January 2020 (UTC)

{{At|Leonardo T. Cardillo}} Wikiversity is a community. None of us gets to insist that anything happen on behalf of the community unless there is consensus to do so. This requires a discussion in the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium]] and a vote for support or lack thereof. Because this request involves an outside organization, it may also require support from the WMF.

I have some concerns at this point that your passion regarding this issue far exceeds your demonstrated commitment to either Wikiversity or the wider Wikimedia community. It might be better to let this rest for a bit and learn more about how Wikiversity functions before insisting that this be discussed. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 03:29, 19 January 2020 (UTC)

:{{At|Dave Braunschweig}}: I apologize for the use of the word &quot;insist&quot;, I have taken note to not use it anymore here to avoid distractions from the main topic of conversation. Also, I do not like you judge how much my passions should go against my level of contributions. With that being said, and for my personal learning on this environment, can someone please guide me on the very first step I should take to have a Wikiversity page created on LinkedIn? I think you mentioned something like a &quot;poll&quot;, how do I do that? --[[User:Leonardo T. Cardillo|Leonardo T. Cardillo]] ([[User talk:Leonardo T. Cardillo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leonardo T. Cardillo|contribs]]) 04:38, 19 January 2020 (UTC)

::{{At|Leonardo T. Cardillo}} I have already guided you on the next step to take. Please read my response carefully. Then slow down and learn more about Wikiversity. We often have people come in with high passions and quick fixes that Wikiversity must make in order to improve. They're typically gone within a month and we're left having to clean up after them. That's not to suggest that this is or isn't a good idea. It is simply to point out that this is a community. You must first learn to work with the community before you try to change it. We look forward to working with you as you figure this out. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 15:31, 19 January 2020 (UTC)

:::{{At|Dave Braunschweig}} Thanks so much for your inputs. I have created this: https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Colloquium#LinkedIn. Please indicate if that is the next step that was intended to be created. Also, please guide on the following ones. Best regards, --[[User:Leonardo T. Cardillo|Leonardo T. Cardillo]] ([[User talk:Leonardo T. Cardillo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leonardo T. Cardillo|contribs]]) 16:27, 19 January 2020 (UTC)

== Add New Language ==

Why not bn.wikiversity?  But there is Hindi!  Make it, please.  I am ready to cooperate if needed. [[User:Hirok Raja|Hirok Raja]] ([[User talk:Hirok Raja|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Hirok Raja|contribs]]) 03:07, 1 August 2020 (UTC)

:[[User:Hirok Raja|Hirok Raja]]: please see [[:betawikiversity:|Wikiversity Beta]]. &amp;mdash;Hasley&amp;nbsp;[[user talk:Hasley|&lt;span style=&quot;color: #0645AD; vertical-align: super; font-size: smaller;&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]] 13:04, 1 August 2020 (UTC)

:{{At|Hirok Raja}} Also see [[meta:Wikiversity]]. We are the English Wikiversity. We have no role in setting up new Wikiversity languages. When bn.wikiversity is added, please let us know, and we will add it to our main page. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:59, 1 August 2020 (UTC)

== I'm learning Turkish🤩 ==

Hi(to the person reading this)! I'm learning Turkish and I would like someone(native Turkish speaker) to teach how to pronounce Turkish. I do know some words,alphabets and number☺️ and I'm still learning and I hope someone is willing to help me🥺.

@JinahJady! [[User:JanehJody|JanehJody]] ([[User talk:JanehJody|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JanehJody|contribs]]) 18:14, 4 February 2021 (UTC)

:Hi. Welcome to Wikiversity! Please see our [[Turkish|resources relating to the study of the Turkish language]]. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 19:41, 4 February 2021 (UTC)
::Hi,@[[User:JanehJody|JanehJody]] can i help you ::) [[User:MexmetW|MexmetW]] ([[User talk:MexmetW|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MexmetW|contribs]]) 07:47, 28 September 2022 (UTC)
:Hi,@[[User:JanehJody|JanehJody]] I would love to help you to learning turkish :) [[Special:Contributions/85.105.185.109|85.105.185.109]] ([[User talk:85.105.185.109|discuss]]) 07:31, 28 September 2022 (UTC)

== Is it Wikipedia remodeled or a copy of wikipedia? ==

I am confused--[[User:Noukden|Noukden]] ([[User talk:Noukden|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Noukden|contribs]]) 20:45, 24 May 2021 (UTC)

:{{At|Noukden}} None of the above. See [[What is Wikiversity?]] and [[What Wikiversity is not]]. Wikiversity is learning projects. Link to Wikipedia rather than duplicating it and then add hands-on activities so users can learn by doing. See [[IT Fundamentals]] for one approach. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 00:15, 25 May 2021 (UTC)

== Action in the earliest? ==

I want to know much more of all action that happend in the earliest centuries. [[User:Dilbkhay|Dilbkhay]] ([[User talk:Dilbkhay|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dilbkhay|contribs]]) 14:57, 21 August 2021 (UTC)

:Depending upon what you mean by &quot;earliest&quot;, have a look at [[Paleanthropology]] or [[Philosophy/Sciences]]. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 21:07, 20 September 2021 (UTC)

== Biology ==

What are the basic principles of ecology [[User:Aludriyo Dominic|Aludriyo Dominic]] ([[User talk:Aludriyo Dominic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Aludriyo Dominic|contribs]]) 18:25, 25 January 2022 (UTC)

:{{At|Aludriyo Dominic}} Welcome! See [[Wikipedia:Ecology]]. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 00:17, 26 January 2022 (UTC)
:{{ping|Aludriyo Dominic}} I invite you to read [[User:Atcovi/Science/Ecology]] if you're interested in learning about the basics of Ecology. Also check out the wikipedia link above and [[:Category:Ecology|this category]]. Thanks and weclome! —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 03:44, 26 January 2022 (UTC)

I will try to study [[User:Aludriyo Dominic|Aludriyo Dominic]] ([[User talk:Aludriyo Dominic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Aludriyo Dominic|contribs]]) 05:41, 28 January 2022 (UTC)

== Physics ==

Physics Can Be defined as A Pure Science Subject That deals with the Measurement Of Matter In relation to energy. --{{Unsigned|Oyeyemi Abdul-warith|29 January 2022}}

: Welcome to Wikiversity! Here is a landing page that may be helpful: [[Physics]]. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 16:42, 29 January 2022 (UTC)

== Popularize ==

Can someone popularize California or the State of Washington on the Main Page? [[Special:Contributions/2604:3D08:6286:7500:B441:2710:77A4:1304|2604:3D08:6286:7500:B441:2710:77A4:1304]] ([[User talk:2604:3D08:6286:7500:B441:2710:77A4:1304|discuss]]) 03:33, 26 June 2022 (UTC)

:No, sorry, promotion isn't part of the [[Wikiversity:Mission]]. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 12:06, 26 June 2022 (UTC)

== [[w:Armistice of WWI|Armistice of WWI]], [[w:Paris Peace Conference|Paris Peace Conference]] and Aftermath ==

The best time to feature this on the main page was last week or yesterday;  the second best time is today.

* [[w:Template:First_World_War_treaties]]  (this template should get transcluded or copied to wikiversity, since this doesn't work: {{w:First_World_War_treaties}} although I wish it would)
* [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#Proclaiming_Armistice_of_WWI_Remembrance_and_Veterans_Day_for_11th_Nov]] our course on WWI is woefully inadequate, but this is a good time to start improving it!
[[User:Jaredscribe|Jaredscribe]] ([[User talk:Jaredscribe|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jaredscribe|contribs]]) 10:22, 12 November 2023 (UTC)

== Can you please add isiZulu plz ==

Because all othere languages her so i can umderstand batter  [[User:Lucky Shabalala|Lucky Shabalala]] ([[User talk:Lucky Shabalala|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lucky Shabalala|contribs]]) 06:06, 30 April 2025 (UTC)

:Add it how? Add more resources to learn the language? I think that would be fantastic, but it's very labor-intensive and I doubt anyone here has the competence to add that kind of material. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 08:40, 30 April 2025 (UTC)

== banner ==

says set learning free, propare grammer would be Start learning for free [[User:Ducklan|Ducklan]] ([[User talk:Ducklan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ducklan|contribs]]) 20:21, 3 February 2026 (UTC)

:I'm a native American English speaker and this banner is grammatical. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 08:52, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
::That’s not the problem. I’m wondering if we should more clearly emphasize what Wikiversity is on this banner. Idk maybe it’s fine as it is I would just like it to be clearer[[User:Ducklan|Ducklan]] ([[User talk:Ducklan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ducklan|contribs]]) 16:15, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
:::nevermind i just got the banner thought it was supposed to say start learning free, but its actually set learning free(like release learning) [[User:Ducklan|Ducklan]] ([[User talk:Ducklan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ducklan|contribs]]) 16:12, 6 February 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>gifgr3ruabkkmfrbm22uu5jrjh44697</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikiversity:Colloquium</title>
    <ns>4</ns>
    <id>28</id>
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      <id>2816994</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-06-27T17:21:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Proposed user group and/or possible policy changes */ edit opening comment ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
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      <text bytes="47369" sha1="njd25m0i8zbeccss8fsvkx1w2s73efp" xml:space="preserve">{{Wikiversity:Colloquium/Header}}
&lt;!-- MESSAGES GO BELOW --&gt;

== [[MediaWiki:Protectedpagetext#Protected edit request on 11 December 2025]] ==

I posted an edit request there 5 months ago, so I’ll be taking it to this page. [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-28640-56|&amp;#126;2026-28640-56]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-28640-56|talk]]) 23:33, 12 May 2026 (UTC)

:What exactly is the problem? I don't understand what needs to change and why. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 23:35, 12 May 2026 (UTC)
: Pinging @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]], @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] and @[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] for further input. Someone is requesting a modification to [[MediaWiki:Protectedpagetext]] to use {{tlx|Protected page text}}, but we might need to discuss whether to use the template. In the meantime, I'll start a sandbox version of the protected page text template. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:19, 14 May 2026 (UTC)
::Sounds good -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:13, 15 May 2026 (UTC)
:::+1 Jtneill. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 12:59, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

== Proposal to rehost Wikinews here ==

As many of you know, and mentioned here at the Colloquium, our sister project Wikinews recently closed, with all 31 active editions made read-only. [[User:BigKrow]] has asked about the prospect of writing news stories here and I suggested that since we already have [[School:Journalism]] and some resources related to the [[:Category:Journalism|broader topic of journalism]]. I would like to propose that we have continued and indefinite space for {{w|citizen journalism}} by essentially repurposing Wikinews into a sub-project here. The only special infrastructure that Wikinews required was [[:mw:Extension:DynamicPageList]], which was deactivated and caused issues due to a lack of maintenance.

I will add this proposal to the site banner, but I recognize that that may be a conflict of interest, so if anyone requests that I remove it, I will. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:30, 14 May 2026 (UTC)
:I would like to see this conversation go for at least 30 days to establish a consensus. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:35, 14 May 2026 (UTC)
::A few days shy of 30, it seems obvious that this is not going to pass. So I '''withdraw''' as presumptively '''failed'''. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 07:14, 9 June 2026 (UTC)

===Votes===
*{{support}} as proposer (with BK's inspiration). I think that an ongoing experiment in citizen journalism is a fit and appropriate use of this site. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:35, 14 May 2026 (UTC)
*{{support}}, hope to seeing ideas about this, and thank you @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 11:08, 14 May 2026 (UTC)
*{{support}} Other than perhaps inflating the total number of pages reported, I see the idea of &quot;practicing journalism&quot; a worthy and relevant activity within the domain of Wikiversity. [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 21:41, 14 May 2026 (UTC)
*{{support}} Conditional on development of (a) community guidelines that ensure alignment with Wikiversity's purpose, and (b) clear, nested page-naming structures for projects. More detail below. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:48, 15 May 2026 (UTC)
*{{contra}} This proposal doesn't seem interested in expanding educational materials in journalism, but rather in providing space and protection for Wikinews contributors. But this is contrary to the goals of Wikiversity, and I'm not sure it's a good idea, even with regard to WMF. If WMF decides to close a project and another community lets it run on its domain, that's a bit of an undermining of WMF's and the community's decisions. Given that Wikiversity has had several conflicts with other communities and WMF in its history, I'm against it.--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:59, 15 May 2026 (UTC)
*{{contra}} This seems like a proposal to continue the mission of WikiNews, but not a proposal specifically to improve Wikiversity. I concur with Juandev's comments. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 20:29, 30 May 2026 (UTC)
* {{oppose}} per above. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:05, 1 June 2026 (UTC)
*{{oppose}} Wikiversity isn’t Wikinews and it also isn’t a dumping ground for anything not covered by other projects. It was already suggested, rather bafflingly, that Wikinews parasitize Wikipedia as a host. If it were allowed to freeload off of Wikiversity it would simply promote a view I and likely many others have— that Wikiversity (as it currently exists) has no standards and mostly just exists to host subpar content that wouldn’t be tolerated on any other Wikimedia site. Wikinews needs a new, non-Wikimedia host, and Wikiversity needs to get its act together by enforcing a minimum scope and standard for what it allows. --[[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 01:16, 4 June 2026 (UTC)
* {{oppose}} per above. Wikiversity&lt;math&gt;\not=&lt;/math&gt; Wikinews - not a good idea to mix the scope of projects. --[[User:Bert Niehaus|Bert Niehaus]] ([[User talk:Bert Niehaus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bert Niehaus|contribs]]) 12:03, 8 June 2026 (UTC)
* {{abstain}} I will abstain since I'm not an active Wikiversity contributor. But I just feel like Wikinews had a very clear and specific goal of providing news, and Wikiversity is just a different project with different goals. For me, it would be odd to rehost Wikinews here. But please do not count my vote, this is only a comment. --[[User:Antimundo|Antimundo]] ([[User talk:Antimundo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Antimundo|contribs]]) 13:19, 6 June 2026 (UTC)
* {{oppose}} Although I think it's a pity that Wikinews is closed. --[[User:Dick Bos|Dick Bos]] ([[User talk:Dick Bos|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dick Bos|contribs]]) 19:06, 8 June 2026 (UTC)
*{{support}} In 2018 I initiated [[:Category:Videoconferences on media and democracy]] as a platform for disseminating public affairs events. In 2021 I officially initiated a podcast series on &quot;Media &amp; Democracy&quot; syndicated for the [[w:List of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates|Pacifica radio network]]. In 2024 I converted it from irregular to fortnightly. I think this is all educational and supports the Wikiversity education mission, and I think that &quot;rehost Wikinews here&quot; would be appropriate. (I had some experience with Wikinews a few years ago. I felt it was too tightly controlled: Article submissions went stale, because I could not get official permission to publish and I could not get the information needed to understand what I was supposed to do to obtain the official permission. I would be opposed to rehosting Wikinews here if the policy similarly made it unreasonably difficult for volunteer contributor to get the information needed to meet the journalistic standards imposed by the overworked editors.) {{unsigned|DavidMCEddy}}

===Comments and questions===
:Definitely worthy of discussion, so I have no problem with the proposal in the sitenotice.
:Initial questions:
:* Does this proposal include importing English Wikinews content e.g., to [[Wikinews]] subpages?
:* What are &quot;active editions&quot;?
:* How can Wikiversity navigate the concerns that lead to the closure of Wikinews?
:* Are any changes to the scope of Wikinews proposed?
:* How does [[Wikinews]] fit with the [[Wikiversity:Mission]]? What aligns well? Where might there be tension?
:** e.g., I'm not sure that a page like [[User:BigKrow/Manchester City moves two points behind Arsenal]] in and of itself will serve as an educational resource.
:-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:52, 14 May 2026 (UTC)
:* Does this proposal include importing English Wikinews content e.g., to [[Wikinews]] subpages?
::*No, not at this time.
:* What are &quot;active editions&quot;?
::*There were 30 other active editions of Wikinews in addition to English (e.g. [[:n:es:]]) at the time of universal closure (2026-05-04).
:* How can Wikiversity navigate the concerns that lead to the closure of Wikinews?
::*One of the biggest issues was the problems with DPL, which is now irrelevant. Another was the lack of activity, which can be ameliorated by having it be part of an existing project instead of its own domain (e.g. some editions of Wikipedia host their own Wikinews already and those projects were not impacted by the closure).
:* Are any changes to the scope of Wikinews proposed?
::*Not at this juncture. I would also propose as far as implemention goes that we would request a new namespace and that the material be more-or-less sequestered into its own ongoing project, like Wikijournal is or like the Cookbook and Wikijunior are at our sister [[:b:]].
:* How does [[Wikinews]] fit with the [[Wikiversity:Mission]]? What aligns well? Where might there be tension?
:** e.g., I'm not sure that a page like [[Story/Manchester City moves two points behind Arsenal]] in and of itself will serve as an educational resource.
::*The process of citizen journalists practicing their craft in real-time and collaborating with others to do so is itself an education activity. We would essentially be hosting a real-time experiment in citizen journalism, online communities, and collaborative learning in addition to the prospect of spreading educational information from someone actually reading the news. I would propose that we could also make a more deliberate attempt to engage with learning &lt;em&gt;about&lt;/em&gt; what does and doesn't work with collaborative news writing by experimentation (e.g. audio news, syndicating to other sites, incorporating freely-licensed news from other sources, writing hyper-local news, writing briefs versus longer-term reportage) and also seeing if the problems noted in the Task Force report that recommended closure can be overcome. Note that we have already done some local investigation about and learning about wiki-based journalism on Wikinews here at [[Journalism studies and Wikinews]]. We could continue that learning and refine the process, including incorporating journalism students from universities. As for tensions, Wikinews is the only sister project that must be done with a quick turn-around: if you take a long time to [[:s:|transcribe a book]], that's just how long it takes, but if you take a long time to write news, it ceases to be news entirely. Wikiversity has been a very slow-growing project that has definitely had some successes but has generally come together over a long period with most learning resources being individual passion projects (or sometimes, frankly, crankery) which would not work with collaborative news that requires more than just a single editor writing whatever he feels like.
::Please let me know any other questions/concerns and any other editors feel free to give your own perspective. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 06:13, 14 May 2026 (UTC)
:::Thanks, Justin — it is food for thought.
:::In attempting to understand how we've arrived here, I've summarised some of the background on this page: [[Wikinews]].
:::Perhaps it could be helpful to flesh out more of the vision / ideas / possibilities / challenges on that page? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:49, 14 May 2026 (UTC)

:::*Having given it some thought, in principle, I support hosting [[citizen journalism]] on Wikiversity where it is clearly connected to a learning project and/or constitutes original research, both of which align strongly with [[Wikiversity:Mission|Wikiversity’s educational mission]].
:::*My chief concern is the potential for news content that is not clearly linked to the purpose of Wikiversity. To avoid this, some community-agreed guidelines would be prudent. These need not be overly restrictive; they should support boldness and experimentation while helping ensure alignment with Wikiversity's purpose.
:::*Given the reported low and declining activity on Wikinews, it seems unlikely that English Wikiversity would be overwhelmed by an influx of news-related editing. My impression is that English Wikinews was the most active edition, but even so, many contributors are likely to disperse to other projects or cease editing altogether. A modest migration of interested editors to Wikiversity seems manageable.
:::*At this stage, I do not think a dedicated namespace is necessary. Subpages under [[Wikinews]] or nested pages under relevant learning or research projects, or user-space draft pages should be suitable. I agree that [[Wikijournal]] offers a useful model, as do several existing course structures on Wikiversity.
:::*I support [[User:Koavf]]’s suggestions about framing Wikinews activity explicitly around learning. This would create a distinctive space for experimenting with collaborative news production in ways that are pedagogically meaningful. I agree that the [[journalism studies and Wikinews]] project developed by David and Leigh Blackall through the University of Wollongong is an excellent example of the intersection between Wikiversity and Wikinews. The [[Wikinews]] page could evolve into a hub for such projects.
:::*I've tidied the [[:Category:Wikinews|Wikinews category]] and merged some content into the [[Wikinews]] page. As part of a reinvigoration effort, please review these and related resources such as [[:Category:Journalism]] and [[School:Journalism]].
:::*A further argument in favour of this initiative is that Wikipedia explicitly excludes both news reporting and original research. So, there is value in maintaining spaces within the Wikimedia ecosystem where these forms of knowledge production can be openly developed and curated. Such work can, in turn, generate valuable evidence and source material that may later inform Wikipedia articles.
:::*The closure of WMF-hosted Wikinews does not imply that open wiki-based news curation lacks value. Indeed, the closure documentation appears supportive of experimentation with alternative news models across Wikimedia projects, including through Wikipedia and Wikidata. In that context, Wikiversity seems a natural home for a Wikinews experiment, provided it is clearly grounded in learning and/or research.
:::-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:39, 15 May 2026 (UTC)
My understanding towards Wikinews' failure is that everything takes too long to be approved for the publish status, which means that any breaking news would have already become days-old stale news. Wikinews has a brand recognition (for right or wrong reasons) than Wikiversity and I wonder how effective Wikiversity can attract the &quot;Wikinews refugees&quot; to edit here. And just a quick note on the governance. Since each Wikiversity language operates independently, each language has to vote &amp; adopt this proposal independently. [[User:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #0000FF;&quot;&gt;OhanaUnited&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Talk page&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]] 13:47, 15 May 2026 (UTC)

:Your assessment about Wikinews is partially correct. I referenced it earlier, but to be explicit, there is a [[:m:Proposal for Closing Wikinews|report by a task force on sister projects]] that outlines their concerns. There are a few, one of which was the nature of the staleness of news. Thanks also for clarifying that this proposal is only relevant to en.wv and is not binding or even proposed for other editions of Wikiversity. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:54, 15 May 2026 (UTC)
*Note: I am not a regular here, and just visit Wikiversity for the WikiJournal project. Challenges of Wikinews included that it required timely reporting and fact-checking processes which differed greatly from the well-established ones in Wikipedia. Here in Wikiversity, there is the WikiJournal project, and that can take some some forms of journalism, just not breaking news reporting. I am in favor of salvaging parts of Wikinews if helpful. Could it, would it be feasible to adapt Wikijournal to accept some forms of news journalism, but just not the timed news reporting? For example, WikiJournal already is doing conference proceedings, and could likely do related event reports even months after the event ended. It could probably accept long-form investigative reporting, which is a sort of news that is not breaking news. I am not sure what the possibilities are, but I would prefer to build up systems that already work rather than import systems which had problems elsewhere. Thanks. [[User:Bluerasberry|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#cedff2;color:#11e&quot;&gt;''' Blue Rasberry '''&lt;/span&gt;]][[User talk:Bluerasberry|&lt;span style=&quot;cursor:help&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background:#cedff2;color:#11e&quot;&gt;(talk)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;]] 19:17, 22 May 2026 (UTC)
*:I agree that there are certain kinds of journalism that are perfectly valid and not time-bound like breaking news reporting, so that won't suffer from the issues noted before. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 21:15, 22 May 2026 (UTC)
*::@[[User:Bluerasberry|Bluerasberry]] WikiJournal is not interested in taking on news journalism. WikiJournal is publishing conference proceedings at the request of some Wikimedian educators, and conference proceedings is what a &quot;regular&quot; journal publishes. News journalism is quite different from this, and if WikiJournal starts to deviate towards publishing news journalism, it will create barrier towards future initiatives like being indexed in Medline or Web of Science, and may risk being delisted from Scopus. [[User:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #0000FF;&quot;&gt;OhanaUnited&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Talk page&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]] 22:43, 5 June 2026 (UTC)
*:::Thats a good point. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:09, 9 June 2026 (UTC)

== Create an autopatrolled user group? ==

{{tracked|T428269|resolved}}
I would like to propose creating the user group &lt;code&gt;autopatrolled&lt;/code&gt; (autopatrolled user), in which for non-curators and non-custodians, their page creations and file uploads would be automatically marked as patrolled by the MediaWiki software. Custodians may grant the user group, at their discretion, to users who create good quality pages that do not need frequent patrolling.

On a side note, the term {{tq|autopatroller}} would be used, but because we don't have non-curator/custodian patrollers (as we rely on curators and custodians to patrol), I suggest on using the term {{tq|autopatrolled user}}. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:31, 29 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Support''' re: the name, I don't really understand the reasoning, so I am '''neutral''' on that. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 15:45, 29 May 2026 (UTC)
:: Regarding the name, this is because as we don't have the patroller user group, we rely on curators and custodians to patrol new pages and file uploads. Does that make sense? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:39, 29 May 2026 (UTC)
:::Not really, but I don't think it's the most important thing. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:42, 29 May 2026 (UTC)
:::: We'll decide on the name later. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:48, 30 May 2026 (UTC)
:::::Oh, please don't let me stand in the way. I'm just not very smart, so don't hold up a matter on my account. I didn't want to derail the proposal, which is a fine and sensible one. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 04:16, 30 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Support''' - sounds like a good idea
:* Suggest adding a draft section about this group to [[Wikiversity:Patrolling]]. There is a statement in the Introduction of the page that I'm not sure if its correct and at least could be improved: &quot;Wikiversity also uses an autopatrol right, meaning trusted users' contributions are automatically marked as checked so patrollers can focus on reviewing newer or anonymous editors.&quot;
:* Regarding autopatroller vs autropatrolled user, what terms are used on similar WMF wiki projects?
: -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:28, 30 May 2026 (UTC)
::# I would create a starting page about the user groups, with experienced editors expanding the page. A summarized part of that page would also be added to [[Wikiversity:Patrolling]].
::# For a similar example, English Wikipedia uses the term {{tq|Autopatrolled}}, just that term only.
:: [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:22, 30 May 2026 (UTC)
: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] and @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]: the autopatroller user group has been implemented here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:14, 8 June 2026 (UTC)
::Thanks. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 07:13, 9 June 2026 (UTC)

== How much of Wikiversity’s content is LLM slop? ==

Because it seems like a non-trivial amount, along with AI slop images as well. Is there some kind of AI cleanup project established yet? [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 01:20, 4 June 2026 (UTC)

:We have discussed AI but I don't know of any explicit initiative to find and delete AI-generated noise. Individual modules have been deleted for having been made by AI. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 08:50, 4 June 2026 (UTC)
:Recently agreed [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|policy]] welcome users to tag AI generated pages. Me personally I am not against the use of AI. What is the difference in abstract schematic image created by a human and the same by an AI. If the users does not have finances to pay digital artest and you dont want to let them use AI, would you pay the artest for them? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:07, 8 June 2026 (UTC)
::Wikimedia has a lot of ''volunteer'' artists who can illustrate if asked. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 08:11, 9 June 2026 (UTC)
:::Interesting! That's good to know. Where can we find the volunteer artists for illustrating? [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 20:11, 9 June 2026 (UTC)
::::Wikimedia commons has [[commons:Commons:Graphic Lab/Illustration workshop]] [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 02:18, 10 June 2026 (UTC)

== Draft inactivity policy ==

I created [[Wikiversity:Inactivity policy]] as a start. Any experienced Wikiversity user may feel free to expand it. This is also one-to-two step(s) towards opting out of the [[m:Admin activity review|AAR process]].

However, I made a bold change to reduce the response timeframe from one month to two weeks. In addition, should we reduce the inactivity timeframe to one year? For the latter, most projects use that timeframe and I suggested this for consistency. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:57, 4 June 2026 (UTC)

:I support those suggestions. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:55, 4 June 2026 (UTC)
: Juandev has posted some comments on the [[Wikiversity talk:Inactivity policy|talk page]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:30, 12 June 2026 (UTC)

== Proposed user group and/or possible policy changes ==

{{tracked|T430416}}
I want to discuss about user group and possible policy changes.

# First, interface administrators. I don't think we should allow interface administrators to remove their permission from their own account, since we have multiple active bureaucrats and we can ask them to remove the permission when done, or for them to add a temporary grant. This is according to the [[Wikiversity:IA|current IA policy]]. I also left [[Wikiversity talk:Interface administrators#My thoughts about this user group|my thoughts on the relevant talk page]].
# Second, curators. Given that curators have some sensitive custodian rights (such as &lt;code&gt;delete&lt;/code&gt; [but not &lt;code&gt;undelete&lt;/code&gt; or similar rights that allow viewing deleted content, unless the curatorship process is RFA-like] and &lt;code&gt;protect&lt;/code&gt;), it would probably make more sense only for bureaucrats to grant and remove it, on par with them granting (but not removing) custodian permissions.
# Third, about probationary custodians. [[Wikiversity:Probationary custodians]] is currently marked as historical, and the process might still exist on [[Wikiversity:Custodianship]]. Therefore, to maintain consistency with [[Wikiversity:Curatorship#How does one become a curator?]], I propose that we repeal the probationary custodianship process and change it more or less to align with the curatorship process, effectively making probationary custodians permanent ones. However, custodian mentors would still be retained.

Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:55, 5 June 2026 (UTC)

:#Yes, I agree.
:#Thats a good point, but I dont know. At least I dont think its a good idea that both groups i.e. crats and custodiants can do that, it may create chaos.
:#Another good point. It seems to me that the current situation is somewhat unclear and should be clarified. I understand the original status of [[Wikiversity:Probationary custodians|Probationary custodians]] as a historicall and invalid, but at the same time I consider myself a probationary custodian, because on the Wikiversity:Custodianship page in the ''[[Wikiversity:Custodianship#How does one become a custodian?|How does one become a custodian?]]'' section it says, I quote, ''&quot;II ...then you will be approved as a probationary custodian for a period of at least four weeks&quot;''.
:::Mentors should definitely be kept, but for certain applicants the probation and mentorship should be abolished. For example, if someone was an active custodian for 5 years, then loses their rights or gives them up for a year and then wants to resume their custodial activities, there is no reason for them to undergo a training period. It burdens both the mentors and the community with double voting. The only exception could be a situation where policies or tools for custodians change significantly during that year, or the candidate wants to.
:[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 06:08, 9 June 2026 (UTC)

== New user what do I do here ==
I love wikipedia and the wikiversity project seems super interesting. However I know very little about wikiversity and would like to know how i can best contribute to the project. Also if there are forums or discord or reddit that would be very helpful.
(One last thing is it normal that my userboxes don't work here) {{unsigned|AUBSTRAWBS}}
:Hey {{ping|AUBSTRAWBS}} Welcome to Wikiversity! I've left a welcome message on your talk page so that should provide you a plethora of useful links for you to look at so you can familiarize yourself with the project. Also, feel free to create the userboxes you need. Wikiversity doesn't have as many userboxes as Wikipedia. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 21:45, 8 June 2026 (UTC)

:Thank you very much :) hope to contribute a lot.  [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 21:50, 8 June 2026 (UTC)

== Towards an Ethics policy ==

In connection with the [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Removal of Wikidebates|discussion of Wikidebates]], I said that it would be good to establish a policy on ethics, or rather a boundary between ethical and unethical content, so that we don't have to discuss individual cases. In addition, today we also have some global policies that prohibit, for example, attacks on members of the Wikimedia movement or undermining other projects.

However, at the very beginning, I would start by collecting your opinions. What content or what research should not be allowed on Wikiversity? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 05:52, 9 June 2026 (UTC)

:One ethical issue that I think should be non-controversial is related to good faith in the learning modules. So, learning materials should not be hoaxes or encourage behavior or methods that don't work or that misrepresent the facts or the likelihood of something occurring, etc. and authors should also not plagiarize or misrepresent authorship, etc. That was quite a run-on, but I hope that others can tease out what I mean here. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 07:39, 9 June 2026 (UTC)
::I look at it from a practical perspective. We can give that to the policy, but I see the problem in that we are not able to check it except plagiarism.
::Plagiarism can be partially detected during patrolling. I see a new text, I put part of it in Google and I check if it is copied from the web. It is a problem with copying from books or other offline sources, but sometimes it happens that someone finds out that something is copied from somewhere and it can be deleted.
::The biggest issue we have here is that we are missing Wikipedia's control mechanism: references. Only some types of resources on Wikiversity require references. In-line references are not often used in courses, exercises, lectures, etc. We are thus deprived of one of the excellent control mechanisms and the only option is for the increase in the number of members with various qualifications to check it for their colleagues. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:59, 9 June 2026 (UTC)
:::Having a policy and enforcing that policy are indeed two different things. If we are only concerned with issues that we can definitively enforce, then that will definitely change this conversation. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 08:06, 9 June 2026 (UTC)
::::ok [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 15:55, 13 June 2026 (UTC)
:AI generated content should not be allowed as it is inherently plagiarism. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 08:14, 9 June 2026 (UTC)
::And if the user mention it was generated by an AI? Note that there is something called as public domain, that is the author wave its rights. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:53, 9 June 2026 (UTC)
:::Plagiarism isn’t copyright violation. Crediting the AI is not crediting the authors the AI stole from without credit. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 10:18, 9 June 2026 (UTC)
::::I see, now I understand your point. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 15:56, 13 June 2026 (UTC)

== Deployment of Legal and Safety Contacts Link in the Footer of Your Wiki ==

Hello community,

The Wikimedia Foundation has provided [[foundation:Legal:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contact Information|a single legal and safety contact page]], to be linked in the footer of your wiki, to ensure access to accurate legal information. This is a regulatory requirement.

We have already rolled out links to English, German, Italian, Spanish Wikipedias and other wikis and we will deploy to your wiki soon.

Please [[m:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contacts FAQ|read more on the project page]] and leave any comments in this thread or on [[m:Talk:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contacts FAQ|the talk page]]. –– [[User:STei (WMF)|STei (WMF)]] ([[User talk:STei (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/STei (WMF)|contribs]]) 18:12, 9 June 2026 (UTC)

:Thanks for the notice. In case anyone is not clear, we cannot locally change the text at the footer, as it [[:mw:Manual:Footer|requires access to the server settings]]. If we locally needed to change it, we would have to file a ticket at [[:phab:]]. Since the above was sent by someone from the WMF, I think they are on it and it will be updated without any action from anyone here. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:24, 9 June 2026 (UTC)

== Image not displaying ==

Can anyone work out why this image isn't displaying?&lt;br&gt;
[[Educational Media Awareness Campaign/Physics/POTD 10]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:45, 11 June 2026 (UTC)

:Not sure, but it was an issue with the file itself and either way, it should be (and I have since done this) replaced with the SVG [[:File:Telescope-schematic.svg]]. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 13:59, 11 June 2026 (UTC)

== New nomination template(s) ==

I created {{tlx|Nomination}} when someone requests curator or custodian permissions, which often at least require mentorship. On the other hand, I might create {{tlx|Nomination 2}}, in which the latter does not have a section about mentorship (often used for bureaucrat or interface administrator nominations). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:29, 12 June 2026 (UTC)

== June 2026 Wikimedia Café meetups regarding the English Wikipedia Editor Reflections project ==

&lt;div class=&quot;border-box&quot; style=&quot;background-color: var(--background-color-warning-subtle, #f8eaba); max-width: 875px; padding: 5px; border: 1px solid black; margin: 5px; color: var(--clr-dark)&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;box&quot; style=&quot;float:left; padding-top: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-bottom: 10px;&quot;&gt;[[File:Wikimedia Café logo in plain SVG format.svg|60px|alt=The logo for the Wikimedia Café]]&lt;/div&gt;
Hello! There will be two '''[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Wikimedia Café]''' discussion opportunities during the last weekend of June. Both sessions will focus on the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Editor_reflections English Wikipedia Editor Reflections project]. The featured guest in the Café will be [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Clovermoss User:Clovermoss]. Participants may attend either or both sessions.

#'''27 June 2026 15:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1782572400 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to the Americas, Africa, and Europe
#'''28 June 2026 03:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1782615600 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific

Please see the Café page for more information, including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#How_to_attend_the_session how to register]!
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Buntstifte Eberhard Faber crop 64h.jpg|860px|alt=cropped image of colored pencils]]&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;[[User:Pine|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#01796f; text-shadow:#00BFFF 0 0 1.0em&quot;&gt;↠Pine&lt;/span&gt;]] [[User talk:Pine|&lt;span style=&quot;color:DeepSkyBlue&quot;&gt;(&lt;b style=&quot;color:#FFDF00;text-shadow:#FFDF00 0 0 1.0em&quot;&gt;✉&lt;/b&gt;)&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/span&gt; 04:00, 15 June 2026 (UTC)

== Mobile friendly main page ==

Hello, I have recently been using wikiversity on mobile and unlike wikipedia some images and boxes stick out instead of all having a set width which means you can scroll a little side to side, which makes the site feel a bit unfinished. Its just a suggestion but I think it will wake the user experience much better {{unsigned|AUBSTRAWBS}}
:{{Ping|AUBSTRAWBS}} I don't use a smartphone. Can you give me more details or even take some screenshots? You can upload them at [[:c:Category:English Wikiversity screenshots]]. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 13:30, 18 June 2026 (UTC)
::Hi i uploaded an image of the problem. Since some of the images are larger than the screen and not adjusted to fit they stick out and makes the page larger which lets you scroll right and have a big white rectangle on the side [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 14:03, 18 June 2026 (UTC)
:::Thanks. I agree that this is an issue, but it's a pretty minor-to-moderate one to me and I don't think I will be able to dedicate time to fix it myself. Showing it to others here is useful in case someone else wants to tinker with the CSS to resolve it. Thanks for bringing it to the community's attention. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 15:42, 18 June 2026 (UTC)
::::I do know CSS as I like to maintain a blog online so I could try and fix it but I don't know if I have the access to do that, would i need to be a curator/ custodian. Alternatively i could edit a sandbox version of the main page and then send it to someone. [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 20:00, 18 June 2026 (UTC)
:::::Oh great. There are a lot of draft versions of the main page like [[Wikiversity:Main Page/Draft version 0.2]], so you can make [[Wikiversity:Main Page/Sandbox]] if you want and edit there. If you can tinker it to your liking, I can edit the main page. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 20:14, 18 June 2026 (UTC)
::::::thank you, i'll check it out [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 22:16, 18 June 2026 (UTC)

== Main page titles ==

Currently, the title says &quot;Wikiversity:Main Page&quot;, but in my opinion, it's too basic. I would like to propose changing it with the following options (you may only pick one):
# Option 1: Set both [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title]] and [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title-loggedin]] to blank, giving the main page a portal-like design (as with English Wikipedia, English Wikibooks, etc.)
# Option 2: Modify [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title]] to &lt;code&gt;Welcome to Wikiversity&lt;/code&gt; (for unregistered users), and [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title-loggedin]] to &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;Welcome to Wikiversity, $1!&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;; the latter would display to me as &lt;code&gt;Welcome to Wikiversity, Codename Noreste!&lt;/code&gt;
Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:34, 18 June 2026 (UTC)
: Pinging @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] and @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] for input above. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:03, 24 June 2026 (UTC)
:I'm afraid that I don't have strong feelings on this. Changing to either or staying with the status quo are all fine to me. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:10, 24 June 2026 (UTC)
: I like the option of being consistent with Wikipedia and Wikibooks -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:04, 25 June 2026 (UTC)

== Wiki x AI preconference day @ Wikimania ==
There will be a preconference day at Wikimania about [[meta:Artificial_intelligence/2026_Wiki_AI | Wiki AI]]. It will be mostly offline, but there will be at least one hybrid session for demos of community-developed AI tools and workflows. 

* If you've built something cool, that is a chance to show it off, list it on the gallery of tools in progress, and get feedback. 

* If you could ask the people shaping AI on the wikis (WMF, tool builders, model trainers, GLAM and policy folks) a question, what would it be? 

Cheers, &lt;span style=&quot;padding:0 2px 0 2px;background-color:white;color:#bbb;&quot;&gt;&amp;ndash;[[User:Sj|SJ]][[User Talk:Sj|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ff9900;&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/span&gt; 23:12, 20 June 2026 (UTC) and Alaexis&lt;br&gt;{{comment|1=Copied from https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FAssessment%2FUsing_generative_AI&amp;diff=2816357&amp;oldid=2807052}}

== RFC about AI-generated content in Wikimedia Commons ==

You are invited to participate in a [[c:Commons:Requests for comment/Policy update for AI content|request for comment on Wikimedia Commons about a policy update for AI content]]. This may affect files that are uploaded to Wikimedia Commons for use on this project. Thank you. [[m:User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[m:User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]]) 17:12, 23 June 2026 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Codename Noreste@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&amp;oldid=30513860 --&gt;

== Deployment of Legal and Safety Contacts Link in the Footer of Your Wiki ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;Message&quot;/&gt;
'''Legal &amp; Safety Contacts'''

Hello community, the Wikimedia Foundation has provided a [[wmf:Special:MyLanguage/Legal:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contact Information|single legal and safety contact page]], to be linked in the footer of your wiki, to ensure access to accurate legal information. This is a regulatory requirement. We have already rolled out links to English, German, Italian, Spanish and other wikis and we will deploy to your wiki soon. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_Legal_and_Safety_Contacts_FAQ|Please read more on the project page]] and leave any comments in this thread or on the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Talk:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contacts FAQ|talk page]].

&lt;section end=&quot;Message&quot;/&gt;

-- [[User:Sannita (WMF)|User:Sannita (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Sannita (WMF)|talk]]) 13:31, 25 June 2026 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Sannita (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Sannita_(WMF)/Mass_sending_test&amp;oldid=30731267 --&gt;</text>
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{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}</text>
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{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|z = 2}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|z = 3}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|z = 6}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|z = 9}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|z = 12}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|z = 15}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|z = 18}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
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    <revision>
      <id>2817005</id>
      <parentid>2817004</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T19:20:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817005</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2212" sha1="g56nwki45carexp8nuifi0h21tlz8ue" xml:space="preserve">{{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2|| {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|z = 3}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|z = 6}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|z = 9}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|z = 12}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|z = 15}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|z = 18}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>g56nwki45carexp8nuifi0h21tlz8ue</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817006</id>
      <parentid>2817005</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T19:21:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817006</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2146" sha1="mj99vfb0c74rie3d1zsp51jl6qwtei1" xml:space="preserve">{{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2|| {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3 || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6 || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9 || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12 || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15 || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18 || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>mj99vfb0c74rie3d1zsp51jl6qwtei1</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817007</id>
      <parentid>2817006</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T19:22:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817007</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2145" sha1="em6htz21sc04kvdeclg4q53x29zf9r2" xml:space="preserve">{{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2|| {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3 || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6 || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9 || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12 || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15 || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18 || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>em6htz21sc04kvdeclg4q53x29zf9r2</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817008</id>
      <parentid>2817007</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T19:23:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817008</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2153" sha1="0z3x8q2bbvwpyze4wk3o89pz9zlib5x" xml:space="preserve">{{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2|| {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3 || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6 || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9 || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12 || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15 || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18 || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>0z3x8q2bbvwpyze4wk3o89pz9zlib5x</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817009</id>
      <parentid>2817008</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T19:24:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817009</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1696" sha1="eqyabstj0fxh6xmjjxn1y0v7gjfeacu" xml:space="preserve">{{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2 || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3 || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6 || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9 || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12 || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15 || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18 || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>eqyabstj0fxh6xmjjxn1y0v7gjfeacu</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817010</id>
      <parentid>2817009</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T19:30:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817010</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1736" sha1="9p0t3384ut9jqpkfq5a4h2c1oe841c4" xml:space="preserve">{{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (H0 = 73.20) || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (H0 = 67.36)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6 || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9 || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12 || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15 || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18 || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>9p0t3384ut9jqpkfq5a4h2c1oe841c4</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817011</id>
      <parentid>2817010</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T19:32:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817011</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1758" sha1="fpuze77mb0vru6s97nf7u84z5opxekb" xml:space="preserve">{{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (H0 = 73.20) || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (H0 = 67.36)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6 || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9 || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12 || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15 || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18 || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>fpuze77mb0vru6s97nf7u84z5opxekb</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817012</id>
      <parentid>2817011</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T19:38:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817012</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1758" sha1="abc0m740lxwgpb3tormdgcgcero8yfq" xml:space="preserve">{{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (H0 = 73.20) || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (H0 = 67.36)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12 || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15 || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18 || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>abc0m740lxwgpb3tormdgcgcero8yfq</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817013</id>
      <parentid>2817012</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T19:42:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817013</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1758" sha1="ethd5jhy5vchrcmeh6vmxlezyra34uz" xml:space="preserve">{{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (H0 = 73.20) || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (H0 = 67.36)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>ethd5jhy5vchrcmeh6vmxlezyra34uz</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817014</id>
      <parentid>2817013</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T19:43:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817014</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1772" sha1="6h6fsoebf7l2qdllyp2avyhqg58dfws" xml:space="preserve">{{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (H0 = 73.20) || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (H0 = 67.36)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>6h6fsoebf7l2qdllyp2avyhqg58dfws</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817015</id>
      <parentid>2817014</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T19:45:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817015</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1794" sha1="jwgke13gknhe266ymuesr8lpzbqhrzo" xml:space="preserve">{{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; {{nowrap|(H0 = 73.20)}} || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; {{nowrap|(H0 = 67.36)}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>jwgke13gknhe266ymuesr8lpzbqhrzo</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817016</id>
      <parentid>2817015</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T19:45:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817016</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1798" sha1="rmnpart1exy10ck48fbf6ym6uzqjzu1" xml:space="preserve">{{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; {{nowrap| (H0 = 73.20) }} || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; {{nowrap| (H0 = 67.36) }}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>rmnpart1exy10ck48fbf6ym6uzqjzu1</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817017</id>
      <parentid>2817016</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T19:45:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817017</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1796" sha1="losyvdzgd9k3rh5qp4bbt6574osilvt" xml:space="preserve">{{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; {{nowrap| H0 = 73.20 }} || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; {{nowrap| (H0 = 67.36) }}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>losyvdzgd9k3rh5qp4bbt6574osilvt</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817018</id>
      <parentid>2817017</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T19:46:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817018</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1790" sha1="em5ywu1ol8pf7hsgqe5o5rokqnfc1qq" xml:space="preserve">{{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; {{nowrap| XXXX }} || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; {{nowrap| (H0 = 67.36) }}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>em5ywu1ol8pf7hsgqe5o5rokqnfc1qq</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817019</id>
      <parentid>2817018</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T19:46:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817019</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1789" sha1="2tkbxf4flegh6ulgf5pkngrif31jvwt" xml:space="preserve">{{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; {{nowrap| XXXX }} || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; {{nowrap| (H0  67.36) }}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>2tkbxf4flegh6ulgf5pkngrif31jvwt</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817020</id>
      <parentid>2817019</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T19:46:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817020</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1791" sha1="ep49kxjwkcagl7yc7on5zj63x6z4gwh" xml:space="preserve">{{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; {{nowrap| XXXX }} || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; {{nowrap| (H0 \= 67.36) }}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>ep49kxjwkcagl7yc7on5zj63x6z4gwh</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817021</id>
      <parentid>2817020</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T19:47:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817021</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1772" sha1="6h6fsoebf7l2qdllyp2avyhqg58dfws" xml:space="preserve">{{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (H0 = 73.20) || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (H0 = 67.36)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>6h6fsoebf7l2qdllyp2avyhqg58dfws</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817022</id>
      <parentid>2817021</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T19:48:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817022</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1781" sha1="66tvvk2c78lg4jz4wjeubm26zs5ehs4" xml:space="preserve">{{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (H0 = 73.20 km/s/Mpc) || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (H0 = 67.36)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>66tvvk2c78lg4jz4wjeubm26zs5ehs4</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817023</id>
      <parentid>2817022</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T19:53:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817023</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1796" sha1="21e0rus1gpx6d4vhnep4mobu1za60jy" xml:space="preserve">{{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (Age 12.7 billion years) || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (Age 13.8 billion years)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>21e0rus1gpx6d4vhnep4mobu1za60jy</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817024</id>
      <parentid>2817023</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T19:53:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817024</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1788" sha1="qgid0me6w3i2n6mjspg0faah2rsitk6" xml:space="preserve">{{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 billion years) || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 billion years)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>qgid0me6w3i2n6mjspg0faah2rsitk6</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817025</id>
      <parentid>2817024</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T19:55:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817025</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1768" sha1="4oe02cta13ioam7g6hp9iohbwdu77va" xml:space="preserve">{{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>4oe02cta13ioam7g6hp9iohbwdu77va</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817026</id>
      <parentid>2817025</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T19:57:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817026</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1799" sha1="73xky4je8lqdfb4mzzjxjjfv0z2m90j" xml:space="preserve">{{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values and Different Hubble Constants

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>73xky4je8lqdfb4mzzjxjjfv0z2m90j</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817028</id>
      <parentid>2817026</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T19:59:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817028</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1805" sha1="kgg9rswl2uw322pb8w6su2x1x90kvb8" xml:space="preserve">{{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values and Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>kgg9rswl2uw322pb8w6su2x1x90kvb8</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817030</id>
      <parentid>2817028</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T20:05:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817030</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1807" sha1="tfisqx1repi3pd9q7ow9ongzgr66rdh" xml:space="preserve">{{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>tfisqx1repi3pd9q7ow9ongzgr66rdh</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817031</id>
      <parentid>2817030</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T20:06:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817031</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1815" sha1="7mkypzfgz13ucmd35d07i0i71ljwlq9" xml:space="preserve">{{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr old) || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr old)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>7mkypzfgz13ucmd35d07i0i71ljwlq9</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817032</id>
      <parentid>2817031</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T20:08:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817032</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3323" sha1="4ebw94jxu4h12z9tv9ws5912itfw002" xml:space="preserve">{{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: 0.9em; font-family: monospace, monospace; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Lookback Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 12px; font-size: 1.1em;&quot; | Redshift z
! style=&quot;padding: 12px; font-size: 1.1em;&quot; | SH0ES Team&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(12.7 Gyr old)&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;padding: 12px; font-size: 1.1em;&quot; | Planck Collaboration&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(13.8 Gyr old)&lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #ffffff;&quot;
! style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; padding: 8px;&quot; | z = 2.0
| 1C4D 0000 0000
| 1EC2 0000 0000

|- style=&quot;background-color: #ffffff;&quot;
! style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; padding: 8px;&quot; | z = 3.0
| 1285 0000 0000
| 1420 0000 0000

|- style=&quot;background-color: #ffffff;&quot;
! style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; padding: 8px;&quot; | z = 6.0
| 0809 0000 0000
| 08BB 0000 0000

|- style=&quot;background-color: #ffffff;&quot;
! style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; padding: 8px;&quot; | z = 9.0
| 04B5 0000 0000
| 051E 0000 0000

|- style=&quot;background-color: #ffffff;&quot;
! style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; padding: 8px;&quot; | z = 12.0
| 032D 0000 0000
| 0374 0000 0000

|- style=&quot;background-color: #ffffff;&quot;
! style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; padding: 8px;&quot; | z = 15.0
| 0253 0000 0000
| 0287 0000 0000

|- style=&quot;background-color: #ffffff;&quot;
! style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; padding: 8px;&quot; | z = 18.0
| 01CC 0000 0000
| 01F4 0000 0000
|}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr old) || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr old)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>4ebw94jxu4h12z9tv9ws5912itfw002</sha1>
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      <id>2817033</id>
      <parentid>2817032</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T20:09:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
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{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: 0.9em; font-family: monospace, monospace; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 12px; font-size: 1.1em;&quot; | Redshift z
! style=&quot;padding: 12px; font-size: 1.1em;&quot; | SH0ES Team&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(12.7 Gyr old)&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;padding: 12px; font-size: 1.1em;&quot; | Planck Collaboration&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(13.8 Gyr old)&lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #ffffff;&quot;
! style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; padding: 8px;&quot; | z = 2.0
| 1C4D 0000 0000
| 1EC2 0000 0000

|- style=&quot;background-color: #ffffff;&quot;
! style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; padding: 8px;&quot; | z = 3.0
| 1285 0000 0000
| 1420 0000 0000

|- style=&quot;background-color: #ffffff;&quot;
! style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; padding: 8px;&quot; | z = 6.0
| 0809 0000 0000
| 08BB 0000 0000

|- style=&quot;background-color: #ffffff;&quot;
! style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; padding: 8px;&quot; | z = 9.0
| 04B5 0000 0000
| 051E 0000 0000

|- style=&quot;background-color: #ffffff;&quot;
! style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; padding: 8px;&quot; | z = 12.0
| 032D 0000 0000
| 0374 0000 0000

|- style=&quot;background-color: #ffffff;&quot;
! style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; padding: 8px;&quot; | z = 15.0
| 0253 0000 0000
| 0287 0000 0000

|- style=&quot;background-color: #ffffff;&quot;
! style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; padding: 8px;&quot; | z = 18.0
| 01CC 0000 0000
| 01F4 0000 0000
|}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr old) || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr old)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}</text>
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      <id>2817034</id>
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        <username>Unitfreak</username>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion</title>
    <ns>4</ns>
    <id>1791</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Perquirius</username>
        <id>2953041</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Wikiphilosophers */ Reply</comment>
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== [[IMHA Research Archives]] ==
I propose to '''move to userspace''', including the subpages. I struggle to understand how Wikiversity readers are supposed to benefit from the material here and in the subpages. In the log, there is e.g. '10 February 2019 Marshallsumter discuss contribs deleted page IMHA Research Archives (content was: &quot;{&lt;nowiki/&gt;{Delete|Author request}} Thanks! -&quot;)', so the page was deleted before, but not the subpages.

We could also delete all the material if we have strong enough suspicion too much of it is copyright violation. In any case, moving to user space improves the matter a little by moving the content away from Google search. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 13:38, 9 November 2025 (UTC)

:Looking at some sub-pages, they can be deleted e.g., because they only consist of broken links or are largely empty. I deleted a couple but haven't been through all to check. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:27, 10 November 2025 (UTC)

As an example, let me give the wikitext content of [[IMHA Research Archives/3. Scientific litterature search, storage and use]]:
&lt;pre&gt;
==[[/Medicina Maritima - the Spanish scientific maritime health journal/]]==

==[[/PubMed/]]==

==[[/Google and Google Scholar/]]==

==[[/Zotero/]]==

==[https://www.dropbox.com/sh/d91z7bcyelfvk42/AAAkIvjtBnnFMbiU9ZLOdVL9a/Andrioti_database%20sources0310.pptx?dl=0 Maritime health web portal ressources ]==
&lt;/pre&gt;
The wikilinks are red; the external link to dropbox says &quot;You don't have access&quot;. This was made in 2016. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:04, 11 November 2025 (UTC)

:I suggest delete -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:27, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:: I think we should avoid deletion as much as possible, instead moving to user space (bar copyvio, ethics violation, etc.). This is a good general principle. It greatly improves auditability and makes it so much easier for anyone to request undeletion since they know what content they are requesting for undeletion. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:52, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:::Do not recreate Wikiversity from the educational and research project to the personal blog. That will lead to the cancelation of it by WMF. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:44, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: The English Wikiversity has a long tradition of moving problematic content to user space, as per evidence collected at [[User:Dan_Polansky/About Wikiversity#Moving pages to userspace]]. If Wikimedia Foundation finds this problematic, they can start a discussion in Colloquium and state their concerns. They do not need to make explicit threats at first; they can start a discussion and explain why it is problematic. They can even do it from an anonymous IP and provide a well-articulated reasoning. And anyone else can start a discussion in Colloquium to change this tradition. I do not see why we should not want to change that tradition based on well-articulated, compelling reasoning. I see no reason why Juandev should be making threats instead of them, on a per RFD basis. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: If Juandev is ''sincere'' about deleting very-low-value items ''from user space'', he should perhaps demonstrate that by asking his pages like [[:cs:Uživatel:Juandev/Problémy/Kov/Repase dvířek elektroskříně]] to be deleted; otherwise, I register a ''glaring inconsistence''. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:43, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::What was the original delate page about @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]? I guess that would be crucial for the decission. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:48, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::@[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] the couple of pages I checked and deleted were much like @[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] posted above i.e., headings with empty sections and/or broken links but no substantive content. But I think each sub-page needs checking. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:59, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
::::So I'm saying that the main page usually determines what the other pages are for. But if I don't know the page because it's been deleted, or why was deleted (deletion based on the founder's request is probably not the rule), it's hard to judge. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 22:16, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::::I've pasted the original content of the root page: [[IMHA Research Archives#Original page]] (i.e., prior to the content being removed and deletion requested) to help understand the context for the sub-pages. In 2018, Saltrabook blanked the page, indicating that the content had been moved elsewhere, and requested page deletion. Marshallsumter then deleted the main page but not the sub-pages. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::::::I see, so if those subpages are usefull I would keept them, if not I would delete them. I dont see a point of providing free hosting to sombody, by moving many pages to their user space. The question is if we want to host (i.e. to have in the main ns) lists of links elsewhere. I have no opinion on that. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:11, 22 November 2025 (UTC)

: Let me clarify that while many of the subpages are like the example above, [[IMHA Research Archives/Scientific litterature search, storage and use/Zotero]] is different:
:: &quot;A continuous critical and evidence based learning is a core issue in clinical practice, research, teaching, publication and prevention activities. The Zotero Program is just one of many scientific literature management programs, that should be used for these purposes. Of course one can live without such a database but it helps a lot and can save a lot of time that could be used for more interesting issues. Not only that, but it helps to create better publications and knowledge. Without this program it can be very time consuming to publish a scientific article with the requested style for the references. Further in daily practice when you want to collect and cite a few references for a specific evidence in a clinical colloquium and discussion, this program is excellent. Therefore we strongly recommend that all maritime health persons learn how to use this excellent tool in their daily maritime health practice of all different types. There are good online courses for self-instruction on how to use Zotero. For example this one: Zotero fast online course But in order to increase IMHAR´s collective scientific strength in the use of EBM we would like to give training sessions in every possible opportunity, IMHA Symposia, seminars and other types of meetings. The database is useful for personal purposes but especially also for collaborative aims. At the IMHAR meeting in Paris Oct 7th 2016 we will give an introduction to the program by showing how it can be used in the daily practice and discuss strength and weaknesses compared to other similar databases.&quot;
: Even longer is e.g. [[IMHA Research Archives/Scientific litterature search, storage and use/Medicina Maritima - the Spanish scientific maritime health journal]].
: However, that does not mean these should be salvaged. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:53, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:{{ping|Saltrabook}} I'm wondering if you can respond here to help us decide about whether to delete the IMHA Research Archives sub-pages or perhaps move them to your user space? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:58, 17 May 2026 (UTC)
: [[Special:Diff/2811248]] provides confirmation from Saltrabook to go ahead and delete these archives -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:56, 23 May 2026 (UTC)

== Undeletion request ==
{{archive top|'''Not done''' - discussion has been opened for over a month with no proper explanation as to why the page in question should be undeleted + author of the page failed to address any relevant arguments. I'd suggest reading [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity?]] and [[Wikiversity:Verifiability]] to find ways on how you can contribute to this site productively. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 21:49, 4 June 2026 (UTC)}}
It was deleted by an admin without discussion and with untrue rationale. If people take offense with the question that doesn't mean it's not a valid question and the page was good. Please undelete the Wikidebate page [https://web.archive.org/web/20250810030352/https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Is_it_likely_that_Earth_has_been_visited_by_aliens_millions_of_years_ago%3F Is it likely that Earth has been visited by aliens millions of years ago?]

There are lots of sources on the subject, the wikidebate is sourced very well compared to other wikidebates and wikiversity pages, and the page is educational, useful and of good quality. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 23:57, 10 April 2026 (UTC)

:Page: [[Is it likely that Earth has been visited by aliens millions of years ago?]]
:Ping: [[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:21, 11 April 2026 (UTC)
:There is no need for a discussion for straight garbage-level, pseudoscientific content.
:For '''Is it likely that Earth has been visited by aliens millions of years ago?''', the flaws for this page wouldn't even take someone more than a few minutes to assess:
:* Essentially, the &quot;pro&quot; arguments unproven claims being derived from irrelevant, established facts (basically: &quot;it is likely aliens have came because Earth has existed for so long [sources proving Earth's longevity]&quot;). These are not serious, scientifically-backed arguments - these are non sequiturs. It's as if I said Wikipedia has existed longer than my existence on Earth ([https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/74351725/eyJoIjogImZiODhmYzNkODU1N2UxMWExYzUyODJiYzgzZTRmZDM4OTBjODY5YWMzMjA3NDNmOWEyZTA0ZTU3ZGYwZjAyYTkiLCAidSI6ICJodHRwczovL3B1cmUuaHZhLm5sL3dz-libre.pdf?1636354596=&amp;response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DCritical_Point_of_View_A_Wikipedia_Reade.pdf&amp;Expires=1775872055&amp;Signature=GqbUZboYRvUYWi~aW40LT5eZSHrLuDL3o0-DxAH8vSvcJcGAuyByZWLF2oHTY6GlB72TqvZxpE-v9d4gvsA6myriYqO~QQQZgWxjT2JXjUWC-yiPcTF4l~lroJSi4dY0v9eKiBcU03l-aeUdrX8~UPfi0TfW0IhsmzH-VBR6X6FrzRpIqc6uM6n9YXfr5FRB3aCqqokU690af3n0Hguaub1Zgmh9qjYYqzBS0VOOHjKTTEQnDuadX3jl5CQeXYTaeCC3H0hMeVwHlratbrnuFEKC1aN0-5znCUoSzMEg21ECzGPTrSDM1W05dcK-u0ZTCeUGKAuC-2yRFL3sY46MIw__&amp;Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA#page=157 reputable source proving ''this'' fact]), therefore it's likely that my birth took place solely for the sake of me experiencing Wikipedia (0 backing). It makes no sense and no person with at least a high school-level of intelligence would take this seriously. 
:* What is worse is that the user is being misleading with their &quot;[the page is] sourced very well&quot; claim. The sources ''themselves'' don't even back up the claims. It's just used as proof for an established concept, where the user then uses this established concept to jump to an unsupported, laughable conclusion that is pulled out of thin air. It's utterly ridiculous to even consider such a page for mainspace since it clearly violates our [[Wikiversity:Verifiability]] policy. This is, once again, pseudoscientific content that has caused our website to reduce in quality over the last few years. 
:* Going source by source, we can see that:
:#[https://web.archive.org/web/20250918011642/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/thebigd/compress-earths-history-into-24-hrs-humans-came-at-1158-pm-yet-killed-70-of-wildlife/ ‘Compress Earth’s history into 24 hrs. Humans came at 11:58 pm, yet killed 70% of wildlife’] is literally just a blog post which doesn't even mention aliens or extraterrestrial life. It just talks about Earth's history in accordance with the 24-hour metric of time, and the author tries to use this article as a 'piece in the puzzle' of aliens &quot;possibly&quot; visiting Earth... which, once again, is unsupported and is not backed up anywhere in the article.
:#[https://web.archive.org/web/20250808053249/https://news.cornell.edu/stories/2023/11/jurassic-worlds-might-be-easier-spot-modern-earth The Cornell article does not even remotely support the idea that &quot;aliens visited Earth&quot;]. It mentions a ''chance'' of &quot;life there [a habitable exoplanet] might not be limited to microbes, but could include creatures as large and varied as the megalosauruses or microraptors that once roamed Earth.&quot;, but again, no justification to take this article as proof that &quot;aliens may have visited us!&quot;. There's no mention of aliens visiting Earth anywhere in the article. Once again this is only proving the background premise, but not the unsupported, nonsensical &quot;alien likelihood&quot; argument that the author of this garbage page is trying to push so desperately.
:#The Parker Solar Probe WP article does not even mention aliens either. It follows the same issues as the previous argument.
:And the other page this user complained about [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User_talk:Atcovi#Deletion_of_educational_page_because_of_personal_opinion on my talk page] holds almost similar, maybe even more fatal mistakes, than this one. It has nothing to do with &quot;taking offense&quot;, this is just low-quality, garbage content. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 00:56, 11 April 2026 (UTC)
::Why do you think pro claims are required to be proven? It's possible to object to them and these are arguments, not contextualized to be statements of proven facts. And it's not a strange or unreasonable argument to make that since Earth has existed for long, it's more likely that aliens have come here in the past than in recent times or the near future. Instead of insulting others' intelligence, maybe engage with the actual reasoning rather than censoring it away. And there are lots of sources, such as [https://interestingengineering.com/science/alien-civilizations-may-have-visited-earth-millions-of-years-ago-study-says Alien Civilizations May Have Visited Earth Millions of Years Ago, Study Says] etc etc. The sources are used for the arguments themselves individually. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 12:30, 11 April 2026 (UTC)
:::Because, once again, this is not a site that caters to rampant debating for the sake of &quot;we need to employ rationality and logic to solve the world's problems&quot;, we have policies that we need to fulfill. The claims made in the pro argument clearly do not meet [[Wikiversity:Verifiability]], since you cannot verify these arguments with the sources because they are not relevant. 
:::''&quot;And it's not a strange or unreasonable argument to make that since Earth has existed for long, it's more likely that aliens have come here in the past than in recent times or the near future.&quot;'' The point being is that these arguments are not supported by the sources. Even the article you mention poses the idea as a hypothetical model. This is just you twisting the article to fit your unsupported narrative. I'll bring direct quotes for you to show why the linked article does not help you:
:::* ''One problem the researchers do make sure to point out is that '''they are working with only one data point: our own behaviors and capabilities for space exploration'''. “We tried to come up with a model that would involve the fewest assumptions about sociology that we could,” Carroll-Nellenback told Business Insider. '''We have no real way of knowing the motivations of an alien civilization'''.'' --&gt; proves that this is just speculation and no evidence-based arguments have been provided for the idea that aliens likely visited Earth.
:::And I'm not sure if you read my entire response, but I ''did'' engage with your &quot;actual reasoning&quot; and exposed its weaknesses and lack of adherence to Wikiversity policies. If we allowed content that was just filled with non sequiturs we would have content that fails Wikiversity's educational objectives and reduces the overall quality of this website, hence why such a harsh stance needs to be taken. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:50, 11 April 2026 (UTC)
::::Thanks for proving that the Wikimedia ecosystem is unfit to deliberate on controversial topics. The question is entirely valid and the content is far better sourced than nearly all Wikidebates and has no genuine flaws. The only possible issue with it as far as I can see is that now that Wikidebates has been paused people can't add objections if they do have sth specific to say about the topic that's not already included on that page which already had plenty of Cons and objections.
::::The page was more educational than most of Wikiversity and it was well-sourced – wikidebates was for arguments so people were invited to make arguments based on sourced things or outlined logic and the page met [[WV:V]] and most pages on Wikiversity aren't sourced as good. Doesn't look like people can see beyond their biases and personal views here but that's more evident in the marginalization and deletion of wikidebates and the low activity in that project than these selective deletions. A constructive thing to do would be to add reasoned Cons and objections not yet on the page and people had plenty of time to do that. There are and will be other sites for free constructive rational adversarial deliberation (not a big loss in that sense). [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 16:31, 22 April 2026 (UTC)
:::::Thank you for failing to address any of my arguments and going on an unrelated, nonsensical tangent that has nothing to do with the discussion. Once you start producing work that aligns with Wikiversity's content policies instead of typing up laughable, pseudoscientific garbage, then maybe your work can be accepted and not removed. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 16:59, 22 April 2026 (UTC)
::::::I suggest you stop ridiculing things and learn respectfully forming genuine points about the subject at hand. {{tq|the idea as a hypothetical model}} but please learn first about what arguments are and why they're not the same as a statement of objective proven fact. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 17:18, 22 April 2026 (UTC)
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==Pages by Harold Foppele==
{{archive top|All deleted, user page blanked [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 04:33, 6 June 2026 (UTC)}}
[[User:Harold Foppele]] is locally blocked indefinitely and globally banned for sockpuppetry. There were also WMF and local community concerns expressed about copyright violation and AI (over)use. As a result, I think the Wikiversity pages created by this account warrant review with regard what should be deleted, what should be retained etc.:
* [[Completing the square]]
* [[Number of independent spatial modes in a spherical volume]]
* [[Quantum]]
** [[Quantum/Andrew N. Jordan]]
* [[Quantum A Matter Of Size]]
* [[Quantum A Spooky Action at a Distance]]
* [[Quantum: A Walk Through the Universe]]
* [[Quantum Computing Algorithms in the NISQ Era]]
* [[Quantum Formulas Collection]]
* [[Quantum harmonic oscillator]]
* [[Quantum Matter Elements and Particles]]
* [[Quantum mechanics]]
** [[Quantum mechanics/Timeline]]
* [[Quantum mechanics learning module]]
* [[Quantum mechanics measurements]]
* [[Quantum Noisy Qubits]]
* [[Quantum optics beam splitter experiments]]
* [[Quantum: The Secret of Cohesion: How Waves Hold Matter Together]]
* [[Quantum Ultra fast lasers]]
* [[Speed of sound experiments]]
* [[User:Harold Foppele]]
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:12, 17 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete all''' Not worth keeping. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 08:27, 17 May 2026 (UTC)
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== [[Classical guitar pedagogy]] ==

According to the talk page, the author of this page intended to create this page for Wikipedia. At this moment in time (nearly 20 years later), the page is still riddled with red links and doesn't seem to fit Wikiversity's learning modules. Therefore, I propose that this page should be deleted. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:03, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Weak delete''' This at least has &lt;em&gt;something&lt;/em&gt; that someone could use, but agreed that it's not particularly useful and not likely to be developed. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:25, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Move''' to [[w:User:Grégory Leclair/Classical guitar pedagogy]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:18, 23 May 2026 (UTC)

== [[Film writing]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to keep after vote changes. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:20, 31 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Undeveloped since 2007. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:05, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

:&lt;del&gt;'''Delete''' Nothing here. Great idea in principle, tho. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:25, 20 May 2026 (UTC)&lt;/del&gt;&lt;ins&gt;'''Keep''': It's now at least developed enough to be something. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:42, 31 May 2026 (UTC)&lt;/ins&gt;
: '''Keep''' as part of [[:Category:Film]] resources. I've tidied the page, so it looks less abandoned. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:57, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
:@[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] The page seems to have been tidied up. Do you want to reevaluate your votes? [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:40, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
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==[[United States UFO files]]==
{{archive top|Deleted, but the author of the resource did not respond here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:16, 31 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Seems to be WP-like; material copied from [[w:United States UFO files]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:46, 21 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete''', but why would a PROD template not suffice? My logic was that it is a newly created page (made just today), and isn't a big project/difficult page to deal with. Do we not deal with newly created pages that appear to not satisfy Wikiversity's objectives/mission with a PROD template? Wouldn't we best reserve RFDs for long-standing pages (like the two pages above this section being listed for deletion) or ''after'' the PROD template isn't enough to determine the fate of such pages (per [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy#Proposed deletion (prod)|here]]: &quot;Anyone still considering that the resource should be deleted [after the placement of the PROD template] may discuss deletion.&quot;)? A PROD template may also be useful in this case to alert the author that the page is not compatible with Wikiversity's learning objectives and communicates a concise opportunity to refine the page with the 90-day limit. Maybe even in this case, a speedy would've been enough (possibly fitting [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy#Criteria for speedy deletion|#12]]: &quot;No research objectives or discussion in history. Welcome users and resources when likely to be expanded shortly.&quot;).
:Interested to hear your thoughts as I want to make sure this is clear, as I've been cleaning up a lot of 'dead' pages around Wikiversity and find myself confused on whether to use PROD or RFD. Thanks, —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 02:08, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
: Yes, could be speedy deleted. Otherwise, I don't know about the merits about leaving it around for 90 days, hence me bringing it to here. There is some comment in [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy]] about the specific deletion templates not being so important. More important I think is to flag for discussion. However, we could also improve the proposed policy to make the process clearer. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:20, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
: Ping {{u|User:Realcosmixyt}} for comment -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:54, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
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== [[Emergency Operation Centre GIS]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to delete. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:39, 30 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Undeveloped for over a decade (only thing present is just an outline). —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:44, 22 May 2026 (UTC)

:*'''Delete'''
:―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 15:59, 22 May 2026 (UTC)
:* '''Delete'''. Insufficiently developed. Was moved from [[b:Emergency Operation Centre GIS]].
: -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:13, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
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==[[Mippedia]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to delete, and the author of the template did not respond to Jtneill's comment. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:37, 30 May 2026 (UTC)}}
I propose the deletion of the page &quot;[[Mippedia]]&quot;, due to the subject not being backed by reputable sources. Pages with the same subject has been deleted multiple times on the Indonesian Wikipedia. The original writer of the page did it solely to promote his wiki site. [[User:ANNAFscience|ANNAFscience]] ([[User talk:ANNAFscience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ANNAFscience|contribs]]) 10:39, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
: {{ping|Sevent Me}} any comment? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:10, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
:'''Delete''' I don't know what the point of this is. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:26, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Delete'''. Advertising. Points to a non-English, copyright restricted website. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:58, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
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==[[Wikiphilosophers]]==
Moving from {{tl|prod}} by {{at|Atcovi}}: &quot;similar &quot;philosophy&quot;-related content has been removed in the past [issue of pseudoscience] + very little moderation (mirroring the issues of [[Wikidebates]]) + lacks educational value.&quot; The project has also been nominated for deletion on its talk page: [[Talk:Wikiphilosophers]]. There are many subpages: 
{{Special:PrefixIndex/Wikiphilosophers/}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:45, 24 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete'''. Unfortunately, this project wasn't as successful as I had hoped. Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 14:29, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
::Don't forget to delete [[Template:Wikiphilosophers]], [[Template:Wikiphilosophers/doc]] and [[Template:Wikiphilosophers topics]] also. [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 14:30, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
:'''Delete''' Wikiversity should not be used as a host for failed sister projects. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 05:06, 6 June 2026 (UTC)
::When will these pages be deleted? Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 12:13, 27 June 2026 (UTC)

== [[Template:UserSkype]] ==
{{archive top|Deleted, template and category was removed from all pages. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:14, 14 June 2026 (UTC)}}
Service was discontinued over a year ago. I suggest deleting the Userbox and [[:Category:Users familiar with Skype]], as it can only confuse or mislead. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 21:17, 30 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete''' per reasoning. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 22:40, 30 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Delete''' -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:48, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
:Yup delete. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 16:59, 8 June 2026 (UTC)
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      <id>2816975</id>
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== [[IMHA Research Archives]] ==
I propose to '''move to userspace''', including the subpages. I struggle to understand how Wikiversity readers are supposed to benefit from the material here and in the subpages. In the log, there is e.g. '10 February 2019 Marshallsumter discuss contribs deleted page IMHA Research Archives (content was: &quot;{&lt;nowiki/&gt;{Delete|Author request}} Thanks! -&quot;)', so the page was deleted before, but not the subpages.

We could also delete all the material if we have strong enough suspicion too much of it is copyright violation. In any case, moving to user space improves the matter a little by moving the content away from Google search. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 13:38, 9 November 2025 (UTC)

:Looking at some sub-pages, they can be deleted e.g., because they only consist of broken links or are largely empty. I deleted a couple but haven't been through all to check. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:27, 10 November 2025 (UTC)

As an example, let me give the wikitext content of [[IMHA Research Archives/3. Scientific litterature search, storage and use]]:
&lt;pre&gt;
==[[/Medicina Maritima - the Spanish scientific maritime health journal/]]==

==[[/PubMed/]]==

==[[/Google and Google Scholar/]]==

==[[/Zotero/]]==

==[https://www.dropbox.com/sh/d91z7bcyelfvk42/AAAkIvjtBnnFMbiU9ZLOdVL9a/Andrioti_database%20sources0310.pptx?dl=0 Maritime health web portal ressources ]==
&lt;/pre&gt;
The wikilinks are red; the external link to dropbox says &quot;You don't have access&quot;. This was made in 2016. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:04, 11 November 2025 (UTC)

:I suggest delete -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:27, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:: I think we should avoid deletion as much as possible, instead moving to user space (bar copyvio, ethics violation, etc.). This is a good general principle. It greatly improves auditability and makes it so much easier for anyone to request undeletion since they know what content they are requesting for undeletion. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:52, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:::Do not recreate Wikiversity from the educational and research project to the personal blog. That will lead to the cancelation of it by WMF. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:44, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: The English Wikiversity has a long tradition of moving problematic content to user space, as per evidence collected at [[User:Dan_Polansky/About Wikiversity#Moving pages to userspace]]. If Wikimedia Foundation finds this problematic, they can start a discussion in Colloquium and state their concerns. They do not need to make explicit threats at first; they can start a discussion and explain why it is problematic. They can even do it from an anonymous IP and provide a well-articulated reasoning. And anyone else can start a discussion in Colloquium to change this tradition. I do not see why we should not want to change that tradition based on well-articulated, compelling reasoning. I see no reason why Juandev should be making threats instead of them, on a per RFD basis. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: If Juandev is ''sincere'' about deleting very-low-value items ''from user space'', he should perhaps demonstrate that by asking his pages like [[:cs:Uživatel:Juandev/Problémy/Kov/Repase dvířek elektroskříně]] to be deleted; otherwise, I register a ''glaring inconsistence''. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:43, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::What was the original delate page about @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]? I guess that would be crucial for the decission. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:48, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::@[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] the couple of pages I checked and deleted were much like @[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] posted above i.e., headings with empty sections and/or broken links but no substantive content. But I think each sub-page needs checking. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:59, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
::::So I'm saying that the main page usually determines what the other pages are for. But if I don't know the page because it's been deleted, or why was deleted (deletion based on the founder's request is probably not the rule), it's hard to judge. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 22:16, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::::I've pasted the original content of the root page: [[IMHA Research Archives#Original page]] (i.e., prior to the content being removed and deletion requested) to help understand the context for the sub-pages. In 2018, Saltrabook blanked the page, indicating that the content had been moved elsewhere, and requested page deletion. Marshallsumter then deleted the main page but not the sub-pages. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::::::I see, so if those subpages are usefull I would keept them, if not I would delete them. I dont see a point of providing free hosting to sombody, by moving many pages to their user space. The question is if we want to host (i.e. to have in the main ns) lists of links elsewhere. I have no opinion on that. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:11, 22 November 2025 (UTC)

: Let me clarify that while many of the subpages are like the example above, [[IMHA Research Archives/Scientific litterature search, storage and use/Zotero]] is different:
:: &quot;A continuous critical and evidence based learning is a core issue in clinical practice, research, teaching, publication and prevention activities. The Zotero Program is just one of many scientific literature management programs, that should be used for these purposes. Of course one can live without such a database but it helps a lot and can save a lot of time that could be used for more interesting issues. Not only that, but it helps to create better publications and knowledge. Without this program it can be very time consuming to publish a scientific article with the requested style for the references. Further in daily practice when you want to collect and cite a few references for a specific evidence in a clinical colloquium and discussion, this program is excellent. Therefore we strongly recommend that all maritime health persons learn how to use this excellent tool in their daily maritime health practice of all different types. There are good online courses for self-instruction on how to use Zotero. For example this one: Zotero fast online course But in order to increase IMHAR´s collective scientific strength in the use of EBM we would like to give training sessions in every possible opportunity, IMHA Symposia, seminars and other types of meetings. The database is useful for personal purposes but especially also for collaborative aims. At the IMHAR meeting in Paris Oct 7th 2016 we will give an introduction to the program by showing how it can be used in the daily practice and discuss strength and weaknesses compared to other similar databases.&quot;
: Even longer is e.g. [[IMHA Research Archives/Scientific litterature search, storage and use/Medicina Maritima - the Spanish scientific maritime health journal]].
: However, that does not mean these should be salvaged. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:53, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:{{ping|Saltrabook}} I'm wondering if you can respond here to help us decide about whether to delete the IMHA Research Archives sub-pages or perhaps move them to your user space? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:58, 17 May 2026 (UTC)
: [[Special:Diff/2811248]] provides confirmation from Saltrabook to go ahead and delete these archives -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:56, 23 May 2026 (UTC)

== Undeletion request ==
{{archive top|'''Not done''' - discussion has been opened for over a month with no proper explanation as to why the page in question should be undeleted + author of the page failed to address any relevant arguments. I'd suggest reading [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity?]] and [[Wikiversity:Verifiability]] to find ways on how you can contribute to this site productively. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 21:49, 4 June 2026 (UTC)}}
It was deleted by an admin without discussion and with untrue rationale. If people take offense with the question that doesn't mean it's not a valid question and the page was good. Please undelete the Wikidebate page [https://web.archive.org/web/20250810030352/https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Is_it_likely_that_Earth_has_been_visited_by_aliens_millions_of_years_ago%3F Is it likely that Earth has been visited by aliens millions of years ago?]

There are lots of sources on the subject, the wikidebate is sourced very well compared to other wikidebates and wikiversity pages, and the page is educational, useful and of good quality. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 23:57, 10 April 2026 (UTC)

:Page: [[Is it likely that Earth has been visited by aliens millions of years ago?]]
:Ping: [[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:21, 11 April 2026 (UTC)
:There is no need for a discussion for straight garbage-level, pseudoscientific content.
:For '''Is it likely that Earth has been visited by aliens millions of years ago?''', the flaws for this page wouldn't even take someone more than a few minutes to assess:
:* Essentially, the &quot;pro&quot; arguments unproven claims being derived from irrelevant, established facts (basically: &quot;it is likely aliens have came because Earth has existed for so long [sources proving Earth's longevity]&quot;). These are not serious, scientifically-backed arguments - these are non sequiturs. It's as if I said Wikipedia has existed longer than my existence on Earth ([https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/74351725/eyJoIjogImZiODhmYzNkODU1N2UxMWExYzUyODJiYzgzZTRmZDM4OTBjODY5YWMzMjA3NDNmOWEyZTA0ZTU3ZGYwZjAyYTkiLCAidSI6ICJodHRwczovL3B1cmUuaHZhLm5sL3dz-libre.pdf?1636354596=&amp;response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DCritical_Point_of_View_A_Wikipedia_Reade.pdf&amp;Expires=1775872055&amp;Signature=GqbUZboYRvUYWi~aW40LT5eZSHrLuDL3o0-DxAH8vSvcJcGAuyByZWLF2oHTY6GlB72TqvZxpE-v9d4gvsA6myriYqO~QQQZgWxjT2JXjUWC-yiPcTF4l~lroJSi4dY0v9eKiBcU03l-aeUdrX8~UPfi0TfW0IhsmzH-VBR6X6FrzRpIqc6uM6n9YXfr5FRB3aCqqokU690af3n0Hguaub1Zgmh9qjYYqzBS0VOOHjKTTEQnDuadX3jl5CQeXYTaeCC3H0hMeVwHlratbrnuFEKC1aN0-5znCUoSzMEg21ECzGPTrSDM1W05dcK-u0ZTCeUGKAuC-2yRFL3sY46MIw__&amp;Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA#page=157 reputable source proving ''this'' fact]), therefore it's likely that my birth took place solely for the sake of me experiencing Wikipedia (0 backing). It makes no sense and no person with at least a high school-level of intelligence would take this seriously. 
:* What is worse is that the user is being misleading with their &quot;[the page is] sourced very well&quot; claim. The sources ''themselves'' don't even back up the claims. It's just used as proof for an established concept, where the user then uses this established concept to jump to an unsupported, laughable conclusion that is pulled out of thin air. It's utterly ridiculous to even consider such a page for mainspace since it clearly violates our [[Wikiversity:Verifiability]] policy. This is, once again, pseudoscientific content that has caused our website to reduce in quality over the last few years. 
:* Going source by source, we can see that:
:#[https://web.archive.org/web/20250918011642/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/thebigd/compress-earths-history-into-24-hrs-humans-came-at-1158-pm-yet-killed-70-of-wildlife/ ‘Compress Earth’s history into 24 hrs. Humans came at 11:58 pm, yet killed 70% of wildlife’] is literally just a blog post which doesn't even mention aliens or extraterrestrial life. It just talks about Earth's history in accordance with the 24-hour metric of time, and the author tries to use this article as a 'piece in the puzzle' of aliens &quot;possibly&quot; visiting Earth... which, once again, is unsupported and is not backed up anywhere in the article.
:#[https://web.archive.org/web/20250808053249/https://news.cornell.edu/stories/2023/11/jurassic-worlds-might-be-easier-spot-modern-earth The Cornell article does not even remotely support the idea that &quot;aliens visited Earth&quot;]. It mentions a ''chance'' of &quot;life there [a habitable exoplanet] might not be limited to microbes, but could include creatures as large and varied as the megalosauruses or microraptors that once roamed Earth.&quot;, but again, no justification to take this article as proof that &quot;aliens may have visited us!&quot;. There's no mention of aliens visiting Earth anywhere in the article. Once again this is only proving the background premise, but not the unsupported, nonsensical &quot;alien likelihood&quot; argument that the author of this garbage page is trying to push so desperately.
:#The Parker Solar Probe WP article does not even mention aliens either. It follows the same issues as the previous argument.
:And the other page this user complained about [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User_talk:Atcovi#Deletion_of_educational_page_because_of_personal_opinion on my talk page] holds almost similar, maybe even more fatal mistakes, than this one. It has nothing to do with &quot;taking offense&quot;, this is just low-quality, garbage content. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 00:56, 11 April 2026 (UTC)
::Why do you think pro claims are required to be proven? It's possible to object to them and these are arguments, not contextualized to be statements of proven facts. And it's not a strange or unreasonable argument to make that since Earth has existed for long, it's more likely that aliens have come here in the past than in recent times or the near future. Instead of insulting others' intelligence, maybe engage with the actual reasoning rather than censoring it away. And there are lots of sources, such as [https://interestingengineering.com/science/alien-civilizations-may-have-visited-earth-millions-of-years-ago-study-says Alien Civilizations May Have Visited Earth Millions of Years Ago, Study Says] etc etc. The sources are used for the arguments themselves individually. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 12:30, 11 April 2026 (UTC)
:::Because, once again, this is not a site that caters to rampant debating for the sake of &quot;we need to employ rationality and logic to solve the world's problems&quot;, we have policies that we need to fulfill. The claims made in the pro argument clearly do not meet [[Wikiversity:Verifiability]], since you cannot verify these arguments with the sources because they are not relevant. 
:::''&quot;And it's not a strange or unreasonable argument to make that since Earth has existed for long, it's more likely that aliens have come here in the past than in recent times or the near future.&quot;'' The point being is that these arguments are not supported by the sources. Even the article you mention poses the idea as a hypothetical model. This is just you twisting the article to fit your unsupported narrative. I'll bring direct quotes for you to show why the linked article does not help you:
:::* ''One problem the researchers do make sure to point out is that '''they are working with only one data point: our own behaviors and capabilities for space exploration'''. “We tried to come up with a model that would involve the fewest assumptions about sociology that we could,” Carroll-Nellenback told Business Insider. '''We have no real way of knowing the motivations of an alien civilization'''.'' --&gt; proves that this is just speculation and no evidence-based arguments have been provided for the idea that aliens likely visited Earth.
:::And I'm not sure if you read my entire response, but I ''did'' engage with your &quot;actual reasoning&quot; and exposed its weaknesses and lack of adherence to Wikiversity policies. If we allowed content that was just filled with non sequiturs we would have content that fails Wikiversity's educational objectives and reduces the overall quality of this website, hence why such a harsh stance needs to be taken. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:50, 11 April 2026 (UTC)
::::Thanks for proving that the Wikimedia ecosystem is unfit to deliberate on controversial topics. The question is entirely valid and the content is far better sourced than nearly all Wikidebates and has no genuine flaws. The only possible issue with it as far as I can see is that now that Wikidebates has been paused people can't add objections if they do have sth specific to say about the topic that's not already included on that page which already had plenty of Cons and objections.
::::The page was more educational than most of Wikiversity and it was well-sourced – wikidebates was for arguments so people were invited to make arguments based on sourced things or outlined logic and the page met [[WV:V]] and most pages on Wikiversity aren't sourced as good. Doesn't look like people can see beyond their biases and personal views here but that's more evident in the marginalization and deletion of wikidebates and the low activity in that project than these selective deletions. A constructive thing to do would be to add reasoned Cons and objections not yet on the page and people had plenty of time to do that. There are and will be other sites for free constructive rational adversarial deliberation (not a big loss in that sense). [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 16:31, 22 April 2026 (UTC)
:::::Thank you for failing to address any of my arguments and going on an unrelated, nonsensical tangent that has nothing to do with the discussion. Once you start producing work that aligns with Wikiversity's content policies instead of typing up laughable, pseudoscientific garbage, then maybe your work can be accepted and not removed. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 16:59, 22 April 2026 (UTC)
::::::I suggest you stop ridiculing things and learn respectfully forming genuine points about the subject at hand. {{tq|the idea as a hypothetical model}} but please learn first about what arguments are and why they're not the same as a statement of objective proven fact. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 17:18, 22 April 2026 (UTC)
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==Pages by Harold Foppele==
{{archive top|All deleted, user page blanked [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 04:33, 6 June 2026 (UTC)}}
[[User:Harold Foppele]] is locally blocked indefinitely and globally banned for sockpuppetry. There were also WMF and local community concerns expressed about copyright violation and AI (over)use. As a result, I think the Wikiversity pages created by this account warrant review with regard what should be deleted, what should be retained etc.:
* [[Completing the square]]
* [[Number of independent spatial modes in a spherical volume]]
* [[Quantum]]
** [[Quantum/Andrew N. Jordan]]
* [[Quantum A Matter Of Size]]
* [[Quantum A Spooky Action at a Distance]]
* [[Quantum: A Walk Through the Universe]]
* [[Quantum Computing Algorithms in the NISQ Era]]
* [[Quantum Formulas Collection]]
* [[Quantum harmonic oscillator]]
* [[Quantum Matter Elements and Particles]]
* [[Quantum mechanics]]
** [[Quantum mechanics/Timeline]]
* [[Quantum mechanics learning module]]
* [[Quantum mechanics measurements]]
* [[Quantum Noisy Qubits]]
* [[Quantum optics beam splitter experiments]]
* [[Quantum: The Secret of Cohesion: How Waves Hold Matter Together]]
* [[Quantum Ultra fast lasers]]
* [[Speed of sound experiments]]
* [[User:Harold Foppele]]
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:12, 17 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete all''' Not worth keeping. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 08:27, 17 May 2026 (UTC)
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== [[Classical guitar pedagogy]] ==

According to the talk page, the author of this page intended to create this page for Wikipedia. At this moment in time (nearly 20 years later), the page is still riddled with red links and doesn't seem to fit Wikiversity's learning modules. Therefore, I propose that this page should be deleted. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:03, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Weak delete''' This at least has &lt;em&gt;something&lt;/em&gt; that someone could use, but agreed that it's not particularly useful and not likely to be developed. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:25, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Move''' to [[w:User:Grégory Leclair/Classical guitar pedagogy]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:18, 23 May 2026 (UTC)

== [[Film writing]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to keep after vote changes. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:20, 31 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Undeveloped since 2007. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:05, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

:&lt;del&gt;'''Delete''' Nothing here. Great idea in principle, tho. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:25, 20 May 2026 (UTC)&lt;/del&gt;&lt;ins&gt;'''Keep''': It's now at least developed enough to be something. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:42, 31 May 2026 (UTC)&lt;/ins&gt;
: '''Keep''' as part of [[:Category:Film]] resources. I've tidied the page, so it looks less abandoned. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:57, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
:@[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] The page seems to have been tidied up. Do you want to reevaluate your votes? [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:40, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
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==[[United States UFO files]]==
{{archive top|Deleted, but the author of the resource did not respond here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:16, 31 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Seems to be WP-like; material copied from [[w:United States UFO files]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:46, 21 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete''', but why would a PROD template not suffice? My logic was that it is a newly created page (made just today), and isn't a big project/difficult page to deal with. Do we not deal with newly created pages that appear to not satisfy Wikiversity's objectives/mission with a PROD template? Wouldn't we best reserve RFDs for long-standing pages (like the two pages above this section being listed for deletion) or ''after'' the PROD template isn't enough to determine the fate of such pages (per [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy#Proposed deletion (prod)|here]]: &quot;Anyone still considering that the resource should be deleted [after the placement of the PROD template] may discuss deletion.&quot;)? A PROD template may also be useful in this case to alert the author that the page is not compatible with Wikiversity's learning objectives and communicates a concise opportunity to refine the page with the 90-day limit. Maybe even in this case, a speedy would've been enough (possibly fitting [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy#Criteria for speedy deletion|#12]]: &quot;No research objectives or discussion in history. Welcome users and resources when likely to be expanded shortly.&quot;).
:Interested to hear your thoughts as I want to make sure this is clear, as I've been cleaning up a lot of 'dead' pages around Wikiversity and find myself confused on whether to use PROD or RFD. Thanks, —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 02:08, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
: Yes, could be speedy deleted. Otherwise, I don't know about the merits about leaving it around for 90 days, hence me bringing it to here. There is some comment in [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy]] about the specific deletion templates not being so important. More important I think is to flag for discussion. However, we could also improve the proposed policy to make the process clearer. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:20, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
: Ping {{u|User:Realcosmixyt}} for comment -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:54, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
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== [[Emergency Operation Centre GIS]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to delete. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:39, 30 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Undeveloped for over a decade (only thing present is just an outline). —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:44, 22 May 2026 (UTC)

:*'''Delete'''
:―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 15:59, 22 May 2026 (UTC)
:* '''Delete'''. Insufficiently developed. Was moved from [[b:Emergency Operation Centre GIS]].
: -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:13, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
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==[[Mippedia]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to delete, and the author of the template did not respond to Jtneill's comment. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:37, 30 May 2026 (UTC)}}
I propose the deletion of the page &quot;[[Mippedia]]&quot;, due to the subject not being backed by reputable sources. Pages with the same subject has been deleted multiple times on the Indonesian Wikipedia. The original writer of the page did it solely to promote his wiki site. [[User:ANNAFscience|ANNAFscience]] ([[User talk:ANNAFscience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ANNAFscience|contribs]]) 10:39, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
: {{ping|Sevent Me}} any comment? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:10, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
:'''Delete''' I don't know what the point of this is. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:26, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Delete'''. Advertising. Points to a non-English, copyright restricted website. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:58, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
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==[[Wikiphilosophers]]==
Moving from {{tl|prod}} by {{at|Atcovi}}: &quot;similar &quot;philosophy&quot;-related content has been removed in the past [issue of pseudoscience] + very little moderation (mirroring the issues of [[Wikidebates]]) + lacks educational value.&quot; The project has also been nominated for deletion on its talk page: [[Talk:Wikiphilosophers]]. There are many subpages: 
{{Special:PrefixIndex/Wikiphilosophers/}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:45, 24 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete'''. Unfortunately, this project wasn't as successful as I had hoped. Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 14:29, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
::Don't forget to delete [[Template:Wikiphilosophers]], [[Template:Wikiphilosophers/doc]] and [[Template:Wikiphilosophers topics]] also. [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 14:30, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
:'''Delete''' Wikiversity should not be used as a host for failed sister projects. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 05:06, 6 June 2026 (UTC)
::When will these pages be deleted? Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 12:13, 27 June 2026 (UTC)
:::Don't forget to delete [[:Category:Wikiphilosophers]] and [[:Category:Wikiphilosophers templates]] also! Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 16:56, 27 June 2026 (UTC)

== [[Template:UserSkype]] ==
{{archive top|Deleted, template and category was removed from all pages. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:14, 14 June 2026 (UTC)}}
Service was discontinued over a year ago. I suggest deleting the Userbox and [[:Category:Users familiar with Skype]], as it can only confuse or mislead. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 21:17, 30 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete''' per reasoning. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 22:40, 30 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Delete''' -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:48, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
:Yup delete. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 16:59, 8 June 2026 (UTC)
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      <sha1>nbt7gq9ypqkqntvazvf827mbg7kfn06</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816977</id>
      <parentid>2816975</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T17:01:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Atcovi</username>
        <id>276019</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Wikiphilosophers */ delete</comment>
      <origin>2816977</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="32638" sha1="f7uprhusiuwjwwfb1glj2cs0ucqpcmw" xml:space="preserve">{{/header}}
== [[IMHA Research Archives]] ==
I propose to '''move to userspace''', including the subpages. I struggle to understand how Wikiversity readers are supposed to benefit from the material here and in the subpages. In the log, there is e.g. '10 February 2019 Marshallsumter discuss contribs deleted page IMHA Research Archives (content was: &quot;{&lt;nowiki/&gt;{Delete|Author request}} Thanks! -&quot;)', so the page was deleted before, but not the subpages.

We could also delete all the material if we have strong enough suspicion too much of it is copyright violation. In any case, moving to user space improves the matter a little by moving the content away from Google search. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 13:38, 9 November 2025 (UTC)

:Looking at some sub-pages, they can be deleted e.g., because they only consist of broken links or are largely empty. I deleted a couple but haven't been through all to check. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:27, 10 November 2025 (UTC)

As an example, let me give the wikitext content of [[IMHA Research Archives/3. Scientific litterature search, storage and use]]:
&lt;pre&gt;
==[[/Medicina Maritima - the Spanish scientific maritime health journal/]]==

==[[/PubMed/]]==

==[[/Google and Google Scholar/]]==

==[[/Zotero/]]==

==[https://www.dropbox.com/sh/d91z7bcyelfvk42/AAAkIvjtBnnFMbiU9ZLOdVL9a/Andrioti_database%20sources0310.pptx?dl=0 Maritime health web portal ressources ]==
&lt;/pre&gt;
The wikilinks are red; the external link to dropbox says &quot;You don't have access&quot;. This was made in 2016. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:04, 11 November 2025 (UTC)

:I suggest delete -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:27, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:: I think we should avoid deletion as much as possible, instead moving to user space (bar copyvio, ethics violation, etc.). This is a good general principle. It greatly improves auditability and makes it so much easier for anyone to request undeletion since they know what content they are requesting for undeletion. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:52, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:::Do not recreate Wikiversity from the educational and research project to the personal blog. That will lead to the cancelation of it by WMF. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:44, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: The English Wikiversity has a long tradition of moving problematic content to user space, as per evidence collected at [[User:Dan_Polansky/About Wikiversity#Moving pages to userspace]]. If Wikimedia Foundation finds this problematic, they can start a discussion in Colloquium and state their concerns. They do not need to make explicit threats at first; they can start a discussion and explain why it is problematic. They can even do it from an anonymous IP and provide a well-articulated reasoning. And anyone else can start a discussion in Colloquium to change this tradition. I do not see why we should not want to change that tradition based on well-articulated, compelling reasoning. I see no reason why Juandev should be making threats instead of them, on a per RFD basis. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: If Juandev is ''sincere'' about deleting very-low-value items ''from user space'', he should perhaps demonstrate that by asking his pages like [[:cs:Uživatel:Juandev/Problémy/Kov/Repase dvířek elektroskříně]] to be deleted; otherwise, I register a ''glaring inconsistence''. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:43, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::What was the original delate page about @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]? I guess that would be crucial for the decission. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:48, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::@[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] the couple of pages I checked and deleted were much like @[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] posted above i.e., headings with empty sections and/or broken links but no substantive content. But I think each sub-page needs checking. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:59, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
::::So I'm saying that the main page usually determines what the other pages are for. But if I don't know the page because it's been deleted, or why was deleted (deletion based on the founder's request is probably not the rule), it's hard to judge. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 22:16, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::::I've pasted the original content of the root page: [[IMHA Research Archives#Original page]] (i.e., prior to the content being removed and deletion requested) to help understand the context for the sub-pages. In 2018, Saltrabook blanked the page, indicating that the content had been moved elsewhere, and requested page deletion. Marshallsumter then deleted the main page but not the sub-pages. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::::::I see, so if those subpages are usefull I would keept them, if not I would delete them. I dont see a point of providing free hosting to sombody, by moving many pages to their user space. The question is if we want to host (i.e. to have in the main ns) lists of links elsewhere. I have no opinion on that. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:11, 22 November 2025 (UTC)

: Let me clarify that while many of the subpages are like the example above, [[IMHA Research Archives/Scientific litterature search, storage and use/Zotero]] is different:
:: &quot;A continuous critical and evidence based learning is a core issue in clinical practice, research, teaching, publication and prevention activities. The Zotero Program is just one of many scientific literature management programs, that should be used for these purposes. Of course one can live without such a database but it helps a lot and can save a lot of time that could be used for more interesting issues. Not only that, but it helps to create better publications and knowledge. Without this program it can be very time consuming to publish a scientific article with the requested style for the references. Further in daily practice when you want to collect and cite a few references for a specific evidence in a clinical colloquium and discussion, this program is excellent. Therefore we strongly recommend that all maritime health persons learn how to use this excellent tool in their daily maritime health practice of all different types. There are good online courses for self-instruction on how to use Zotero. For example this one: Zotero fast online course But in order to increase IMHAR´s collective scientific strength in the use of EBM we would like to give training sessions in every possible opportunity, IMHA Symposia, seminars and other types of meetings. The database is useful for personal purposes but especially also for collaborative aims. At the IMHAR meeting in Paris Oct 7th 2016 we will give an introduction to the program by showing how it can be used in the daily practice and discuss strength and weaknesses compared to other similar databases.&quot;
: Even longer is e.g. [[IMHA Research Archives/Scientific litterature search, storage and use/Medicina Maritima - the Spanish scientific maritime health journal]].
: However, that does not mean these should be salvaged. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:53, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:{{ping|Saltrabook}} I'm wondering if you can respond here to help us decide about whether to delete the IMHA Research Archives sub-pages or perhaps move them to your user space? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:58, 17 May 2026 (UTC)
: [[Special:Diff/2811248]] provides confirmation from Saltrabook to go ahead and delete these archives -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:56, 23 May 2026 (UTC)

== Undeletion request ==
{{archive top|'''Not done''' - discussion has been opened for over a month with no proper explanation as to why the page in question should be undeleted + author of the page failed to address any relevant arguments. I'd suggest reading [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity?]] and [[Wikiversity:Verifiability]] to find ways on how you can contribute to this site productively. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 21:49, 4 June 2026 (UTC)}}
It was deleted by an admin without discussion and with untrue rationale. If people take offense with the question that doesn't mean it's not a valid question and the page was good. Please undelete the Wikidebate page [https://web.archive.org/web/20250810030352/https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Is_it_likely_that_Earth_has_been_visited_by_aliens_millions_of_years_ago%3F Is it likely that Earth has been visited by aliens millions of years ago?]

There are lots of sources on the subject, the wikidebate is sourced very well compared to other wikidebates and wikiversity pages, and the page is educational, useful and of good quality. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 23:57, 10 April 2026 (UTC)

:Page: [[Is it likely that Earth has been visited by aliens millions of years ago?]]
:Ping: [[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:21, 11 April 2026 (UTC)
:There is no need for a discussion for straight garbage-level, pseudoscientific content.
:For '''Is it likely that Earth has been visited by aliens millions of years ago?''', the flaws for this page wouldn't even take someone more than a few minutes to assess:
:* Essentially, the &quot;pro&quot; arguments unproven claims being derived from irrelevant, established facts (basically: &quot;it is likely aliens have came because Earth has existed for so long [sources proving Earth's longevity]&quot;). These are not serious, scientifically-backed arguments - these are non sequiturs. It's as if I said Wikipedia has existed longer than my existence on Earth ([https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/74351725/eyJoIjogImZiODhmYzNkODU1N2UxMWExYzUyODJiYzgzZTRmZDM4OTBjODY5YWMzMjA3NDNmOWEyZTA0ZTU3ZGYwZjAyYTkiLCAidSI6ICJodHRwczovL3B1cmUuaHZhLm5sL3dz-libre.pdf?1636354596=&amp;response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DCritical_Point_of_View_A_Wikipedia_Reade.pdf&amp;Expires=1775872055&amp;Signature=GqbUZboYRvUYWi~aW40LT5eZSHrLuDL3o0-DxAH8vSvcJcGAuyByZWLF2oHTY6GlB72TqvZxpE-v9d4gvsA6myriYqO~QQQZgWxjT2JXjUWC-yiPcTF4l~lroJSi4dY0v9eKiBcU03l-aeUdrX8~UPfi0TfW0IhsmzH-VBR6X6FrzRpIqc6uM6n9YXfr5FRB3aCqqokU690af3n0Hguaub1Zgmh9qjYYqzBS0VOOHjKTTEQnDuadX3jl5CQeXYTaeCC3H0hMeVwHlratbrnuFEKC1aN0-5znCUoSzMEg21ECzGPTrSDM1W05dcK-u0ZTCeUGKAuC-2yRFL3sY46MIw__&amp;Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA#page=157 reputable source proving ''this'' fact]), therefore it's likely that my birth took place solely for the sake of me experiencing Wikipedia (0 backing). It makes no sense and no person with at least a high school-level of intelligence would take this seriously. 
:* What is worse is that the user is being misleading with their &quot;[the page is] sourced very well&quot; claim. The sources ''themselves'' don't even back up the claims. It's just used as proof for an established concept, where the user then uses this established concept to jump to an unsupported, laughable conclusion that is pulled out of thin air. It's utterly ridiculous to even consider such a page for mainspace since it clearly violates our [[Wikiversity:Verifiability]] policy. This is, once again, pseudoscientific content that has caused our website to reduce in quality over the last few years. 
:* Going source by source, we can see that:
:#[https://web.archive.org/web/20250918011642/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/thebigd/compress-earths-history-into-24-hrs-humans-came-at-1158-pm-yet-killed-70-of-wildlife/ ‘Compress Earth’s history into 24 hrs. Humans came at 11:58 pm, yet killed 70% of wildlife’] is literally just a blog post which doesn't even mention aliens or extraterrestrial life. It just talks about Earth's history in accordance with the 24-hour metric of time, and the author tries to use this article as a 'piece in the puzzle' of aliens &quot;possibly&quot; visiting Earth... which, once again, is unsupported and is not backed up anywhere in the article.
:#[https://web.archive.org/web/20250808053249/https://news.cornell.edu/stories/2023/11/jurassic-worlds-might-be-easier-spot-modern-earth The Cornell article does not even remotely support the idea that &quot;aliens visited Earth&quot;]. It mentions a ''chance'' of &quot;life there [a habitable exoplanet] might not be limited to microbes, but could include creatures as large and varied as the megalosauruses or microraptors that once roamed Earth.&quot;, but again, no justification to take this article as proof that &quot;aliens may have visited us!&quot;. There's no mention of aliens visiting Earth anywhere in the article. Once again this is only proving the background premise, but not the unsupported, nonsensical &quot;alien likelihood&quot; argument that the author of this garbage page is trying to push so desperately.
:#The Parker Solar Probe WP article does not even mention aliens either. It follows the same issues as the previous argument.
:And the other page this user complained about [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User_talk:Atcovi#Deletion_of_educational_page_because_of_personal_opinion on my talk page] holds almost similar, maybe even more fatal mistakes, than this one. It has nothing to do with &quot;taking offense&quot;, this is just low-quality, garbage content. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 00:56, 11 April 2026 (UTC)
::Why do you think pro claims are required to be proven? It's possible to object to them and these are arguments, not contextualized to be statements of proven facts. And it's not a strange or unreasonable argument to make that since Earth has existed for long, it's more likely that aliens have come here in the past than in recent times or the near future. Instead of insulting others' intelligence, maybe engage with the actual reasoning rather than censoring it away. And there are lots of sources, such as [https://interestingengineering.com/science/alien-civilizations-may-have-visited-earth-millions-of-years-ago-study-says Alien Civilizations May Have Visited Earth Millions of Years Ago, Study Says] etc etc. The sources are used for the arguments themselves individually. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 12:30, 11 April 2026 (UTC)
:::Because, once again, this is not a site that caters to rampant debating for the sake of &quot;we need to employ rationality and logic to solve the world's problems&quot;, we have policies that we need to fulfill. The claims made in the pro argument clearly do not meet [[Wikiversity:Verifiability]], since you cannot verify these arguments with the sources because they are not relevant. 
:::''&quot;And it's not a strange or unreasonable argument to make that since Earth has existed for long, it's more likely that aliens have come here in the past than in recent times or the near future.&quot;'' The point being is that these arguments are not supported by the sources. Even the article you mention poses the idea as a hypothetical model. This is just you twisting the article to fit your unsupported narrative. I'll bring direct quotes for you to show why the linked article does not help you:
:::* ''One problem the researchers do make sure to point out is that '''they are working with only one data point: our own behaviors and capabilities for space exploration'''. “We tried to come up with a model that would involve the fewest assumptions about sociology that we could,” Carroll-Nellenback told Business Insider. '''We have no real way of knowing the motivations of an alien civilization'''.'' --&gt; proves that this is just speculation and no evidence-based arguments have been provided for the idea that aliens likely visited Earth.
:::And I'm not sure if you read my entire response, but I ''did'' engage with your &quot;actual reasoning&quot; and exposed its weaknesses and lack of adherence to Wikiversity policies. If we allowed content that was just filled with non sequiturs we would have content that fails Wikiversity's educational objectives and reduces the overall quality of this website, hence why such a harsh stance needs to be taken. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:50, 11 April 2026 (UTC)
::::Thanks for proving that the Wikimedia ecosystem is unfit to deliberate on controversial topics. The question is entirely valid and the content is far better sourced than nearly all Wikidebates and has no genuine flaws. The only possible issue with it as far as I can see is that now that Wikidebates has been paused people can't add objections if they do have sth specific to say about the topic that's not already included on that page which already had plenty of Cons and objections.
::::The page was more educational than most of Wikiversity and it was well-sourced – wikidebates was for arguments so people were invited to make arguments based on sourced things or outlined logic and the page met [[WV:V]] and most pages on Wikiversity aren't sourced as good. Doesn't look like people can see beyond their biases and personal views here but that's more evident in the marginalization and deletion of wikidebates and the low activity in that project than these selective deletions. A constructive thing to do would be to add reasoned Cons and objections not yet on the page and people had plenty of time to do that. There are and will be other sites for free constructive rational adversarial deliberation (not a big loss in that sense). [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 16:31, 22 April 2026 (UTC)
:::::Thank you for failing to address any of my arguments and going on an unrelated, nonsensical tangent that has nothing to do with the discussion. Once you start producing work that aligns with Wikiversity's content policies instead of typing up laughable, pseudoscientific garbage, then maybe your work can be accepted and not removed. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 16:59, 22 April 2026 (UTC)
::::::I suggest you stop ridiculing things and learn respectfully forming genuine points about the subject at hand. {{tq|the idea as a hypothetical model}} but please learn first about what arguments are and why they're not the same as a statement of objective proven fact. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 17:18, 22 April 2026 (UTC)
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==Pages by Harold Foppele==
{{archive top|All deleted, user page blanked [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 04:33, 6 June 2026 (UTC)}}
[[User:Harold Foppele]] is locally blocked indefinitely and globally banned for sockpuppetry. There were also WMF and local community concerns expressed about copyright violation and AI (over)use. As a result, I think the Wikiversity pages created by this account warrant review with regard what should be deleted, what should be retained etc.:
* [[Completing the square]]
* [[Number of independent spatial modes in a spherical volume]]
* [[Quantum]]
** [[Quantum/Andrew N. Jordan]]
* [[Quantum A Matter Of Size]]
* [[Quantum A Spooky Action at a Distance]]
* [[Quantum: A Walk Through the Universe]]
* [[Quantum Computing Algorithms in the NISQ Era]]
* [[Quantum Formulas Collection]]
* [[Quantum harmonic oscillator]]
* [[Quantum Matter Elements and Particles]]
* [[Quantum mechanics]]
** [[Quantum mechanics/Timeline]]
* [[Quantum mechanics learning module]]
* [[Quantum mechanics measurements]]
* [[Quantum Noisy Qubits]]
* [[Quantum optics beam splitter experiments]]
* [[Quantum: The Secret of Cohesion: How Waves Hold Matter Together]]
* [[Quantum Ultra fast lasers]]
* [[Speed of sound experiments]]
* [[User:Harold Foppele]]
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:12, 17 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete all''' Not worth keeping. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 08:27, 17 May 2026 (UTC)
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== [[Classical guitar pedagogy]] ==

According to the talk page, the author of this page intended to create this page for Wikipedia. At this moment in time (nearly 20 years later), the page is still riddled with red links and doesn't seem to fit Wikiversity's learning modules. Therefore, I propose that this page should be deleted. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:03, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Weak delete''' This at least has &lt;em&gt;something&lt;/em&gt; that someone could use, but agreed that it's not particularly useful and not likely to be developed. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:25, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Move''' to [[w:User:Grégory Leclair/Classical guitar pedagogy]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:18, 23 May 2026 (UTC)

== [[Film writing]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to keep after vote changes. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:20, 31 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Undeveloped since 2007. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:05, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

:&lt;del&gt;'''Delete''' Nothing here. Great idea in principle, tho. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:25, 20 May 2026 (UTC)&lt;/del&gt;&lt;ins&gt;'''Keep''': It's now at least developed enough to be something. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:42, 31 May 2026 (UTC)&lt;/ins&gt;
: '''Keep''' as part of [[:Category:Film]] resources. I've tidied the page, so it looks less abandoned. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:57, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
:@[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] The page seems to have been tidied up. Do you want to reevaluate your votes? [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:40, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
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==[[United States UFO files]]==
{{archive top|Deleted, but the author of the resource did not respond here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:16, 31 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Seems to be WP-like; material copied from [[w:United States UFO files]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:46, 21 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete''', but why would a PROD template not suffice? My logic was that it is a newly created page (made just today), and isn't a big project/difficult page to deal with. Do we not deal with newly created pages that appear to not satisfy Wikiversity's objectives/mission with a PROD template? Wouldn't we best reserve RFDs for long-standing pages (like the two pages above this section being listed for deletion) or ''after'' the PROD template isn't enough to determine the fate of such pages (per [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy#Proposed deletion (prod)|here]]: &quot;Anyone still considering that the resource should be deleted [after the placement of the PROD template] may discuss deletion.&quot;)? A PROD template may also be useful in this case to alert the author that the page is not compatible with Wikiversity's learning objectives and communicates a concise opportunity to refine the page with the 90-day limit. Maybe even in this case, a speedy would've been enough (possibly fitting [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy#Criteria for speedy deletion|#12]]: &quot;No research objectives or discussion in history. Welcome users and resources when likely to be expanded shortly.&quot;).
:Interested to hear your thoughts as I want to make sure this is clear, as I've been cleaning up a lot of 'dead' pages around Wikiversity and find myself confused on whether to use PROD or RFD. Thanks, —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 02:08, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
: Yes, could be speedy deleted. Otherwise, I don't know about the merits about leaving it around for 90 days, hence me bringing it to here. There is some comment in [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy]] about the specific deletion templates not being so important. More important I think is to flag for discussion. However, we could also improve the proposed policy to make the process clearer. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:20, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
: Ping {{u|User:Realcosmixyt}} for comment -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:54, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
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== [[Emergency Operation Centre GIS]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to delete. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:39, 30 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Undeveloped for over a decade (only thing present is just an outline). —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:44, 22 May 2026 (UTC)

:*'''Delete'''
:―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 15:59, 22 May 2026 (UTC)
:* '''Delete'''. Insufficiently developed. Was moved from [[b:Emergency Operation Centre GIS]].
: -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:13, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

==[[Mippedia]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to delete, and the author of the template did not respond to Jtneill's comment. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:37, 30 May 2026 (UTC)}}
I propose the deletion of the page &quot;[[Mippedia]]&quot;, due to the subject not being backed by reputable sources. Pages with the same subject has been deleted multiple times on the Indonesian Wikipedia. The original writer of the page did it solely to promote his wiki site. [[User:ANNAFscience|ANNAFscience]] ([[User talk:ANNAFscience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ANNAFscience|contribs]]) 10:39, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
: {{ping|Sevent Me}} any comment? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:10, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
:'''Delete''' I don't know what the point of this is. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:26, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Delete'''. Advertising. Points to a non-English, copyright restricted website. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:58, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
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==[[Wikiphilosophers]]==
{{Archive top|Consensus is for '''deletion'''. Regardless, thank you for your efforts to improve Wikiversity @Perquirius. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 17:01, 27 June 2026 (UTC)}}
Moving from {{tl|prod}} by {{at|Atcovi}}: &quot;similar &quot;philosophy&quot;-related content has been removed in the past [issue of pseudoscience] + very little moderation (mirroring the issues of [[Wikidebates]]) + lacks educational value.&quot; The project has also been nominated for deletion on its talk page: [[Talk:Wikiphilosophers]]. There are many subpages: 
{{Special:PrefixIndex/Wikiphilosophers/}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:45, 24 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete'''. Unfortunately, this project wasn't as successful as I had hoped. Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 14:29, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
::Don't forget to delete [[Template:Wikiphilosophers]], [[Template:Wikiphilosophers/doc]] and [[Template:Wikiphilosophers topics]] also. [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 14:30, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
:'''Delete''' Wikiversity should not be used as a host for failed sister projects. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 05:06, 6 June 2026 (UTC)
::When will these pages be deleted? Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 12:13, 27 June 2026 (UTC)
:::Don't forget to delete [[:Category:Wikiphilosophers]] and [[:Category:Wikiphilosophers templates]] also! Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 16:56, 27 June 2026 (UTC)
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== [[Template:UserSkype]] ==
{{archive top|Deleted, template and category was removed from all pages. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:14, 14 June 2026 (UTC)}}
Service was discontinued over a year ago. I suggest deleting the Userbox and [[:Category:Users familiar with Skype]], as it can only confuse or mislead. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 21:17, 30 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete''' per reasoning. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 22:40, 30 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Delete''' -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:48, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
:Yup delete. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 16:59, 8 June 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}</text>
      <sha1>f7uprhusiuwjwwfb1glj2cs0ucqpcmw</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816979</id>
      <parentid>2816977</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T17:07:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Undeletion request */ archive to [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion/Archives/23#Undeletion request]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
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      <text bytes="21504" sha1="o110fjktr3woancftwqkketkq913ow7" xml:space="preserve">{{/header}}
== [[IMHA Research Archives]] ==
I propose to '''move to userspace''', including the subpages. I struggle to understand how Wikiversity readers are supposed to benefit from the material here and in the subpages. In the log, there is e.g. '10 February 2019 Marshallsumter discuss contribs deleted page IMHA Research Archives (content was: &quot;{&lt;nowiki/&gt;{Delete|Author request}} Thanks! -&quot;)', so the page was deleted before, but not the subpages.

We could also delete all the material if we have strong enough suspicion too much of it is copyright violation. In any case, moving to user space improves the matter a little by moving the content away from Google search. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 13:38, 9 November 2025 (UTC)

:Looking at some sub-pages, they can be deleted e.g., because they only consist of broken links or are largely empty. I deleted a couple but haven't been through all to check. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:27, 10 November 2025 (UTC)

As an example, let me give the wikitext content of [[IMHA Research Archives/3. Scientific litterature search, storage and use]]:
&lt;pre&gt;
==[[/Medicina Maritima - the Spanish scientific maritime health journal/]]==

==[[/PubMed/]]==

==[[/Google and Google Scholar/]]==

==[[/Zotero/]]==

==[https://www.dropbox.com/sh/d91z7bcyelfvk42/AAAkIvjtBnnFMbiU9ZLOdVL9a/Andrioti_database%20sources0310.pptx?dl=0 Maritime health web portal ressources ]==
&lt;/pre&gt;
The wikilinks are red; the external link to dropbox says &quot;You don't have access&quot;. This was made in 2016. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:04, 11 November 2025 (UTC)

:I suggest delete -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:27, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:: I think we should avoid deletion as much as possible, instead moving to user space (bar copyvio, ethics violation, etc.). This is a good general principle. It greatly improves auditability and makes it so much easier for anyone to request undeletion since they know what content they are requesting for undeletion. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:52, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:::Do not recreate Wikiversity from the educational and research project to the personal blog. That will lead to the cancelation of it by WMF. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:44, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: The English Wikiversity has a long tradition of moving problematic content to user space, as per evidence collected at [[User:Dan_Polansky/About Wikiversity#Moving pages to userspace]]. If Wikimedia Foundation finds this problematic, they can start a discussion in Colloquium and state their concerns. They do not need to make explicit threats at first; they can start a discussion and explain why it is problematic. They can even do it from an anonymous IP and provide a well-articulated reasoning. And anyone else can start a discussion in Colloquium to change this tradition. I do not see why we should not want to change that tradition based on well-articulated, compelling reasoning. I see no reason why Juandev should be making threats instead of them, on a per RFD basis. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: If Juandev is ''sincere'' about deleting very-low-value items ''from user space'', he should perhaps demonstrate that by asking his pages like [[:cs:Uživatel:Juandev/Problémy/Kov/Repase dvířek elektroskříně]] to be deleted; otherwise, I register a ''glaring inconsistence''. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:43, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::What was the original delate page about @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]? I guess that would be crucial for the decission. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:48, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::@[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] the couple of pages I checked and deleted were much like @[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] posted above i.e., headings with empty sections and/or broken links but no substantive content. But I think each sub-page needs checking. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:59, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
::::So I'm saying that the main page usually determines what the other pages are for. But if I don't know the page because it's been deleted, or why was deleted (deletion based on the founder's request is probably not the rule), it's hard to judge. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 22:16, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::::I've pasted the original content of the root page: [[IMHA Research Archives#Original page]] (i.e., prior to the content being removed and deletion requested) to help understand the context for the sub-pages. In 2018, Saltrabook blanked the page, indicating that the content had been moved elsewhere, and requested page deletion. Marshallsumter then deleted the main page but not the sub-pages. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::::::I see, so if those subpages are usefull I would keept them, if not I would delete them. I dont see a point of providing free hosting to sombody, by moving many pages to their user space. The question is if we want to host (i.e. to have in the main ns) lists of links elsewhere. I have no opinion on that. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:11, 22 November 2025 (UTC)

: Let me clarify that while many of the subpages are like the example above, [[IMHA Research Archives/Scientific litterature search, storage and use/Zotero]] is different:
:: &quot;A continuous critical and evidence based learning is a core issue in clinical practice, research, teaching, publication and prevention activities. The Zotero Program is just one of many scientific literature management programs, that should be used for these purposes. Of course one can live without such a database but it helps a lot and can save a lot of time that could be used for more interesting issues. Not only that, but it helps to create better publications and knowledge. Without this program it can be very time consuming to publish a scientific article with the requested style for the references. Further in daily practice when you want to collect and cite a few references for a specific evidence in a clinical colloquium and discussion, this program is excellent. Therefore we strongly recommend that all maritime health persons learn how to use this excellent tool in their daily maritime health practice of all different types. There are good online courses for self-instruction on how to use Zotero. For example this one: Zotero fast online course But in order to increase IMHAR´s collective scientific strength in the use of EBM we would like to give training sessions in every possible opportunity, IMHA Symposia, seminars and other types of meetings. The database is useful for personal purposes but especially also for collaborative aims. At the IMHAR meeting in Paris Oct 7th 2016 we will give an introduction to the program by showing how it can be used in the daily practice and discuss strength and weaknesses compared to other similar databases.&quot;
: Even longer is e.g. [[IMHA Research Archives/Scientific litterature search, storage and use/Medicina Maritima - the Spanish scientific maritime health journal]].
: However, that does not mean these should be salvaged. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:53, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:{{ping|Saltrabook}} I'm wondering if you can respond here to help us decide about whether to delete the IMHA Research Archives sub-pages or perhaps move them to your user space? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:58, 17 May 2026 (UTC)
: [[Special:Diff/2811248]] provides confirmation from Saltrabook to go ahead and delete these archives -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:56, 23 May 2026 (UTC)

==Pages by Harold Foppele==
{{archive top|All deleted, user page blanked [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 04:33, 6 June 2026 (UTC)}}
[[User:Harold Foppele]] is locally blocked indefinitely and globally banned for sockpuppetry. There were also WMF and local community concerns expressed about copyright violation and AI (over)use. As a result, I think the Wikiversity pages created by this account warrant review with regard what should be deleted, what should be retained etc.:
* [[Completing the square]]
* [[Number of independent spatial modes in a spherical volume]]
* [[Quantum]]
** [[Quantum/Andrew N. Jordan]]
* [[Quantum A Matter Of Size]]
* [[Quantum A Spooky Action at a Distance]]
* [[Quantum: A Walk Through the Universe]]
* [[Quantum Computing Algorithms in the NISQ Era]]
* [[Quantum Formulas Collection]]
* [[Quantum harmonic oscillator]]
* [[Quantum Matter Elements and Particles]]
* [[Quantum mechanics]]
** [[Quantum mechanics/Timeline]]
* [[Quantum mechanics learning module]]
* [[Quantum mechanics measurements]]
* [[Quantum Noisy Qubits]]
* [[Quantum optics beam splitter experiments]]
* [[Quantum: The Secret of Cohesion: How Waves Hold Matter Together]]
* [[Quantum Ultra fast lasers]]
* [[Speed of sound experiments]]
* [[User:Harold Foppele]]
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:12, 17 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete all''' Not worth keeping. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 08:27, 17 May 2026 (UTC)
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== [[Classical guitar pedagogy]] ==

According to the talk page, the author of this page intended to create this page for Wikipedia. At this moment in time (nearly 20 years later), the page is still riddled with red links and doesn't seem to fit Wikiversity's learning modules. Therefore, I propose that this page should be deleted. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:03, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Weak delete''' This at least has &lt;em&gt;something&lt;/em&gt; that someone could use, but agreed that it's not particularly useful and not likely to be developed. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:25, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Move''' to [[w:User:Grégory Leclair/Classical guitar pedagogy]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:18, 23 May 2026 (UTC)

== [[Film writing]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to keep after vote changes. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:20, 31 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Undeveloped since 2007. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:05, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

:&lt;del&gt;'''Delete''' Nothing here. Great idea in principle, tho. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:25, 20 May 2026 (UTC)&lt;/del&gt;&lt;ins&gt;'''Keep''': It's now at least developed enough to be something. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:42, 31 May 2026 (UTC)&lt;/ins&gt;
: '''Keep''' as part of [[:Category:Film]] resources. I've tidied the page, so it looks less abandoned. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:57, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
:@[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] The page seems to have been tidied up. Do you want to reevaluate your votes? [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:40, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
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==[[United States UFO files]]==
{{archive top|Deleted, but the author of the resource did not respond here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:16, 31 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Seems to be WP-like; material copied from [[w:United States UFO files]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:46, 21 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete''', but why would a PROD template not suffice? My logic was that it is a newly created page (made just today), and isn't a big project/difficult page to deal with. Do we not deal with newly created pages that appear to not satisfy Wikiversity's objectives/mission with a PROD template? Wouldn't we best reserve RFDs for long-standing pages (like the two pages above this section being listed for deletion) or ''after'' the PROD template isn't enough to determine the fate of such pages (per [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy#Proposed deletion (prod)|here]]: &quot;Anyone still considering that the resource should be deleted [after the placement of the PROD template] may discuss deletion.&quot;)? A PROD template may also be useful in this case to alert the author that the page is not compatible with Wikiversity's learning objectives and communicates a concise opportunity to refine the page with the 90-day limit. Maybe even in this case, a speedy would've been enough (possibly fitting [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy#Criteria for speedy deletion|#12]]: &quot;No research objectives or discussion in history. Welcome users and resources when likely to be expanded shortly.&quot;).
:Interested to hear your thoughts as I want to make sure this is clear, as I've been cleaning up a lot of 'dead' pages around Wikiversity and find myself confused on whether to use PROD or RFD. Thanks, —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 02:08, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
: Yes, could be speedy deleted. Otherwise, I don't know about the merits about leaving it around for 90 days, hence me bringing it to here. There is some comment in [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy]] about the specific deletion templates not being so important. More important I think is to flag for discussion. However, we could also improve the proposed policy to make the process clearer. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:20, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
: Ping {{u|User:Realcosmixyt}} for comment -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:54, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
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== [[Emergency Operation Centre GIS]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to delete. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:39, 30 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Undeveloped for over a decade (only thing present is just an outline). —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:44, 22 May 2026 (UTC)

:*'''Delete'''
:―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 15:59, 22 May 2026 (UTC)
:* '''Delete'''. Insufficiently developed. Was moved from [[b:Emergency Operation Centre GIS]].
: -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:13, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
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==[[Mippedia]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to delete, and the author of the template did not respond to Jtneill's comment. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:37, 30 May 2026 (UTC)}}
I propose the deletion of the page &quot;[[Mippedia]]&quot;, due to the subject not being backed by reputable sources. Pages with the same subject has been deleted multiple times on the Indonesian Wikipedia. The original writer of the page did it solely to promote his wiki site. [[User:ANNAFscience|ANNAFscience]] ([[User talk:ANNAFscience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ANNAFscience|contribs]]) 10:39, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
: {{ping|Sevent Me}} any comment? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:10, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
:'''Delete''' I don't know what the point of this is. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:26, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Delete'''. Advertising. Points to a non-English, copyright restricted website. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:58, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
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==[[Wikiphilosophers]]==
{{Archive top|Consensus is for '''deletion'''. Regardless, thank you for your efforts to improve Wikiversity @Perquirius. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 17:01, 27 June 2026 (UTC)}}
Moving from {{tl|prod}} by {{at|Atcovi}}: &quot;similar &quot;philosophy&quot;-related content has been removed in the past [issue of pseudoscience] + very little moderation (mirroring the issues of [[Wikidebates]]) + lacks educational value.&quot; The project has also been nominated for deletion on its talk page: [[Talk:Wikiphilosophers]]. There are many subpages: 
{{Special:PrefixIndex/Wikiphilosophers/}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:45, 24 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete'''. Unfortunately, this project wasn't as successful as I had hoped. Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 14:29, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
::Don't forget to delete [[Template:Wikiphilosophers]], [[Template:Wikiphilosophers/doc]] and [[Template:Wikiphilosophers topics]] also. [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 14:30, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
:'''Delete''' Wikiversity should not be used as a host for failed sister projects. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 05:06, 6 June 2026 (UTC)
::When will these pages be deleted? Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 12:13, 27 June 2026 (UTC)
:::Don't forget to delete [[:Category:Wikiphilosophers]] and [[:Category:Wikiphilosophers templates]] also! Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 16:56, 27 June 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

== [[Template:UserSkype]] ==
{{archive top|Deleted, template and category was removed from all pages. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:14, 14 June 2026 (UTC)}}
Service was discontinued over a year ago. I suggest deleting the Userbox and [[:Category:Users familiar with Skype]], as it can only confuse or mislead. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 21:17, 30 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete''' per reasoning. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 22:40, 30 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Delete''' -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:48, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
:Yup delete. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 16:59, 8 June 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}</text>
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      <id>2816981</id>
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        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Pages by Harold Foppele */ archive to [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion/Archives/24#Pages by Harold Foppele]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
      <origin>2816981</origin>
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== [[IMHA Research Archives]] ==
I propose to '''move to userspace''', including the subpages. I struggle to understand how Wikiversity readers are supposed to benefit from the material here and in the subpages. In the log, there is e.g. '10 February 2019 Marshallsumter discuss contribs deleted page IMHA Research Archives (content was: &quot;{&lt;nowiki/&gt;{Delete|Author request}} Thanks! -&quot;)', so the page was deleted before, but not the subpages.

We could also delete all the material if we have strong enough suspicion too much of it is copyright violation. In any case, moving to user space improves the matter a little by moving the content away from Google search. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 13:38, 9 November 2025 (UTC)

:Looking at some sub-pages, they can be deleted e.g., because they only consist of broken links or are largely empty. I deleted a couple but haven't been through all to check. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:27, 10 November 2025 (UTC)

As an example, let me give the wikitext content of [[IMHA Research Archives/3. Scientific litterature search, storage and use]]:
&lt;pre&gt;
==[[/Medicina Maritima - the Spanish scientific maritime health journal/]]==

==[[/PubMed/]]==

==[[/Google and Google Scholar/]]==

==[[/Zotero/]]==

==[https://www.dropbox.com/sh/d91z7bcyelfvk42/AAAkIvjtBnnFMbiU9ZLOdVL9a/Andrioti_database%20sources0310.pptx?dl=0 Maritime health web portal ressources ]==
&lt;/pre&gt;
The wikilinks are red; the external link to dropbox says &quot;You don't have access&quot;. This was made in 2016. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:04, 11 November 2025 (UTC)

:I suggest delete -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:27, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:: I think we should avoid deletion as much as possible, instead moving to user space (bar copyvio, ethics violation, etc.). This is a good general principle. It greatly improves auditability and makes it so much easier for anyone to request undeletion since they know what content they are requesting for undeletion. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:52, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:::Do not recreate Wikiversity from the educational and research project to the personal blog. That will lead to the cancelation of it by WMF. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:44, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: The English Wikiversity has a long tradition of moving problematic content to user space, as per evidence collected at [[User:Dan_Polansky/About Wikiversity#Moving pages to userspace]]. If Wikimedia Foundation finds this problematic, they can start a discussion in Colloquium and state their concerns. They do not need to make explicit threats at first; they can start a discussion and explain why it is problematic. They can even do it from an anonymous IP and provide a well-articulated reasoning. And anyone else can start a discussion in Colloquium to change this tradition. I do not see why we should not want to change that tradition based on well-articulated, compelling reasoning. I see no reason why Juandev should be making threats instead of them, on a per RFD basis. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: If Juandev is ''sincere'' about deleting very-low-value items ''from user space'', he should perhaps demonstrate that by asking his pages like [[:cs:Uživatel:Juandev/Problémy/Kov/Repase dvířek elektroskříně]] to be deleted; otherwise, I register a ''glaring inconsistence''. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:43, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::What was the original delate page about @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]? I guess that would be crucial for the decission. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:48, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::@[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] the couple of pages I checked and deleted were much like @[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] posted above i.e., headings with empty sections and/or broken links but no substantive content. But I think each sub-page needs checking. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:59, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
::::So I'm saying that the main page usually determines what the other pages are for. But if I don't know the page because it's been deleted, or why was deleted (deletion based on the founder's request is probably not the rule), it's hard to judge. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 22:16, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::::I've pasted the original content of the root page: [[IMHA Research Archives#Original page]] (i.e., prior to the content being removed and deletion requested) to help understand the context for the sub-pages. In 2018, Saltrabook blanked the page, indicating that the content had been moved elsewhere, and requested page deletion. Marshallsumter then deleted the main page but not the sub-pages. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::::::I see, so if those subpages are usefull I would keept them, if not I would delete them. I dont see a point of providing free hosting to sombody, by moving many pages to their user space. The question is if we want to host (i.e. to have in the main ns) lists of links elsewhere. I have no opinion on that. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:11, 22 November 2025 (UTC)

: Let me clarify that while many of the subpages are like the example above, [[IMHA Research Archives/Scientific litterature search, storage and use/Zotero]] is different:
:: &quot;A continuous critical and evidence based learning is a core issue in clinical practice, research, teaching, publication and prevention activities. The Zotero Program is just one of many scientific literature management programs, that should be used for these purposes. Of course one can live without such a database but it helps a lot and can save a lot of time that could be used for more interesting issues. Not only that, but it helps to create better publications and knowledge. Without this program it can be very time consuming to publish a scientific article with the requested style for the references. Further in daily practice when you want to collect and cite a few references for a specific evidence in a clinical colloquium and discussion, this program is excellent. Therefore we strongly recommend that all maritime health persons learn how to use this excellent tool in their daily maritime health practice of all different types. There are good online courses for self-instruction on how to use Zotero. For example this one: Zotero fast online course But in order to increase IMHAR´s collective scientific strength in the use of EBM we would like to give training sessions in every possible opportunity, IMHA Symposia, seminars and other types of meetings. The database is useful for personal purposes but especially also for collaborative aims. At the IMHAR meeting in Paris Oct 7th 2016 we will give an introduction to the program by showing how it can be used in the daily practice and discuss strength and weaknesses compared to other similar databases.&quot;
: Even longer is e.g. [[IMHA Research Archives/Scientific litterature search, storage and use/Medicina Maritima - the Spanish scientific maritime health journal]].
: However, that does not mean these should be salvaged. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:53, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:{{ping|Saltrabook}} I'm wondering if you can respond here to help us decide about whether to delete the IMHA Research Archives sub-pages or perhaps move them to your user space? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:58, 17 May 2026 (UTC)
: [[Special:Diff/2811248]] provides confirmation from Saltrabook to go ahead and delete these archives -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:56, 23 May 2026 (UTC)

== [[Classical guitar pedagogy]] ==

According to the talk page, the author of this page intended to create this page for Wikipedia. At this moment in time (nearly 20 years later), the page is still riddled with red links and doesn't seem to fit Wikiversity's learning modules. Therefore, I propose that this page should be deleted. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:03, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Weak delete''' This at least has &lt;em&gt;something&lt;/em&gt; that someone could use, but agreed that it's not particularly useful and not likely to be developed. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:25, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Move''' to [[w:User:Grégory Leclair/Classical guitar pedagogy]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:18, 23 May 2026 (UTC)

== [[Film writing]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to keep after vote changes. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:20, 31 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Undeveloped since 2007. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:05, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

:&lt;del&gt;'''Delete''' Nothing here. Great idea in principle, tho. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:25, 20 May 2026 (UTC)&lt;/del&gt;&lt;ins&gt;'''Keep''': It's now at least developed enough to be something. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:42, 31 May 2026 (UTC)&lt;/ins&gt;
: '''Keep''' as part of [[:Category:Film]] resources. I've tidied the page, so it looks less abandoned. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:57, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
:@[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] The page seems to have been tidied up. Do you want to reevaluate your votes? [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:40, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

==[[United States UFO files]]==
{{archive top|Deleted, but the author of the resource did not respond here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:16, 31 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Seems to be WP-like; material copied from [[w:United States UFO files]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:46, 21 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete''', but why would a PROD template not suffice? My logic was that it is a newly created page (made just today), and isn't a big project/difficult page to deal with. Do we not deal with newly created pages that appear to not satisfy Wikiversity's objectives/mission with a PROD template? Wouldn't we best reserve RFDs for long-standing pages (like the two pages above this section being listed for deletion) or ''after'' the PROD template isn't enough to determine the fate of such pages (per [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy#Proposed deletion (prod)|here]]: &quot;Anyone still considering that the resource should be deleted [after the placement of the PROD template] may discuss deletion.&quot;)? A PROD template may also be useful in this case to alert the author that the page is not compatible with Wikiversity's learning objectives and communicates a concise opportunity to refine the page with the 90-day limit. Maybe even in this case, a speedy would've been enough (possibly fitting [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy#Criteria for speedy deletion|#12]]: &quot;No research objectives or discussion in history. Welcome users and resources when likely to be expanded shortly.&quot;).
:Interested to hear your thoughts as I want to make sure this is clear, as I've been cleaning up a lot of 'dead' pages around Wikiversity and find myself confused on whether to use PROD or RFD. Thanks, —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 02:08, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
: Yes, could be speedy deleted. Otherwise, I don't know about the merits about leaving it around for 90 days, hence me bringing it to here. There is some comment in [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy]] about the specific deletion templates not being so important. More important I think is to flag for discussion. However, we could also improve the proposed policy to make the process clearer. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:20, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
: Ping {{u|User:Realcosmixyt}} for comment -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:54, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
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== [[Emergency Operation Centre GIS]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to delete. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:39, 30 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Undeveloped for over a decade (only thing present is just an outline). —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:44, 22 May 2026 (UTC)

:*'''Delete'''
:―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 15:59, 22 May 2026 (UTC)
:* '''Delete'''. Insufficiently developed. Was moved from [[b:Emergency Operation Centre GIS]].
: -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:13, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
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==[[Mippedia]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to delete, and the author of the template did not respond to Jtneill's comment. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:37, 30 May 2026 (UTC)}}
I propose the deletion of the page &quot;[[Mippedia]]&quot;, due to the subject not being backed by reputable sources. Pages with the same subject has been deleted multiple times on the Indonesian Wikipedia. The original writer of the page did it solely to promote his wiki site. [[User:ANNAFscience|ANNAFscience]] ([[User talk:ANNAFscience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ANNAFscience|contribs]]) 10:39, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
: {{ping|Sevent Me}} any comment? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:10, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
:'''Delete''' I don't know what the point of this is. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:26, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Delete'''. Advertising. Points to a non-English, copyright restricted website. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:58, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
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==[[Wikiphilosophers]]==
{{Archive top|Consensus is for '''deletion'''. Regardless, thank you for your efforts to improve Wikiversity @Perquirius. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 17:01, 27 June 2026 (UTC)}}
Moving from {{tl|prod}} by {{at|Atcovi}}: &quot;similar &quot;philosophy&quot;-related content has been removed in the past [issue of pseudoscience] + very little moderation (mirroring the issues of [[Wikidebates]]) + lacks educational value.&quot; The project has also been nominated for deletion on its talk page: [[Talk:Wikiphilosophers]]. There are many subpages: 
{{Special:PrefixIndex/Wikiphilosophers/}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:45, 24 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete'''. Unfortunately, this project wasn't as successful as I had hoped. Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 14:29, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
::Don't forget to delete [[Template:Wikiphilosophers]], [[Template:Wikiphilosophers/doc]] and [[Template:Wikiphilosophers topics]] also. [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 14:30, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
:'''Delete''' Wikiversity should not be used as a host for failed sister projects. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 05:06, 6 June 2026 (UTC)
::When will these pages be deleted? Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 12:13, 27 June 2026 (UTC)
:::Don't forget to delete [[:Category:Wikiphilosophers]] and [[:Category:Wikiphilosophers templates]] also! Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 16:56, 27 June 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

== [[Template:UserSkype]] ==
{{archive top|Deleted, template and category was removed from all pages. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:14, 14 June 2026 (UTC)}}
Service was discontinued over a year ago. I suggest deleting the Userbox and [[:Category:Users familiar with Skype]], as it can only confuse or mislead. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 21:17, 30 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete''' per reasoning. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 22:40, 30 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Delete''' -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:48, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
:Yup delete. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 16:59, 8 June 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}</text>
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        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Film writing */ archive to [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion/Archives/24#Film writing]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
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== [[IMHA Research Archives]] ==
I propose to '''move to userspace''', including the subpages. I struggle to understand how Wikiversity readers are supposed to benefit from the material here and in the subpages. In the log, there is e.g. '10 February 2019 Marshallsumter discuss contribs deleted page IMHA Research Archives (content was: &quot;{&lt;nowiki/&gt;{Delete|Author request}} Thanks! -&quot;)', so the page was deleted before, but not the subpages.

We could also delete all the material if we have strong enough suspicion too much of it is copyright violation. In any case, moving to user space improves the matter a little by moving the content away from Google search. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 13:38, 9 November 2025 (UTC)

:Looking at some sub-pages, they can be deleted e.g., because they only consist of broken links or are largely empty. I deleted a couple but haven't been through all to check. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:27, 10 November 2025 (UTC)

As an example, let me give the wikitext content of [[IMHA Research Archives/3. Scientific litterature search, storage and use]]:
&lt;pre&gt;
==[[/Medicina Maritima - the Spanish scientific maritime health journal/]]==

==[[/PubMed/]]==

==[[/Google and Google Scholar/]]==

==[[/Zotero/]]==

==[https://www.dropbox.com/sh/d91z7bcyelfvk42/AAAkIvjtBnnFMbiU9ZLOdVL9a/Andrioti_database%20sources0310.pptx?dl=0 Maritime health web portal ressources ]==
&lt;/pre&gt;
The wikilinks are red; the external link to dropbox says &quot;You don't have access&quot;. This was made in 2016. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:04, 11 November 2025 (UTC)

:I suggest delete -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:27, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:: I think we should avoid deletion as much as possible, instead moving to user space (bar copyvio, ethics violation, etc.). This is a good general principle. It greatly improves auditability and makes it so much easier for anyone to request undeletion since they know what content they are requesting for undeletion. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:52, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:::Do not recreate Wikiversity from the educational and research project to the personal blog. That will lead to the cancelation of it by WMF. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:44, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: The English Wikiversity has a long tradition of moving problematic content to user space, as per evidence collected at [[User:Dan_Polansky/About Wikiversity#Moving pages to userspace]]. If Wikimedia Foundation finds this problematic, they can start a discussion in Colloquium and state their concerns. They do not need to make explicit threats at first; they can start a discussion and explain why it is problematic. They can even do it from an anonymous IP and provide a well-articulated reasoning. And anyone else can start a discussion in Colloquium to change this tradition. I do not see why we should not want to change that tradition based on well-articulated, compelling reasoning. I see no reason why Juandev should be making threats instead of them, on a per RFD basis. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: If Juandev is ''sincere'' about deleting very-low-value items ''from user space'', he should perhaps demonstrate that by asking his pages like [[:cs:Uživatel:Juandev/Problémy/Kov/Repase dvířek elektroskříně]] to be deleted; otherwise, I register a ''glaring inconsistence''. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:43, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::What was the original delate page about @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]? I guess that would be crucial for the decission. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:48, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::@[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] the couple of pages I checked and deleted were much like @[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] posted above i.e., headings with empty sections and/or broken links but no substantive content. But I think each sub-page needs checking. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:59, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
::::So I'm saying that the main page usually determines what the other pages are for. But if I don't know the page because it's been deleted, or why was deleted (deletion based on the founder's request is probably not the rule), it's hard to judge. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 22:16, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::::I've pasted the original content of the root page: [[IMHA Research Archives#Original page]] (i.e., prior to the content being removed and deletion requested) to help understand the context for the sub-pages. In 2018, Saltrabook blanked the page, indicating that the content had been moved elsewhere, and requested page deletion. Marshallsumter then deleted the main page but not the sub-pages. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::::::I see, so if those subpages are usefull I would keept them, if not I would delete them. I dont see a point of providing free hosting to sombody, by moving many pages to their user space. The question is if we want to host (i.e. to have in the main ns) lists of links elsewhere. I have no opinion on that. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:11, 22 November 2025 (UTC)

: Let me clarify that while many of the subpages are like the example above, [[IMHA Research Archives/Scientific litterature search, storage and use/Zotero]] is different:
:: &quot;A continuous critical and evidence based learning is a core issue in clinical practice, research, teaching, publication and prevention activities. The Zotero Program is just one of many scientific literature management programs, that should be used for these purposes. Of course one can live without such a database but it helps a lot and can save a lot of time that could be used for more interesting issues. Not only that, but it helps to create better publications and knowledge. Without this program it can be very time consuming to publish a scientific article with the requested style for the references. Further in daily practice when you want to collect and cite a few references for a specific evidence in a clinical colloquium and discussion, this program is excellent. Therefore we strongly recommend that all maritime health persons learn how to use this excellent tool in their daily maritime health practice of all different types. There are good online courses for self-instruction on how to use Zotero. For example this one: Zotero fast online course But in order to increase IMHAR´s collective scientific strength in the use of EBM we would like to give training sessions in every possible opportunity, IMHA Symposia, seminars and other types of meetings. The database is useful for personal purposes but especially also for collaborative aims. At the IMHAR meeting in Paris Oct 7th 2016 we will give an introduction to the program by showing how it can be used in the daily practice and discuss strength and weaknesses compared to other similar databases.&quot;
: Even longer is e.g. [[IMHA Research Archives/Scientific litterature search, storage and use/Medicina Maritima - the Spanish scientific maritime health journal]].
: However, that does not mean these should be salvaged. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:53, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:{{ping|Saltrabook}} I'm wondering if you can respond here to help us decide about whether to delete the IMHA Research Archives sub-pages or perhaps move them to your user space? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:58, 17 May 2026 (UTC)
: [[Special:Diff/2811248]] provides confirmation from Saltrabook to go ahead and delete these archives -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:56, 23 May 2026 (UTC)

== [[Classical guitar pedagogy]] ==

According to the talk page, the author of this page intended to create this page for Wikipedia. At this moment in time (nearly 20 years later), the page is still riddled with red links and doesn't seem to fit Wikiversity's learning modules. Therefore, I propose that this page should be deleted. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:03, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Weak delete''' This at least has &lt;em&gt;something&lt;/em&gt; that someone could use, but agreed that it's not particularly useful and not likely to be developed. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:25, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Move''' to [[w:User:Grégory Leclair/Classical guitar pedagogy]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:18, 23 May 2026 (UTC)

==[[United States UFO files]]==
{{archive top|Deleted, but the author of the resource did not respond here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:16, 31 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Seems to be WP-like; material copied from [[w:United States UFO files]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:46, 21 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete''', but why would a PROD template not suffice? My logic was that it is a newly created page (made just today), and isn't a big project/difficult page to deal with. Do we not deal with newly created pages that appear to not satisfy Wikiversity's objectives/mission with a PROD template? Wouldn't we best reserve RFDs for long-standing pages (like the two pages above this section being listed for deletion) or ''after'' the PROD template isn't enough to determine the fate of such pages (per [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy#Proposed deletion (prod)|here]]: &quot;Anyone still considering that the resource should be deleted [after the placement of the PROD template] may discuss deletion.&quot;)? A PROD template may also be useful in this case to alert the author that the page is not compatible with Wikiversity's learning objectives and communicates a concise opportunity to refine the page with the 90-day limit. Maybe even in this case, a speedy would've been enough (possibly fitting [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy#Criteria for speedy deletion|#12]]: &quot;No research objectives or discussion in history. Welcome users and resources when likely to be expanded shortly.&quot;).
:Interested to hear your thoughts as I want to make sure this is clear, as I've been cleaning up a lot of 'dead' pages around Wikiversity and find myself confused on whether to use PROD or RFD. Thanks, —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 02:08, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
: Yes, could be speedy deleted. Otherwise, I don't know about the merits about leaving it around for 90 days, hence me bringing it to here. There is some comment in [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy]] about the specific deletion templates not being so important. More important I think is to flag for discussion. However, we could also improve the proposed policy to make the process clearer. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:20, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
: Ping {{u|User:Realcosmixyt}} for comment -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:54, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

== [[Emergency Operation Centre GIS]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to delete. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:39, 30 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Undeveloped for over a decade (only thing present is just an outline). —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:44, 22 May 2026 (UTC)

:*'''Delete'''
:―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 15:59, 22 May 2026 (UTC)
:* '''Delete'''. Insufficiently developed. Was moved from [[b:Emergency Operation Centre GIS]].
: -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:13, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

==[[Mippedia]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to delete, and the author of the template did not respond to Jtneill's comment. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:37, 30 May 2026 (UTC)}}
I propose the deletion of the page &quot;[[Mippedia]]&quot;, due to the subject not being backed by reputable sources. Pages with the same subject has been deleted multiple times on the Indonesian Wikipedia. The original writer of the page did it solely to promote his wiki site. [[User:ANNAFscience|ANNAFscience]] ([[User talk:ANNAFscience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ANNAFscience|contribs]]) 10:39, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
: {{ping|Sevent Me}} any comment? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:10, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
:'''Delete''' I don't know what the point of this is. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:26, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Delete'''. Advertising. Points to a non-English, copyright restricted website. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:58, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

==[[Wikiphilosophers]]==
{{Archive top|Consensus is for '''deletion'''. Regardless, thank you for your efforts to improve Wikiversity @Perquirius. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 17:01, 27 June 2026 (UTC)}}
Moving from {{tl|prod}} by {{at|Atcovi}}: &quot;similar &quot;philosophy&quot;-related content has been removed in the past [issue of pseudoscience] + very little moderation (mirroring the issues of [[Wikidebates]]) + lacks educational value.&quot; The project has also been nominated for deletion on its talk page: [[Talk:Wikiphilosophers]]. There are many subpages: 
{{Special:PrefixIndex/Wikiphilosophers/}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:45, 24 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete'''. Unfortunately, this project wasn't as successful as I had hoped. Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 14:29, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
::Don't forget to delete [[Template:Wikiphilosophers]], [[Template:Wikiphilosophers/doc]] and [[Template:Wikiphilosophers topics]] also. [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 14:30, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
:'''Delete''' Wikiversity should not be used as a host for failed sister projects. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 05:06, 6 June 2026 (UTC)
::When will these pages be deleted? Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 12:13, 27 June 2026 (UTC)
:::Don't forget to delete [[:Category:Wikiphilosophers]] and [[:Category:Wikiphilosophers templates]] also! Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 16:56, 27 June 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

== [[Template:UserSkype]] ==
{{archive top|Deleted, template and category was removed from all pages. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:14, 14 June 2026 (UTC)}}
Service was discontinued over a year ago. I suggest deleting the Userbox and [[:Category:Users familiar with Skype]], as it can only confuse or mislead. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 21:17, 30 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete''' per reasoning. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 22:40, 30 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Delete''' -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:48, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
:Yup delete. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 16:59, 8 June 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}</text>
      <sha1>734s5fpunumorqm9xgjl0fctem9xw9z</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816985</id>
      <parentid>2816983</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T17:08:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* United States UFO files */ archive to [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion/Archives/24#United States UFO files]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
      <origin>2816985</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="15446" sha1="8f5uacovxaq52dmhnsofpbxltxxxhgz" xml:space="preserve">{{/header}}
== [[IMHA Research Archives]] ==
I propose to '''move to userspace''', including the subpages. I struggle to understand how Wikiversity readers are supposed to benefit from the material here and in the subpages. In the log, there is e.g. '10 February 2019 Marshallsumter discuss contribs deleted page IMHA Research Archives (content was: &quot;{&lt;nowiki/&gt;{Delete|Author request}} Thanks! -&quot;)', so the page was deleted before, but not the subpages.

We could also delete all the material if we have strong enough suspicion too much of it is copyright violation. In any case, moving to user space improves the matter a little by moving the content away from Google search. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 13:38, 9 November 2025 (UTC)

:Looking at some sub-pages, they can be deleted e.g., because they only consist of broken links or are largely empty. I deleted a couple but haven't been through all to check. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:27, 10 November 2025 (UTC)

As an example, let me give the wikitext content of [[IMHA Research Archives/3. Scientific litterature search, storage and use]]:
&lt;pre&gt;
==[[/Medicina Maritima - the Spanish scientific maritime health journal/]]==

==[[/PubMed/]]==

==[[/Google and Google Scholar/]]==

==[[/Zotero/]]==

==[https://www.dropbox.com/sh/d91z7bcyelfvk42/AAAkIvjtBnnFMbiU9ZLOdVL9a/Andrioti_database%20sources0310.pptx?dl=0 Maritime health web portal ressources ]==
&lt;/pre&gt;
The wikilinks are red; the external link to dropbox says &quot;You don't have access&quot;. This was made in 2016. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:04, 11 November 2025 (UTC)

:I suggest delete -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:27, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:: I think we should avoid deletion as much as possible, instead moving to user space (bar copyvio, ethics violation, etc.). This is a good general principle. It greatly improves auditability and makes it so much easier for anyone to request undeletion since they know what content they are requesting for undeletion. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:52, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:::Do not recreate Wikiversity from the educational and research project to the personal blog. That will lead to the cancelation of it by WMF. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:44, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: The English Wikiversity has a long tradition of moving problematic content to user space, as per evidence collected at [[User:Dan_Polansky/About Wikiversity#Moving pages to userspace]]. If Wikimedia Foundation finds this problematic, they can start a discussion in Colloquium and state their concerns. They do not need to make explicit threats at first; they can start a discussion and explain why it is problematic. They can even do it from an anonymous IP and provide a well-articulated reasoning. And anyone else can start a discussion in Colloquium to change this tradition. I do not see why we should not want to change that tradition based on well-articulated, compelling reasoning. I see no reason why Juandev should be making threats instead of them, on a per RFD basis. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: If Juandev is ''sincere'' about deleting very-low-value items ''from user space'', he should perhaps demonstrate that by asking his pages like [[:cs:Uživatel:Juandev/Problémy/Kov/Repase dvířek elektroskříně]] to be deleted; otherwise, I register a ''glaring inconsistence''. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:43, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::What was the original delate page about @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]? I guess that would be crucial for the decission. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:48, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::@[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] the couple of pages I checked and deleted were much like @[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] posted above i.e., headings with empty sections and/or broken links but no substantive content. But I think each sub-page needs checking. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:59, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
::::So I'm saying that the main page usually determines what the other pages are for. But if I don't know the page because it's been deleted, or why was deleted (deletion based on the founder's request is probably not the rule), it's hard to judge. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 22:16, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::::I've pasted the original content of the root page: [[IMHA Research Archives#Original page]] (i.e., prior to the content being removed and deletion requested) to help understand the context for the sub-pages. In 2018, Saltrabook blanked the page, indicating that the content had been moved elsewhere, and requested page deletion. Marshallsumter then deleted the main page but not the sub-pages. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::::::I see, so if those subpages are usefull I would keept them, if not I would delete them. I dont see a point of providing free hosting to sombody, by moving many pages to their user space. The question is if we want to host (i.e. to have in the main ns) lists of links elsewhere. I have no opinion on that. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:11, 22 November 2025 (UTC)

: Let me clarify that while many of the subpages are like the example above, [[IMHA Research Archives/Scientific litterature search, storage and use/Zotero]] is different:
:: &quot;A continuous critical and evidence based learning is a core issue in clinical practice, research, teaching, publication and prevention activities. The Zotero Program is just one of many scientific literature management programs, that should be used for these purposes. Of course one can live without such a database but it helps a lot and can save a lot of time that could be used for more interesting issues. Not only that, but it helps to create better publications and knowledge. Without this program it can be very time consuming to publish a scientific article with the requested style for the references. Further in daily practice when you want to collect and cite a few references for a specific evidence in a clinical colloquium and discussion, this program is excellent. Therefore we strongly recommend that all maritime health persons learn how to use this excellent tool in their daily maritime health practice of all different types. There are good online courses for self-instruction on how to use Zotero. For example this one: Zotero fast online course But in order to increase IMHAR´s collective scientific strength in the use of EBM we would like to give training sessions in every possible opportunity, IMHA Symposia, seminars and other types of meetings. The database is useful for personal purposes but especially also for collaborative aims. At the IMHAR meeting in Paris Oct 7th 2016 we will give an introduction to the program by showing how it can be used in the daily practice and discuss strength and weaknesses compared to other similar databases.&quot;
: Even longer is e.g. [[IMHA Research Archives/Scientific litterature search, storage and use/Medicina Maritima - the Spanish scientific maritime health journal]].
: However, that does not mean these should be salvaged. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:53, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:{{ping|Saltrabook}} I'm wondering if you can respond here to help us decide about whether to delete the IMHA Research Archives sub-pages or perhaps move them to your user space? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:58, 17 May 2026 (UTC)
: [[Special:Diff/2811248]] provides confirmation from Saltrabook to go ahead and delete these archives -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:56, 23 May 2026 (UTC)

== [[Classical guitar pedagogy]] ==

According to the talk page, the author of this page intended to create this page for Wikipedia. At this moment in time (nearly 20 years later), the page is still riddled with red links and doesn't seem to fit Wikiversity's learning modules. Therefore, I propose that this page should be deleted. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:03, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Weak delete''' This at least has &lt;em&gt;something&lt;/em&gt; that someone could use, but agreed that it's not particularly useful and not likely to be developed. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:25, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Move''' to [[w:User:Grégory Leclair/Classical guitar pedagogy]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:18, 23 May 2026 (UTC)

== [[Emergency Operation Centre GIS]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to delete. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:39, 30 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Undeveloped for over a decade (only thing present is just an outline). —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:44, 22 May 2026 (UTC)

:*'''Delete'''
:―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 15:59, 22 May 2026 (UTC)
:* '''Delete'''. Insufficiently developed. Was moved from [[b:Emergency Operation Centre GIS]].
: -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:13, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

==[[Mippedia]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to delete, and the author of the template did not respond to Jtneill's comment. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:37, 30 May 2026 (UTC)}}
I propose the deletion of the page &quot;[[Mippedia]]&quot;, due to the subject not being backed by reputable sources. Pages with the same subject has been deleted multiple times on the Indonesian Wikipedia. The original writer of the page did it solely to promote his wiki site. [[User:ANNAFscience|ANNAFscience]] ([[User talk:ANNAFscience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ANNAFscience|contribs]]) 10:39, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
: {{ping|Sevent Me}} any comment? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:10, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
:'''Delete''' I don't know what the point of this is. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:26, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Delete'''. Advertising. Points to a non-English, copyright restricted website. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:58, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

==[[Wikiphilosophers]]==
{{Archive top|Consensus is for '''deletion'''. Regardless, thank you for your efforts to improve Wikiversity @Perquirius. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 17:01, 27 June 2026 (UTC)}}
Moving from {{tl|prod}} by {{at|Atcovi}}: &quot;similar &quot;philosophy&quot;-related content has been removed in the past [issue of pseudoscience] + very little moderation (mirroring the issues of [[Wikidebates]]) + lacks educational value.&quot; The project has also been nominated for deletion on its talk page: [[Talk:Wikiphilosophers]]. There are many subpages: 
{{Special:PrefixIndex/Wikiphilosophers/}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:45, 24 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete'''. Unfortunately, this project wasn't as successful as I had hoped. Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 14:29, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
::Don't forget to delete [[Template:Wikiphilosophers]], [[Template:Wikiphilosophers/doc]] and [[Template:Wikiphilosophers topics]] also. [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 14:30, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
:'''Delete''' Wikiversity should not be used as a host for failed sister projects. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 05:06, 6 June 2026 (UTC)
::When will these pages be deleted? Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 12:13, 27 June 2026 (UTC)
:::Don't forget to delete [[:Category:Wikiphilosophers]] and [[:Category:Wikiphilosophers templates]] also! Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 16:56, 27 June 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

== [[Template:UserSkype]] ==
{{archive top|Deleted, template and category was removed from all pages. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:14, 14 June 2026 (UTC)}}
Service was discontinued over a year ago. I suggest deleting the Userbox and [[:Category:Users familiar with Skype]], as it can only confuse or mislead. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 21:17, 30 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete''' per reasoning. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 22:40, 30 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Delete''' -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:48, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
:Yup delete. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 16:59, 8 June 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}</text>
      <sha1>8f5uacovxaq52dmhnsofpbxltxxxhgz</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816987</id>
      <parentid>2816985</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T17:09:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Emergency Operation Centre GIS */ archive to [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion/Archives/24#Emergency Operation Centre GIS]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
      <origin>2816987</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="14484" sha1="1fimonr07s5qhd31u6x78dfxyvjsj44" xml:space="preserve">{{/header}}
== [[IMHA Research Archives]] ==
I propose to '''move to userspace''', including the subpages. I struggle to understand how Wikiversity readers are supposed to benefit from the material here and in the subpages. In the log, there is e.g. '10 February 2019 Marshallsumter discuss contribs deleted page IMHA Research Archives (content was: &quot;{&lt;nowiki/&gt;{Delete|Author request}} Thanks! -&quot;)', so the page was deleted before, but not the subpages.

We could also delete all the material if we have strong enough suspicion too much of it is copyright violation. In any case, moving to user space improves the matter a little by moving the content away from Google search. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 13:38, 9 November 2025 (UTC)

:Looking at some sub-pages, they can be deleted e.g., because they only consist of broken links or are largely empty. I deleted a couple but haven't been through all to check. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:27, 10 November 2025 (UTC)

As an example, let me give the wikitext content of [[IMHA Research Archives/3. Scientific litterature search, storage and use]]:
&lt;pre&gt;
==[[/Medicina Maritima - the Spanish scientific maritime health journal/]]==

==[[/PubMed/]]==

==[[/Google and Google Scholar/]]==

==[[/Zotero/]]==

==[https://www.dropbox.com/sh/d91z7bcyelfvk42/AAAkIvjtBnnFMbiU9ZLOdVL9a/Andrioti_database%20sources0310.pptx?dl=0 Maritime health web portal ressources ]==
&lt;/pre&gt;
The wikilinks are red; the external link to dropbox says &quot;You don't have access&quot;. This was made in 2016. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:04, 11 November 2025 (UTC)

:I suggest delete -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:27, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:: I think we should avoid deletion as much as possible, instead moving to user space (bar copyvio, ethics violation, etc.). This is a good general principle. It greatly improves auditability and makes it so much easier for anyone to request undeletion since they know what content they are requesting for undeletion. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:52, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:::Do not recreate Wikiversity from the educational and research project to the personal blog. That will lead to the cancelation of it by WMF. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:44, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: The English Wikiversity has a long tradition of moving problematic content to user space, as per evidence collected at [[User:Dan_Polansky/About Wikiversity#Moving pages to userspace]]. If Wikimedia Foundation finds this problematic, they can start a discussion in Colloquium and state their concerns. They do not need to make explicit threats at first; they can start a discussion and explain why it is problematic. They can even do it from an anonymous IP and provide a well-articulated reasoning. And anyone else can start a discussion in Colloquium to change this tradition. I do not see why we should not want to change that tradition based on well-articulated, compelling reasoning. I see no reason why Juandev should be making threats instead of them, on a per RFD basis. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: If Juandev is ''sincere'' about deleting very-low-value items ''from user space'', he should perhaps demonstrate that by asking his pages like [[:cs:Uživatel:Juandev/Problémy/Kov/Repase dvířek elektroskříně]] to be deleted; otherwise, I register a ''glaring inconsistence''. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:43, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::What was the original delate page about @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]? I guess that would be crucial for the decission. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:48, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::@[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] the couple of pages I checked and deleted were much like @[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] posted above i.e., headings with empty sections and/or broken links but no substantive content. But I think each sub-page needs checking. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:59, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
::::So I'm saying that the main page usually determines what the other pages are for. But if I don't know the page because it's been deleted, or why was deleted (deletion based on the founder's request is probably not the rule), it's hard to judge. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 22:16, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::::I've pasted the original content of the root page: [[IMHA Research Archives#Original page]] (i.e., prior to the content being removed and deletion requested) to help understand the context for the sub-pages. In 2018, Saltrabook blanked the page, indicating that the content had been moved elsewhere, and requested page deletion. Marshallsumter then deleted the main page but not the sub-pages. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::::::I see, so if those subpages are usefull I would keept them, if not I would delete them. I dont see a point of providing free hosting to sombody, by moving many pages to their user space. The question is if we want to host (i.e. to have in the main ns) lists of links elsewhere. I have no opinion on that. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:11, 22 November 2025 (UTC)

: Let me clarify that while many of the subpages are like the example above, [[IMHA Research Archives/Scientific litterature search, storage and use/Zotero]] is different:
:: &quot;A continuous critical and evidence based learning is a core issue in clinical practice, research, teaching, publication and prevention activities. The Zotero Program is just one of many scientific literature management programs, that should be used for these purposes. Of course one can live without such a database but it helps a lot and can save a lot of time that could be used for more interesting issues. Not only that, but it helps to create better publications and knowledge. Without this program it can be very time consuming to publish a scientific article with the requested style for the references. Further in daily practice when you want to collect and cite a few references for a specific evidence in a clinical colloquium and discussion, this program is excellent. Therefore we strongly recommend that all maritime health persons learn how to use this excellent tool in their daily maritime health practice of all different types. There are good online courses for self-instruction on how to use Zotero. For example this one: Zotero fast online course But in order to increase IMHAR´s collective scientific strength in the use of EBM we would like to give training sessions in every possible opportunity, IMHA Symposia, seminars and other types of meetings. The database is useful for personal purposes but especially also for collaborative aims. At the IMHAR meeting in Paris Oct 7th 2016 we will give an introduction to the program by showing how it can be used in the daily practice and discuss strength and weaknesses compared to other similar databases.&quot;
: Even longer is e.g. [[IMHA Research Archives/Scientific litterature search, storage and use/Medicina Maritima - the Spanish scientific maritime health journal]].
: However, that does not mean these should be salvaged. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:53, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:{{ping|Saltrabook}} I'm wondering if you can respond here to help us decide about whether to delete the IMHA Research Archives sub-pages or perhaps move them to your user space? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:58, 17 May 2026 (UTC)
: [[Special:Diff/2811248]] provides confirmation from Saltrabook to go ahead and delete these archives -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:56, 23 May 2026 (UTC)

== [[Classical guitar pedagogy]] ==

According to the talk page, the author of this page intended to create this page for Wikipedia. At this moment in time (nearly 20 years later), the page is still riddled with red links and doesn't seem to fit Wikiversity's learning modules. Therefore, I propose that this page should be deleted. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:03, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Weak delete''' This at least has &lt;em&gt;something&lt;/em&gt; that someone could use, but agreed that it's not particularly useful and not likely to be developed. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:25, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Move''' to [[w:User:Grégory Leclair/Classical guitar pedagogy]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:18, 23 May 2026 (UTC)

==[[Mippedia]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to delete, and the author of the template did not respond to Jtneill's comment. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:37, 30 May 2026 (UTC)}}
I propose the deletion of the page &quot;[[Mippedia]]&quot;, due to the subject not being backed by reputable sources. Pages with the same subject has been deleted multiple times on the Indonesian Wikipedia. The original writer of the page did it solely to promote his wiki site. [[User:ANNAFscience|ANNAFscience]] ([[User talk:ANNAFscience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ANNAFscience|contribs]]) 10:39, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
: {{ping|Sevent Me}} any comment? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:10, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
:'''Delete''' I don't know what the point of this is. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:26, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Delete'''. Advertising. Points to a non-English, copyright restricted website. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:58, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

==[[Wikiphilosophers]]==
{{Archive top|Consensus is for '''deletion'''. Regardless, thank you for your efforts to improve Wikiversity @Perquirius. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 17:01, 27 June 2026 (UTC)}}
Moving from {{tl|prod}} by {{at|Atcovi}}: &quot;similar &quot;philosophy&quot;-related content has been removed in the past [issue of pseudoscience] + very little moderation (mirroring the issues of [[Wikidebates]]) + lacks educational value.&quot; The project has also been nominated for deletion on its talk page: [[Talk:Wikiphilosophers]]. There are many subpages: 
{{Special:PrefixIndex/Wikiphilosophers/}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:45, 24 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete'''. Unfortunately, this project wasn't as successful as I had hoped. Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 14:29, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
::Don't forget to delete [[Template:Wikiphilosophers]], [[Template:Wikiphilosophers/doc]] and [[Template:Wikiphilosophers topics]] also. [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 14:30, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
:'''Delete''' Wikiversity should not be used as a host for failed sister projects. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 05:06, 6 June 2026 (UTC)
::When will these pages be deleted? Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 12:13, 27 June 2026 (UTC)
:::Don't forget to delete [[:Category:Wikiphilosophers]] and [[:Category:Wikiphilosophers templates]] also! Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 16:56, 27 June 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

== [[Template:UserSkype]] ==
{{archive top|Deleted, template and category was removed from all pages. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:14, 14 June 2026 (UTC)}}
Service was discontinued over a year ago. I suggest deleting the Userbox and [[:Category:Users familiar with Skype]], as it can only confuse or mislead. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 21:17, 30 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete''' per reasoning. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 22:40, 30 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Delete''' -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:48, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
:Yup delete. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 16:59, 8 June 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}</text>
      <sha1>1fimonr07s5qhd31u6x78dfxyvjsj44</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816989</id>
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        <id>2969951</id>
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      <comment>/* Mippedia */ archive to [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion/Archives/24#Mippedia]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
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== [[IMHA Research Archives]] ==
I propose to '''move to userspace''', including the subpages. I struggle to understand how Wikiversity readers are supposed to benefit from the material here and in the subpages. In the log, there is e.g. '10 February 2019 Marshallsumter discuss contribs deleted page IMHA Research Archives (content was: &quot;{&lt;nowiki/&gt;{Delete|Author request}} Thanks! -&quot;)', so the page was deleted before, but not the subpages.

We could also delete all the material if we have strong enough suspicion too much of it is copyright violation. In any case, moving to user space improves the matter a little by moving the content away from Google search. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 13:38, 9 November 2025 (UTC)

:Looking at some sub-pages, they can be deleted e.g., because they only consist of broken links or are largely empty. I deleted a couple but haven't been through all to check. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:27, 10 November 2025 (UTC)

As an example, let me give the wikitext content of [[IMHA Research Archives/3. Scientific litterature search, storage and use]]:
&lt;pre&gt;
==[[/Medicina Maritima - the Spanish scientific maritime health journal/]]==

==[[/PubMed/]]==

==[[/Google and Google Scholar/]]==

==[[/Zotero/]]==

==[https://www.dropbox.com/sh/d91z7bcyelfvk42/AAAkIvjtBnnFMbiU9ZLOdVL9a/Andrioti_database%20sources0310.pptx?dl=0 Maritime health web portal ressources ]==
&lt;/pre&gt;
The wikilinks are red; the external link to dropbox says &quot;You don't have access&quot;. This was made in 2016. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:04, 11 November 2025 (UTC)

:I suggest delete -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:27, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:: I think we should avoid deletion as much as possible, instead moving to user space (bar copyvio, ethics violation, etc.). This is a good general principle. It greatly improves auditability and makes it so much easier for anyone to request undeletion since they know what content they are requesting for undeletion. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:52, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:::Do not recreate Wikiversity from the educational and research project to the personal blog. That will lead to the cancelation of it by WMF. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:44, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: The English Wikiversity has a long tradition of moving problematic content to user space, as per evidence collected at [[User:Dan_Polansky/About Wikiversity#Moving pages to userspace]]. If Wikimedia Foundation finds this problematic, they can start a discussion in Colloquium and state their concerns. They do not need to make explicit threats at first; they can start a discussion and explain why it is problematic. They can even do it from an anonymous IP and provide a well-articulated reasoning. And anyone else can start a discussion in Colloquium to change this tradition. I do not see why we should not want to change that tradition based on well-articulated, compelling reasoning. I see no reason why Juandev should be making threats instead of them, on a per RFD basis. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: If Juandev is ''sincere'' about deleting very-low-value items ''from user space'', he should perhaps demonstrate that by asking his pages like [[:cs:Uživatel:Juandev/Problémy/Kov/Repase dvířek elektroskříně]] to be deleted; otherwise, I register a ''glaring inconsistence''. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:43, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::What was the original delate page about @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]? I guess that would be crucial for the decission. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:48, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::@[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] the couple of pages I checked and deleted were much like @[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] posted above i.e., headings with empty sections and/or broken links but no substantive content. But I think each sub-page needs checking. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:59, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
::::So I'm saying that the main page usually determines what the other pages are for. But if I don't know the page because it's been deleted, or why was deleted (deletion based on the founder's request is probably not the rule), it's hard to judge. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 22:16, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::::I've pasted the original content of the root page: [[IMHA Research Archives#Original page]] (i.e., prior to the content being removed and deletion requested) to help understand the context for the sub-pages. In 2018, Saltrabook blanked the page, indicating that the content had been moved elsewhere, and requested page deletion. Marshallsumter then deleted the main page but not the sub-pages. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::::::I see, so if those subpages are usefull I would keept them, if not I would delete them. I dont see a point of providing free hosting to sombody, by moving many pages to their user space. The question is if we want to host (i.e. to have in the main ns) lists of links elsewhere. I have no opinion on that. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:11, 22 November 2025 (UTC)

: Let me clarify that while many of the subpages are like the example above, [[IMHA Research Archives/Scientific litterature search, storage and use/Zotero]] is different:
:: &quot;A continuous critical and evidence based learning is a core issue in clinical practice, research, teaching, publication and prevention activities. The Zotero Program is just one of many scientific literature management programs, that should be used for these purposes. Of course one can live without such a database but it helps a lot and can save a lot of time that could be used for more interesting issues. Not only that, but it helps to create better publications and knowledge. Without this program it can be very time consuming to publish a scientific article with the requested style for the references. Further in daily practice when you want to collect and cite a few references for a specific evidence in a clinical colloquium and discussion, this program is excellent. Therefore we strongly recommend that all maritime health persons learn how to use this excellent tool in their daily maritime health practice of all different types. There are good online courses for self-instruction on how to use Zotero. For example this one: Zotero fast online course But in order to increase IMHAR´s collective scientific strength in the use of EBM we would like to give training sessions in every possible opportunity, IMHA Symposia, seminars and other types of meetings. The database is useful for personal purposes but especially also for collaborative aims. At the IMHAR meeting in Paris Oct 7th 2016 we will give an introduction to the program by showing how it can be used in the daily practice and discuss strength and weaknesses compared to other similar databases.&quot;
: Even longer is e.g. [[IMHA Research Archives/Scientific litterature search, storage and use/Medicina Maritima - the Spanish scientific maritime health journal]].
: However, that does not mean these should be salvaged. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:53, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:{{ping|Saltrabook}} I'm wondering if you can respond here to help us decide about whether to delete the IMHA Research Archives sub-pages or perhaps move them to your user space? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:58, 17 May 2026 (UTC)
: [[Special:Diff/2811248]] provides confirmation from Saltrabook to go ahead and delete these archives -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:56, 23 May 2026 (UTC)

== [[Classical guitar pedagogy]] ==

According to the talk page, the author of this page intended to create this page for Wikipedia. At this moment in time (nearly 20 years later), the page is still riddled with red links and doesn't seem to fit Wikiversity's learning modules. Therefore, I propose that this page should be deleted. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:03, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Weak delete''' This at least has &lt;em&gt;something&lt;/em&gt; that someone could use, but agreed that it's not particularly useful and not likely to be developed. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:25, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Move''' to [[w:User:Grégory Leclair/Classical guitar pedagogy]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:18, 23 May 2026 (UTC)

==[[Wikiphilosophers]]==
{{Archive top|Consensus is for '''deletion'''. Regardless, thank you for your efforts to improve Wikiversity @Perquirius. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 17:01, 27 June 2026 (UTC)}}
Moving from {{tl|prod}} by {{at|Atcovi}}: &quot;similar &quot;philosophy&quot;-related content has been removed in the past [issue of pseudoscience] + very little moderation (mirroring the issues of [[Wikidebates]]) + lacks educational value.&quot; The project has also been nominated for deletion on its talk page: [[Talk:Wikiphilosophers]]. There are many subpages: 
{{Special:PrefixIndex/Wikiphilosophers/}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:45, 24 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete'''. Unfortunately, this project wasn't as successful as I had hoped. Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 14:29, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
::Don't forget to delete [[Template:Wikiphilosophers]], [[Template:Wikiphilosophers/doc]] and [[Template:Wikiphilosophers topics]] also. [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 14:30, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
:'''Delete''' Wikiversity should not be used as a host for failed sister projects. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 05:06, 6 June 2026 (UTC)
::When will these pages be deleted? Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 12:13, 27 June 2026 (UTC)
:::Don't forget to delete [[:Category:Wikiphilosophers]] and [[:Category:Wikiphilosophers templates]] also! Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 16:56, 27 June 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

== [[Template:UserSkype]] ==
{{archive top|Deleted, template and category was removed from all pages. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:14, 14 June 2026 (UTC)}}
Service was discontinued over a year ago. I suggest deleting the Userbox and [[:Category:Users familiar with Skype]], as it can only confuse or mislead. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 21:17, 30 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete''' per reasoning. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 22:40, 30 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Delete''' -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:48, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
:Yup delete. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 16:59, 8 June 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}</text>
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        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Wikiphilosophers */ archive to [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion/Archives/24#Wikiphilosophers]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
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== [[IMHA Research Archives]] ==
I propose to '''move to userspace''', including the subpages. I struggle to understand how Wikiversity readers are supposed to benefit from the material here and in the subpages. In the log, there is e.g. '10 February 2019 Marshallsumter discuss contribs deleted page IMHA Research Archives (content was: &quot;{&lt;nowiki/&gt;{Delete|Author request}} Thanks! -&quot;)', so the page was deleted before, but not the subpages.

We could also delete all the material if we have strong enough suspicion too much of it is copyright violation. In any case, moving to user space improves the matter a little by moving the content away from Google search. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 13:38, 9 November 2025 (UTC)

:Looking at some sub-pages, they can be deleted e.g., because they only consist of broken links or are largely empty. I deleted a couple but haven't been through all to check. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:27, 10 November 2025 (UTC)

As an example, let me give the wikitext content of [[IMHA Research Archives/3. Scientific litterature search, storage and use]]:
&lt;pre&gt;
==[[/Medicina Maritima - the Spanish scientific maritime health journal/]]==

==[[/PubMed/]]==

==[[/Google and Google Scholar/]]==

==[[/Zotero/]]==

==[https://www.dropbox.com/sh/d91z7bcyelfvk42/AAAkIvjtBnnFMbiU9ZLOdVL9a/Andrioti_database%20sources0310.pptx?dl=0 Maritime health web portal ressources ]==
&lt;/pre&gt;
The wikilinks are red; the external link to dropbox says &quot;You don't have access&quot;. This was made in 2016. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:04, 11 November 2025 (UTC)

:I suggest delete -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:27, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:: I think we should avoid deletion as much as possible, instead moving to user space (bar copyvio, ethics violation, etc.). This is a good general principle. It greatly improves auditability and makes it so much easier for anyone to request undeletion since they know what content they are requesting for undeletion. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:52, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:::Do not recreate Wikiversity from the educational and research project to the personal blog. That will lead to the cancelation of it by WMF. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:44, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: The English Wikiversity has a long tradition of moving problematic content to user space, as per evidence collected at [[User:Dan_Polansky/About Wikiversity#Moving pages to userspace]]. If Wikimedia Foundation finds this problematic, they can start a discussion in Colloquium and state their concerns. They do not need to make explicit threats at first; they can start a discussion and explain why it is problematic. They can even do it from an anonymous IP and provide a well-articulated reasoning. And anyone else can start a discussion in Colloquium to change this tradition. I do not see why we should not want to change that tradition based on well-articulated, compelling reasoning. I see no reason why Juandev should be making threats instead of them, on a per RFD basis. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: If Juandev is ''sincere'' about deleting very-low-value items ''from user space'', he should perhaps demonstrate that by asking his pages like [[:cs:Uživatel:Juandev/Problémy/Kov/Repase dvířek elektroskříně]] to be deleted; otherwise, I register a ''glaring inconsistence''. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:43, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::What was the original delate page about @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]? I guess that would be crucial for the decission. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:48, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::@[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] the couple of pages I checked and deleted were much like @[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] posted above i.e., headings with empty sections and/or broken links but no substantive content. But I think each sub-page needs checking. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:59, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
::::So I'm saying that the main page usually determines what the other pages are for. But if I don't know the page because it's been deleted, or why was deleted (deletion based on the founder's request is probably not the rule), it's hard to judge. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 22:16, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::::I've pasted the original content of the root page: [[IMHA Research Archives#Original page]] (i.e., prior to the content being removed and deletion requested) to help understand the context for the sub-pages. In 2018, Saltrabook blanked the page, indicating that the content had been moved elsewhere, and requested page deletion. Marshallsumter then deleted the main page but not the sub-pages. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::::::I see, so if those subpages are usefull I would keept them, if not I would delete them. I dont see a point of providing free hosting to sombody, by moving many pages to their user space. The question is if we want to host (i.e. to have in the main ns) lists of links elsewhere. I have no opinion on that. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:11, 22 November 2025 (UTC)

: Let me clarify that while many of the subpages are like the example above, [[IMHA Research Archives/Scientific litterature search, storage and use/Zotero]] is different:
:: &quot;A continuous critical and evidence based learning is a core issue in clinical practice, research, teaching, publication and prevention activities. The Zotero Program is just one of many scientific literature management programs, that should be used for these purposes. Of course one can live without such a database but it helps a lot and can save a lot of time that could be used for more interesting issues. Not only that, but it helps to create better publications and knowledge. Without this program it can be very time consuming to publish a scientific article with the requested style for the references. Further in daily practice when you want to collect and cite a few references for a specific evidence in a clinical colloquium and discussion, this program is excellent. Therefore we strongly recommend that all maritime health persons learn how to use this excellent tool in their daily maritime health practice of all different types. There are good online courses for self-instruction on how to use Zotero. For example this one: Zotero fast online course But in order to increase IMHAR´s collective scientific strength in the use of EBM we would like to give training sessions in every possible opportunity, IMHA Symposia, seminars and other types of meetings. The database is useful for personal purposes but especially also for collaborative aims. At the IMHAR meeting in Paris Oct 7th 2016 we will give an introduction to the program by showing how it can be used in the daily practice and discuss strength and weaknesses compared to other similar databases.&quot;
: Even longer is e.g. [[IMHA Research Archives/Scientific litterature search, storage and use/Medicina Maritima - the Spanish scientific maritime health journal]].
: However, that does not mean these should be salvaged. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:53, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:{{ping|Saltrabook}} I'm wondering if you can respond here to help us decide about whether to delete the IMHA Research Archives sub-pages or perhaps move them to your user space? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:58, 17 May 2026 (UTC)
: [[Special:Diff/2811248]] provides confirmation from Saltrabook to go ahead and delete these archives -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:56, 23 May 2026 (UTC)

== [[Classical guitar pedagogy]] ==

According to the talk page, the author of this page intended to create this page for Wikipedia. At this moment in time (nearly 20 years later), the page is still riddled with red links and doesn't seem to fit Wikiversity's learning modules. Therefore, I propose that this page should be deleted. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:03, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Weak delete''' This at least has &lt;em&gt;something&lt;/em&gt; that someone could use, but agreed that it's not particularly useful and not likely to be developed. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:25, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Move''' to [[w:User:Grégory Leclair/Classical guitar pedagogy]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:18, 23 May 2026 (UTC)

== [[Template:UserSkype]] ==
{{archive top|Deleted, template and category was removed from all pages. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:14, 14 June 2026 (UTC)}}
Service was discontinued over a year ago. I suggest deleting the Userbox and [[:Category:Users familiar with Skype]], as it can only confuse or mislead. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 21:17, 30 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete''' per reasoning. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 22:40, 30 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Delete''' -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:48, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
:Yup delete. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 16:59, 8 June 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}</text>
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== [[IMHA Research Archives]] ==
I propose to '''move to userspace''', including the subpages. I struggle to understand how Wikiversity readers are supposed to benefit from the material here and in the subpages. In the log, there is e.g. '10 February 2019 Marshallsumter discuss contribs deleted page IMHA Research Archives (content was: &quot;{&lt;nowiki/&gt;{Delete|Author request}} Thanks! -&quot;)', so the page was deleted before, but not the subpages.

We could also delete all the material if we have strong enough suspicion too much of it is copyright violation. In any case, moving to user space improves the matter a little by moving the content away from Google search. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 13:38, 9 November 2025 (UTC)

:Looking at some sub-pages, they can be deleted e.g., because they only consist of broken links or are largely empty. I deleted a couple but haven't been through all to check. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:27, 10 November 2025 (UTC)

As an example, let me give the wikitext content of [[IMHA Research Archives/3. Scientific litterature search, storage and use]]:
&lt;pre&gt;
==[[/Medicina Maritima - the Spanish scientific maritime health journal/]]==

==[[/PubMed/]]==

==[[/Google and Google Scholar/]]==

==[[/Zotero/]]==

==[https://www.dropbox.com/sh/d91z7bcyelfvk42/AAAkIvjtBnnFMbiU9ZLOdVL9a/Andrioti_database%20sources0310.pptx?dl=0 Maritime health web portal ressources ]==
&lt;/pre&gt;
The wikilinks are red; the external link to dropbox says &quot;You don't have access&quot;. This was made in 2016. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:04, 11 November 2025 (UTC)

:I suggest delete -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:27, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:: I think we should avoid deletion as much as possible, instead moving to user space (bar copyvio, ethics violation, etc.). This is a good general principle. It greatly improves auditability and makes it so much easier for anyone to request undeletion since they know what content they are requesting for undeletion. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:52, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:::Do not recreate Wikiversity from the educational and research project to the personal blog. That will lead to the cancelation of it by WMF. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:44, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: The English Wikiversity has a long tradition of moving problematic content to user space, as per evidence collected at [[User:Dan_Polansky/About Wikiversity#Moving pages to userspace]]. If Wikimedia Foundation finds this problematic, they can start a discussion in Colloquium and state their concerns. They do not need to make explicit threats at first; they can start a discussion and explain why it is problematic. They can even do it from an anonymous IP and provide a well-articulated reasoning. And anyone else can start a discussion in Colloquium to change this tradition. I do not see why we should not want to change that tradition based on well-articulated, compelling reasoning. I see no reason why Juandev should be making threats instead of them, on a per RFD basis. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: If Juandev is ''sincere'' about deleting very-low-value items ''from user space'', he should perhaps demonstrate that by asking his pages like [[:cs:Uživatel:Juandev/Problémy/Kov/Repase dvířek elektroskříně]] to be deleted; otherwise, I register a ''glaring inconsistence''. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:43, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::What was the original delate page about @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]? I guess that would be crucial for the decission. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:48, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::@[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] the couple of pages I checked and deleted were much like @[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] posted above i.e., headings with empty sections and/or broken links but no substantive content. But I think each sub-page needs checking. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:59, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
::::So I'm saying that the main page usually determines what the other pages are for. But if I don't know the page because it's been deleted, or why was deleted (deletion based on the founder's request is probably not the rule), it's hard to judge. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 22:16, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::::I've pasted the original content of the root page: [[IMHA Research Archives#Original page]] (i.e., prior to the content being removed and deletion requested) to help understand the context for the sub-pages. In 2018, Saltrabook blanked the page, indicating that the content had been moved elsewhere, and requested page deletion. Marshallsumter then deleted the main page but not the sub-pages. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::::::I see, so if those subpages are usefull I would keept them, if not I would delete them. I dont see a point of providing free hosting to sombody, by moving many pages to their user space. The question is if we want to host (i.e. to have in the main ns) lists of links elsewhere. I have no opinion on that. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:11, 22 November 2025 (UTC)

: Let me clarify that while many of the subpages are like the example above, [[IMHA Research Archives/Scientific litterature search, storage and use/Zotero]] is different:
:: &quot;A continuous critical and evidence based learning is a core issue in clinical practice, research, teaching, publication and prevention activities. The Zotero Program is just one of many scientific literature management programs, that should be used for these purposes. Of course one can live without such a database but it helps a lot and can save a lot of time that could be used for more interesting issues. Not only that, but it helps to create better publications and knowledge. Without this program it can be very time consuming to publish a scientific article with the requested style for the references. Further in daily practice when you want to collect and cite a few references for a specific evidence in a clinical colloquium and discussion, this program is excellent. Therefore we strongly recommend that all maritime health persons learn how to use this excellent tool in their daily maritime health practice of all different types. There are good online courses for self-instruction on how to use Zotero. For example this one: Zotero fast online course But in order to increase IMHAR´s collective scientific strength in the use of EBM we would like to give training sessions in every possible opportunity, IMHA Symposia, seminars and other types of meetings. The database is useful for personal purposes but especially also for collaborative aims. At the IMHAR meeting in Paris Oct 7th 2016 we will give an introduction to the program by showing how it can be used in the daily practice and discuss strength and weaknesses compared to other similar databases.&quot;
: Even longer is e.g. [[IMHA Research Archives/Scientific litterature search, storage and use/Medicina Maritima - the Spanish scientific maritime health journal]].
: However, that does not mean these should be salvaged. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:53, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:{{ping|Saltrabook}} I'm wondering if you can respond here to help us decide about whether to delete the IMHA Research Archives sub-pages or perhaps move them to your user space? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:58, 17 May 2026 (UTC)
: [[Special:Diff/2811248]] provides confirmation from Saltrabook to go ahead and delete these archives -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:56, 23 May 2026 (UTC)

== [[Classical guitar pedagogy]] ==

According to the talk page, the author of this page intended to create this page for Wikipedia. At this moment in time (nearly 20 years later), the page is still riddled with red links and doesn't seem to fit Wikiversity's learning modules. Therefore, I propose that this page should be deleted. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:03, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Weak delete''' This at least has &lt;em&gt;something&lt;/em&gt; that someone could use, but agreed that it's not particularly useful and not likely to be developed. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:25, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Move''' to [[w:User:Grégory Leclair/Classical guitar pedagogy]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:18, 23 May 2026 (UTC)</text>
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      <text bytes="2146" sha1="6tsfreulu500u25r9sml5u52fvmkk0v" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Ladd with Cherry blossoms.jpg|thumb|right|[[w:Ladd Observatory|Ladd Observatory]] with cherry trees in blossom]]

&lt;code lang=&quot;csh&quot;&gt;% whois !MU301&lt;/code&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc954]&lt;/sup&gt;

&lt;!-- I am the Curator of the historic [[w:Ladd Observatory|Ladd Observatory]] at [[w:Brown University|Brown University]]. --&gt; 

My research focus is late 19&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; and early 20&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century history of science and technology.

Visit my [[/Learning blog/]] and join in on the conversation. I also have a personal blog called [https://fornaxchimiae.blogspot.com/ ''Fornax Chimiæ''] and I contribute to the [https://web.archive.org/web/20230401051800/https://blogs.brown.edu/ladd/author/mumbrichbrown-edu/ ''Ladd Observatory blog''].

[[File:Ada-Lovelace-Wikithon-2013-08.jpg|thumb|right|Presenting GLAM and Wikipedian in Residence at the Ada Lovelace Day Wikipedia edit-a-thon at Brown.[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Meetup/Ada_Lovelace_Edit-a-thon_2013_-_Brown] ]]
I'm a [[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|bureaucrat]] at en-wikiversity; &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{ping|Mu301}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; if you need assistance or help with anything here.

Where I'm currently most active
* '''[[User:Mu301|Wikiversity:User:Mu301]]'''
* '''[[Wikipedia:User:Mu301]]'''
* [[Outreach:User:Mu301]]

Projects that I'm involved with
* '''[[Outreach:GLAM]]''' ('''G'''alleries • '''L'''ibraries • '''A'''rchives • '''M'''useums)
&lt;!-- * [[commons:Commons:Ladd Observatory|Commons:Ladd Observatory]] --&gt;
* [[commons:Commons:Retro-Computing Society of Rhode Island|Commons:Retro-Computing Society of Rhode Island]]

&lt;small&gt;My Freenode irc nick and cloak is &lt;code lang=&quot;irc&quot;&gt;mikeu@wikimedia/mu301&lt;/code&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Mu301&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=1512387]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;My other accounts are [[User:Mikeu|Mikeu]] and [[User:Mu301Bot|Mu301Bot]] (w/bot flag for [[User:Mu301Bot|en-wv]] and [[betawikiversity:User:Mu301Bot|beta-wv]])&lt;/small&gt;

{{Userpage}}

[[Category:Wikiversity bureaucrats]]
[[Category:Wikiversity custodians]]
[[Category:Wikiversity bot owners]]
[[Category:Wikimedians]]
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    <title>Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter</title>
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      <comment>/* Marking criteria */ {{Notice|1=See also: [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1NUNjMCM5xOVsHj1LJuRnK8BgEdXPn4TbRf-Q6PH3oXg/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]}}</comment>
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      <text bytes="21217" sha1="1djoce35iswdfdffvepg7n1se8slztz" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Book chapter — Guidelines}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Collaborative online book chapter authoring''
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;
&lt;!-- Count down --&gt;
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;&lt;!--
{{countdown
 |year       = 2025
 |month      = 09
 |day        = 29
 |hour       = 0
 |event = this assessment is due
}}
--&gt;&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/In development}} --&gt;
{{/Contents/}}&lt;/div&gt;
{{TOCright}}

==Overview==
* Weight: 50%
* Due: {{/Due}}
* Tasks
** Author an online [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter]] up to 4,000 words that explains key psychological theory and research about a unique, specific motivation or emotion topic
** Create the chapter by building on the plan and addressing feedback from the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] exercise
** Includes a social contribution component which involves contributing to the development of other book chapters
* Follow the [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]

==Marking and feedback==
*Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]] and [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60/edit?usp=sharing marking rubric]
*Feedback will be provided to explain how well the chapter meets the marking criteria
*Marks and feedback should be returned within 3 weeks of the due date
**Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}—keep an eye on Announcements
**Written feedback will be available via the chapter's Wikiversity discussion page
*Follow up if you don't understand the feedback

==Extensions and late submissions==
* Extension requests require an Extension Application Form to be submitted via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} with appropriate documentary evidence
* Submissions are accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day late)
* If you don't submit this assessment it is unlikely that you will pass the unit

==Learning outcomes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto; vertical-align:top;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task'''
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use the most relevant theories and peer-reviewed research to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Explain how psychological science can be applied to a specific motivation or emotion topic. Use figures, examples, and/or other interactive learning features to illustrate how this knowledge can apply to understanding human behaviour in everyday life.
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:

{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;width:20%;&quot; | Category
! style=&quot;width:20%;&quot; | Graduate attribute
! style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | Assessment task
|-
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''Be professional'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Communicate effectively
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Review scholarly knowledge in an open, online environment and address feedback.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Display initiative and drive
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Produce an online book chapter about a novel motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Up-to-date knowledge and skills
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Utilise the most relevant psychological theory and research to address a practical question.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Solve problems via thinking
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use critical thinking to explain how psychological science can address real-world problems.
|-
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''Be a global citizen'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Informed and balanced
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Provide a balanced, critical chapter which is accessible to a lay audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Communicate diversely
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Collaborate with peers to communicate knowledge openly with a global audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Creative use of technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Learn how to collaborate using wiki technology.
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''Be a lifelong learner'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Engage in new ideas
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Engage in a collaborative learning culture by incorporating feedback and suggestions.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Evaluate and adopt new technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Experience project work in a collaborative, online editing environment.
|}

==Instructions==
The following instructions should be used to guide the development of the book chapter.

===Theme===
* Chapters should fit the book theme which is &quot;understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science&quot;

===Audience===
* The target audience is a general (non-topic-expert) reader interested in personal growth and development based on knowledge in psychological science (theory and research). This is a [[w:science communication|science communication]] exercise.

===Wikiversity===
* Present the chapter as a single page on the [[Main Page|English Wikiversity]] website. A link to the chapter should appear in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|table of contents]] along with the lead author's Wikiversity user name

===Topic===
* The title and sub-title must be approved by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Collaboration and feedback===
* Chapters should be independently developed and written primarily by the lead author, but collaboration is strongly encouraged (e.g., by incorporating useful edits and feedback from others)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement
* Lead authors are encouraged to seek feedback about the chapter during the drafting process (e.g., start a {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion thread&lt;!-- (use the chapter title and subtitle in the subject line and include a clickable hyperlink to the chapter in the message)--&gt;)
* Feedback is usually best placed on the chapter's wiki discussion page
* Feedback on the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] (chapter plan) will be provided by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Length (word count)===
{{Anchor|Wordcount}}{{Anchor|Word count}}
* There is no minimum length
* Maximum 4,000 words
** There is no additional 10% allowance
** Words beyond the maximum will not be considered for marking purposes
** Count everything from top to bottom of the editable page (in view mode, not edit mode):
*** Include the title, subtitle, headings, text, tables, figures, references, see also, and external links
** Use this [https://chromewebstore.google.com/detail/word-counter/cbjddaobmdfhbfgdgjocbhklpmclcboe Word Counter] (Google Chrome Extension) or paste the URL into [https://hsuper.tools/web-page-word-counter Webpage Word Counter] (it will overcount by ~100 words) or cut and paste into a word processor
* If you are having difficulties complying with the maximum word count, see [[/Word count|these suggestions]]

===Submission===
* Submit the chapter URL (website address), your Wikiversity user name, and a PDF of the chapter via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}

==Marking criteria==
{{Notice|1=See also: [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1NUNjMCM5xOVsHj1LJuRnK8BgEdXPn4TbRf-Q6PH3oXg/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]}}
[[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]]
Book chapters will be marked against the following criteria.

===Overview (5%)===
* Scenario: Provide an engaging scenario or case study in a feature box, with an illustrative figure
* Problem statement: Easy to read and understand outline of the key concepts and explanation of practical/real-world problem to be solved
* Focus questions: Establish [[/Focus questions|focus questions]] which align with the sub-title and subsequent heading structure

===Theory (20%)===
* Clearly explain the theoretical framework for understanding the topic
* Select the most relevant psychological theories/models that apply to the problem. Depending on the topic, this may involve focusing on a single theory or comparing and contrasting two or more theories.
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed theory references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Clearly explain and apply the theory(ies)
* Include illustrative examples, such as case studies
* Demonstrate a critical perspective

===Research (25%)===
* Clearly explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed research references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Include relevant major reviews (such as systematic reviews and meta-analyses)
* [[w:Critical thinking|Critical analyse]] the key research findings, including limitations and implications

===Integration (10%)===
* Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research
* Use research to critically inform interpretation and application of the theory(ies)

===Conclusion (5%)===
* Clear and concise communication of key points and take-home messages
* Aligned with the subtitle and focus questions, with implications for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/Theme|book theme]]

===Style (20%)===
* Overall
** Present and illustrate the problem and knowledge in an interesting way, using a logical structure, clear layout, correct spelling and grammar, and [[APA style]]
** [[/Readability|Readable]] for a layperson interested in psychological science
** Address the [[#Theme|book theme]] by providing practical, academically sound, self-improvement information
** Address an international audience (i.e., avoid an overly local or national perspective)
** Use default wiki style for paragraph alignment, font colour, type, and size, and heading styles
** Use Australian spelling (e.g., hypothesise, behaviour, fulfilment) rather than American spelling (e.g., hypothesize, behavior, fulfillment)
** Correct grammar (e.g., see [[/Writing tips|writing tips]])
* Structure
** Use a logical heading structure that aligns with the focus questions
** Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] throughout, including for headings and sub-headings
** Use the default heading style (e.g., do not add italics and/or bold)
** Sub-headings are optional
*** Avoid having sections with a single sub-heading — each section should contain 0 or 2+ sub-headings.
*** If sub-headings are used, provides at least 1 introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections.
* Sentences
** [[w:Narration#Narrative point of view|Narrative point of view]][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/]: In the main text, use [[w:Narration#Third-person|3rd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;it&quot;, &quot;they&quot;). Where [[w:Aside|aside]]s are used, such as examples, case studies, and feature boxes, [[w:First-person narrative|1st person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;I&quot; and &quot;we&quot;) and/or [[w:Narration#Second-person|2nd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) can work well.
* Paragraphs
** A well-constructed paragraph is generally 3 to 5 sentences (opening sentence, body sentences, and a concluding/linking sentence). Avoid one-sentence paragraphs and overly long paragraphs.
** Paragraphs flow logically
* Use APA style (as much as reasonably possible), paying particular attention to:
** citations
** references (especially capitalisation, italicisation, and providing hyperlinked dois)
** table and figure captions
** quotes (include page numbers)
* Citations
** Claims need citations using APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style throughout the chapter — don't mix and match. For most psychology students, APA style will be the choice.
** Maximum of 3 citations per point (i.e., avoid 4 or more citations together).
* References
** List all cited academic references in APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style.
** Non-academic sources are not used in references. They can be included in the external links section.

===Learning features (5%)===
* Embed interactive learning features such as scenarios/case studies/examples, feature boxes, figures, quizzes, links to relevant Wikipedia and Wikipedia pages, as well as links to key resources via the &quot;See also&quot; and &quot;External links&quot; sections
* Case studies
** Include 1 or more examples, scenarios, or case studies
** They can be true (if so, include citations) or fictional
** Use these examples to enhance understanding of theory, research, focus questions, and/or take-home messages
** Present in a feature box and include a figure
** Consider using a &quot;progressive case study&quot; (i.e., a case study presented in separate parts which describe, for example, the problem, attempt at change, and resolution/outcomes).
** Examples of chapters which make effective use of case studies:
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional abuse|emotional abuse]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Food and fear|food and fear]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Opioid system and human emotion|opioid system and human emotion]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|social support and emotion]] (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|Feature boxes]]
** Use to highlight key information, but avoid overuse
** There are various ways of creating coloured boxes, but the [[Template:RoundBoxTop|RoundBox]] template is a good option.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Figures|Figures]]
** Include relevant, accompanying figures (e.g., photos, drawings, diagrams) to facilitate readers' understanding of the concepts
** Figures are accompanied by explanatory captions and be cited at least once in the main text
** For more information, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|How to use figures]]).
* [[Help:Links|Links]]
** In-text (embedded) links: Key words and concepts are [[Making links|linked]] to Wikipedia articles and/or related book chapters. Provide in-text wiki links the ''first time'' that key concepts are mentioned. For example:
*** [[w:Emotion|emotion]] involves physiological, subjective feeling, motivational, and socially expressive aspects. The syntax for creating this link is &lt;nowiki&gt;[[w:Emotion|emotion]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;). It is also possible to link to a section on this same page e.g., &amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[[#Overview|Overview]]&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt; will link to the Overview section.
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Fitspiration and body image|This chapter]] provides an excellent example of embedded links to Wikiversity pages.
** See also
*** Provide interwiki links to key related Wikiversity book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles
*** Include source in parentheses
** External links
*** Provide at least three links to high quality, relevant external resources
*** Include author and/or source in parentheses
** Published academic sources belong in References
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|Tables]]
** Use accompanying tables to help organise information and communicate concepts to readers
** Tables are accompanied by explanatory APA style captions and are cited in the body text
* [[Help:Quiz|Quizzes]]
** Quiz questions or reflection questions encourage reader engagement
** Focus on core concepts (esp. take-home messages) rather than trivia
** Consider incorporating throughout the chapter
{{anchor|Socialcontribution}}

===Social contribution (10%)===
* '''Actions''': Logged contributions which enhance the quality of other book chapters. Useful actions include:
** '''Edits''': Direct edits which improve past or current chapters (e.g., fix errors, enhance clarity) or flag potential improvements by adding [[Template:Clarification templates|clarification templates]]. [[/Search for chapters to improve|Search for chapters to improve]].
** '''Comments''': Feedback provided on book chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s
** '''Media uploads''': Upload free-to-use educational images to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
** '''{{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion posts'''
* '''Evidence''':
** Provide a [[mw:Help:Lists|numbered list]] with summaries of contributions on your [[Help:User page|Wikiversity user page]], and '''direct links''' that show each change or contribution.&lt;!-- To receive credit, contributions must be publicly logged (i.e., log in to Wikiversity so that the edit is recorded with your user name and time-stamp). Summarise each edit on your user page (in a section called &quot;Social contributions&quot;) --&gt;
** More info: [[/Summarising social contributions|summarising social contributions]]
* '''Marking'''
** Marking of social contributions will be based on a combination of:
*** '''Quantity''':
**** Breadth: number of chapters contributed to
**** Channels: range of communication channels used
*** '''Quality''':
**** Depth/Extent/Thoroughness
**** Insightfulness
**** Practical value
*** '''Timeliness''' — there is generally:
**** Greater value in earlier contributions
**** Lesser value in last-minute contributions
** Marks will be allocated to each clearly evidenced contribution as follows:
*** Minor &lt;= 0.25
*** Moderate 0.50
*** Major 1.00
*** Very significant &gt; 1.00
*** Up to 5 bonus marks may be awarded for exceptional levels of contribution

==Examples==
Examples of high quality motivation and emotion book chapters:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment|Disappointment]]: What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? (2022)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Illicit drug taking at music festivals|Illicit drug taking at music festivals]]: What motivates young people to take illicit drugs at music festivals? (2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Organisational change motivation|Organisational change motivation]]: How can leaders build a culture of agility, adaptability, and resilience to deal with a constantly changing workplace? (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias|Phobias]]: What are phobias and how can they be dealt with? (2019)

Note that as of 2025, chapters no longer include multimedia presentations.

For more examples, see the {{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}s in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|lists of previous book chapters]]&lt;!-- and the [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Top|top chapters of 2022]] --&gt;.

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under a [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 Share-alike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) license which is irrevocable. This license gives permission for others to edit and re-use, with appropriate acknowledgement. For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under this license, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment options]] with the unit convener.

==See also==
* [[/FAQ/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Previous chapters]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|General feedback]]
** [[Template:MEBF|Feedback template]]
** [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]
* [[#Socialcontribution|Social contributions]]
** [[/Search for chapters to improve/]]
** [[/Summarising social contributions/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]]
&lt;!-- ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]] --&gt;
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking#Google Scholar|Tutorial 05: Google Scholar]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion#Topic development feedback|Tutorial 08: Topic development feedback]]
* Wikiversity
** [[/Feature boxes/]]
** [[/Figures/]]
** [[How to find free-to-use images|Find free images]]
** [[/Tables/]]
* [[/Writing tips/]]
** [[/How to handle a lack of information/|Handling a lack of information]]
** [[/Readability|Readability]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]]
** [[/Word count|Word count]]
{{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}}
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter| ]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]]</text>
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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Collaborative online book chapter authoring''
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==Overview==
* Weight: 50%
* Due: {{/Due}}
* Tasks
** Author an online [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter]] up to 4,000 words that explains key psychological theory and research about a unique, specific motivation or emotion topic
** Create the chapter by building on the plan and addressing feedback from the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] exercise
** Includes a social contribution component which involves contributing to the development of other book chapters
* Follow the [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]

==Marking and feedback==
*Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]] and [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60/edit?usp=sharing marking rubric]
*Feedback will be provided to explain how well the chapter meets the marking criteria
*Marks and feedback should be returned within 3 weeks of the due date
**Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}—keep an eye on Announcements
**Written feedback will be available via the chapter's Wikiversity discussion page
*Follow up if you don't understand the feedback

==Extensions and late submissions==
* Extension requests require an Extension Application Form to be submitted via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} with appropriate documentary evidence
* Submissions are accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day late)
* If you don't submit this assessment it is unlikely that you will pass the unit

==Learning outcomes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto; vertical-align:top;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task'''
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use the most relevant theories and peer-reviewed research to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Explain how psychological science can be applied to a specific motivation or emotion topic. Use figures, examples, and/or other interactive learning features to illustrate how this knowledge can apply to understanding human behaviour in everyday life.
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:

{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;width:20%;&quot; | Category
! style=&quot;width:20%;&quot; | Graduate attribute
! style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | Assessment task
|-
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''Be professional'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Communicate effectively
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Review scholarly knowledge in an open, online environment and address feedback.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Display initiative and drive
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Produce an online book chapter about a novel motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Up-to-date knowledge and skills
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Utilise the most relevant psychological theory and research to address a practical question.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Solve problems via thinking
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use critical thinking to explain how psychological science can address real-world problems.
|-
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''Be a global citizen'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Informed and balanced
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Provide a balanced, critical chapter which is accessible to a lay audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Communicate diversely
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Collaborate with peers to communicate knowledge openly with a global audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Creative use of technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Learn how to collaborate using wiki technology.
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''Be a lifelong learner'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Engage in new ideas
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Engage in a collaborative learning culture by incorporating feedback and suggestions.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Evaluate and adopt new technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Experience project work in a collaborative, online editing environment.
|}

==Instructions==
The following instructions should be used to guide the development of the book chapter.

===Theme===
* Chapters should fit the book theme which is &quot;understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science&quot;

===Audience===
* The target audience is a general (non-topic-expert) reader interested in personal growth and development based on knowledge in psychological science (theory and research). This is a [[w:science communication|science communication]] exercise.

===Wikiversity===
* Present the chapter as a single page on the [[Main Page|English Wikiversity]] website. A link to the chapter should appear in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|table of contents]] along with the lead author's Wikiversity user name

===Topic===
* The title and sub-title must be approved by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Collaboration and feedback===
* Chapters should be independently developed and written primarily by the lead author, but collaboration is strongly encouraged (e.g., by incorporating useful edits and feedback from others)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement
* Lead authors are encouraged to seek feedback about the chapter during the drafting process (e.g., start a {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion thread&lt;!-- (use the chapter title and subtitle in the subject line and include a clickable hyperlink to the chapter in the message)--&gt;)
* Feedback is usually best placed on the chapter's wiki discussion page
* Feedback on the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] (chapter plan) will be provided by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Length (word count)===
{{Anchor|Wordcount}}{{Anchor|Word count}}
* There is no minimum length
* Maximum 4,000 words
** There is no additional 10% allowance
** Words beyond the maximum will not be considered for marking purposes
** Count everything from top to bottom of the editable page (in view mode, not edit mode):
*** Include the title, subtitle, headings, text, tables, figures, references, see also, and external links
** Use this [https://chromewebstore.google.com/detail/word-counter/cbjddaobmdfhbfgdgjocbhklpmclcboe Word Counter] (Google Chrome Extension) or paste the URL into [https://hsuper.tools/web-page-word-counter Webpage Word Counter] (it will overcount by ~100 words) or cut and paste into a word processor
* If you are having difficulties complying with the maximum word count, see [[/Word count|these suggestions]]

===Submission===
* Submit the chapter URL (website address), your Wikiversity user name, and a PDF of the chapter via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}

==Marking criteria==
{{Notice|1=See also: [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1NUNjMCM5xOVsHj1LJuRnK8BgEdXPn4TbRf-Q6PH3oXg/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]}}
[[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]]
Book chapters will be marked against the following criteria.

===Overview (5%)===
* Scenario: Provide an engaging scenario or case study in a feature box, with an illustrative figure
* Problem statement: Easy to read and understand outline of the key concepts and explanation of practical/real-world problem to be solved
* Focus questions: Establish [[/Focus questions|focus questions]] which align with the sub-title and subsequent heading structure

===Theory (20%)===
* Clearly explain the theoretical framework for understanding the topic
* Select the most relevant psychological theories/models that apply to the problem. Depending on the topic, this may involve focusing on a single theory or comparing and contrasting two or more theories.
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed theory references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Clearly explain and apply the theory(ies)
* Include illustrative examples, such as case studies
* Demonstrate a critical perspective

===Research (25%)===
* Clearly explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed research references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Include relevant major reviews (such as systematic reviews and meta-analyses)
* [[w:Critical thinking|Critical analyse]] the key research findings, including limitations and implications

===Integration (10%)===
* Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research
* Use research to critically inform interpretation and application of the theory(ies)

===Conclusion (5%)===
* Clear and concise communication of key points and take-home messages
* Aligned with the subtitle and focus questions, with implications for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/Theme|book theme]]

===Style (20%)===
* Overall
** Present and illustrate the problem and knowledge in an interesting way, using a logical structure, clear layout, correct spelling and grammar, and [[APA style]]
** [[/Readability|Readable]] for a layperson interested in psychological science
** Address the [[#Theme|book theme]] by providing practical, academically sound, self-improvement information
** Address an international audience (i.e., avoid an overly local or national perspective)
** Use default wiki style for paragraph alignment, font colour, type, and size, and heading styles
** Use Australian spelling (e.g., hypothesise, behaviour, fulfilment) rather than American spelling (e.g., hypothesize, behavior, fulfillment)
** Correct grammar (e.g., see [[/Writing tips|writing tips]])
* Structure
** Use a logical heading structure that aligns with the focus questions
** Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] throughout, including for headings and sub-headings
** Use the default heading style (e.g., do not add italics and/or bold)
** Sub-headings are optional
*** Avoid having sections with a single sub-heading — each section should contain 0 or 2+ sub-headings.
*** If sub-headings are used, provides at least 1 introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections.
* Sentences
** [[w:Narration#Narrative point of view|Narrative point of view]][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/]: In the main text, use [[w:Narration#Third-person|3rd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;it&quot;, &quot;they&quot;). Where [[w:Aside|aside]]s are used, such as examples, case studies, and feature boxes, [[w:First-person narrative|1st person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;I&quot; and &quot;we&quot;) and/or [[w:Narration#Second-person|2nd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) can work well.
* Paragraphs
** A well-constructed paragraph is generally 3 to 5 sentences (opening sentence, body sentences, and a concluding/linking sentence). Avoid one-sentence paragraphs and overly long paragraphs.
** Paragraphs flow logically
* Use APA style (as much as reasonably possible), paying particular attention to:
** citations
** references (especially capitalisation, italicisation, and providing hyperlinked dois)
** table and figure captions
** quotes (include page numbers)
* Citations
** Claims need citations using APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style throughout the chapter — don't mix and match. For most psychology students, APA style will be the choice.
** Maximum of 3 citations per point (i.e., avoid 4 or more citations together).
* References
** List all cited academic references in APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style.
** Non-academic sources are not used in references. They can be included in the external links section.

===Learning features (5%)===
* Embed interactive learning features such as scenarios/case studies/examples, feature boxes, figures, quizzes, links to relevant Wikipedia and Wikipedia pages, as well as links to key resources via the &quot;See also&quot; and &quot;External links&quot; sections
* Case studies
** Include 1 or more examples, scenarios, or case studies
** They can be true (if so, include citations) or fictional
** Use these examples to enhance understanding of theory, research, focus questions, and/or take-home messages
** Present in a feature box and include a figure
** Consider using a &quot;progressive case study&quot; (i.e., a case study presented in separate parts which describe, for example, the problem, attempt at change, and resolution/outcomes).
** Examples of chapters which make effective use of case studies:
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional abuse|emotional abuse]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Food and fear|food and fear]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Opioid system and human emotion|opioid system and human emotion]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|social support and emotion]] (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|Feature boxes]]
** Use to highlight key information, but avoid overuse
** There are various ways of creating coloured boxes, but the [[Template:RoundBoxTop|RoundBox]] template is a good option.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Figures|Figures]]
** Include relevant, accompanying figures (e.g., photos, drawings, diagrams) to facilitate readers' understanding of the concepts
** Figures are accompanied by explanatory captions and be cited at least once in the main text
** For more information, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|How to use figures]]).
* [[Help:Links|Links]]
** In-text (embedded) links: Key words and concepts are [[Making links|linked]] to Wikipedia articles and/or related book chapters. Provide in-text wiki links the ''first time'' that key concepts are mentioned. For example:
*** [[w:Emotion|emotion]] involves physiological, subjective feeling, motivational, and socially expressive aspects. The syntax for creating this link is &lt;nowiki&gt;[[w:Emotion|emotion]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;). It is also possible to link to a section on this same page e.g., &amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[[#Overview|Overview]]&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt; will link to the Overview section.
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Fitspiration and body image|This chapter]] provides an excellent example of embedded links to Wikiversity pages.
** See also
*** Provide interwiki links to key related Wikiversity book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles
*** Include source in parentheses
** External links
*** Provide at least three links to high quality, relevant external resources
*** Include author and/or source in parentheses
** Published academic sources belong in References
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|Tables]]
** Use accompanying tables to help organise information and communicate concepts to readers
** Tables are accompanied by explanatory APA style captions and are cited in the body text
* [[Help:Quiz|Quizzes]]
** Quiz questions or reflection questions encourage reader engagement
** Focus on core concepts (esp. take-home messages) rather than trivia
** Consider incorporating throughout the chapter
{{anchor|Socialcontribution}}

===Social contribution (10%)===
* '''Actions''': Logged contributions which enhance the quality of other book chapters. Useful actions include:
** '''Edits''': Direct edits which improve past or current chapters (e.g., fix errors, enhance clarity) or flag potential improvements by adding [[Template:Clarification templates|clarification templates]]. [[/Search for chapters to improve|Search for chapters to improve]].
** '''Comments''': Feedback provided on book chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s
** '''Media uploads''': Upload free-to-use educational images to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
** '''{{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion posts'''
* '''Evidence''':
** Provide a [[mw:Help:Lists|numbered list]] with summaries of contributions on your [[Help:User page|Wikiversity user page]], and '''direct links''' that show each change or contribution.&lt;!-- To receive credit, contributions must be publicly logged (i.e., log in to Wikiversity so that the edit is recorded with your user name and time-stamp). Summarise each edit on your user page (in a section called &quot;Social contributions&quot;) --&gt;
** More info: [[/Summarising social contributions|summarising social contributions]]
* '''Marking'''
** Marking of social contributions will be based on a combination of:
*** '''Quantity''':
**** Breadth: number of chapters contributed to
**** Channels: range of communication channels used
*** '''Quality''':
**** Depth/Extent/Thoroughness
**** Insightfulness
**** Practical value
*** '''Timeliness''' — there is generally:
**** Greater value in earlier contributions
**** Lesser value in last-minute contributions
** Marks will be allocated to each clearly evidenced contribution as follows:
*** Minor &lt;= 0.25
*** Moderate 0.50
*** Major 1.00
*** Very significant &gt; 1.00
*** Up to 5 bonus marks may be awarded for exceptional levels of contribution

==Examples==
Examples of high quality [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment|Disappointment]]: What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? (2022)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Illicit drug taking at music festivals|Illicit drug taking at music festivals]]: What motivates young people to take illicit drugs at music festivals? (2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Organisational change motivation|Organisational change motivation]]: How can leaders build a culture of agility, adaptability, and resilience to deal with a constantly changing workplace? (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias|Phobias]]: What are phobias and how can they be dealt with? (2019)

Note that as of 2025, chapters no longer include multimedia presentations.

For more examples, see the {{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}s in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|lists of previous book chapters]]&lt;!-- and the [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Top|top chapters of 2022]] --&gt;.

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under a [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 Share-alike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) license which is irrevocable. This license gives permission for others to edit and re-use, with appropriate acknowledgement. For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under this license, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment options]] with the unit convener.

==See also==
* [[/FAQ/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Previous chapters]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|General feedback]]
** [[Template:MEBF|Feedback template]]
** [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]
* [[#Socialcontribution|Social contributions]]
** [[/Search for chapters to improve/]]
** [[/Summarising social contributions/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]]
&lt;!-- ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]] --&gt;
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking#Google Scholar|Tutorial 05: Google Scholar]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion#Topic development feedback|Tutorial 08: Topic development feedback]]
* Wikiversity
** [[/Feature boxes/]]
** [[/Figures/]]
** [[How to find free-to-use images|Find free images]]
** [[/Tables/]]
* [[/Writing tips/]]
** [[/How to handle a lack of information/|Handling a lack of information]]
** [[/Readability|Readability]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]]
** [[/Word count|Word count]]
{{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}}
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter| ]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]]</text>
      <sha1>ec039e0a6n2dqt7fh4mzxcgawtuqxac</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/About/Outline</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>97532</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2817101</id>
      <parentid>2722655</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-28T11:25:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[File:Eo circle indigo white info.svg|70px|right]]</comment>
      <origin>2817101</origin>
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      <text bytes="1672" sha1="ozjd4u6dcp0otckc7cdq4zrc2cm0209" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{Title|Unit outline}}
[[File:Eo circle indigo white info.svg|70px|right]]
&lt;!-- {{notice|1=The unit outline for 2025 is not yet available, but will be similar to 2021.}} --&gt;
* &lt;/noinclude&gt;[https://www.canberra.edu.au/unit-outline/228187.html 7124 Motivation and emotion] (On-campus) (2025)
* [https://www.canberra.edu.au/unit-outline/228954.html 7124 Motivation and emotion] (Online/Realtime) (2025)&lt;!--
* [https://www.canberra.edu.au/unit-outline/218542 7124 Motivation and emotion] (2024)&lt;noinclude&gt;
* [https://www.canberra.edu.au/unit-outline/213520.html 7124 Motivation and emotion] (2023)
* [https://www.canberra.edu.au/coursesandunits/uo-view?uoo_id=201899 7124 Motivation and Emotion] (2021)
* [https://www.canberra.edu.au/coursesandunits/uo-view?proposal_id=75297 7124 Motivation and Emotion] (2020)
* [http://www.canberra.edu.au/coursesandunits/uo-view?proposal_id=67763 7124 Motivation and Emotion] (2019)
* [http://www.canberra.edu.au/coursesandunits/uo-view?uoo_id=180102 7124 Motivation and Emotion] (2018)
* [http://www.canberra.edu.au/coursesandunits/uo-view/_nocache?uoo_id=164170 7124 Motivation and Emotion] (2017)
* [http://www.canberra.edu.au/coursesandunits/uo-view/_nocache?uoo_id=164203 6665 Motivation and Emotion G] (2017)
* [http://www.canberra.edu.au/coursesandunits/uo-view/_nocache?uoo_id=152055 7124] (2016)
* [http://www.canberra.edu.au/coursesandunits/uo-view/_nocache?uoo_id=151843 6665] (2016)
* [http://www.canberra.edu.au/coursesandunits/uo-view/_nocache?uoo_id=140883 7124] (2015)
* [http://www.canberra.edu.au/coursesandunits/uo-view/_nocache?uoo_id=140629 6665] (2015) --&gt;

[[Category:Motivation and emotion]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
      <sha1>ozjd4u6dcp0otckc7cdq4zrc2cm0209</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Atcovi</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
    <id>106891</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2816974</id>
      <parentid>2816916</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T16:51:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Atcovi</username>
        <id>276019</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* 'Bioleninism' and 'Slave, Sister, Sexborg, Sphinx' */ Reply</comment>
      <origin>2816974</origin>
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      <text bytes="12976" sha1="ccoqcgr9azqemew4j5dm9kj965z2hp2" xml:space="preserve">[[User:Atcovi/Archive 1|/Archive 1 (September 25, 2013 - November 15, 2013)]] • [[User talk:Atcovi/Archive 2|/Archive 2 (November 15, 2013 - November 27, 2013)]] • [[User talk:Atcovi/Archive 3|/Archive 3 (December 3, 2013 - December 25, 2013)]] • [[User talk:Atcovi/Archive 4|/Archive 4 (December 24, 2013 - January 1, 2014)]] • [[User talk:Atcovi/Archive 5|/Archive 5 (January 2, 2014 - January 20, 2014)]] • [[User talk:Atcovi/Archive 6|/Archive 6 (March 24, 2014 - April 14, 2014)]] • [[User talk:Atcovi/Archive 7|/Archive 7 (April 19, 2014 - September 8, 2014)]] • [[User talk:Atcovi/Archive 8|/Archive 8 (September 12, 2014 - November 3, 2014)]] • [[User talk:Atcovi/Archive 9|/Archive 9 (November 6, 2014 - January 26, 2015)]] • [[User talk:Atcovi/Archive 10|/Archive 10 (January 28, 2015 - March 11, 2015)]] • [[User talk:Atcovi/Archive 11|/Archive 11 (March 22, 2015 - June 25, 2016)]] • [[User talk:Atcovi/Archive 12 (June 26, 2016 - January 8, 2018)|/Archive 12 (June 26, 2016 - January 8, 2018)]] • [[User talk:Atcovi/Archive 13 (January 9, 2018 - April 14, 2023)|/Archive 13 (January 9, 2018 - April 14, 2023)]] • [[User talk:Atcovi/Archive 14 (April 15, 2023 - May 5, 2026)|/Archive 14 (April 15, 2023 - May 5, 2026)]]

:''Before 2013: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Atcovi&amp;diff=750617&amp;oldid=740650 see this]'' 
{{tmbox
|small = 
|image = [[Image:Busy desk.svg|{{#ifeq:|yes|40px|75x50px}}]]
|text = This user is busy in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_life Real Life] {{#if:|until&amp;nbsp;{{{end}}}&amp;nbsp;}}{{#if:|due to&amp;nbsp;{{{reason}}}&amp;nbsp;}}and may not respond swiftly to queries.{{#if:|&lt;P&gt;{{{msg}}} }} 
| style     = {{#if:|width: {{{width}}}px;}} {{#ifeq:{{{shadow}}}|yes|{{box-shadow|0px|2px|4px|rgba(0,0,0,0.2)}}|}}
}}

== Please vote ==

on Wikinews rebirth possibly on Wikiversity, thanks @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 22:21, 15 May 2026 (UTC)

:Hi BigKrow. I've been watching the discussion on the sidelines. Hopefully I'll have an input soon, I just have other commitments I'm catering to. Best of luck with your projects and welcome to Wikiversity! —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:44, 16 May 2026 (UTC)

== ''The Signpost'': 22 May 2026 ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[File:WikipediaSignpostIcon.svg|40px|right]] ''News, reports and features from the English Wikipedia's newspaper''&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;column-count:2;&quot;&gt;
* News and notes: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-05-22/News and notes|Offline: Osama Khalid still in prison]]

* In the media: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-05-22/In the media|Indonesian editors, you shall return!]]

* Disinformation report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-05-22/Disinformation report|Who is a typical paid editor? Who are their typical clients?]]

* Recent research: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-05-22/Recent research|WikiLambda the Ultimate]]

* Traffic report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-05-22/Traffic report|This is where I'll be, so heavenly, so come and dance with me Michael!]]

* Forum: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-05-22/Forum|WikiAnnotate: help us build a dataset of article quality evaluations]]

* In focus: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-05-22/In focus|Demystifying the 2026-27 Annual Plan]]

* Opinion: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-05-22/Opinion|Wikipedia isn't a battleground. So why does it feel like one?]]

* Serendipity: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-05-22/Serendipity|Wikinews: Into the Wikiverse]]

* Special report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-05-22/Special report|Wikimedia Foundation closes Wikinews after 21 years]]

* Community view: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-05-22/Community view|Wikipedia's traffic drop: more on languages and freshness]]

* Gallery: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-05-22/Gallery|Earth Day and Mother's Day]]

* Comix: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-05-22/Comix|Brother, can you spare a page?]]

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost|Read this Signpost in full]]''' · [[w:en:Wikipedia:Signpost/Single|Single-page]] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Signpost|Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Global message delivery|Global message delivery]] 05:19, 22 May 2026 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Sent via script ([[w:en:User:JPxG/SPS]]) --&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Bri@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Signpost&amp;oldid=30513885 --&gt;

== Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship/Atcovi ==

RE: [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship/Atcovi]] I have closed this as successful. Congrats! See [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity:Candidates_for_Bureaucratship/Atcovi&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2812184] and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&amp;logid=3549048]. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 19:23, 30 May 2026 (UTC)

:Thank you Mike! —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 20:55, 30 May 2026 (UTC)
::Congratulations @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 16:58, 8 June 2026 (UTC)

== Question ==
Hello don't mean to bother and Ik its a silly question, on wikipedia there is a tool that allows for the creation of user boxes does wikiversity have it? Or should I create them myself like {{Userbox
| border-c = #000000
| id = [[File:(logo) Gate jieitai kanochi nite, kaku tatakaeri.svg|100x50px]]
| id-c = #000000
| id-fc = #000000
| id-s = 14
| info = This user testified in front of the [[National Diet|national diet]]
| info-c = #000000
| info-fc = #ffffff
| info-s = 8
}}
however when i try to display them like on wikipedia i can't
{{yytop}}
{{yy|User:AUBSTRAWBS/GATE}}
{{yyend}}

Anyways sorry to bother you with somthing like this but i'm really stumped as to how to share them. Any help would be super apreciated also if you want any user boxes i can make them :). {{unsigned|AUBSTRAWBS}}
:Hello {{ping|AUBSTRAWBS}} no need to worry about bothering me, I'm always happy to help. I think for Wikiversity you'd have to manually create them, as I have done so. For example: [[Template:User Sri Lankan]] &amp; [[Template:User soccer]]. If you'd like to bring over templates from Wikipedia, then feel free to just copy them and paste them here - tho it may be better just to manually create them as it could be a lengthy and messy process. I do think the way you've created the &quot;national diet&quot; userbox is perfect and achieves the intended goal. Let me know if you have any more questions! —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 12:38, 9 June 2026 (UTC)

:Here's one I created just now: [[Template:User university student]]. More templates are listed here: [[:Category:User templates]]. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 12:45, 9 June 2026 (UTC)
:Thank you very much [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 23:02, 9 June 2026 (UTC)

== ''The Signpost'': 21 June 2026 ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[File:WikipediaSignpostIcon.svg|40px|right]] ''News, reports and features from the English Wikipedia's newspaper''&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;column-count:2;&quot;&gt;
* From the editors: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-06-21/From the editors|Ways for beginners to support ''The Signpost'' community journalism]]

* News and notes: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-06-21/News and notes|Community Tech development team disbanded]]

* Disinformation report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-06-21/Disinformation report|PR for the people?]]

* Recent research: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-06-21/Recent research|Proposed tagging system for AI involvement; successful and unsuccessful AI tools for contributors]]

* In the media: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-06-21/In the media|Who won a 14th century battle and who won the 2026 Iran war?]]

* Community view: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-06-21/Community view|Putting the Wish into the Wishlist]]

* In focus: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-06-21/In focus|A global standard for Neutral Point of View]]

* On the bright side: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-06-21/On the bright side|Flowers, blue helmets, reefs, pride, and Juneteenth]]

* Op-ed: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-06-21/Op-ed|Breathe, Don’t Panic, there is a different story about Wikimedia + AI futures]]

* Opinion: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-06-21/Opinion|Wikimedia Foundation staff develop union and Wikimedia user community reacts]]

* Technology report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-06-21/Technology report|Community Tech team is disbanded, controversy erupts]]

* Traffic report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-06-21/Traffic report|'Cause this is thriller, thriller night]]

* WikiConference report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-06-21/WikiConference report|Report of Volunteer Supporters Network Annual Meeting 2026]]

* Comix: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-06-21/Comix|Take your turn]]

* Humour: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2026-06-21/Humour|Group of banned T-shirt makers comes out of hiding to sell new Wikipedia-themed merchandise]]

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost|Read this Signpost in full]]''' · [[w:en:Wikipedia:Signpost/Single|Single-page]] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Signpost|Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Global message delivery|Global message delivery]] 03:21, 21 June 2026 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Sent via script ([[w:en:User:JPxG/SPS]]) --&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Bri@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Signpost&amp;oldid=30604303 --&gt;

== 'Bioleninism' and 'Slave, Sister, Sexborg, Sphinx' ==

Hello, I just want to give my takes on the removal of my pages 'Bioleninism' and 'Slave, Sister, Sexborg, Sphinx'

Both of those terms are widely used online by adherents of a political movement known as '[[w:Dark Enlightenment|Dark Enlightenment]]'- the source I used for Bioleninism is the manifesto that coined the term, the same source is used on the Wikitionary entry for Bioleninism (https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Bioleninism) - whereas for 'Slave, Sister, Sexborg, Sphinx' I used three sources from [[w:Nick Land|Nick Land]], a Philosopher associated with the movement. 

The Wikipedia page for Nick Land's book [[w:Fanged Noumena|Fanged Noumena]] briefly mentions 'Slave, Sister, Sexborg, Sphinx' but doesn't get into deep detail.

Both of those articles are for people learning about The Dark Enlightenment movement, Wikiveristy has a page for [[Neocameralism|neocamerialism]] - which is another important Dark Enlightenment term - and I believe these two pages are necessarily as well for analysis.

Thank you! [[User:Apallo334|Apallo334]] ([[User talk:Apallo334|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Apallo334|contribs]]) 04:28, 27 June 2026 (UTC)

:Hello {{ping|Apallo334}} and welcome to Wikiversity! Please note that the issue is not notability (I did a few quick web searches and was able to figure out that this is a notable topic), the issue is that these seem to be loner pages that are not integrated into a [[Wikiversity:Learning projects|learning project]]. Ideally, we want these pages to be under the same project (similar to [[Neocameralism/Definitions]]). So for example:
:*[[The Cracker Factory]] --&gt; [[Neocameralism/The Cracker Factory]]
:*[[Slave, Sister, Sexborg, Sphinx]] --&gt; [[Neocameralism/Slave, Sister, Sexborg, Sphinx]]
:Example projects which you can model your pages off of would be:
:#[[Introduction to Computers]]
:#[[Philosophy of science]]
:Here are some extra useful resources:
:*[[Wikiversity:Learning by doing]]
:*[[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity?]]
:*[[Wikiversity:Scope]]
:Please let me know if you have any questions. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 16:51, 27 June 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>ccoqcgr9azqemew4j5dm9kj965z2hp2</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>VHDL programming in plain view</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>121359</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2816954</id>
      <parentid>2816246</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T12:12:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Data */</comment>
      <origin>2816954</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2278" sha1="cnq49xsfdje8f3qod69di1m8fs54yj6" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

== Flip Flop and Latch ==
* FFLatch.Overview.1.A ([[Media:FFLatch.Overview.1.A.20111103.pdf|pdf]])
* Counter.74LS193.1.A ([[Media:Counter.74LS193.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]])
* Clock.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Clock.Overview.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Function.Overview.1.A.20111201.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt; 

== Versions of VHDL ==
* VHDL Versions ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Versions.20120619.pdf|pdf]])
* VHDL Libraries ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Libraries.20140219.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt;

== Basic Features of VHDL ==
==== Data ====
* Data Objects ([[Media:Data.Object.1A.20260622.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Object.1B.20260602.pdf|B]])
* Data Types ([[Media:Data.Type.2A.20260602.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Type.2B.20260602.pdf|B]])
* Packages ([[Media:Data.Package.3A.20251206.pdf|pdf]])
* Signal Types ([[Media:Signal.Type.1A.20250614.pdf|pdf]])
* Attributes ([[Media:Data.4.A.Attribute.20251021.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt;

==== Signals &amp; Variables ====
* Signals &amp; Variables ([[Media:Signal.1A.SigVar.20250614.pdf|pdf]])
* Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.4A.Sequential.20250612.pdf|pdf]])
* Concurrent &amp; Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.1.A.ConSeq.20120611.pdf|pdf]])
* Inertial &amp; Transport Delay Models ([[Media:Signal.2.A.InertTrans.20120704.pdf|pdf]])
* Simulation &amp; Synthesis ([[Media:Signal.3.A.SimSyn.20120504.pdf|pdf]])


&lt;br&gt;

==== Structure ====
* Component ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Component.20120804.pdf|pdf]])
* Configuration ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Configuration.20121003.pdf|pdf]])
* Generic ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Generic.20120802.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==== Entity and Architecture ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Block Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Process Statement ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Operators ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Assignment Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Concurrent Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Sequential Control Statement ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Function ====
* Function.1.A Usage ([[Media:Function.1.A.Usage.20120611.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.2.A Conversion Function ([[Media:Function.2.A.Conversion.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.3.A Resolution Function ([[Media:Function.3.A.Resolution.pdf|pdf]])

&lt;br&gt;
==== Procedure ====


&lt;br&gt;
==== Package ====
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:VHDL]]
[[Category:FPGA]]</text>
      <sha1>cnq49xsfdje8f3qod69di1m8fs54yj6</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816957</id>
      <parentid>2816954</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T12:14:04Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2278" sha1="mqq4p3y5qiuvd1wwpdwo3he99xe8dlq" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

== Flip Flop and Latch ==
* FFLatch.Overview.1.A ([[Media:FFLatch.Overview.1.A.20111103.pdf|pdf]])
* Counter.74LS193.1.A ([[Media:Counter.74LS193.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]])
* Clock.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Clock.Overview.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Function.Overview.1.A.20111201.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt; 

== Versions of VHDL ==
* VHDL Versions ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Versions.20120619.pdf|pdf]])
* VHDL Libraries ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Libraries.20140219.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt;

== Basic Features of VHDL ==
==== Data ====
* Data Objects ([[Media:Data.Object.1A.20260623.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Object.1B.20260602.pdf|B]])
* Data Types ([[Media:Data.Type.2A.20260602.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Type.2B.20260602.pdf|B]])
* Packages ([[Media:Data.Package.3A.20251206.pdf|pdf]])
* Signal Types ([[Media:Signal.Type.1A.20250614.pdf|pdf]])
* Attributes ([[Media:Data.4.A.Attribute.20251021.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt;

==== Signals &amp; Variables ====
* Signals &amp; Variables ([[Media:Signal.1A.SigVar.20250614.pdf|pdf]])
* Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.4A.Sequential.20250612.pdf|pdf]])
* Concurrent &amp; Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.1.A.ConSeq.20120611.pdf|pdf]])
* Inertial &amp; Transport Delay Models ([[Media:Signal.2.A.InertTrans.20120704.pdf|pdf]])
* Simulation &amp; Synthesis ([[Media:Signal.3.A.SimSyn.20120504.pdf|pdf]])


&lt;br&gt;

==== Structure ====
* Component ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Component.20120804.pdf|pdf]])
* Configuration ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Configuration.20121003.pdf|pdf]])
* Generic ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Generic.20120802.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==== Entity and Architecture ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Block Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Process Statement ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Operators ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Assignment Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Concurrent Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Sequential Control Statement ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Function ====
* Function.1.A Usage ([[Media:Function.1.A.Usage.20120611.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.2.A Conversion Function ([[Media:Function.2.A.Conversion.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.3.A Resolution Function ([[Media:Function.3.A.Resolution.pdf|pdf]])

&lt;br&gt;
==== Procedure ====


&lt;br&gt;
==== Package ====
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:VHDL]]
[[Category:FPGA]]</text>
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        <id>21186</id>
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      <text bytes="2278" sha1="ot1jfr13m82o3h7o0624sf2cexxghqd" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

== Flip Flop and Latch ==
* FFLatch.Overview.1.A ([[Media:FFLatch.Overview.1.A.20111103.pdf|pdf]])
* Counter.74LS193.1.A ([[Media:Counter.74LS193.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]])
* Clock.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Clock.Overview.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Function.Overview.1.A.20111201.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt; 

== Versions of VHDL ==
* VHDL Versions ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Versions.20120619.pdf|pdf]])
* VHDL Libraries ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Libraries.20140219.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt;

== Basic Features of VHDL ==
==== Data ====
* Data Objects ([[Media:Data.Object.1A.20260624.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Object.1B.20260602.pdf|B]])
* Data Types ([[Media:Data.Type.2A.20260602.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Type.2B.20260602.pdf|B]])
* Packages ([[Media:Data.Package.3A.20251206.pdf|pdf]])
* Signal Types ([[Media:Signal.Type.1A.20250614.pdf|pdf]])
* Attributes ([[Media:Data.4.A.Attribute.20251021.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt;

==== Signals &amp; Variables ====
* Signals &amp; Variables ([[Media:Signal.1A.SigVar.20250614.pdf|pdf]])
* Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.4A.Sequential.20250612.pdf|pdf]])
* Concurrent &amp; Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.1.A.ConSeq.20120611.pdf|pdf]])
* Inertial &amp; Transport Delay Models ([[Media:Signal.2.A.InertTrans.20120704.pdf|pdf]])
* Simulation &amp; Synthesis ([[Media:Signal.3.A.SimSyn.20120504.pdf|pdf]])


&lt;br&gt;

==== Structure ====
* Component ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Component.20120804.pdf|pdf]])
* Configuration ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Configuration.20121003.pdf|pdf]])
* Generic ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Generic.20120802.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==== Entity and Architecture ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Block Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Process Statement ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Operators ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Assignment Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Concurrent Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Sequential Control Statement ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Function ====
* Function.1.A Usage ([[Media:Function.1.A.Usage.20120611.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.2.A Conversion Function ([[Media:Function.2.A.Conversion.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.3.A Resolution Function ([[Media:Function.3.A.Resolution.pdf|pdf]])

&lt;br&gt;
==== Procedure ====


&lt;br&gt;
==== Package ====
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:VHDL]]
[[Category:FPGA]]</text>
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    <title>Understanding Arithmetic Circuits</title>
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      <contributor>
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        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
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      <text bytes="3088" sha1="h4ur2hu3s5treyhtcmwwphkbkevx39l" xml:space="preserve">
== Adder ==

* Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]]  )
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!  Adder type      !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design  !! CMOS Level Design  
|-
| '''1. Ripple Carry Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]]
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]]
|-
| '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260627.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20260627.pdf|B]] ||
|| [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]||
|-
| '''3. Carry Save Adder''' 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]||
|| ||
|-
|| '''4. Carry Select Adder''' 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''5. Carry Skip Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]||
|| 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]]
|- 
|| '''6. Carry Chain Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]],  [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]]
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]]
|- 
|| '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]||
|-
|| '''8. Prefix Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''9.1 Variable Block Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|}
&lt;/br&gt;
 
=== Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === 
* FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]])
* Carry-Skip Adder
&lt;/br&gt;

== Barrel Shifter ==
* Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]])
&lt;/br&gt;

'''Mux Based Barrel Shifter'''
* Analysis  ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) 
* Implementation 
&lt;/br&gt;

== Multiplier == 
=== Array Multipliers ===
* Analysis  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Tree Mulltipliers ===
* Lattice Multiplication  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]])
* Wallace Tree  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]])
* Dadda Tree  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Booth Multipliers ===
* [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]]
* Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

== Divider == 
* Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])&lt;/br&gt;

&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:Digital Circuit Design]]
[[Category:FPGA]]</text>
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    <title>Wikiversity:Newsletters/This Month in Education</title>
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      <text bytes="303764" sha1="aoxftye4iivqhoopwtsnvu23dirocg0" xml:space="preserve">== Archives ==
* [[Outreach:Education/Newsletter/Archives]]

== This Month in Education: January 2018 ==

[[File:Wikipedia Education Globe 2.pdf|frameless|left|150px|Wikipedia Education globe]]
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:left; direction:ltr;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:60px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center; direction:ltr; margin-left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 7 | Issue 1 | January 2018&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:regular; text-align:center; font-size:14px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:1000px;&quot;&gt;This monthly newsletter showcases the Wikipedia Education Program. It focuses on sharing: your ideas, stories, success and challenges. You can see past editions [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. You can also volunteer to help publish the newsletter. [[outreach:Education/News/Team|Join the team!]] Finally, don't forget to [[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|subscribe!]]&lt;/span&gt;

{{anchor|back}}
&lt;div style=text-align:center; direction:ltr;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:24px; font-family:times new roman; display:block; background:#339966; width:1000px;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;


{| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot;
| style=&quot;width:50%; color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2018#Featured Topic|Featured Topic]]
| style=&quot;width:50%; font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; |
&lt;!-- Enter the title of the articles for this issue  --&gt;

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2018#Article 1|Bertsomate: using Basque oral poetry to illustrate math concepts]]

|-
| style=&quot;color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2018#From the Community|From the Community]]
| style=&quot;font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; |
[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2018#Article 2|Wikimedia Serbia celebrated 10 years from the first article written within the Education Program]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2018#Article 3|WikiChallenge Ecoles d'Afrique update]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2018#Article 4|The first Swedish Master's in Digital Humanities partners with Wikimedia Sverige]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2018#Article 5|How we use PetScan to improve partnership with lecturers and professors]]


|-
| style=&quot;color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2018#From the Education Team|From the Education Team]]
| style=&quot;font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; |

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2018#Article 6|The Education Survey Report is out!]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2018#Article 7|Education Extension scheduled shutdown]]
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 18:42, 1 February 2018 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: February 2018 ==

[[File:Wikipedia Education Globe 2.pdf|frameless|left|150px|Wikipedia Education globe]]
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:left; direction:ltr;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:60px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center; direction:ltr; margin-left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 7 | Issue 2 | February 2018&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:regular; text-align:center; font-size:14px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:1000px;&quot;&gt;This monthly newsletter showcases the Wikipedia Education Program. It focuses on sharing: your ideas, stories, success and challenges. You can see past editions [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. You can also volunteer to help publish the newsletter. [[outreach:Education/News/Team|Join the team!]] Finally, don't forget to [[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|subscribe!]]&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=text-align:center; direction:ltr;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:24px; font-family:times new roman; display:block; background:#339966; width:1000px;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

{| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot;
| style=&quot;color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2018#From the Community|From the Community]]
| style=&quot;font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; |
[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2018#Article 2|WikiProject Engineering Workshop at IIUC,Chittagong]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2018#Article 3|What did we learn from Wikibridges MOOC?]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2018#Article 4|Wikimedia Serbia launched Wiki scholar project]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2018#Article 5|Wiki Club in Ohrid, Macedonia]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2018#Article 6|Karvachar’s WikiClub: When getting knowledge is cool]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2018#Article 7|More than 30 new courses launched in the University of the Basque Country]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2018#Article 8|Review meeting on Christ Wikipedia Education Program]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2018#Article 9|The Multidisciplinary Choices of High School Students: The Arabic Education Program; Wikimedia Israel]]

|-
| style=&quot;color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2018#From the Education Team|From the Education Team]]
| style=&quot;font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; |

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2018#Article 10|The Education Extension is being deprecated (second call)]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2018#Article 11|The 2017 survey report live presentation is available for viewing]]

|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 08:53, 1 March 2018 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: March 2018 ==

[[File:Wikipedia Education Globe 2.pdf|frameless|left|150px|Wikipedia Education globe]]
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:left; direction:ltr;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:60px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center; direction:ltr; margin-left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 7 | Issue 3 | March 2018&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:regular; text-align:center; font-size:14px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:1000px;&quot;&gt;This monthly newsletter showcases the Wikipedia Education Program. It focuses on sharing: your ideas, stories, success and challenges. You can see past editions [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. You can also volunteer to help publish the newsletter. [[outreach:Education/News/Team|Join the team!]] Finally, don't forget to [[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|subscribe!]]&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=text-align:center; direction:ltr;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:24px; font-family:times new roman; display:block; background:#339966; width:1000px;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;


{| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot;
| style=&quot;width:50%; color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2018#Featured Topic|Featured Topic]]
| style=&quot;width:50%; font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; |
[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2018#Article 1|Education Programs Itinerary]]

|-
| style=&quot;color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2018#From the Community|From the Community]]
| style=&quot;font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; |
[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2018#Article 2|Animated science educational videos in Basque for secondary school student]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2018#Article 3|Beirut WikiClub: Wikijourney that has enriched our experiences]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2018#Article 4|Students of the Faculty of Biology in Belgrade edit Wikipedia for the first time]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2018#Article 5|The role of Wikipedia in education - Examples from the Wiki Education Foundation]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2018#Article 6|Multilingual resource for Open education projects]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2018#Article 7|Wikipedia: examples of curricular integration in Portugal]]

|-
| style=&quot;color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2018#From the Education Team|From the Education Team]]
| style=&quot;font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; |

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2018#Article 8|Resources and Tips to engage with Educators]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2018#Article 9|Education Session at WMCON 2018]]

|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 10:33, 4 April 2018 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: April 2018 ==

[[File:Wikipedia Education Globe 2.pdf|frameless|left|150px|Wikipedia Education globe]]
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:left; direction:ltr;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:60px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center; direction:ltr; margin-left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 7 | Issue 4 | April 2018&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:regular; text-align:center; font-size:14px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:1000px;&quot;&gt;This monthly newsletter showcases the Wikipedia Education Program. It focuses on sharing: your ideas, stories, success and challenges. You can see past editions [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. You can also volunteer to help publish the newsletter. [[outreach:Education/News/Team|Join the team!]] Finally, don't forget to [[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|subscribe!]]&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=text-align:center; direction:ltr;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:24px; font-family:times new roman; display:block; background:#339966; width:1000px;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;


{| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot;
| style=&quot;width:50%; color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2018#Featured Topic|Featured Topic]]
| style=&quot;width:50%; font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; |

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2018#Article 1|Wikimedia at the Open Educational Resources Conference 2018]]

|-
| style=&quot;color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2018#From the Community|From the Community]]
| style=&quot;font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; |
[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2018#Article 2|Global perspectives from Western Norway]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2018#Article 3|Togh's WikiClub: Wikipedia is the 8th wonder of the world!]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2018#Article 4|Aboriginal Volunteers in Taiwan Shared Experience about Incubating Minority Language Wikipedia in Education Magazine]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2018#Article 5|Workshops with Wiki Clubs members in the Republic of Macedonia]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2018#Article 6|Celebrating Book's Day in the University of the Basque Country: is Wikipedia the largest Basque language book?]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2018#Article 7|Txikipedia is born and you'll love it]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2018#Article 8|Students Write Wiktionary]]

|-
| style=&quot;color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2018#From the Education Team|From the Education Team]]
| style=&quot;font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; |


[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2018#Article 9|Presenting the Wikipedia Education Program at the Open Education Global Conference]]

|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 07:33, 4 May 2018 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: May 2018 ==

[[File:Wikipedia Education Globe 2.pdf|frameless|left|150px|Wikipedia Education globe]]
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:left; direction:ltr;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:60px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center; direction:ltr; margin-left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 4 | Issue 5 | May 2018&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:regular; text-align:center; font-size:14px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:1000px;&quot;&gt;This monthly newsletter showcases the Wikipedia Education Program. It focuses on sharing: your ideas, stories, success and challenges. You can see past editions [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. You can also volunteer to help publish the newsletter. [[outreach:Education/News/Team|Join the team!]] Finally, don't forget to [[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|subscribe!]]&lt;/span&gt;


&lt;div style=text-align:center; direction:ltr;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:24px; font-family:times new roman; display:block; background:#339966; width:1000px;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

{| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot;
| style=&quot;color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2018#From the Community|From the Community]]
| style=&quot;font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; |
[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2018#Article 2|Creating and reusing OERs for a Wikiversity science journalism course from Brazil]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2018#Article 3|Inauguration Ceremony of Sri Jayewardenepura University Wiki Club]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2018#Article 4|Wiki Education publishes evaluation of Fellows pilot]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2018#Article 5|The first students of Russia with diplomas of Wikimedia and Petrozavodsk State University]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2018#Article 6|Selet WikiSchool]]

|-
| style=&quot;color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2018#From the Education Team|From the Education Team]]
| style=&quot;font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; |

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2018#Article 8|A lofty vision for the Education Team]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2018#Article 9|UNESCO Mobile Learning Week 2018, Digital Skills for Life and Work]]
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 21:44, 4 June 2018 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: June 2018 ==

[[File:Wikipedia Education Globe 2.pdf|frameless|left|150px|Wikipedia Education globe]]
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:left; direction:ltr;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:60px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center; direction:ltr; margin-left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 4 | Issue 6 | June 2018&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:regular; text-align:center; font-size:14px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:1000px;&quot;&gt;This monthly newsletter showcases the Wikipedia Education Program. It focuses on sharing: your ideas, stories, success and challenges. You can see past editions [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. You can also volunteer to help publish the newsletter. [[outreach:Education/News/Team|Join the team!]] Finally, don't forget to [[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|subscribe!]]&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=text-align:center; direction:ltr;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:24px; font-family:times new roman; display:block; background:#339966; width:1000px;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;


{| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot;
| style=&quot;width:50%; color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#Featured Topic|Featured Topic]]
| style=&quot;width:50%; font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#Article 1|Academia and Wikipedia: the first Irish conference on Wikipedia in education]]

|-
| style=&quot;color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#From the Community|From the Community]]
| style=&quot;font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; |
[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#Article 2|Ashesi Wiki Club: Charting the cause for Wikipedia Education Program in West Africa]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#Article 3|Wikimedia Serbia has received a new accreditation for the Accredited seminars for teachers]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#Article 4|Côte d'Ivoire: Wikipedia Classes 2018 are officially up and running]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#Article 5|Basque secondary students have now better coverage for main topics thanks to the Education Program]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#Article 6|What lecturers think about their first experience in the Basque Education Program]]

|-
| style=&quot;color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#From the Education Team|From the Education Team]]
| style=&quot;font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#Article 7|Education Extension scheduled deprecation]]

|-
| style=&quot;color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#In the News|In the News]]
| style=&quot;font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | 
[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#Article 8|Wikipedia calls for participation to boost content from the continent]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#Article 9|Wikipedia in the History Classroom]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#Article 10|Wikipedia as a Pedagogical Tool Complicating Writing in the Technical Writing Classroom]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2018#Article 11|When the World Helps Teach Your Class: Using Wikipedia to Teach Controversial Issues]]

|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 06:03, 30 June 2018 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: July 2018 ==

[[File:Wikipedia Education Globe 2.pdf|frameless|left|150px|Wikipedia Education globe]]
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:left; direction:ltr;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:60px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center; direction:ltr; margin-left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 4 | Issue 7 | July 2018&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:regular; text-align:center; font-size:14px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:1000px;&quot;&gt;This monthly newsletter showcases the Wikipedia Education Program. It focuses on sharing: your ideas, stories, success and challenges. You can see past editions [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. You can also volunteer to help publish the newsletter. [[outreach:Education/News/Team|Join the team!]] Finally, don't forget to [[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|subscribe!]]&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=text-align:center; direction:ltr;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:24px; font-family:times new roman; display:block; background:#339966; width:1000px;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;


{| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot;
| style=&quot;width:50%; color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2018#Featured Topic|Featured Topic]]
| style=&quot;width:50%; font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; |

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2018#Article 1|Wikipedia+Education Conference 2019: Community Engagement Survey]]


|-
| style=&quot;color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2018#From the Community|From the Community]]
| style=&quot;font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; |
[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2018#Article 2|Young wikipedian: At WikiClub you get knowledge on your own will]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2018#Article 3|Wikipedia in schools project at the &quot;New Technologies in Education&quot; Conference]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2018#Article 4|Basque Education Program: 2017-2018 school year report]]


|-
| style=&quot;color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2018#In the News|In the News]]
| style=&quot;font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | 
[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2018#Article 10|UNESCO ICT in Education Prize call for nominations opens]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2018#Article 11|An educator's overview of Wikimedia (in short videos format)]]

|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 06:32, 2 August 2018 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: August 2018 ==

[[File:Wikipedia Education Globe 2.pdf|frameless|left|150px|Wikipedia Education globe]]
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:left; direction:ltr;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:60px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center; direction:ltr; margin-left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 4 | Issue 8 | August 2018&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:regular; text-align:center; font-size:14px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:1000px;&quot;&gt;This monthly newsletter showcases the Wikipedia Education Program. It focuses on sharing: your ideas, stories, success and challenges. You can see past editions [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. You can also volunteer to help publish the newsletter. [[outreach:Education/News/Team|Join the team!]] Finally, don't forget to [[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|subscribe!]]&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=text-align:center; direction:ltr;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:24px; font-family:times new roman; display:block; background:#339966; width:1000px;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

{| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot;
| style=&quot;color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/August 2018#From the Community|From the Community]]
| style=&quot;font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; |
[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/August 2018#Article 2|The reconnection of Wikimedia Projects in Brazil]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/August 2018#Article 3|Christ (DU) students enrolls for 3rd Wikipedia certificate course]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/August 2018#Article 4|Educational wiki-master-classes at International &quot;Selet&quot; forum]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/August 2018#Article 5|54 students help enrich the digital Arabic content]]

|-
| style=&quot;color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/August 2018#From the Education Team|From the Education Team]]
| style=&quot;font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; |

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/August 2018#Article 6|Mapping education in the Wikimedia Movement]]

|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 03:12, 2 September 2018 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: September 2018 ==

[[File:Wikipedia Education Globe 2.pdf|frameless|left|150px|Wikipedia Education globe]]
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:left; direction:ltr;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:60px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center; direction:ltr; margin-left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 4 | Issue 9 | September 2018&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:regular; text-align:center; font-size:14px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:1000px;&quot;&gt;This monthly newsletter showcases the Wikipedia Education Program. It focuses on sharing: your ideas, stories, success and challenges. You can see past editions [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. You can also volunteer to help publish the newsletter. [[outreach:Education/News/Team|Join the team!]] Finally, don't forget to [[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|subscribe!]]&lt;/span&gt;


&lt;div style=text-align:center; direction:ltr;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:24px; font-family:times new roman; display:block; background:#339966; width:1000px;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

{| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot;
| style=&quot;color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2018#From the Community|From the Community]]
| style=&quot;font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; |
[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2018#Article 1|Edu Wiki Camp 2018: New Knowledge for New Generation]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2018#Article 2|Education loves Monuments: A Brazilian Tale]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2018#Article 3|“I have always liked literature, now I like it even more thanks to Wikipedia”. Literature is in the air of WikiClubs․]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2018#Article 4|History of Wikipedia Education programme at Christ (Deemed to be University)]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2018#Article 5|Preparation for the autumn educational session of Selet WikiSchool is started]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2018#Article 6|Wiki Camp Doyran 2018]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2018#Article 7|Wikicamp Czech Republic 2018]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2018#Article 8|Wikipedia offline in rural areas of Colombia]]

|-
| style=&quot;color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2018#From the Education Team|From the Education Team]]
| style=&quot;font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; |

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2018#Article 9|Presentation on mapping education in the Wikimedia Movement]]

|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 01:14, 9 October 2018 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: November 2018 ==

[[File:Wikipedia Education Globe 2.pdf|frameless|left|150px|Wikipedia Education globe]]
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:left; direction:ltr;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:60px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center; direction:ltr; margin-left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#006699; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 4 | Issue 10 | October 2018&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:regular; text-align:center; font-size:14px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; display:block; width:1000px;&quot;&gt;This monthly newsletter showcases the Wikipedia Education Program. It focuses on sharing: your ideas, stories, success and challenges. You can see past editions [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. You can also volunteer to help publish the newsletter. [[outreach:Education/News/Team|Join the team!]] Finally, don't forget to [[m:Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Education_Newsletter|subscribe!]]&lt;/span&gt;


&lt;div style=text-align:center; direction:ltr;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:24px; font-family:times new roman; display:block; background:#339966; width:1000px;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

{| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot;
| style=&quot;color:#990000; font-size:20px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; | [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2018#From the Community|From the Community]]
| style=&quot;font-size:16px; font-family:times new roman;&quot; |
[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2018#Article 1|A new academic course featuring Wikidata at Tel Aviv University]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2018#Article 2|How we included Wikipedia edition into a whole University department curriculum]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2018#Article 3|Meet the first board of the UG Wikipedia &amp; Education]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2018#Article 4|The education program has kicked off as the new academic year starts]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2018#Article 5|The education program has kicked off as the new academic year starts in Albania]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2018#Article 6|The first Wikimedia+Education conference will happen on April 5-7 at Donostia-Saint Sebastian]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2018#Article 7|Using ORES to assign articles in Basque education program]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2018#Article 8|What to write for Wikipedia about? Monuments!]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2018#Article 9|Wikifridays: editing Wikipedia in the university]]

[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2018#Article 10|Writing articles on Wikipedia is our way of leaving legacy to the next generations]]

|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 05:55, 12 November 2018 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: November 2018 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em; direction:ltr;&quot; |
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 4 &amp;bull; Issue 10 &amp;bull; October 2018&lt;/span&gt;

------

&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/November 2018|Contents]] &amp;bull; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/November 2018/Single page|Single page view]] &amp;bull; [[:m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;

-------
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
*[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2018/WikiEducation - Report from Wikimedians of Albanian Language UG |WikiEducation - Report from Wikimedians of Albanian Language UG]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2018/Wikipedia Education Program in ICETC 2018 , Japan |Wikipedia Education Program in ICETC 2018, Japan]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2018/Wikipedia has become the inseparable part of my daily life |Wikipedia has become the inseparable part of my daily life]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2018/Wikipedia is a world in which anyone of us has his own place |Wikipedia is a world in which anyone of us has his own place]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2018/Wiki conference for teachers in Ohrid |Wiki conference for teachers in Ohrid]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2018/Our baby is 3! |Our baby is 3!]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2018/highlighting work of Sailesh Patnaik |Highlighting work of Sailesh Patnaik]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2018/Important updates from Wikimedia Education Team |Important updates from Wikimedia Education Team]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2018/Welcome Melissa to the Education Team |Welcome Melissa to the Education Team]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2018/What has the education team been up to? Year end review and updates! |What has the education team been up to? Year end review and updates! ]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 18:18, 30 November 2018 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: January 2019 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 8 &amp;bull; Issue 1 &amp;bull; January 2019&lt;/span&gt;

----

&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2019|Contents]] &amp;bull; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2019/Headlines|Headlines]] &amp;bull; [[:m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;

----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
*[[:outreach:Education/News/January 2019/Registration for Wikimedia+Education Conference is open|Registration for Wikimedia+Education Conference is open]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/January 2019/Collaboration with Yerevan State University of Languages and Social Sciences after V. Brusov|Collaboration with Yerevan State University of Languages and Social Sciences after V. Brusov]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/January 2019/Meet the first Programs &amp; Events Dashboard sysops|Meet the first Programs &amp; Events Dashboard sysops]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/January 2019/More than a hundred students gathered in Ecuador to edit Wikipedia|More than a hundred students gathered in Ecuador to edit Wikipedia]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/January 2019/Selet WikiSchool continues to teach young Tatar language Wikipedians|Selet WikiSchool continues to teach young Tatar language Wikipedians]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/January 2019/The WikiClub contributes to the development of our human qualities |The WikiClub contributes to the development of our human qualities]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/January 2019/Third prize for Wikipedia in schools project|Third prize for Wikipedia in schools project]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/January 2019/We've updated the design of Education space!|We've updated the design of Education space!]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/January 2019/WikiChallenge Ecoles d'Afrique 2019|The WikiChallenge Ecoles d'Afrique is back]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/January 2019/Wiki Advanced Training at VVIT|Wiki Advanced Training at VVIT]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/January 2019/WikiEducation in Albania from WoALUG|Creating our first WikiClub]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/January 2019/WikiClubs participate in edit-a-thon of cartoons|WikiClubs participate in edit-a-thon of cartoons]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/January 2019/Wikimedia and Education in Portugal: Where are we now|Wikimedia and Education in Portugal: Where are we now]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/January 2019/Wikimedia Israel: “Wikipedia Ambassadors” program for Arabic-speaking schools is launched|Wikimedia Israel: “Wikipedia Ambassadors” program for Arabic-speaking schools is launched]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 04:41, 29 January 2019 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: February 2019 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 8 &amp;#x2022; Issue 2 &amp;#x2022; February 2019&lt;/span&gt;

----

&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2019|Contents]] &amp;#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2019/Headlines|Headlines]] &amp;#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;

----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2019/Wikimedia User Group Nigeria in Collaboration with AfroCrowd Celebrate Black Month History with a 2Day Editathon|Wikimedia User Group Nigeria in Collaboration with AfroCrowd Celebrate Black Month History with a 2Day Editathon]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2019/Wikimedia+Education Programme announced|Wikimedia+Education Programme announced]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2019/Wikipedia in Education, Uruguay|Wikipedia in Education, Uruguay]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2019/Oslo Metropolitan University hires “Wikipedia-assistants”|Oslo Metropolitan University hires “Wikipedia-assistants”]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2019/Basque Education Program: 2018 in review|Basque Education Program: 2018 in review]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2019/Wikimedia Israel introduces Wikidata to Education|Wikimedia Israel introduces Wikidata to Education]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2019/Wikimedia Serbia made tutorials in Serbian language on editing Wikipedia|Wikimedia Serbia made tutorials in Serbian language on editing Wikipedia]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2019/Seminar on wikis in education|Seminar on wikis in education]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2019/Wikimedia, Tourism and Education: Launching project ISAL|Wikimedia, Tourism and Education: Launching project ISAL]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2019/The Swiss Lab: Wikipedia as a game|The Swiss Lab: Wikipedia as a game]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2019/Meet Hungary|Meet Hungary]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 17:52, 27 February 2019 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: March 2019 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 8 &amp;#x2022; Issue 3 &amp;#x2022; March 2019&lt;/span&gt;

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&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2019|Contents]] &amp;#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2019/Headlines|Headlines]] &amp;#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;

----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[:outreach:Education/News/March 2019/Wikimedia at MLW2019|Wikimedia at UNESCO Mobile Learning Week 2019]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/March 2019/Wiki Education publishes evaluation on how to get subject matter experts to edit|Wiki Education publishes evaluation on how to get subject matter experts to edit]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/March 2019/WikiGap brings editors to close WikiGap|WikiGap brings editors to close WikiGap and open Wiki Pathshala]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/March 2019/Education Mapping exercise is open for public review|Education Mapping exercise is open for public review]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/March 2019/Wikimedia movement projects and activities presented at EDU RUSSIA 2019 forum|Wikimedia movement projects and activities presented at EDU RUSSIA 2019 forum]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/March 2019/“Edit-a-thons give us opportunity to distract from common interests” The club members write articles about New Year|“Edit-a-thons give us opportunity to distract from common interests” The club members write articles about New Year]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/March 2019/WikiClub as a non-formal educational centre in rural communities|WikiClub as a non-formal educational centre in rural communities]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/March 2019/Mini-MWT at VVIT (Feb 2019)|Mini MediaWiki Training at VVIT]]&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 06:31, 28 March 2019 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== Bring your idea for Wikimedia in Education to life! Launch of the Wikimedia Education Greenhouse ==

{{center|'''Apply for Education Greenhouse'''}}

[[File:Wikimedia Education Greenhouse logo button.svg|frameless|left|120px]]
Are you passionate about open education? Do you have an idea to apply Wikimedia projects to an education initiative but don’t know where to start? Join the the Wikimedia &amp; Education Greenhouse! It is an immersive co-learning experience that lasts 9 months and will equip you with the skills, knowledge and support you need to bring your ideas to life. You can apply as a team or as an individual, by May 12th. Find out more &lt;big&gt; [[:outreach:Education/Greenhouse|Education Greenhouse]].&lt;/big&gt; For more information reachout to mguadalupe{{@}}wikimedia.org

—[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 11:16, 5 April 2019 (UTC)
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== This Month in Education: April 2019 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 8 &amp;#x2022; Issue 4 &amp;#x2022; April 2019&lt;/span&gt;

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&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2019|Contents]] &amp;#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2019/Headlines|Headlines]] &amp;#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;

----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[:outreach:Education/News/April 2019/Launch of the Wikimedia &amp; Education Greenhouse!|Launch of the Wikimedia &amp; Education Greenhouse!]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/April 2019/Wikipedia Student Scholar|Wikipedia Student Scholar]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/April 2019/Wikimedia Commons: a highly hostile place for multimedia students contributions|Wikimedia Commons: a highly hostile place for multimedia students contributions]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/April 2019/Wikimedia+Education Conference highlights|Wikimedia+Education Conference highlights]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 01:27, 24 April 2019 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: May 2019 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 8 &amp;#x2022; Issue 5 &amp;#x2022; May 2019&lt;/span&gt;

----

&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[Outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2019|Contents]] &amp;#x2022; [[Outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2019/Headlines|Headlines]] &amp;#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;

----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
*[[:Outreach:Education/News/May 2019/Education in Wales|Education in Wales]]
*[[:Outreach:Education/News/May 2019/Wikimedia &amp; Education Greenhouse: Applications closed!|Wikimedia &amp; Education Greenhouse: Applications closed!]]
*[[:Outreach:Education/News/May 2019/Meet Germany|Wiki Camp 'Meet Germany']]
*[[:Outreach:Education/News/May 2019/Seniors also count!|Seniors also count!]]
*[[:Outreach:Education/News/May 2019/Mandatory internship at Wikimedia Armenia|Mandatory internship at Wikimedia Armenia]]
*[[:Outreach:Education/News/May 2019/Wikimedia Experience Survey by VVIT WikiConnect|Wikimedia Experience Survey by VVIT WikiConnect]]
*[[:Outreach:Education/News/May 2019/OFWA Wikipedia Education Highlights April 2019|OFWA Wikipedia Education Highlights April 2019]]
*[[:Outreach:Education/News/May 2019/Wikimedia Education at &quot;Wikicamp Chattogram 2019&quot;|Wikimedia Education at &quot;Wikicamp Chattogram 2019&quot;]]
*[[:Outreach:Education/News/May 2019/Edit a thon about flora and fauna to celebrate the earth day|Edit a thon about flora and fauna to celebrate the earth day]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 07:16, 29 May 2019 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: June 2019 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 8 &amp;#x2022; Issue 6 &amp;#x2022; June 2019&lt;/span&gt;

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&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2019|Contents]] &amp;#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2019/Headlines|Headlines]] &amp;#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;

----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
*[[outreach:Education/News/June 2019/The introduction of the Wikipedia into the educational program has expanded|The introduction of the Wikipedia into the educational program has expanded]]
*[[outreach:Education/News/June 2019/Welcome Vasanthi|Welcome Vasanthi to the Education Team!]]
*[[outreach:Education/News/June 2019/Wikimedia Education SAARC Conference happening in India|Wikimedia Education SAARC Conference happening in India]]
*[[outreach:Education/News/June 2019/&quot;Won't somebody please think of the children?&quot;|&quot;Won't somebody please think of the children?&quot;]]
*[[outreach:Education/News/June 2019/The first Annual Report of VVIT WikiConnect|The first Annual Report of VVIT WikiConnect]]
*[[outreach:Education/News/June 2019/An effective collaboration of WikiClubs and schools|An effective collaboration of WikiClubs and schools]]
*[[outreach:Education/News/June 2019/Wikiclassroom: New way for students' inspiration|Wikiclassroom: New way for students' inspiration]]
*[[outreach:Education/News/June 2019/Wikipedia as a classroom activity kicks off in Kosovo|Wikipedia as a classroom activity kicks off in Kosovo]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 17:40, 6 July 2019 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: July 2019 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 8 &amp;#x2022; Issue 7 &amp;#x2022; July 2019&lt;/span&gt;

----

&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2019|Contents]] &amp;#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2019/Headlines|Headlines]] &amp;#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;

----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
*[[:outreach:Education/News/July 2019/First WikiEducation gathering in Mexico|First WikiEducation gathering in Mexico]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/July 2019/SEABA school in India has hired a Wikimedian to teach Wikimedia project in their school.|SEABA school in India has hired a Wikimedian to teach Wikimedia project in their school.]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/July 2019/Selet WikiSchool: results of first half of 2019|Selet WikiSchool: results of first half of 2019]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/July 2019/Students Use Archival Documents in a Competition, WMIL|Students Use Archival Documents in a Competition, WMIL]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/July 2019/Stepanakert WikiClub: Meeting with the Speaker of the Artsakh Parliament - Ashot Ghoulian|Stepanakert WikiClub: Meeting with the Speaker of the Artsakh Parliament - Ashot Ghoulian]]

*[[:outreach:Education/News/July 2019/Collaboration with American University of Armenia|Collaboration with American University of Armenia]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/July 2019/Finalizing the Collaboration with Armenian Education Foundation|Finalizing the Collaboration with Armenian Education Foundation]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/July 2019/Wikimedia Education SAARC Conference Journey|Wikimedia Education SAARC Conference Journey]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 09:53, 30 July 2019 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: August 2019 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 8 &amp;#x2022; Issue 8 &amp;#x2022; August 2019&lt;/span&gt;

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&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/August 2019|Contents]] &amp;#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/August 2019/Headlines|Headlines]] &amp;#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;

----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[outreach:Education/News/August 2019/Summer WikiCamp for secondary school students 2019 in Armenia|Summer WikiCamp for secondary school students 2019 in Armenia]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/August 2019/Together, we can create an environment that promotes Quality Education|Together, we can create an environment that promotes Quality Education]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/August 2019/International Days and pop culture motivate primary and secondary education students to write on Wikipedia and Wikidata|International Days and pop culture motivate primary and secondary education students to write on Wikipedia and Wikidata]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/August 2019/Quality learning and recruiting students at Edu Wiki camp|Quality learning and recruiting students at Edu Wiki camp]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/August 2019/We spend such wonderful days in WikiCamps that noone wants to return home|We spend such wonderful days in WikiCamps that noone wants to return home]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 01:00, 5 September 2019 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: September 2019 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 8 &amp;#x2022; Issue 9 &amp;#x2022; September 2019&lt;/span&gt;

----

&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2019|Contents]] &amp;#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2019/Headlines|Headlines]] &amp;#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;

----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
*[[:outreach:Education/News/September 2019/Learning history by expanding articles about novels|Learning history by expanding articles about novels]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/September 2019/Organizing the Education space at Wikimania 2019 - A conversation with Shani Evenstein|Organizing the Education space at Wikimania 2019 - A conversation with Shani Evenstein]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/September 2019/Wiki Goes to School is back in three cities in Indonesia|Wiki Goes to School is back in three cities in Indonesia]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/September 2019/Wikipedia workshop at the Summer IT School for Teachers|Wikipedia workshop at the Summer IT School for Teachers]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/September 2019/WikiChallenge Ecoles d'Afrique 2019 is over|WikiChallenge Ecoles d'Afrique 2019 is over]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/September 2019/Wikipedia Education Program launched in Bangladesh|Wikipedia Education Program held at Netrokona Government College, Bangladesh]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/September 2019/Stepanakert WikiClub turns 4!|Stepanakert WikiClub turns 4!]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/September 2019/Wikimedia Indonesia trained the trainers through WikiPelatih 2019|Wikimedia Indonesia trained the trainers through WikiPelatih 2019]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/September 2019/Students learning Wikipedia editing by attending Wikicamp at Nabran|Students learning Wikipedia editing by attending Wikicamp at Nabran]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/September 2019/What is happening at Wikimedia Space?|What is happening at Wikimedia Space?]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 19:34, 1 October 2019 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: October 2019 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 8 &amp;#x2022; Issue 10 &amp;#x2022; October 2019&lt;/span&gt;

----

&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2019|Contents]] &amp;#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2019/Headlines|Headlines]] &amp;#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;

----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
*[[outreach:Education/News/October 2019/Wikimedia Chile launched its new online course for school teachers|Wikimedia Chile launched its new online course for school teachers]]
*[[outreach:Education/News/October 2019/Wikimedia Norway is developing an education program for Sámi students and universities teaching Sámi subjects|Wikimedia Norway is developing an education program for Sámi students and universities teaching Sámi subjects]]
*[[outreach:Education/News/October 2019/Teachers Association of the Republic of Indonesia (PGRI) Keeps Improving Teachers’ Digital Literacy Through the Use of Wikipedia|Teachers Association of the Republic of Indonesia (PGRI) Keeps Improving Teachers’ Digital Literacy Through the Use of Wikipedia]]
*[[outreach:Education/News/October 2019/Lectures on Wikipedia at the the University of Warsaw|Lectures on Wikipedia at the the University of Warsaw]]

*[[outreach:Education/News/October 2019/Wikicamp in Armenia through the Eyes of Foreigners| Wikicamp in Armenia through the Eyes of Foreigners]]
*[[outreach:Education/News/October 2019/New Wiki Education evaluation report of Wikidata courses published|New Wiki Education evaluation report of Wikidata courses published courses.]]
*[[outreach:Education/News/October 2019/Youth Salon by VVIT WikiConnect along with Wikipedia &amp; Education user group|Wikimedia 2030 Strategoy Youth Salon by VVIT WikiConnect]]
*[[outreach:Education/News/October 2019/Wikimedia &amp; Education Greenhouse – Highlights from the first unit of the online course|Wikimedia &amp; Education Greenhouse – Highlights from the first unit of the online courses.]]
*[[outreach:Education/News/September 2019/What is happening at Wikimedia Space?|What is happening at Wikimedia Space?]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 08:30, 25 October 2019 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: November 2019 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 8 &amp;#x2022; Issue 11 &amp;#x2022; November 2019&lt;/span&gt;

----

&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2019|Contents]] &amp;#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2019/Headlines|Headlines]] &amp;#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;

----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
*[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2019/GOES for Ghana|Wikimedians aim to make a difference in the lives of students in Ghana with support from the Wikimedia &amp; Education Greenhouse]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2019/The Third &quot;Editatón WikiUNAM&quot;|The Third &quot;Editatón WikiUNAM&quot;]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2019/Spreading Free Knowledge in the Land of Minangkabau|Spreading Free Knowledge in the Land of Minangkabau]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2019/What can we learn from the Open Education movement about attaining educational SDG in the digital age?|What can we learn from the Open Education movement about attaining educational SDG in the digital age?]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2019/We are highlighting the work User:Ixocactus for his contributions in Wikimedia &amp; Education‎| We are highlighting the work of User:Ixocactus this month‎]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2019/“Olympic sports through history” on Serbian Wikipedia|“Olympic sports through history” on Serbian Wikipedia courses.]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2019/Workshops with Wiki Club members|Workshops with Wiki Club members]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2019/&quot;Learning about other Culture&quot; SEABA School, Lehragaga|&quot;Learning about other Culture&quot; SEABA School, Lehragaga.]]
*[[:outreach:Education/News/November 2019/What is happening at Wikimedia Space?|What is happening at Wikimedia Space?]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 03:15, 29 November 2019 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: January 2020 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 9 &amp;bull; Issue 1 &amp;bull; January 2020&lt;/span&gt;

----

&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2019|Contents]] &amp;bull; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2019/Headlines|Headlines]] &amp;bull; [[:m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;

----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[:outreach:Education/News/January 2020/Featured education community member of January 2020|Meet this month's featured Wikimedia &amp; Education community member: User:Parvathisri]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/January 2020/Alva's college collaboration|Alva's college collaboration]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/January 2020/EtnoWiki strikes again!|EtnoWiki strikes again in Poland!]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/January 2020/Internship program: Engaging New Volunteers to Join the Community|Internship program: Engaging New Volunteers to Join the Community]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/January 2020/Joint translations as language studying tool in Karvachar’s Wikiclub|Joint translations as language studying tool in Karvachar’s Wikiclub]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/January 2020/Selet WikiSchool introduces Wikinews and other Wikimedia projects|Selet WikiSchool introduces Wikinews and other Wikimedia projects]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/January 2020/Training of Trainers for Teachers in South Sulawesi Was Organized For the First Time|Training of Trainers for Teachers in South Sulawesi Was Organized For the First Time]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/January 2020/Twenty video tutorials in Serbian language on editing Wikipedia|Twenty video tutorials in Serbian language on editing Wikipedia]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/January 2020/Updates from Wikimedia Education database edit-a-thon|Updates from Wikimedia Education database edit-a-thon]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/January 2020/Wiki Club Ohrid grows|Wiki Club Ohrid grows]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/January 2020/Wiki Masuk Sekolah (Wiki Goes to School) Involved the Students in Producing and Sharing Knowledge Through Wikipedia|Wiki Masuk Sekolah (Wiki Goes to School) Involved the Students in Producing and Sharing Knowledge Through Wikipedia]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/January 2020/Wikiclassroom as a New Means of Gaining Knowledge|Wikiclassroom as a New Means of Gaining Knowledge]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/January 2020/Wikimedia &amp; Education Greenhouse – Highlights from the second unit of the online course|Wikimedia &amp; Education Greenhouse – Highlights from the second unit of the online course]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/January 2020/WoALUG collaboration with educational institution BONEVET in Prishtina|WoALUG collaboration with educational institution BONEVET in Prishtina]]

&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 07:26, 3 February 2020 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: February 2020 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 9 &amp;#x2022; Issue 1 &amp;#x2022; February 2020&lt;/span&gt;
----&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2020|Contents]] &amp;#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2020/Headlines|Headlines]] &amp;#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;
----&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;

* [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2020/Featured education community member of February 2020|Featured education community member of February 2020]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2020/Wikipedia in Mayan Language|Wikipedia in Mayan Language]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2020/Open Education Week - events with Wikimedia Poland|Open Education Week - events with Wikimedia Poland]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2020/Youngest wikimedians ever editing Txikipedia|Youngest wikimedians ever editing Txikipedia]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2020/Fashion and digital citizenship at Bath Spa University|Fashion and digital citizenship at Bath Spa University]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2020/WoALUG and REC Albania continue their collaboration in Wikimedia Education|WoALUG and REC Albania continue their collaboration in Wikimedia Education]]
* [[:outreach:Education/News/February 2020/Respati Project|Respati Project]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 22:06, 3 March 2020 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: March 2020 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 9 &amp;#x2022; Issue 3 &amp;#x2022; March 2020&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2020|Contents]] &amp;#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2020/Headlines|Headlines]] &amp;#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[outreach:Education/News/March 2020/An Update on Wikimedia Indonesia’s Education Program|An Update on Wikimedia Indonesia’s Education Program]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/March 2020/Education Program in CUC Sur, Jalisco, México|Education Program in CUC Sur, Jalisco, México]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/March 2020/Featured education community member of March 2020|Meet this month's featured Wikimedia &amp; Education community member: Amber Berson]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/March 2020/Enhancing Armenian Wikipedia with professional articles|Enhancing Armenian Wikipedia with professional articles]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/March 2020/How collaborations and perseverance contributed to an especially impactful educational project|How collaborations and perseverance contributed to an especially impactful educational project]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/March 2020/Wikimedia Argentina carried out the first training program in education and Human Rights for the Wikimedia Movement|Wikimedia Argentina carried out the first training program in education and Human Rights for the Wikimedia Movement]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 15:30, 30 March 2020 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: April 2020 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 9 &amp;#x2022; Issue 4 &amp;#x2022; April 2020&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2020|Contents]] &amp;#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2020/Headlines|Headlines]] &amp;#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[outreach:Education/News/April 2020/ Wikipedia Reveals New Sides of Translation|Wikipedia Reveals New Sides of Translation]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/April 2020/Education Webinars organized by Wikimedia México|Education Webinars organized by Wikimedia México]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/April 2020/Fact checking tool with library under cc-license|Fact checking tool with library under cc-license]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/April 2020/Fast help for schools: An interactive platform for Open Educational Resources|Fast help for schools: An interactive platform for Open Educational Resources]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/April 2020/Featured education community member of April 2020|Meet this month's featured Wikimedia &amp; Education community member]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/April 2020/Wiki Club Ashesi Welcomes Onboard a New Patron|Wiki Club Ashesi Welcomes Onboard a New Patron]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/April 2020/Wiki-school project with Wikimedia Poland|Wiki-school. A new program for teachers in Poland]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/April 2020/Wikimedia Serbia was organized action on improving students assignments on Wikipedia|Wikimedia Serbia was organized action on improving students assignments on Wikipedia]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 10:45, 5 May 2020 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: May 2020 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 9 &amp;#x2022; Issue 5 &amp;#x2022; May 2020&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2020|Contents]] &amp;#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2020/Headlines|Headlines]] &amp;#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issuse&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[outreach:Education/News/May 2020/EduWiki challenge México by Wikimedia México|EduWiki challenge México by Wikimedia México]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/May 2020/Featured education community member of May 2020|Featured education community member of May 2020]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/May 2020/Sharing Wikimedia Education Projects in the Philippines|Sharing Wikimedia Education Projects in the Philippines]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/May 2020/Turkish professors are giving Wikipedia assignments during Covid-19 days|Turkish professors are giving Wikipedia assignments during Covid-19 days]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/May 2020/Wikidata introduced in Faculty of Economics, University of Belgrade|Wikidata introduced in Faculty of Economics, University of Belgrade]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/May 2020/Wikipedia as career counseling tool for teenagers|Wikipedia as career counseling tool for teenagers]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 16:39, 10 June 2020 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: June 2020 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 9 &amp;#x2022; Issue 6 &amp;#x2022; June 2020&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2020|Contents]] &amp;#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2020/Headlines|Headlines]] &amp;#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issuse&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[outreach:Education/News/June 2020/Understanding Wikimedia Affiliates Evaluation in Education Report|Understanding Wikimedia Affiliates Evaluation in Education Report]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/June 2020/Understanding Wikimedia Community as Research Fellows|Understanding Wikimedia Community as Research Fellows]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/June 2020/Participants of Wiki/Ponder online workshop in Kosovo edit Wikipedia|Participants of Wiki/Ponder online workshop in Kosovo edit Wikipedia]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/June 2020/Wikimedia &amp; Education Greenhouse – Celebrating the final unit of the online course!|Wikimedia &amp; Education Greenhouse – Celebrating the final unit of the online course!]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/June 2020/Wikipedia in schools competing for innovations in teaching award|Wikipedia in schools competing for innovations in teaching award]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/June 2020/Featured education community member of June 2020|Meet this month's featured Wikimedia &amp; Education community member: Oleh Kushch]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 03:54, 24 June 2020 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: July 2020 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 9 &amp;#x2022; Issue 7 &amp;#x2022; July 2020&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2020|Contents]] &amp;#x2022; [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2020/Headlines|Headlines]] &amp;#x2022; [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issuse&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[outreach:Education/News/July 2020/About Education at the Wikimedia Polska Conference|About Education at the Wikimedia Polska Conference]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/July 2020/Featured education community member of July 2020|Featured education community member]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/July 2020/The importance of having an Education and Human Rights Program|The importance of having an Education and Human Rights Program]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/July 2020/The Welsh Wiki-Education project|The Welsh Wiki-Education project]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/July 2020/Wikimedia Chile faces the challenge of mandatory virtuality|Wikimedia Chile faces the challenge of mandatory virtuality]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/July 2020/WoALUG and Canadian Institute of Technology write about women in tech|WoALUG and Canadian Institute of Technology write about women in tech]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 05:27, 5 August 2020 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: August 2020 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 9 • Issue 8 • August 2020&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/August 2020|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/August 2020/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issuse&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[outreach:Education/News/August 2020/Collaboration between Karvachar Armath laboratory and Karvachar’s Wikiclub as a new educational platform for the teenagers|Collaboration between Karvachar Armath laboratory and Karvachar’s Wikiclub as a new educational platform for the teenagers]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/August 2020/Education cycle “Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia: an instructional strategy for the teaching practice” organized by the Faculty of Education Sciences of the Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala and Wikimedia México.|Education cycle “Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia: an instructional strategy for the teaching practice”]]

* [[outreach:Education/News/August 2020/3rd edition of Wikipedia Education Program in Hebron, Palestine. (COVID-19 edition)|3rd edition of Wikipedia Education Program in Hebron, Palestine. (COVID-19 edition)]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/August 2020/Introductory Wikipedia Workshop with Future Engineers: First Step of Education Program|Introductory Wikipedia Workshop with Future Engineers: First Step of Education Program]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/August 2020/A picture is worth a thousand words: history students research pictures on Commons|A picture is worth a thousand words: history students research pictures on Commons]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 13:33, 23 August 2020 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: September 2020 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 9 • Issue 9 • September 2020&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2020|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2020/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issuse&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[outreach:Education/News/September 2020/Active autumn in the Polish wiki-education|Active autumn in the Polish wiki-education]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/September 2020/Cycle &quot;Caminos y voces de la educación con Wikipedia&quot;|Cycle &quot;Caminos y voces de la educación con Wikipedia&quot;]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/September 2020/Featured education community member of September 2020|Featured education community member of September 2020]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/September 2020/The Use of Wikipedia and Wikimedia Commons as tool for Module Development in the Philippines|The Use of Wikipedia and Wikimedia Commons as tool for Module Development in the Philippines]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/September 2020/Wikimedia Indonesia Education Team Launched Their Books About Wikipedia|Wikimedia Indonesia Education Team Launched Their Books About Wikipedia]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/September 2020/Wikimedia Serbia is organizing the first online Edu Wiki camp|Wikimedia Serbia is organizing the first online Edu Wiki camp]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 12:49, 23 September 2020 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: October 2020 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 9 • Issue 10 • October 2020&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2020|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2020/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issuse&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[outreach:Education/News/October 2020/Collegiate Students Fight Historical Revisionism Through Online Wikipedia Edit-a-thon|Collegiate Students Fight Historical Revisionism Through Online Wikipedia Edit-a-thon]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/October 2020/Digital skills using Wikimedia Art + Feminism|Digital skills using Wikimedia Art + Feminism]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/October 2020/Editathon “¡No se olvida!” (We don’t forget!)|Editathon “¡No se olvida!” (We don’t forget!)]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/October 2020/Education news bytes|Education news bytes]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/October 2020/Featured education community member of October 2020|Featured education community member of October 2020]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/October 2020/Teaching Wikipedia at University of Tromsø with support from the Sámi Parliament|Teaching Wikipedia at University of Tromsø with support from the Sámi Parliament]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 12:59, 25 October 2020 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: November 2020 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 9 • Issue 11 • November 2020&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/November 2020|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/November 2020/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issuse&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[outreach:Education/News/November 2020/Celebrating 10 years of student editing in the United States and Canada|Celebrating 10 years of student editing in the United States and Canada]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/November 2020/Cooperation in digital education – Wikimedia Polska conference|Cooperation in digital education – Wikimedia Polska conference]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/November 2020/Education Team 2020 Year End Review|Education Team 2020 Year End Review]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/November 2020/Featured education community members of 2020|Featured education community members of 2020]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/November 2020/Fifteen years of implementation of the Wikipedia Education Program in Serbia|Fifteen years of implementation of the Wikipedia Education Program in Serbia]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/November 2020/Hablon User Group and UP Internet Freedom Network Wikipedia Edit-a-thon|Hablon User Group and UP Internet Freedom Network Wikipedia Edit-a-thon]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/November 2020/Online trainings on Wikipedia with high school students of Kosova|Online trainings on Wikipedia with high school students of Kosova]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/November 2020/Photographics and free culture training in Cameroon and Switzerland|Photographics and free culture training in Cameroon and Switzerland]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/November 2020/The article about Wiki-education in the science magazine|The article about Wiki-education in the science magazine]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/November 2020/The first Online EduWiki Camp in Serbia|The first Online EduWiki Camp in Serbia]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/November 2020/Wikimedia Mexico’s Education Program celebrates Open Access Week 2020|Wikimedia Mexico’s Education Program celebrates Open Access Week 2020]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/November 2020/Wikipedia as a Tool to Educate and to Be Educated|Wikipedia as a Tool to Educate and to Be Educated]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 07:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: January 2021 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 10 • Issue 1 • January 2021&lt;/span&gt;
----&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2021|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2021/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[metawiki:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;
----&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issuse&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[outreach:Education/News/January 2021/Featured education community member of January 2021|Featured education community member of January 2021]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/January 2021/Open Education Global 2020 Conference|Open Education Global 2020 Conference]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/January 2021/Reading Wikipedia in Bolivia|Reading Wikipedia in Bolivia]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/January 2021/The impact of war on young Wikimedians in Stepanakert|The impact of war on young Wikimedians in Stepanakert]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/January 2021/The Possibility of Open-Access Learning Portals in the Philippines|The Possibility of Open-Access Learning Portals in the Philippines]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/January 2021/Training Resources about Author’s Rights published by Wiki in Africa|Training Resources about Author’s Rights published by Wiki in Africa]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 17:26, 23 January 2021 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: January 2021 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 10 • Issue 1 • January 2021&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2021|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/January 2021/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issuse&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[outreach:Education/News/January 2021/Featured education community member of January 2021|Featured education community member of January 2021]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/January 2021/Open Education Global 2020 Conference|Open Education Global 2020 Conference]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/January 2021/Reading Wikipedia in Bolivia|Reading Wikipedia in Bolivia]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/January 2021/The impact of war on young Wikimedians in Stepanakert|The impact of war on young Wikimedians in Stepanakert]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/January 2021/The Possibility of Open-Access Learning Portals in the Philippines|The Possibility of Open-Access Learning Portals in the Philippines]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/January 2021/Training Resources about Author’s Rights published by Wiki in Africa|Training Resources about Author’s Rights published by Wiki in Africa]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 15:35, 24 January 2021 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: February 2021 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 10 • Issue 2 • February 2021&lt;/span&gt;
----&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2021|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/February 2021/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[metawiki:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;
----&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issuse&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[outreach:Education/News/February 2021/Education news bytes|Wikimedia Education news bytes]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/February 2021/Featured education community member of February 2021|Featured education community member of February 2021]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/February 2021/Karvachar Wikiclub continues its activities online|Karvachar Wikiclub continues its activities online]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/February 2021/Over 4,000 references added|Over 4,000 more references added! 1Lib1Ref campaign in Poland]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/February 2021/Philippines Climate Change Translate-a-thon|Philippines Climate Change Translate-a-thon]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 07:33, 24 February 2021 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: March 2021 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 10 • Issue 3 • March 2021&lt;/span&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2021|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/March 2021/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issuse&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[outreach:Education/News/March 2021/A Wikipedia Webinar for Indonesian Women Teachers|A Wikipedia Webinar for Indonesian Women Teachers]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/March 2021/Educational program of GLAM Macedonia|Educational program of GLAM Macedonia]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/March 2021/Filling Gaps - the Conference about Education in Poland|Filling the Gaps &amp; Open Education Week]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/March 2021/Featured education community member of March 2021|Meet this month's featured Wikimedia &amp; Education community member: Bara'a Zama'reh]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/March 2021/Using Wikipedia and Bridging the Gender Gap: In-Service training for Teachers in Philippines|Using Wikipedia and Bridging the Gender Gap: In-Service training for Teachers in Philippines]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 11:46, 26 March 2021 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: April 2021 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 10 • Issue 4 • April 2021&lt;/span&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2021|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/April 2021/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issuse&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[outreach:Education/News/April 2021/Collaboration with Brusov State University|Collaboration with Brusov State University]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/April 2021/Editing contest &quot;Meet Russia&quot;|Editing contest &quot;Meet Russia&quot;]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/April 2021/Educational project: Wikipedia at the University with the University Center for Economic-Administrative Sciences|Educational project: Wikipedia at the University with the University Center for Economic-Administrative Sciences (Centro Universitario de Ciencias Económico Administrativas (CUCEA)) of the University of Guadalajara]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/April 2021/Regional Meeting of Latin American Education by the EWOC|Regional Meeting of Latin American Education by the EWOC]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/April 2021/Students of the Faculty of Philosophy in Belgrade have started an internship program|Students of the Faculty of Philosophy in Belgrade have started an internship program]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 22:48, 25 April 2021 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: May 2021 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 10 • Issue 5 • May 2021&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2021|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/May 2021/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[outreach:Education/News/May 2021/A Multimedia-Rich Wikiversity MOOC from Brazil|A Multimedia-Rich Wikiversity MOOC from Brazil]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/May 2021/Featured education community member of May 2021|Meet this month's featured Wikimedia &amp; Education community member: Maria Weronika Kmoch]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/May 2021/Offline workshop with Nikola Koperniku High School in Albania|Offline workshop with Nikola Koperniku High School in Albania]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/May 2021/Wiki Education Program Organized with the University Students for the First time in Bangladesh|Wiki Education Program Organized with the University Students for the First time in Bangladesh]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/May 2021/Wikimedia Commons workshop with high school students in Kosovo; Workshop with telecommunication students at University of Prishtina|Wikimedia Commons workshop with high school students in Kosovo]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/May 2021/Wikipedia training for the Safeguardians of the Intangible Cultular Heritage|Wikipedia training for the Bearers of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Poland]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/May 2021/“Writing a Wikipedia article isn’t as difficult and unimaginable as it seems”: A case for Wikipedia Education Program in Ukraine|“Writing a Wikipedia article isn’t as difficult and unimaginable as it seems”: A case for Wikipedia Education Program in Ukraine]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 17:37, 27 May 2021 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: June 2021 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 10 • Issue 6 • June 2021&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2021|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/June 2021/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[outreach:Education/News/June 2021/Children writing for an encyclopedia – is it possible?|Can children write articles for a wiki encyclopedia?]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/June 2021/Editing contest &quot;Biosphere reserves in the world&quot;|Editing contest &quot;Biosphere reserves in the world&quot;]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/June 2021/Training &amp; workshop on Wikidata and Wikimedia Commons with students from Municipal Learning Center, Gurrakoc|Training &amp; workshop on Wikidata and Wikimedia Commons with students from Municipal Learning Center, Gurrakoc]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/June 2021/Wiki for Human Rights Campaign in the Philippines|Wiki for Human Rights Campaign in the Philippines]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/June 2021/Wiki-School program in Poland at the end of school year|Wikipedia makes children and teachers happy!]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/June 2021/Workshop with students of Language Faculty of Philology, University of Prishtina &quot;Hasan Prishtina&quot;|Workshop with the students of Language Faculty of Philology, University of Prishtina &quot;Hasan Prishtina&quot;]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 19:57, 23 June 2021 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: July 2021 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 10 • Issue 7 • July 2021&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2021|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/July 2021/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[outreach:Education/News/July 2021/UHI Editathon celebrates 10 years as a university|University celebrates 10th anniversary with an Editathon]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/July 2021/A paper on Students' Attitudes Towards the Use of Wikipedia|A paper on Students' Attitudes Towards the Use of Wikipedia]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/July 2021/Announcing the Training of Trainers program for Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom!|Announcing the Training of Trainers program for &quot;Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom&quot;]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/July 2021/MOOC Conocimiento Abierto y Software Libre|MOOC Conocimiento Abierto y Software Libre]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/July 2021/Leamos Wikipedia en Bolivia|Updates on the Leamos Wikipedia en Bolivia 2021]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/July 2021/E-lessons on Wikipedia from Wikimedia Polska|Virtual lessons on Wikipedia from Wikimedia Polska for schools]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 19:32, 3 August 2021 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: August 2021 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 10 • Issue 8 • August 2021&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/August 2021|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/August 2021/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[outreach:Education/News/August 2021/Workshop for the Teachers from Poland|GLAM-wiki Summer in the City: Polish Teachers met in Warsaw]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/August 2021/Wikipedia for School – our largest article contest for Ukrainian teachers|Wikipedia for School – our largest article contest for Ukrainian teachers]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/August 2021/The importance of Social Service: Modality of educational linkage with ITESM, Querétaro campus and Wikimedia Mexico|The importance of Social Service: Modality of educational linkage with ITESM, Querétaro campus and Wikimedia Mexico]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/August 2021/&quot;Searching for the unschooling vibes around Wikipedia&quot; at the Wikimania 2021|Wikimania 2021 and the unschooling vibes around Wikipedia by Wikimedia Polska, Education team]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/August 2021/Open Foundation West Africa Introduces KIWIX Offline to the National Association of Graduate Teachers|Open Foundation West Africa Introduces KIWIX Offline to the National Association of Graduate Teachers]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 13:37, 25 August 2021 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: September 2021 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 10 • Issue 9 • September 2021&lt;/span&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2021|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/September 2021/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[outreach:Education/News/September 2021/Cultural history on Wikipedia|Cultural history on Wikipedia]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/September 2021/Education program in Ukraine is finally back to offline|Education program in Ukraine is finally back to offline!]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/September 2021/Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom Module Distribution in the Philippines|Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom Module Distribution in the Philippines]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/September 2021/Senior Citizens WikiTown 2021: Týn nad Vltavou|Senior Citizens WikiTown 2021: Týn nad Vltavou]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/September 2021/WikiXLaEducación: New contest to include articles about education on Wikipedia|#WikiXLaEducación: New contest to include articles about education on Wikipedia]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 19:42, 26 September 2021 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: October 2021 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 10 • Issue 10 • October 2021&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2021|Contents]] • [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/October 2021/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[outreach:Education/News/October 2021/1st joint contest Wikimedia UG Georgia and the Ministry of Education of Georgia.|1st joint contest Wikimedia UG Georgia and the Ministry of Education of Georgia]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/October 2021/Promoting more inclusive and equitable support for the Wikimedia Education community|Promoting more inclusive and equitable support for the Wikimedia Education community]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/October 2021/The Second Online EduWiki Camp in Serbia|The Second Online EduWiki Camp in Serbia]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/October 2021/University courses in the UK|Higher and further education courses in the UK]]
* [[outreach:Education/News/October 2021/Wikipedia on Silesia Cieszyn in Poland|Wikipedia on Silesia Cieszyn in Poland and in Czech Republic]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 15:40, 26 October 2021 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: November 2021 ==

{| style=&quot;width:70%;&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;&quot; |&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 10 • Issue 11 • November 2021&lt;/span&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/November 2021|Contents]] • [[m:Education/Newsletter/November 2021/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Education/News/November 2021/We talked about EduWiki Outreach Collaborators and how Wikimedia Serbia played a role being a part of it|We talked about EduWiki Outreach Collaborators and how Wikimedia Serbia played a role being a part of it]]
* [[m:Education/News/November 2021/Welcome to Meta!|Welcome to Meta!]]
* [[m:Education/News/November 2021/Wikipedia Education Program in Ukraine in 2021|Wikipedia Education Program in Ukraine in 2021]]
* [[m:Education/News/November 2021/Wikipedia and Education Mentorship Program-Serbia and Philippines Partnership|Wikipedia and Education Mentorship Program-Serbia and Philippines Partnership]]
* [[m:Education/News/November 2021/Launch of the Wikimedia Research Fund!|Launch of the Wikimedia Research Fund!]]
* [[m:Education/News/November 2021/Education projects in the Land of Valencia|Education projects in the Land of Valencia]]
* [[m:Education/News/November 2021/A Hatch-Tyap-Wikipedia In-person Training Event|A Hatch-Tyap-Wikipedia In-person Training Event]]
* [[m:Education/News/November 2021/Celebrating Sq Wikipedia Birthday with the Vasil Kamami High School students|Celebrating Sq Wikipedia Birthday with the Vasil Kamami High School students]]
* [[m:Education/News/November 2021/Celebrating Wikidata with the Nikola Koperniku High School students|Celebrating Wikidata with the Nikola Koperniku High School students]]
&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 16:18, 21 November 2021 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: January 2022 ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 11 • Issue 1 • January 2022&lt;/span&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/January 2022|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/January 2022/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2022/30-h Wikipedia Article Writing Challenge|30-h Wikipedia Article Writing Challenge]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2022/Announcing Wiki Workshop 2022|Announcing Wiki Workshop 2022]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2022/Final exhibition about Cieszyn Silesia region|Final exhibition about Cieszyn Silesia region]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2022/Join us this February for the EduWiki Week|Join us this February for the EduWiki Week]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2022/Offline Education project WikiChallenge closed its third edition|Offline Education project WikiChallenge closed its third edition]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2022/Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom ToT Experience of a Filipina Wikimedian|Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom ToT Experience of a Filipina Wikimedian]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2022/Welcoming new trainers of the Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom program|Welcoming new trainers of the Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom program]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2022/Wikimedia Israel’s education program: Students enrich Hebrew Wiktionary with Biblical expressions still in use in modern Hebrew|Wikimedia Israel’s education program: Students enrich Hebrew Wiktionary with Biblical expressions still in use in modern Hebrew]]
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 17:28, 24 January 2022 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: February 2022 ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt; {{int:please-translate}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 11 • Issue 2 • February 2022&lt;/span&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/February 2022|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/February 2022/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;

* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2022/Open Foundation West Africa Expands Open Movement With UHAS|Open Foundation West Africa Expands Open Movement With UHAS]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2022/Celebrating the 18th anniversary of Ukrainian Wikipedia|Celebrating the 18th anniversary of Ukrainian Wikipedia]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2022/Integrating Wikipedia in the academic curriculum in a university in Mexico|Integrating Wikipedia in the academic curriculum in a university in Mexico]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2022/Results of &quot;Reading Wikipedia&quot; workshop in the summer school of Plan Ceibal in Uruguay|Results of &quot;Reading Wikipedia&quot; workshop in the summer school of Plan Ceibal in Uruguay]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2022/WikiFundi, offline editing plateform : last release notes and how-tos|WikiFundi, offline editing plateform : last release notes and how-tos]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2022/Writing Wikipedia as an academic assignment in STEM fields|Writing Wikipedia as an academic assignment in STEM fields]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2022/The Learning and Connection – 1Lib1Ref with African Librarians|The Learning and Connection – 1Lib1Ref with African Librarians]]
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 15:09, 28 February 2022 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: March 2022 ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 11 • Issue 3 • March 2022&lt;/span&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/March 2022|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/March 2022/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;

* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2022/Arte+Feminismo Pilipinas:Advocacy on Women Empowerment|Arte+Feminismo Pilipinas:Advocacy on Women Empowerment]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2022/The edit-a-thon on Serbian Wikipedia on the occasion of Edu Wiki Week|The edit-a-thon on Serbian Wikipedia on the occasion of Edu Wiki Week]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2022/Call for Participation: Higher Education Survey|Call for Participation: Higher Education Survey]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2022/Collection of Good Practices in Wikipedia Education|Collection of Good Practices in Wikipedia Education]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2022/Conversation: Open education in the Wikimedia Movement views from Latin America|Conversation: Open education in the Wikimedia Movement views from Latin America]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2022/EduWiki Week 2022, celebrations and learnings|EduWiki Week 2022, celebrations and learnings]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2022/EduWiki Week in Armenia|EduWiki Week in Armenia]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2022/Open Education Week at the Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León|Open Education Week at the Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2022/Wikipedia + Education Talk With Leonard Hagan|Wikipedia + Education Talk With Leonard Hagan]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2022/Wikimedia Israel cooperates with Yad Vashem in developing a training course for teachers|Wikimedia Israel cooperates with Yad Vashem in developing a training course for teachers]]
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 16:57, 25 March 2022 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: April 2022 ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 11 • Issue 4 • April 2022&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/April 2022|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/April 2022/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;

* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2022/Audio-Educational Seminar of Wikimedia Mexico|Audio-Educational Seminar of Wikimedia Mexico]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2022/Dagbani Wikimedians using digital TV broadcast to train Wikipedia contributors in Ghana|Dagbani Wikimedians using digital TV broadcast to train Wikipedia contributors in Ghana]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2022/Digital Education &amp; The Open Space With Herbert Acheampong|Digital Education &amp; The Open Space With Herbert Acheampong]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2022/HerStory walks as a part of edit-a-thons|HerStory walks as a part of edit-a-thons]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2022/Join us for Wiki Workshop 2022|Join us for Wiki Workshop 2022]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2022/The youngest member of Tartu Wikiclub is 15-year-old student|The youngest member of Tartu Wikiclub is 15-year-old student]]
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 12:51, 24 April 2022 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: May 2022 ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 11 • Issue 5 • May 2022&lt;/span&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/May 2022|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/May 2022/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;

* [[Education/News/May 2022/Wiki Hackathon in Kwara State|Wiki Hackathon in Kwara State]]
* [[Education/News/May 2022/Introduction of the Wikimedia Fan Club to Kwara State University Malete|Introduction of the Wikimedia Fan Club to Kwara State University Malete]]
* [[Education/News/May 2022/Education in Kosovo|Education in Kosovo]]
* [[Education/News/May 2022/Bringing the Wikiprojects to the Island of Catanduanes|Bringing the Wikiprojects to the Island of Catanduanes]]
* [[Education/News/May 2022/Tyap Wikipedia Goes Live|Tyap Wikipedia Goes Live]]
* [[Education/News/May 2022/Spring 1Lib1Ref edition in Poland|Spring 1Lib1Ref edition in Poland]]
* [[Education/News/May 2022/Tyap Editors Host Maiden Wiktionary In-person Training Workshop|Tyap Editors Host Maiden Wiktionary In-person Training Workshop]]
* [[Education/News/May 2022/Wikibooks project in teaching|Wikibooks project in teaching]]
* [[Education/News/May 2022/Africa Eduwiki Network Hosted Conversation about Wikimedian in Education with Nebojša Ratković|Africa Eduwiki Network Hosted Conversation about Wikimedian in Education with Nebojša Ratković]]
* [[Education/News/May 2022/My Journey In The Wiki-Space By Thomas Baah|My Journey In The Wiki-Space By Thomas Baah]]
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education| Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 02:43, 1 June 2022 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: May 2022 ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:40px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:20px; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; width:900px;&quot;&gt; Volume 11 • Issue 5 • May 2022&lt;/span&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/May 2022|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/May 2022/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/span&gt;
----
&lt;span style=&quot;color:white; font-size:26px; font-family:Montserrat; display:block; background:#92BFB1; width:100%;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em; -moz-column-count: 2; -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;

* [[m:Education/News/May 2022/Wiki Hackathon in Kwara State|Wiki Hackathon in Kwara State]]
* [[m:Education/News/May 2022/Introduction of the Wikimedia Fan Club to Kwara State University Malete|Introduction of the Wikimedia Fan Club to Kwara State University Malete]]
* [[m:Education/News/May 2022/Education in Kosovo|Education in Kosovo]]
* [[m:Education/News/May 2022/Bringing the Wikiprojects to the Island of Catanduanes|Bringing the Wikiprojects to the Island of Catanduanes]]
* [[m:Education/News/May 2022/Tyap Wikipedia Goes Live|Tyap Wikipedia Goes Live]]
* [[m:Education/News/May 2022/Spring 1Lib1Ref edition in Poland|Spring 1Lib1Ref edition in Poland]]
* [[m:Education/News/May 2022/Tyap Editors Host Maiden Wiktionary In-person Training Workshop|Tyap Editors Host Maiden Wiktionary In-person Training Workshop]]
* [[m:Education/News/May 2022/Wikibooks project in teaching|Wikibooks project in teaching]]
* [[m:Education/News/May 2022/Africa Eduwiki Network Hosted Conversation about Wikimedian in Education with Nebojša Ratković|Africa Eduwiki Network Hosted Conversation about Wikimedian in Education with Nebojša Ratković]]
* [[m:Education/News/May 2022/My Journey In The Wiki-Space By Thomas Baah|My Journey In The Wiki-Space By Thomas Baah]]
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education| Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 02:54, 1 June 2022 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: June 2022 ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 11 • Issue 6 • June 2022&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/June 2022|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/June 2022/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2022/Black Lunch Table: Black History Month with Igbo Wikimedians User Group|Black Lunch Table: Black History Month with Igbo Wikimedians User Group]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2022/Bolivian Teachers Welcomed Wikipedia in their Classroom|Bolivian Teachers Welcomed Wikipedia in their Classroom]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2022/Educational program &amp; Wikivoyage in Ukrainian University|Educational program &amp; Wikivoyage in Ukrainian University]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2022/The Great Learning and Connection: Experience from AFLIA|The Great Learning and Connection: Experience from AFLIA]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2022/New Mexico Students Join Wikimedia Movement Through WikiForHumanRights Campaign|New Mexico Students Join Wikimedia Movement Through WikiForHumanRights Campaign]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2022/The school wiki-project run by a 15 year old student came to an end|The school wiki-project run by a 15 year old student came to an end]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2022/The students of Kadir Has University, Istanbul contribute Wikimedia projects in &quot;Civic Responsibility Project&quot; course|The students of Kadir Has University, Istanbul contribute Wikimedia projects in &quot;Civic Responsibility Project&quot; course]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2022/Wiki Trip with Vasil Kamami Wikiclub to Berat, the town of one thousand windows|Wiki Trip with Vasil Kamami Wikiclub to Berat, the town of one thousand windows]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2022/Wikiclubs in Albania|Wikiclubs in Albania]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2022/Wikidata in the classroom FGGC Bwari Experience|Wikidata in the classroom FGGC Bwari Experience]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2022/Wikipedia and Secondary Schools in Aotearoa New Zealand|Wikipedia and Secondary Schools in Aotearoa New Zealand]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2022/А large-scale online course for teaching beginners to work in Wikipedia has been developed in Russia|А large-scale online course for teaching beginners to work in Wikipedia has been developed in Russia]]
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 18:50, 4 July 2022 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: July 2022 ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 11 • Issue 7 • July 2022&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/July 2022|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/July 2022/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2022/Wikimedia Chile launched a teacher guidebook with Wiki tools for Heritage Education|Wikimedia Chile launched a teacher guidebook with Wiki tools for Heritage Education]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2022/Wikimedia Serbia received a new accreditation for the professional development program|Wikimedia Serbia received a new accreditation for the professional development program]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2022/Wikimedia for Illiterate Persons|Wikimedia for Illiterate Persons]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2022/EtnoWiki edit-a-thon in Poland|Polish Wikipedia is enriched with new EtnoWiki content]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2022/Career Education through Wikipedia|Career Education through Wikipedia]]
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 17:38, 3 August 2022 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: August 2022 ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 11 • Issue 8 • August 2022&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/August 2022|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/August 2022/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2022/The Making of a Certified Trainer of Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom|The Making of a Certified Trainer of Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2022/Wikimania SDGs 2022: The Kwara Experience|Wikimania SDGs 2022: The Kwara Experience]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2022/An adapted Module teacher’s guide in Yoruba and English about Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom in Nigeria is now available on Commons|An adapted Module teacher’s guide in Yoruba and English about Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom in Nigeria is now available on Commons]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2022/Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom Kwara, Nigeria: The Trainers Experience|Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom Kwara, Nigeria: The Trainers Experience]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2022/Edu Wiki Camp 2022 in Serbia: Together again|Edu Wiki Camp 2022 in Serbia: Together again]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2022/Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom Program Nigeria: The Teacher experience |Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom Program Nigeria: The Teacher experience]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2022/Wiki For Senior Citizens|Wiki For Senior Citizens]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2022/WikiLoves SDGs Nigeria Tours Kwara State University Malete|WikiLoves SDGs Nigeria Tours Kwara State University Malete]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2022/Wikiteka project in Poland - summertime|Wikiteka project in Poland - summertime]]
&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: September 2022 ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 11 • Issue 9 • September 2022&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/September 2022|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/September 2022/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2022/OpenEdu.ch: centralising training documents, a platform for the teachers' community in Switzerland|OpenEdu.ch: centralising training documents, a platform for the teachers' community in Switzerland]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2022/Senior Citizens WikiTown 2022: Exploring Olomouc and its heritage|Senior Citizens WikiTown 2022: Exploring Olomouc and its heritage]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2022/Wikimedia Research Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2022/Wikimedia Youths Commemorate the International Youth Day 2022 in an exciting way across the globe|Wikimedia Youths Commemorate the International Youth Day 2022 in an exciting way across the globe]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2022/Wikipedia, Education, and the Crisis of Information|Wikipedia, Education, and the Crisis of Information]]
&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: End of the 2022 ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 11 • Issue 10 • October–November 2022&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/End of the 2022|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/End of the 2022/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2022/2nd Latin American Regional Meeting on Education|2nd Latin American Regional Meeting on Education]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2022/Adopting Wikipedia for Secondary School Students in Nigeria Classroom|Adopting Wikipedia for Secondary School Students in Nigeria Classroom]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2022/Celebrating 2022 Vibrance in Kwara State University Malete|Celebrating 2022 Vibrance in Kwara State University Malete]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2022/Celebrating the Wikipedia and Wikidata Birthday in school|Celebrating the Wikipedia and Wikidata Birthday in school]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2022/Report on school libraries in Poland for the Wikiteka project|Report on school libraries in Poland for the Wikiteka project]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2022/Wiki For Senior Citizens Network|Wiki For Senior Citizens Network]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2022/WikiEducation, Educational practices and experiences in Mexico with Wikipedia and other open resources|WikiEducation, Educational practices and experiences in Mexico with Wikipedia and other open resources]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2022/Wikimedia &amp; Education Workshops: a Wiki Movimento Brasil initiative|Wikimedia &amp; Education Workshops: a Wiki Movimento Brasil initiative]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2022/An event at the National History Museum in Tirana|An event at the National History Museum in Tirana]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2022/Students 24-hour competition on Wikipedia article writing|Students 24-hour competition on Wikipedia article writing]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2022/Wiki-Data a Giant at 10|Wiki-Data a Giant at 10]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2022/WikiGraphers: Visualizing Open Knowledge|WikiGraphers: Visualizing Open Knowledge]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2022/Wikimedia Israel’s Educational Innovation: “Students Write Wikipedia” as a Matriculation-Exam Alternative|Wikimedia Israel’s Educational Innovation: “Students Write Wikipedia” as a Matriculation-Exam Alternative]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2022/Wikimedia Morocco User Group Empowers Moroccan Teachers to Use Wikipedia in the Classroom |Wikimedia Morocco User Group Empowers Moroccan Teachers to Use Wikipedia in the Classroom]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2022/Wikimedia Russia has released the &quot;Introduction to Wikipedia&quot; textbook|Wikimedia Russia has released the &quot;Introduction to Wikipedia&quot; textbook]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2022/“Wikipedia for School” contest was held in Ukraine for the third time|“Wikipedia for School” contest was held in Ukraine for the third time]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2022/Announcing the Wikipedia &amp; Education User Group Election Results|Announcing the Wikipedia &amp; Education User Group Election Results]]
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 06:56, 19 December 2022 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: January 2023 ==

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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 12 • Issue 1 • January 2023&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/January 2023|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/January 2023/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2023/Educational Projects 2023-1 in Mexico|Educational Projects 2023-1 in Mexico]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2023/Integration of Wikipedia in Ukrainian universities – teacher-led and student-led|Integration of Wikipedia in Ukrainian universities – teacher-led and student-led]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2023/Transitional Justice in Kosovo edit-a-thon and Partnership with Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering - University of Prishtina|Transitional Justice in Kosovo edit-a-thon and Partnership with Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering - University of Prishtina]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2023/Wikidata Citation Hunt Program for secondary school students, Dubai|Wikidata Citation Hunt Program for secondary school students, Dubai]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2023/Wikipedia edit-a-thon with students from Art Faculty - University of Prishtina|Wikipedia edit-a-thon with students from Art Faculty - University of Prishtina]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2023/Тeacher from Belgrade got a reward for using Wikibooks in teaching|Тeacher from Belgrade got a reward for using Wikibooks in teaching]]
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 17:32, 6 February 2023 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: February 2023 ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 12 • Issue 2 • February 2023&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/February 2023|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/February 2023/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2023/A Strategic Direction for a Massive Online Course for Educators in Brazil|A Strategic Direction for a Massive Online Course for Educators in Brazil]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2023/Alliance Funding for Wikipedia as a school resource in Tāmaki Makaurau Auckland, New Zealand|Alliance Funding for Wikipedia as a school resource in Tāmaki Makaurau Auckland, New Zealand]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2023/Call for Submissions to Wiki Workshop 2023|Call for Submissions to Wiki Workshop 2023]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2023/Collaboration with Charles University on the creation of Czech Wikipedia started in January|Collaboration with Charles University on the creation of Czech Wikipedia started in January]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2023/Open Education Week 2023 in the Wikimedia Mexico Education Program|Open Education Week 2023 in the Wikimedia Mexico Education Program]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2023/Wikiclubs with different schools in Albania |Wikiclubs with different schools in Albania]]
&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: March 2023 ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 12 • Issue 3 • March 2023&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/March 2023|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/March 2023/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2023/Audio-seminar project of the Wikimedia Mexico Education Program|Audio-seminar project of the Wikimedia Mexico Education Program]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2023/Empowering Nigerian Female Artists: Through Art &amp; Feminism Edith-A-Thon at KWASU Fan Club|Empowering Nigerian Female Artists: Through Art &amp; Feminism Edith-A-Thon at KWASU Fan Club]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2023/Exploring How Wikipedia Works|Exploring How Wikipedia Works]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2023/Florida graduate students complete Library History edit-a-thon for credit|Florida graduate students complete Library History edit-a-thon for credit]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2023/Improving hearing health content in Brazil|Improving hearing health content in Brazil]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2023/Media Literacy Portal to become a key resource for media education in Czech Libraries |Media Literacy Portal to become a key resource for media education in Czech Libraries]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2023/Wikeys in the Albanian language|Wikeys in the Albanian language]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2023/Wikimarathon is an opportunity to involve students and teachers in creating and editing articles in Wikipedia|Wikimarathon is an opportunity to involve students and teachers in creating and editing articles in Wikipedia]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2023/Wikimedia Polska short report|Wikimedia Polska short report]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2023/Wikimedia Serbia participated in the State Seminar of the The Mathematical Society of Serbia|Wikimedia Serbia participated in the State Seminar of the The Mathematical Society of Serbia]]
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 18:45, 8 April 2023 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: April 2023 ==

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&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 12 • Issue 4 • April 2023&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/April 2023|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/April 2023/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2023/Auckland Museum Alliance fund project update|Auckland Museum Alliance fund project update]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2023/Introducing Wikipedia to Kusaal Language Teachers|Introducing Wikipedia to Kusaal Language Teachers]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2023/KWASU Fan Club Leads the Way in 21st Century Learning with Wiki in School Program|KWASU Fan Club Leads the Way in 21st Century Learning with Wiki in School Program]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2023/On-line Courses for Educators in Poland|On-line Courses for Educators in Poland]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2023/Online meeting of Ukrainian educators working with Wikipedia – four perspectives|Online meeting of Ukrainian educators working with Wikipedia – four perspectives]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2023/Wikiclubs Editathon in Elbasan, Albania |Wikiclubs Editathon in Elbasan, Albania]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2023/Wikipedia at the Brazilian Linguistics Olympiad|Wikipedia at the Brazilian Linguistics Olympiad]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2023/Wikipedia at the University of Łódź Information Management Conference|Wikipedia at the University of Łódź Information Management Conference]]
&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: June 2023 ==

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&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 12 • Issue 5 • June 2023&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/June 2023|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/June 2023/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2023/Africa Day 2023: Abuja Teachers celebrates|Africa Day 2023: Abuja Teachers celebrates]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2023/From editing articles to civic power – Wikimedia UK's research on democracy and Wikipedia|From editing articles to civic power – Wikimedia UK's research on democracy and Wikipedia]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2023/Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom Program in Yemen Brings Positive Impact to Yemeni Teachers|Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom Program in Yemen Brings Positive Impact to Yemeni Teachers]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2023/Using Wikipedia in education: students' and teachers' view|Using Wikipedia in education: students' and teachers' view]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2023/The Journey of Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom Lagos State|The Journey of Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom Lagos State]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2023/WMB goes to Serbia |WMB goes to Serbia]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2023/But we don't want it to end!|But we don't want it to end!]]
&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: July 2023 ==

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&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 12 • Issue 7 • July 2023&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/July 2023|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/July 2023/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2023/Wikimedia Kaduna Connect Campaign|Wikimedia Kaduna Connect Campaign]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2023/Wikimedia Serbia published a paper Promoting Equity in Access to Open Knowledge: An Example of the Wikipedia Educational Program|Wikimedia Serbia published a paper Promoting Equity in Access to Open Knowledge: An Example of the Wikipedia Educational Program]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2023/Wikimedia and Education Kailali Multiple campus|Wikimedia and Education Kailali Multiple campus]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2023/WikiCamp in Istog, Kosovo: Promoting Knowledge and Nature Appreciation|WikiCamp in Istog, Kosovo: Promoting Knowledge and Nature Appreciation]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2023/Wiki at the Brazilian National History Symposium|Wiki at the Brazilian National History Symposium]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2023/US &amp; Canada program reaches 100M words added |US &amp; Canada program reaches 100M words added]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2023/Renewed Community Wikiconference brought together experienced Wikipedians and newcomers|Renewed Community Wikiconference brought together experienced Wikipedians and newcomers]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2023/Kusaal Wikipedia Workshop at Ajumako Campus, University of Education, Winneba|Kusaal Wikipedia Workshop at Ajumako Campus, University of Education, Winneba]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2023/Join us to celebrate the Kiwix4Schools Africa Mentorship Program Graduation Ceremony|Join us to celebrate the Kiwix4Schools Africa Mentorship Program Graduation Ceremony]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2023/Activities that took place during the presentation of the WikiEducation book|Activities that took place during the presentation of the WikiEducation book. Educational practices and experiences in Mexico with Wikipedia and other open resources in Xalala, Veracruz from the Wikimedia Mexico Education Program]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2023/62+ Participants Graduates from the Kiwix4Schools Africa Mentorship Program|62+ Participants Graduates from the Kiwix4Schools Africa Mentorship Program]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2023/“Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom” course launched in Ukraine|“Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom” course launched in Ukraine]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2023/OFWA and Goethe Institute Host Wiki Skills For Librarians Workshop-Ghana|OFWA and Goethe Institute Host Wiki Skills For Librarians Workshop-Ghana]]
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 15:32, 14 August 2023 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: September 2023 ==

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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 12 • Issue 7 • September 2023&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/September 2023|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/September 2023/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2023/Inauguration of the Kent Wiki Club at the Wikimania 2023 Conference|Inauguration of the Kent Wiki Club at the Wikimania 2023 Conference]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2023/Letter Magic: Supercharging Your WikiEducation Programs|Letter Magic: Supercharging Your WikiEducation Programs]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2023/Réseau @pprendre (Learning Network) : The Initiative for Educational Change in Francophone West Africa|Réseau @pprendre (Learning Network) : The Initiative for Educational Change in Francophone West Africa]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2023/WikiChallenge Ecoles d’Afrique closes its 5th edition with 13 winning schools|WikiChallenge Ecoles d’Afrique closes its 5th edition with 13 winning schools]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2023/WikiConecta: connecting Brazilian university professors and Wikimedia|WikiConecta: connecting Brazilian university professors and Wikimedia]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2023/Wikimedia Germany launches interactive event series Open Source AI in Education |Wikimedia Germany launches interactive event series Open Source AI in Education]]
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 05:01, 10 October 2023 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: October 2023 ==

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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;Volume 12 • Issue 8 • October 2023&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/October 2023|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/October 2023/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2023/3 Generations at Wikipedia Education Program in Türkiye|3 Generations at Wikipedia Education Program in Türkiye]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2023/CBSUA Launches Wiki Education in Partnership with PhilWiki Community and Bikol Wikipedia Community|CBSUA Launches Wiki Education in Partnership with PhilWiki Community and Bikol Wikipedia Community]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2023/Celebrating Wikidata’s Birthday in Elbasan|Celebrating Wikidata’s Birthday in Elbasan]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2023/Edu Wiki Camp 2023 - together in Sremski Karlovci|Edu Wiki Camp 2023 - together in Sremski Karlovci]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2023/PhilWiki Community promotes language preservation and cultural heritage advocacies at ADNU|PhilWiki Community promotes language preservation and cultural heritage advocacies at ADNU]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2023/PunjabWiki Education Program: A Wikipedia Adventure in Punjab|PunjabWiki Education Program: A Wikipedia Adventure in Punjab]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2023/WikiConference on Education ignites formation of Wikimedia communities|WikiConference on Education ignites formation of Wikimedia communities]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2023/Wikimedia Estonia talked about education at CEE meeting in Tbilisi|Wikimedia Estonia talked about education at CEE meeting in Tbilisi]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2023/Wikimedia in Brazil is going to be a book|Wikimedia in Brazil is going to be a book]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2023/Wikipedian Editor Project: Arabic Sounds Workshop 2023|Wikipedian Editor Project: Arabic Sounds Workshop 2023]]
&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: November 2023 ==

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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 12 • Issue 9 • November 2023&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/November 2023|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/November 2023/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2023/4th WikiUNAM Editathon: Community knowledge strengthens education|4th WikiUNAM Editathon: Community knowledge strengthens education]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2023/Edit-a-thon at the Faculty of Medical Sciences of Santa Casa de São Paulo|Edit-a-thon at the Faculty of Medical Sciences of Santa Casa de São Paulo]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2023/EduWiki Nigeria Community: Embracing Digital Learning Through Wikipedia|EduWiki Nigeria Community: Embracing Digital Learning Through Wikipedia]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2023/Evening Wikischool offers Czech seniors further education on Wikipedia|Evening Wikischool offers Czech seniors further education on Wikipedia]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2023/Expansion of Wikipedia Education Program through Student Associations at Iranian Universities|Expansion of Wikipedia Education Program through Student Associations at Iranian Universities]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2023/Exploring Wikipedia through Wikiclubs and the Wikeys board game in Albania |Exploring Wikipedia through Wikiclubs and the Wikeys board game in Albania]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2023/First anniversary of the game Wikeys|First anniversary of the game Wikeys]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2023/Involve visiting students in education programs|Involve visiting students in education programs]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2023/Iranian Students as Wikipedians: Using Wikipedia to Teach Research Methodology and Encyclopedic Writing|Iranian Students as Wikipedians: Using Wikipedia to Teach Research Methodology and Encyclopedic Writing]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2023/Kiwix4Schools Nigeria: Bridging Knowledge Gap through Digital Literacy|Kiwix4Schools Nigeria: Bridging Knowledge Gap through Digital Literacy]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2023/Lire wikipedia en classe à Djougou au Bénin|Lire wikipedia en classe à Djougou au Bénin]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2023/Tyap Wikimedians Zaria Outreach|Tyap Wikimedians Zaria Outreach]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2023/Art Outreach at Aje Compreshensive Senior High School 1st November 2023, Lagos Mainland|Art Outreach at Aje Comprehensive Senior High School 1st November 2023, Lagos Mainland]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2023/PhilWiki Community holds a meet-up to advocate women empowerment|PhilWiki Community holds a meet-up to advocate women empowerment]]
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 08:24, 14 December 2023 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: January 2024 ==

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&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 13 • Issue 1 • January 2024&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/January 2024|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/January 2024/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2024/Cross-Continental Wikimedia Activities: A Dialogue between Malaysia and Estonia|Cross-Continental Wikimedia Activities: A Dialogue between Malaysia and Estonia]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2024/Czech programme SWW in 2023 – how have we managed to engage students|Czech programme SWW in 2023 – how have we managed to engage students]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2024/Extending Updates on Wikipedia in Education – Elbasan, Albania|Extending Updates on Wikipedia in Education – Elbasan, Albania]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2024/Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom Teacher’s guide – now available in Bulgarian language|Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom Teacher’s guide – now available in Bulgarian language]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2024/Summer students at Auckland Museum|Summer students at Auckland Museum]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2024/WikiDunong: EduWiki Initiatives in the Philippines Project|WikiDunong: EduWiki Initiatives in the Philippines Project]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2024/Wikimedia Armenia's Educational Workshops|Wikimedia Armenia's Educational Workshops]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2024/Wikimedia Foundation publishes its first Child Rights Impact Assessment|Wikimedia Foundation publishes its first Child Rights Impact Assessment]]
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 10:02, 10 February 2024 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: February 2024 ==

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&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 13 • Issue 2 • February 2024&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/February 2024|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/February 2024/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2024/2 new courses in Students Write Wikipedia Starting this February|2 new courses in Students Write Wikipedia Starting this February]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2024/More two wiki-education partnerships|More two wiki-education partnerships]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2024/Open Education Week 2024 in Mexico|Open Education Week 2024 in Mexico]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2024/Reading Wikipedia in Bolivia, the community grows|Reading Wikipedia in Bolivia, the community grows]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2024/Wiki Education Philippines promotes OERs utilization|Wiki Education Philippines promotes OERs utilization]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2024/Wiki Loves Librarians, Kaduna|Wiki Loves Librarians, Kaduna]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2024/Wiki Workshop 2024 CfP - Call for Papers Research track|Wiki Workshop 2024 CfP – Call for Papers Research track]]
&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: March 2024 ==

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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 13 • Issue 3 • March 2024&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/March 2024|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/March 2024/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2024/Reading Wikipedia in the classroom, Kaduna|Reading Wikipedia in the classroom, Kaduna]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2024/Reading Wikipedia in Ukraine – the course for educators is now available on demand|Reading Wikipedia in Ukraine – the course for educators is now available on demand]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2024/Wiki Movement Brazil will once again support the Brazilian Linguistics Olympiad|Wiki Movement Brazil will once again support the Brazilian Linguistics Olympiad]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2024/Wikipedia within the Education Setting in Albania|Wikipedia within the Education Setting in Albania]]
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 07:28, 28 April 2024 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: April 2024 ==

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&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 13 • Issue 4 • April 2024&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/April 2024|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/April 2024/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2024/EduWiki Updates From Uganda|EduWiki Updates From Uganda]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2024/Good news from Bolivia: Reading Wikipedia Program continues in 2024|Good news from Bolivia: Reading Wikipedia Program continues in 2024]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2024/Hearing Health Project: Impactful partnership with Wiki Movement Brazil|Hearing Health Project: Impactful partnership with Wiki Movement Brazil]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2024/Wikimedia Spain, Amical Wikimedia and the University of Valencia develop Wikipedia educational project|Wikimedia Spain, Amical Wikimedia and the University of Valencia develop Wikipedia educational project]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 03:19, 14 May 2024 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: May 2024 ==

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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 13 • Issue 5 • May 2024&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/May 2024|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/May 2024/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2024/Albania - Georgia Wikimedia Cooperation 2024|Albania - Georgia Wikimedia Cooperation 2024]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2024/Aleksandër Xhuvani University Editathon in Elbasan|Aleksandër Xhuvani University Editathon in Elbasan]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2024/Central Bicol State University of Agriculture LitFest features translation and article writing on Wikipedia|Central Bicol State University of Agriculture LitFest features translation and article writing on Wikipedia]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2024/Empowering Youth Council in Bulqiza through editathons|Empowering Youth Council in Bulqiza through editathons]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2024/We left a piece of our hearts at Arhavi|We left a piece of our hearts at Arhavi]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2024/Wiki Movimento Brasil at Tech Week and Education Speaker Series |Wiki Movimento Brasil at Tech Week and Education Speaker Series]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2024/Wikimedia MKD trains new users in collaboration with MYLA|Wikimedia MKD trains new users in collaboration with MYLA]]
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 13:30, 15 June 2024 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: June 2024 ==

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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 13 • Issue 6 • June 2024&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/June 2024|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/June 2024/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2024/From a Language Teacher to a Library Support Staff: The Wikimedia Effect|From a Language Teacher to a Library Support Staff: The Wikimedia Effect]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2024/5th WikiEducation 2024 Conference in Mexico|5th WikiEducation 2024 Conference in Mexico]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2024/Lviv hosted a spring wikischool for Ukrainian high school students|Lviv hosted a spring wikischool for Ukrainian high school students]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2024/First class of teachers graduated from Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom 2024|First class of teachers graduated from Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom 2024]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2024/Empowering Digital Citizenship: Unlocking the Power of Open Knowledge with Participants of the LIFE Legacy|Empowering Digital Citizenship: Unlocking the Power of Open Knowledge with Participants of the LIFE Legacy]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2024/Wiki Movimento Brazil supports online and in-person courses and launches material to guide educators in using Wikimedia projects |Wiki Movimento Brazil supports online and in-person courses and launches material to guide educators in using Wikimedia projects]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2024/Where to find images for free? Webinar for librarians answered many questions|Where to find images for free? Webinar for librarians answered many questions]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2024/Wikimedia MKD and University of Goce Delchev start a mutual collaboration|Wikimedia MKD and University of Goce Delchev start a mutual collaboration]]
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 06:58, 9 July 2024 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: August 2024 ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 13 • Issue 7 • August 2024&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/August 2024|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/August 2024/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2024/Cross-Cultural Knowledge Sharing: Wikipedia's New Frontier at University of Tehran|Cross-Cultural Knowledge Sharing: Wikipedia's New Frontier at University of Tehran]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2024/Let's Read Wikipedia in Bolivia reaches teachers in Cochabamba|Let's Read Wikipedia in Bolivia reaches teachers in Cochabamba]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2024/Results of the 2023 “Wikipedia for School” Contest in Ukraine|Results of the 2023 “Wikipedia for School” Contest in Ukraine]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2024/Edu Wiki Camp in Serbia, 2024|Edu Wiki Camp in Serbia, 2024]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2024/Wikimedia Human Rights Month this year engaged schools in large amount|Wikimedia Human Rights Month this year engaged schools in large amount]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2024/Strengthening Education Programs at Wikimania 2024: A Global Leap in Collaborative Learning|Strengthening Education Programs at Wikimania 2024: A Global Leap in Collaborative Learning]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2024/Wiki Education programs are featured in a scientific outreach magazine, and Wiki Movimento Brasil offers training for researchers in the Amazon|Wiki Education programs are featured in a scientific outreach magazine, and Wiki Movimento Brasil offers training for researchers in the Amazon]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2024/Wiki Movimento Brasil aims to adapt a game about Wikipedia, organize an academic event for scientific dissemination, and host the XXXIII Wiki-Education Workshop|Wiki Movimento Brasil aims to adapt a game about Wikipedia, organize an academic event for scientific dissemination, and host the XXXIII Wiki-Education Workshop]]
&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: October 2024 ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 13 • Issue 8 • October 2024&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/October 2024|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/October 2024/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2024/CBSUA Wiki Education turns 1 year|CBSUA Wiki Education turns 1 year]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2024/7th Senior WikiTown took place in Becov nad Teplou, Czech Republic|7th Senior WikiTown took place in Becov nad Teplou, Czech Republic]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2024/Edit-a-thon about Modern Architecture in Kosovo|Edit-a-thon about Modern Architecture in Kosovo]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2024/Edu_Wiki_in_South_Sudan:_Creating_a_better_future_in_education|Empowering Digital Literacy through Wikimedia in South Sudan]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2024/Many new articles and contributions in September and October for Wikimedia MKD|Many new articles and contributions in September and October for Wikimedia MKD]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2024/New Record: 5 Events in Municipal Library within a Month |New Record: 5 Events in Municipal Library within a Month]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2024/Wiki-Education programs in Brazil are centered around the Wikidata and Wikisource platforms|Wiki-Education programs in Brazil are centered around the Wikidata and Wikisource platforms]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2024/WikiChallenge African Schools wins the “Open Pedagogy” Award 2024 from OE Global|WikiChallenge African Schools wins the “Open Pedagogy” Award 2024 from OE Global]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2024/Wikipedia helps in improving cognitive skills|Wikipedia helps in improving cognitive skills]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2024/Wikipedia in Graduate Studies: Expanding Research Impact|Wikipedia in Graduate Studies: Expanding Research Impact]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2024/WiLMa PH establishes a Wiki Club|WiLMa PH establishes a Wiki Club]]
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 14:56, 12 November 2024 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: November 2024 ==

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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 13 • Issue 9 • November 2024&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/November 2024|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/November 2024/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2024/Auckland Museum Wikipedia Student Programme|Auckland Museum Wikipedia Student Programme]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2024/Citizenship and free knowledge on Wikipedia in Albanian language|Citizenship and free knowledge on Wikipedia in Albanian language]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2024/Engaging students with Wikipedia and Wikidata at Hasanuddin University’s Wikimedia Week|Engaging students with Wikipedia and Wikidata at Hasanuddin University’s Wikimedia Week]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2024/Minigrant initiative by empowering the Rrëshen community in Albania|Minigrant initiative by empowering the Rrëshen community in Albania]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2024/Wikidata birthday in Albania, 2024|Wikidata birthday in Albania, 2024]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2024/Wikidata birthday in School |Wikidata birthday in School]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2024/Wikimedia Education Workshop at Lumbini Technological University|Wikimedia Education Workshop at Lumbini Technological University]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2024/Wikimedia MKD's new collaborations and new content|Wikimedia MKD's new collaborations and new content]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2024/Improving Historical Knowledge on Persian Wikipedia through a continuous Wikimedia Education Program: Shahid Beheshti University Wikipedia Education Program|Improving Historical Knowledge on Persian Wikipedia through a continuous Wikimedia Education Program: Shahid Beheshti University Wikipedia Education Program]]
&lt;/div&gt;

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== This Month in Education: January 2025 ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 14 • Issue 1 • January 2025&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/January 2025|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/January 2025/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2025/Advancing Education Pillar in Kosovo: 2024 Journey|Advancing Education Pillar in Kosovo: 2024 Journey]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2025/Auckland Museum Wikipedia Students Making Progress|Auckland Museum Wikipedia Students Making Progress]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2025/Celebrating 10 Years of Wiki Education|Celebrating 10 Years of Wiki Education]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2025/Empowering Multilingual Students: Expanding Wikipedia Through Collaboration of foreign languages faculty's students of the University of Tehran|Empowering Multilingual Students: Expanding Wikipedia Through Collaboration of foreign languages faculty's students of the University of Tehran]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2025/Ensuring accurate and authentic information with 1Lib1Ref Campaign in Anambra|Ensuring accurate and authentic information with 1Lib1Ref Campaign in Anambra]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2025/Experiences of Wikipedia in the classroom with a gender perspective in Monterrey |Experiences of Wikipedia in the classroom with a gender perspective in Monterrey]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2025/Fine Arts University Students exploring Wikipedia in Tirana, Albania|Fine Arts University Students exploring Wikipedia in Tirana, Albania]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2025/Lviv hosted Ukraine’s first student photo walk for Wikipedia|Lviv hosted Ukraine’s first student photo walk for Wikipedia]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2025/Many new trained volunteers and new articles at the end of the year in Macedonia|Many new trained volunteers and new articles at the end of the year in Macedonia]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2025/Wikimedia and Scientific Events in Brazil|Wikimedia and Scientific Events in Brazil]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2025/Wiki Workshop- Call for Contributions|Wiki Workshop- Call for Contributions]]
&lt;/div&gt;

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== This Month in Education: February 2025 ==

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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 14 • Issue 2 • February 2025&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/February 2025|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/February 2025/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2025/Activities series at the Shefit Hekali school in Peqin, Albania|Activities series at the Shefit Hekali school in Peqin, Albania]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2025/Wikimedia Brazil has formed a partnership with a public policy research institute|Wikimedia Brazil has formed a partnership with a public policy research institute]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2025/Preserving Heritage: Tuluvas Aati Month Educational Wikimedia Programs|Preserving Heritage: Tuluvas Aati Month Educational Wikimedia Programs]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2025/Reflecting on our Past: Farewell to the Auckland Museum Summer Students|Reflecting on our Past: Farewell to the Auckland Museum Summer Students]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2025/Successful Conclusion of the Second Phase of &quot;Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom&quot; in Yemen|Successful Conclusion of the Second Phase of &quot;Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom&quot; in Yemen]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2025/Wiki Workshop in Mitrovica |Wiki Workshop in Mitrovica]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2025/Wikimedia MKD' Education: Lots of new trained users, lots of new articles|Wikimedia MKD' Education: Lots of new trained users, lots of new articles]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2025/Wikimedia Serbia receives accreditation from the National Library of Serbia for the Wiki Senior seminar|Wikimedia Serbia receives accreditation from the National Library of Serbia for the Wiki Senior seminar]]
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 09:04, 12 March 2025 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: March 2025 ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 14 • Issue 3 • March 2025&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/March 2025|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/March 2025/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2025/A Whole New World: Research Findings on New Editor Integration in Serbian Wikipedia|A Whole New World: Research Findings on New Editor Integration in Serbian Wikipedia]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2025/Bolivia: a new round of Leamos Wikipedia begins in Bolivia|Bolivia: a new round of Leamos Wikipedia begins in Bolivia]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2025/Faculty of Social Sciences Workshop in Albania|Faculty of Social Sciences Workshop in Albania]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2025/Lots of contributions and trainings as part of Wikimedia MKD's Education Programme|Lots of contributions and trainings as part of Wikimedia MKD's Education Programme]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2025/Wikimedia organized multiple events of science and education in Brazil during the month of March|Wikimedia organized multiple events of science and education in Brazil during the month of March]]
&lt;/div&gt;

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== This Month in Education: April 2025 ==

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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 14 • Issue 4 • April 2025&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/April 2025|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/April 2025/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2025/Ceremony of giving certificates and awarding the winners of the edit-a-thon: Meet Slovenia|Ceremony of giving certificates and awarding the winners of the edit-a-thon: Meet Slovenia]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2025/The Workshops Wikimedia &amp; Education are back in Brazil|The Workshops Wikimedia &amp; Education are back in Brazil]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2025/EduWiki Nigeria: Advancing Digital Literacy in Schools|EduWiki Nigeria: Advancing Digital Literacy in Schools]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2025/Empowering the Next Generation: Wikidata Training at Federal Government Boys College, FGBC Abuja|Empowering the Next Generation: Wikidata Training at Federal Government Boys College, FGBC Abuja]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2025/Final Wikipedia project with Shefit Hekali school in Peqin, Albania|Final Wikipedia project with Shefit Hekali school in Peqin, Albania]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2025/Teachers who graduated from the Leamos Wikipedia program in Bolivia become mentors for their colleagues |Teachers who graduated from the Leamos Wikipedia program in Bolivia become mentors for their colleagues]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2025/Wikivoyage in Has region, Northern Albania|Wikivoyage in Has region, Northern Albania]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2025/Wikivoyage workshop in Bulqiza|Wikivoyage workshop in Bulqiza]]
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 02:48, 10 May 2025 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: May 2025 ==

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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 14 • Issue 5 • May 2025&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/May 2025|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/May 2025/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2025/Journalism students at Aleksandër Xhuvani University explore Wikipedia in Albania|Journalism students at Aleksandër Xhuvani University explore Wikipedia in Albania]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2025/Reviewing pending articles editathon with high school students in Albania|Reviewing pending articles editathon with high school students in Albania]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2025/Several educational workshops to promote science on Wiki were held in Brazil in the month of May|Several educational workshops to promote science on Wiki were held in Brazil in the month of May]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2025/Simón Bolívar Teacher Training College joins the Let's Read Wikipedia Program|Simón Bolívar Teacher Training College joins the Let's Read Wikipedia Program]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2025/Students become Editors: Wikimedia Chile launches Latin America's first Vikidia Workshop|Students become Editors: Wikimedia Chile launches Latin America's first Vikidia Workshop]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2025/The DemocraTICon competition was held, this year for the first time with a discipline focused on Wikipedia |The DemocraTICon competition was held, this year for the first time with a discipline focused on Wikipedia]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2025/Wikimedia MKD's &quot;Lajka&quot; workshop in Skopje|Wikimedia MKD's &quot;Lajka&quot; workshop in Skopje]]
&lt;/div&gt;

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== This Month in Education: June 2025 ==

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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 14 • Issue 6 • June 2025&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/June 2025|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/June 2025/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2025/Albanian high school students at the Wikimedia Youth Conference 2025 in Prague|Albanian high school students at the Wikimedia Youth Conference 2025 in Prague]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2025/Bolivia has 20 new teachers graduated from the Let's Read Wikipedia in the Classroom program|Bolivia has 20 new teachers graduated from the Let's Read Wikipedia in the Classroom program]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2025/Brazil was present at the EduWiki Conference 2025 in Bogota|Brazil was present at the EduWiki Conference 2025 in Bogota]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2025/Does Wikipedia has future in the times of Chat-GPT|Does Wikipedia has future in the times of Chat-GPT]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2025/PhilWiki Community promotes accessible multilingual stories for children|PhilWiki Community promotes accessible multilingual stories for children]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2025/Reading and Editing Wikipedia in a Bangladeshi College|Reading and Editing Wikipedia in a Bangladeshi College]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2025/Wikimedia MKD's Workshops in June|Wikimedia MKD's Workshops in June]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2025/Wikipedia meets 2500 Ukrainian educators at the country’s biggest education festival|Wikipedia meets 2500 Ukrainian educators at the country’s biggest education festival]]

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 07:18, 27 June 2025 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: July 2025 ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 14 • Issue 7 • July 2025&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/July 2025|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/July 2025/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2025/Crafting Impactful Education Newsletters: Shared Insights from EduWiki 2025|Crafting Impactful Education Newsletters: Shared Insights from EduWiki 2025]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2025/Educational Outreach with Youth Centers in Albania|Educational Outreach with Youth Centers in Albania]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2025/Discussing educational resources at WikiCon Brasil 2025|Discussing educational resources at WikiCon Brasil 2025]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2025/Enhancing Mobile-Friendly Contribution in Wikimedia Education Programs|Enhancing Mobile-Friendly Contribution in Wikimedia Education Programs]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2025/The second semester of Leamos Wikipedia begins in Bolivia with challenges and learning|The second semester of Leamos Wikipedia begins in Bolivia with challenges and learning]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2025/When Travel Fails, Learning Continues: A Reflection from EduWiki 2025 |When Travel Fails, Learning Continues: A Reflection from EduWiki 2025]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2025/Wiki club in Kumanovo - the newest Wiki club of Wikimedia MKD|Wiki club in Kumanovo - the newest Wiki club of Wikimedia MKD]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2025/Jaroslav Mašek: How KISK FF MU students used AI to write Wikipedia|Jaroslav Mašek: How KISK FF MU students used AI to write Wikipedia]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/July 2025/Various programmes up and rolling with Charles University Prague|Various programmes up and rolling with Charles University Prague]]
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 03:00, 1 August 2025 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: August 2025 ==

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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 14 • Issue 8 • August 2025&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/August 2025|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/August 2025/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/Bootcamp Wikipedia in Classroom|Bootcamp Wikipedia in Classroom]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/Brazil launches campaign about Open Science on Wiki|Brazil launches campaign about Open Science on Wiki]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/Breaking Barriers: Yoruba Wikipedia Fan Club Offa's Historic Wins|Breaking Barriers: Yoruba Wikipedia Fan Club Offa's Historic Wins]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/Emerging Voices in Free Knowledge: The Journey of Wiki Club SATI|Emerging Voices in Free Knowledge: The Journey of Wiki Club SATI]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/From a Curious Student to a Wikimedia Leader|From a Curious Student to a Wikimedia Leader]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/From webinars to conferences: Wikimedia Ukraine’s approach to events for educators|From webinars to conferences: Wikimedia Ukraine’s approach to events for educators]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/Higher education with Wikipedia in Spain|Higher education with Wikipedia in Spain]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/Scientific Contribution from Serbia: Wikipedia in Education Research Published in a Prestigious Journal|Scientific Contribution from Serbia: Wikipedia in Education Research Published in a Prestigious Journal]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/Teachers with Wikipedia. What if we create a Spanish-speaking collaboration network|Teachers with Wikipedia. What if we create a Spanish-speaking collaboration network]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/The brains behind Wikipedia|The brains behind Wikipedia]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/Why EduWiki Should Be Considered by Policymakers|Why EduWiki Should Be Considered by Policymakers]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/Wikimedia Chile in Visviri: Free knowledge and education at Chile’s starting point|Wikimedia Chile in Visviri: Free knowledge and education at Chile’s starting point]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/Wikipedia as a tool presented at Media Education Summer School for Teachers|Wikipedia as a tool presented at Media Education Summer School for Teachers]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/Wikipedia vs AI at La Trobe University|Wikipedia vs AI at La Trobe University]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/St Aloysius University – Wikipedia training session for newcomers|St Aloysius University – Wikipedia training session for newcomers]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/Wiki Loves Academics, WUGN Kaduna|Wiki Loves Academics, WUGN Kaduna]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/In Just 3 Minutes: The Power of Wiki Education|In Just 3 Minutes: The Power of Wiki Education]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/August 2025/Sensing Cebu: Fieldnotes of an Academic as a Wiki Volunteer|Sensing Cebu: Fieldnotes of an Academic as a Wiki Volunteer]]
&lt;/div&gt;

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== This Month in Education: September 2025 ==

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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 14 • Issue 9 • September 2025&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/September 2025|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/September 2025/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2025/Brazil organizes seminar to discuss open science and scientific dissemination|Brazil organizes seminar to discuss open science and scientific dissemination]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2025/CBSUA Recognizes Wiki Training Completers, Awards Feminism &amp; Folklore 2025 Winners|CBSUA Recognizes Wiki Training Completers, Awards Feminism &amp; Folklore 2025 Winners]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2025/2nd International Conference on Wikimedia, Education, and Digital Cultures Mexico 2025|2nd International Conference on Wikimedia, Education, and Digital Cultures Mexico 2025]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2025/Accredited seminar for teachers in Veliko Gradište|Accredited seminar for teachers in Veliko Gradište]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2025/Breaking Barriers, Why open Knowledge matters|Breaking Barriers, Why open Knowledge matters]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2025/Cross-Continental Knowledge Exchange: Offa Youth Impact Initiative and St Aloysius University in 3D Education Outreach |Cross-Continental Knowledge Exchange: Offa Youth Impact Initiative and St Aloysius University in 3D Education Outreach]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2025/Igbo Language Audio Project in the Igbo Wiki Fan Club IMSU &amp; Alvan|Igbo Language Audio Project in the Igbo Wiki Fan Club IMSU &amp; Alvan]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2025/Let's Read Wikipedia reached teachers of the Weenhayek indigenous nation in Bolivia|Let's Read Wikipedia reached teachers of the Weenhayek indigenous nation in Bolivia]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2025/Monográfico sobre Wikipedia en el aula, Revista Docere|Monograph on Wikipedia in the classroom, Docere Magazine]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2025/The Third Training Course of the “Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom” Program in Jordan|The Third Training Course of the “Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom” Program in Jordan]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2025/The Ukrainian Educators’ Wikimedia Conference 2025|The Ukrainian Educators’ Wikimedia Conference 2025]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2025/Wikimedia MKD's edit-a-thon: Lakes|Wikimedia MKD's edit-a-thon: Lakes]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2025/Cultura libre en las aulas|Free culture in the classroom]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/September 2025/Wikimedia Rwanda Wiki clubs|Wikimedia Rwanda Wiki clubs]]
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 15:09, 2 October 2025 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: October 2025 ==

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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 14 • Issue 10 • October 2025&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/October 2025|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/October 2025/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2025/&quot;WikiDonne Internship: Wikimedia Platforms for Open Education and Inclusive Culture!&quot; winner at the Open Education Awards 2025|&quot;WikiDonne Internship: Wikimedia Platforms for Open Education and Inclusive Culture!&quot; winner at the Open Education Awards 2025]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2025/A Proud Chapter in My Wikimedia Journey 🇳🇬: From Editor to Organizer|A Proud Chapter in My Wikimedia Journey 🇳🇬: From Editor to Organizer]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2025/Debating open science and scientific dissemination in Brazil|Debating open science and scientific dissemination in Brazil]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2025/Enhancing Academic Articles on Wikipedia with the State University of Jakarta|Enhancing Academic Articles on Wikipedia with the State University of Jakarta]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2025/India’s Students and Educators Lead the Way in the Wiki Science Competition 2025|India’s Students and Educators Lead the Way in the Wiki Science Competition 2025]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2025/JDACA &amp; Amman Arab University|JDACA &amp; Amman Arab University]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2025/New starting page for Wikipedia users had been launched in September|New starting page for Wikipedia users had been launched in September]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2025/Teaching Evidence Synthesis Automation with the Wikipedia–Kaggle Dataset|Teaching Evidence Synthesis Automation with the Wikipedia–Kaggle Dataset]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2025/Wikimedia MKD’s Education Program activities for October|Wikimedia MKD’s Education Program activities for October]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2025/Wikimedia Serbia prepares eight annual Edu Wiki camp|Wikimedia Serbia prepares eight annual Edu Wiki camp]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/October 2025/Wikivoyage editathon in Peshkopia, Albania|Wikivoyage editathon in Peshkopia, Albania]]
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 06:04, 2 November 2025 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: November 2025 ==

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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 14 • Issue 11 • November 2025&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/November 2025|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/November 2025/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/Auckland Museum's Wiki Summer Student Programme is back for 2025 &amp; 2026|Auckland Museum's Wiki Summer Student Programme is back for 2025 &amp; 2026]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/Edu Wiki camp 2025 in Belgrade, Serbia|Edu Wiki camp 2025 in Belgrade, Serbia]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/Wikidata na Escola: estudantes da zona rural de Minas Gerais contribuem com dados sobre mulheres negras brasileiras|Wikidata na Escola: estudantes da zona rural de Minas Gerais contribuem com dados sobre mulheres negras brasileiras]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/190 students from Oteitza Lizeoa create 48 articles on the history of the Basque Country for Txikipedia in one day|190 students from Oteitza Lizeoa create 48 articles on the history of the Basque Country for Txikipedia in one day]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/2nd International Congress Wikimedia, Education, and Digital Cultures – WECUDI|2nd International Congress Wikimedia, Education, and Digital Cultures – WECUDI]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/Africa and Proud Leads Wiki Classroom Project Across Three Nigerian States|Africa and Proud Leads Wiki Classroom Project Across Three Nigerian States]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/November 2025November 2025/Annual Czech Wiki Conference took place on Saturday, Nov 8th|November 2025November 2025/Annual Czech Wiki Conference took place on Saturday, Nov 8th]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/EduWiki Meetup at GLAM Wiki Conference 2025|EduWiki Meetup at GLAM Wiki Conference 2025]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/Highly productive autumn education activities in Macedonia|Highly productive autumn education activities in Macedonia]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/Kannada Wikipedia Asian Month 2025: Edit-a-thon &amp; Workshop Highlights from Loyola College, Karnataka|Kannada Wikipedia Asian Month 2025: Edit-a-thon &amp; Workshop Highlights from Loyola College, Karnataka]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/Kosovo Wikivoyage Editathons in Gjakova and Krusha e Madhe|Kosovo Wikivoyage Editathons in Gjakova and Krusha e Madhe]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/Ukrainian educators create open lesson plans based on the «Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom» course|Ukrainian educators create open lesson plans based on the «Reading Wikipedia in the Classroom» course]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/United Architects of the Philippines Student Auxiliary – University of Nueva Caceres joins Wikisource Training|United Architects of the Philippines Student Auxiliary – University of Nueva Caceres joins Wikisource Training]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/Videos on Teaching Experiences with Wikipedia, Wikidata, Commons, and OSM|Videos on Teaching Experiences with Wikipedia, Wikidata, Commons, and OSM]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/Wiki as a tool for technological empowerment of indigenous knowledge|Wiki as a tool for technological empowerment of indigenous knowledge]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/Wiki Science Competition in Albania and Kosovo|Wiki Science Competition in Albania and Kosovo]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/Wiki Workshop 2026 Call for Contributions|Wiki Workshop 2026 Call for Contributions]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/Wikipedia Contribution with Faculty of Mathematical and Natural Sciences Students in Kosovo|Wikipedia Contribution with Faculty of Mathematical and Natural Sciences Students in Kosovo]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/November 2025/Impact of Wikimedia Rwanda Wiki Clubs in Growth of Wikimedia User Group Rwanda Community|Impact of Wikimedia Rwanda Wiki Clubs in Growth of Wikimedia User Group Rwanda Community]]
&lt;/div&gt;

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== This Month in Education: December 2025 ==

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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 14 • Issue 12 • December 2025&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/December 2025|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/December 2025/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/December 2025/WikiLatih Wiktionary with the Goethe-Institut: Strengthening the Digital Presence of Indonesia’s Local Languages|WikiLatih Wiktionary with the Goethe-Institut: Strengthening the Digital Presence of Indonesia’s Local Languages]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/December 2025/Wiki in schools - Architecture and Open Heritage|Wiki in schools - Architecture and Open Heritage]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/December 2025/What are the challenges and opportunities in scientific dissemination? Reflecting on the topic in the Brazilian context|What are the challenges and opportunities in scientific dissemination? Reflecting on the topic in the Brazilian context]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/December 2025/WikipediaxAI: Wikipedia, AI, and the future of knowledge|WikipediaxAI: Wikipedia, AI, and the future of knowledge]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/December 2025/Wikipedia at University Another year of working alongside higher education institutions in Argentina|Wikipedia at University Another year of working alongside higher education institutions in Argentina]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/December 2025/WAM - Tulu Edit-a-thon &amp; Workshop in St Aloysius University |WAM - Tulu Edit-a-thon &amp; Workshop in St Aloysius University]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/December 2025/Visibilizando memórias negras: estudantes da UFRGS ampliam a Wikipédia com foco na imprensa e no associativismo pós-abolição|Visibilizando memórias negras: estudantes da UFRGS ampliam a Wikipédia com foco na imprensa e no associativismo pós-abolição]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/December 2025/Transforming Education Through Wikimedia in Kosovo: 2025|Transforming Education Through Wikimedia in Kosovo: 2025]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/December 2025/New WikiClubs and educational partnership in Albania|New WikiClubs and educational partnership in Albania]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/December 2025/New WikiClub with the Dibra Youth Center in Albania|New WikiClub with the Dibra Youth Center in Albania]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/December 2025/Landmark Educational Initiatives and Wikimedia Programs Transform Learning in 2025|Landmark Educational Initiatives and Wikimedia Programs Transform Learning in 2025]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/December 2025/Knowledge in the Digital Age: A WMUK Collaborative Workshop|Knowledge in the Digital Age: A WMUK Collaborative Workshop]]
&lt;/div&gt;

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== This Month in Education: January 2026 ==

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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 15 • Issue 1 • January 2026&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/January 2026|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/January 2026/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/Strengthening Wikimedia Education and Digital Literacy in 2026|Strengthening Wikimedia Education and Digital Literacy in 2026]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/Dzongkha Wikipedia Education Program in Bhutan|Dzongkha Wikipedia Education Program in Bhutan]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/Wikipedia Education Program - Train The Trainer in Nepal|Wikipedia Education Program – Train The Trainer in Nepal]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/Wikipedia 25 celebration in the Igbo Wiki Fan Club Alvan and IMSU|Wikipedia 25 celebration in the Igbo Wiki Fan Club Alvan and IMSU]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/CBSUA boosts Open Knowledge and Local Culture through expanded Wiki Education Program|CBSUA boosts Open Knowledge and Local Culture through expanded Wiki Education Program]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/WikiChallenge African Schools: Young voices, real impact, and continued (reasonable) growth|WikiChallenge African Schools: Young voices, real impact, and continued (reasonable) growth]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/Updates on Auckland Museum Summer Student Programme|Updates on Auckland Museum Summer Student Programme]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/Stronger and bolder Wikiforhumanrights 2025 in Anambra Network|Stronger and bolder Wikiforhumanrights 2025 in Anambra Network]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/Official Opening of IFAK Secondary School Wiki Club: Engaging Youth in Learning Through Open Knowledge|Official Opening of IFAK Secondary School Wiki Club: Engaging Youth in Learning Through Open Knowledge]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/Greetings from the Jeronim de Rada WikiClub in Elbasan, Albania, for Christmas 2025|Greetings from the Jeronim de Rada WikiClub in Elbasan, Albania, for Christmas 2025]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/Great and productive final activities of 2025 Wikimedia MKD education programme|Great and productive final activities of 2025 Wikimedia MKD education programme]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/Envisioning an Open Future together - WikiForAll|Envisioning an Open Future together – WikiForAll]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/A look back: reviewing the main education activities in Brazil in 2025|A look back: reviewing the main education activities in Brazil in 2025]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/A 147-Year-Old Institution Celebrates 25 Years of Wikipedia: St Aloysius University and the Spirit of Open Knowledge|A 147-Year-Old Institution Celebrates 25 Years of Wikipedia: St Aloysius University and the Spirit of Open Knowledge]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/¡Celebrando 25 años de conocimiento libre! El Proyecto &quot;25x25&quot; llega a las aulas de Córdoba, Argentina|Celebrating 25 years of free knowledge! The '25x25' Project reaches the classrooms of Córdoba, Argentina]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/January 2026/A atuação em rede da Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora para a difusão do conhecimento livre na Wikipédia|The collaborative efforts of the Federal University of Juiz de Fora for the dissemination of free knowledge on Wikipedia]]
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 18:26, 28 January 2026 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: February 2026 ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 15 • Issue 2 • February 2026&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/February 2026|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/February 2026/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Cairo University Spanish Language Volunteers document Madrid’s Historic and Contemporary Palaces|Cairo University Spanish Language Volunteers document Madrid’s Historic and Contemporary Palaces]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Celebrating 25 Years of Wikipedia in Uzbekistan|Celebrating 25 Years of Wikipedia in Uzbekistan]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Encontro da Rede Latino Americana de Inteligência Artificial Feminista: construindo futuros possíveis|Meeting of the Latin American Network of Feminist Artificial Intelligence: building possible futures]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Farewelling the Auckland Museum Summer Students|Farewelling the Auckland Museum Summer Students]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Inclusive Climate Learning with Wikimedia Reaches Special School in Kumasi|Inclusive Climate Learning with Wikimedia Reaches Special School in Kumasi]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Introducing Wikimedia in Academic curriculum for students of higher education in universities of Telangana |Introducing Wikimedia in Academic curriculum for students of higher education in universities of Telangana]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Learning from Finland: Edit-a-thon on Finnish Education set to take place in Belgrade|Learning from Finland: Edit-a-thon on Finnish Education set to take place in Belgrade]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Library of IME-USP Workshop: Edits in History of Mathematics|Library of IME-USP Workshop: Edits in History of Mathematics]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/LitFest 2026: Room to Dream to amplify local voices across Wikimedia|LitFest 2026: Room to Dream to amplify local voices across Wikimedia]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/New online workshops for the German language Wikipedia|New online workshops for the German language Wikipedia]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Road to Wiki Cohort 1: Building India's Next Generation of Wikimedia Technical Contributors|Road to Wiki Cohort 1: Building India's Next Generation of Wikimedia Technical Contributors]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/The history of the Wikimedia movement in a Brazil: a book about stories and projects|The history of the Wikimedia movement in a Brazil: a book about stories and projects]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Wiki Club Federal Government Boys College Celebrates Mother Tongue Day|Wiki Club Federal Government Boys College Celebrates Mother Tongue Day]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Wiki Club Minalabac joins Freedom to Read 2026: One World, Many Languages|Wiki Club Minalabac joins Freedom to Read 2026: One World, Many Languages]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Wiki Love Folklore Photowalk at Khajuraho Dance Festival 2026|Wiki Love Folklore Photowalk at Khajuraho Dance Festival 2026]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Wiki Loves Fish Workshop Empowers Students to Document Coastal Biodiversity|Wiki Loves Fish Workshop Empowers Students to Document Coastal Biodiversity]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/WikiCendekia 2026: Insights from our training of admins in Indonesia|WikiCendekia 2026: Insights from our training of admins in Indonesia]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Wikimedia MKD's activities- new wiki club and a lots of new training workshops|Wikimedia MKD's activities- new wiki club and a lots of new training workshops]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/WikiPatrimoine Senghor : Valorisation du patrimoine culturel africain à l'Université Senghor|WikiPatrimoine Senghor : Valuation of African cultural heritage at the University Senghor]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/February 2026/Wikipedia Turns 25: Young Voices, Big Future|Wikipedia Turns 25: Young Voices, Big Future]]
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 11:55, 3 March 2026 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: March 2026 ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 15 • Issue 3 • March 2026&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/March 2026|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/March 2026/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/Advancing 21st-Century Education: Proposal to Establish the Yorùbá Wikipedia Fan Club at Arolu College of Education, Ilemona|Advancing 21st-Century Education: Proposal to Establish the Yorùbá Wikipedia Fan Club at Arolu College of Education, Ilemona]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/Awareness Programme on Language and Culture Protection by KWUG|Awareness Programme on Language and Culture Protection by KWUG]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/Teachers from Various Institutions in Rio de Janeiro Explore Wikipedia as a Means of Preserving Memory and Checking Sources|Teachers from Various Institutions in Rio de Janeiro Explore Wikipedia as a Means of Preserving Memory and Checking Sources]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/Edu Wiki Nigeria Co-Founder Facilitates Textbook Donation to AHAJAS Integrated School, Gombe|Edu Wiki Nigeria Co-Founder Facilitates Textbook Donation to AHAJAS Integrated School, Gombe]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/Inside Wikimedia Ukraine's education program|Inside Wikimedia Ukraine's education program]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/Karavali Wikimedians at Mangaluru Design Summit 2026|Karavali Wikimedians at Mangaluru Design Summit 2026]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/One School, One Article Campaign Wrap Up|One School, One Article Campaign Wrap Up]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/Seeds of Knowledge: A Wiki Project that Sparked a Community at ADUN|Seeds of Knowledge: A Wiki Project that Sparked a Community at ADUN]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/Student workshops at Serbian Universities: enriching Wikipedia with topics on culture and technology|Student workshops at Serbian Universities: enriching Wikipedia with topics on culture and technology]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/The Open Knowledge Alliance: Wikimedia and Libraries|The Open Knowledge Alliance: Wikimedia and Libraries]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/Wikimedia CR published updated guide for beginners|Wikimedia CR published updated guide for beginners]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/Wikimedia goes back to the classroom in Brazil|Wikimedia goes back to the classroom in Brazil]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/Workshop on Feminism and Folklore 2026 by Wiki Club SATI|Workshop on Feminism and Folklore 2026 by Wiki Club SATI]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/“Wikimedia MKD in Action: Teacher Conferences and Education Activities|“Wikimedia MKD in Action: Teacher Conferences and Education Activities]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/March 2026/Wikipedia &amp; Libraries: Building New Contributors|Wikipedia &amp; Libraries: Building New Contributors]]

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 10:21, 1 April 2026 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: April 2026 ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 15 • Issue 4 • April 2026&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/April 2026|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/April 2026/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2026/Empowering Knowledge: Wikimedia MKD Education Update|Empowering Knowledge: Wikimedia MKD Education Update]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2026/WikiScholar: A School-Level Initiative to Promote Free Knowledge in Bangladesh|WikiScholar: A School-Level Initiative to Promote Free Knowledge in Bangladesh]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2026/Wikipedia for School 2025–2026: A Competition That Continued Despite Frost, Power Outages, and War|Wikipedia for School 2025–2026: A Competition That Continued Despite Frost, Power Outages, and War]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2026/Wikimedia UK and Thoughtful delivery new media literacy teacher training course|Wikimedia UK and Thoughtful delivery new media literacy teacher training course]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2026/Wikimedia CR supporting SDG's in Czech schools|Wikimedia CR supporting SDG's in Czech schools]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2026/University Students’ Mandatory Internships at Wikimedia Armenia|University Students’ Mandatory Internships at Wikimedia Armenia]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2026/Third year of collaboration with Aleksandër Xhuvani University in Elbasan, Albania|Third year of collaboration with Aleksandër Xhuvani University in Elbasan, Albania]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2026/Students Discover Open Source and Learn Wikipedia and Wikidata Skills for the First Time in Zarqa, Jordan|Students Discover Open Source and Learn Wikipedia and Wikidata Skills for the First Time in Zarqa, Jordan]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2026/Leveraging on Wikipedia as a tool for curbing Health Misinformation and Disinformation in Akwa Ibom and Rivers State, Nigeria|Leveraging on Wikipedia as a tool for curbing Health Misinformation and Disinformation in Akwa Ibom and Rivers State, Nigeria]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2026/Governance and Public Knowledge: Wikipedia as a Learning Tool in Sustainability Education through UNESCO Designated Sites|Governance and Public Knowledge: Wikipedia as a Learning Tool in Sustainability Education through UNESCO Designated Sites]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/April 2026/A month full of encounters with students in Brazil|A month full of encounters with students in Brazil]]
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 16:01, 27 April 2026 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: May 2026 ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 15 • Issue 5 • May 2026&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/May 2026|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/May 2026/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2026/Teaching innovation with Wikimedia. Shared experiences in Spanish Universities|Teaching innovation with Wikimedia. Shared experiences in Spanish Universities]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2026/Editing Wikipedia with Viktor Hygo High School in Albania|Editing Wikipedia with Viktor Hygo High School in Albania]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2026/Debating free license in Brazil|Debating free license in Brazil]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2026/Microclimatic Explainers: A short-form media approach to build micro-level environmental awareness in India|Microclimatic Explainers: A short-form media approach to build micro-level environmental awareness in India]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2026/Ukraine publishes the first academic collection of papers on Wikipedia and Wikimedia Projects|Ukraine publishes the first academic collection of papers on Wikipedia and Wikimedia Projects]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2026/Wiki Digital Youth Club Launches in Tanzania: Youth Build Digital Skills Through Competitive Quest Challenges|Wiki Digital Youth Club Launches in Tanzania: Youth Build Digital Skills Through Competitive Quest Challenges]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2026/Wiki Youth Participation in Building Rwanda’s Open Knowledge Ecosystem|Wiki Youth Participation in Building Rwanda’s Open Knowledge Ecosystem]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2026/Wikimedia Digi-Youth Club in Nigeria|Wikimedia Digi-Youth Club in Nigeria]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2026/Wikimedia MKD's Education News &amp; Activities|Wikimedia MKD's Education News &amp; Activities]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/May 2026/Wikipedia Serbia's interns and Wiki Ambassadors provide crucial support towards end of the school year|Wikipedia Serbia's interns and Wiki Ambassadors provide crucial support towards end of the school year]]
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 16:53, 1 June 2026 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== This Month in Education: June 2026 ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:2.9em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt;This Month in Education&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:bold; color:#00A7E2; font-size:1.4em; font-family:'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;&quot;&gt; Volume 15 • Issue 6 • June 2026&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1; border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:0.5em; font-size:larger; margin-bottom:0.2em&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/June 2026|Contents]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/June 2026/Headlines|Headlines]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe]]&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;color:white; font-size:1.8em; font-family:Montserrat; background:#92BFB1;&quot;&gt;In This Issue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left; column-count: 2; column-width: 35em;&quot;&gt;
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/Wikipedia Editathon at Dinajpur Govt. College: Empowering Graduate Students in the Open Knowledge Movement|Wikipedia Editathon at Dinajpur Govt. College: Empowering Graduate Students in the Open Knowledge Movement]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/Wikimedia Serbia prepares for Edu Wiki camp 2026|Wikimedia Serbia prepares for Edu Wiki camp 2026]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/Wiki Digi-Youth Clubs pilot explores challenge-based learning across three countries|Wiki Digi-Youth Clubs pilot explores challenge-based learning across three countries]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/Why the EduWiki Hub Starter Kit Matters for the Future of Education|Why the EduWiki Hub Starter Kit Matters for the Future of Education]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/Portuguese Universities adopt free knowledge tools: Wikipedia is the favorite|Portuguese Universities adopt free knowledge tools: Wikipedia is the favorite]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/Translating on Wikipedia used as extra – credit assignment in University of Prishtina, Kosovo|Translating on Wikipedia used as extra – credit assignment in University of Prishtina, Kosovo]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/Strengthening Wikimedia Education Through Community Learning and Digital Literacy Initiatives|Strengthening Wikimedia Education Through Community Learning and Digital Literacy Initiatives]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/Small Group, Big Impact: Building Skills Through the Wikimedia Volunteer Focus Group in Botswana|Small Group, Big Impact: Building Skills Through the Wikimedia Volunteer Focus Group in Botswana]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/&quot;25x25 Project – Celebrating Wikipedia&quot; in Córdoba, Argentina|&quot;25x25 Project – Celebrating Wikipedia&quot; in Córdoba, Argentina]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/Mapping and gathering educational activities on Wiki in Brazilian universities|Mapping and gathering educational activities on Wiki in Brazilian universities]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/Growing Wiki Education in the Philippines: Highlights from Bikol WikiConference 2026|Growing Wiki Education in the Philippines: Highlights from Bikol WikiConference 2026]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/From Mentee to Builder: Six Months in the EduWiki Hub Mentorship Program|From Mentee to Builder: Six Months in the EduWiki Hub Mentorship Program]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/EduWiki Hub publishes its first Community Newsletter|EduWiki Hub publishes its first Community Newsletter]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/Click, Capture, and Contribute: Scaling Open Knowledge Through Mobile Photography|Click, Capture, and Contribute: Scaling Open Knowledge Through Mobile Photography]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/Education in Action: Limkokwing School Adoption Program 2026 and Wikimedia Learning Outcomes|Education in Action: Limkokwing School Adoption Program 2026 and Wikimedia Learning Outcomes]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/News/June 2026/Impact of Wiki Digi youth Clubs initiative in education of Rwanda|Impact of Wiki Digi youth Clubs initiative in education of Rwanda]]
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; text-align: center; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[:m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] 04:15, 28 June 2026 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/This_Month_in_Education&amp;oldid=30725833 --&gt;</text>
      <sha1>aoxftye4iivqhoopwtsnvu23dirocg0</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Complex analysis in plain view</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>171005</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2816967</id>
      <parentid>2816876</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T14:06:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Geometric Series Examples */</comment>
      <origin>2816967</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5296" sha1="mhuus6qj681yw6p7g7we33c1lig578i" xml:space="preserve">Many of the functions that arise naturally in mathematics and real world applications can be extended to and regarded as complex functions, meaning the input, as well as the output, can be complex numbers &lt;math&gt;x+iy&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;i=\sqrt{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, in such a way that it is a more natural object to study. '''Complex analysis''', which used to be known as '''function theory''' or '''theory of functions of a single complex variable''', is a sub-field of analysis that studies such functions (more specifically, '''holomorphic''' functions) on the complex plane, or part (domain) or extension (Riemann surface) thereof. It notably has great importance in number theory, e.g. the [[Riemann zeta function]] (for the distribution of primes) and other &lt;math&gt;L&lt;/math&gt;-functions, modular forms, elliptic functions, etc. &lt;blockquote&gt;The shortest path between two truths in the real domain passes through the complex domain.  — [[wikipedia:Jacques_Hadamard|Jacques Hadamard]]&lt;/blockquote&gt;In a certain sense, the essence of complex functions is captured by the principle of [[analytic continuation]].{{mathematics}}

==''' Complex Functions '''== 
* Complex Functions ([[Media:CAnal.1.A.CFunction.20140222.Basic.pdf|1.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.B.CFunction.20140111.Octave.pdf|1.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.C.CFunction.20140111.Extend.pdf|1.C.pdf]])

* Complex Exponential and Logarithm ([[Media:CAnal.5.A.CLog.20131017.pdf|5.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.5.A.Octave.pdf|5.B.pdf]])

* Complex Trigonometric and Hyperbolic ([[Media:CAnal.7.A.CTrigHyper..pdf|7.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.7.A.Octave..pdf|7.B.pdf]])

'''Complex Function Note'''
: 1. Exp and Log Function Note ([[Media:ComplexExp.29160721.pdf|H1.pdf]])

: 2. Trig and TrigH Function Note ([[Media:CAnal.Trig-H.29160901.pdf|H1.pdf]])

: 3. Inverse Trig and TrigH Functions Note ([[Media:CAnal.Hyper.29160829.pdf|H1.pdf]])

==''' Complex Integrals '''== 
* Complex Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.2.A.CIntegral.20140224.Basic.pdf|2.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.B.CIntegral.20140117.Octave.pdf|2.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.C.CIntegral.20140117.Extend.pdf|2.C.pdf]])

==''' Complex Series '''== 
* Complex Series ([[Media:CPX.Series.20150226.2.Basic.pdf|3.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.B.CSeries.20140121.Octave.pdf|3.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.C.CSeries.20140303.Extend.pdf|3.C.pdf]])

==''' Residue Integrals '''==
* Residue Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.4.A.Residue.20140227.Basic.pdf|4.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.B.pdf|4.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.C.Residue.20140423.Extend.pdf|4.C.pdf]]) 

==='''Residue Integrals Note'''===
* Laurent Series with the Residue Theorem Note ([[Media:Laurent.1.Residue.20170713.pdf|H1.pdf]])
* Laurent Series with Applications Note ([[Media:Laurent.2.Applications.20170327.pdf|H1.pdf]])
* Laurent Series and the z-Transform Note ([[Media:Laurent.3.z-Trans.20170831.pdf|H1.pdf]])
* Laurent Series as a Geometric Series Note ([[Media:Laurent.4.GSeries.20170802.pdf|H1.pdf]])

=== Laurent Series and the z-Transform Example Note === 
* Overview ([[Media:Laurent.4.z-Example.20170926.pdf|H1.pdf]])

====Geometric Series Examples====

* Causality ([[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.A.20191026n.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.B.20191026.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Time Shift ([[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.A.20191028.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.B.20191029.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Reciprocity ([[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3A.20191030.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3B.20191031.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Combinations ([[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4A.20200702.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4B.20201002.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5A.20220105.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5B.20220126.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Permutations ([[Media:Laurent.6.Permutation.6A.20230711.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6B.20251225.pdf|B.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6C.20260627.pdf|C.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6C.20240528.pdf|D.pdf]]) 

* Applications ([[Media:Laurent.5.Application.6B.20220723.pdf|A.pdf]]) 

* Double Pole Case

:- Examples ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7A.20220722.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7B.20220720.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

:- Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5A.20190226.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5B.20190228.pdf|B.pdf]])

====The Case Examples====
* Example Overview : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.0.A.20171208.pdf|0A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.6.CaseExample.0.B.20180205.pdf|0B.pdf]])
* Example Case 1 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.A.20171107.pdf|1A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.B.20171227.pdf|1B.pdf]])
* Example Case 2 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.A.20171107.pdf|2A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.B.20171227.pdf|2B.pdf]])
* Example Case 3 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.A.20171017.pdf|3A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.B.20171226.pdf|3B.pdf]])
* Example Case 4 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.A.20171017.pdf|4A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.B.20171228.pdf|4B.pdf]])
* Example Summary : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.A.20171212.pdf|5A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.B.20171230.pdf|5B.pdf]])

==''' Conformal Mapping '''== 
* Conformal Mapping ([[Media:CAnal.6.A.Conformal.20131224.pdf|6.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.6.A.Octave..pdf|6.B.pdf]])

go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:Complex analysis]]</text>
      <sha1>mhuus6qj681yw6p7g7we33c1lig578i</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Python programming in plain view</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>212733</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2816995</id>
      <parentid>2816365</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T18:04:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Using Libraries */</comment>
      <origin>2816995</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2647" sha1="2v86mhk0kzmdvtvzp7muxsp0i11z5ul" xml:space="preserve">==''' Part I '''==
&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
===  Introduction ===

* Overview 
* Memory 
* Number 

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;


=== Python for C programmers ===

* Hello, World! ([[Media:CProg.Hello.1A.20230406.pdf |pdf]])
* Statement Level  ([[Media:CProg.Statement.1A.20230509.pdf |pdf]])
* Output with print
* Formatted output
* File IO

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;


=== Using Libraries ===

* Scripts ([[Media:Python.Work2.Script.1A.20231129.pdf |pdf]])
* Modules ([[Media:Python.Work2.Module.1A.20231216.pdf |pdf]])
* Packages ([[Media:Python.Work2.Package.1A.20241207.pdf |pdf]])
* Libraries ([[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1A.20260622.pdf |pdf]])
* Namespaces ([[Media:Python.Work2.Scope.1A.20231021.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

===   Handling Repetition ===
 
* Control ([[Media:Python.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20230314.pdf |pdf]])

* Loop ([[Media:Repeat2.Loop.1A.20230401.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Handling a Big Work ===

* Functions ([[Media:Python.Work1.Function.1A.20230529.pdf |pdf]])
* Lambda ([[Media:Python.Work2.Lambda.1A.20230705.pdf |pdf]])
* Type Annotations ([[Media:Python.Work2.AtypeAnnot.1A.20230817.pdf |pdf]])

  
&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Handling Series of Data ===

* Arrays ([[Media:Python.Series1.Array.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series2.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Lists ([[Media:Python.Series3.List.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series4.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Sets ([[Media:Python.Series5.Set.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Dictionary ([[Media:Python.Series6.Dictionary.1A.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Handling Various Kinds of Data ===
  
* Types 
* Operators ([[Media:Python.Data3.Operators.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Files ([[Media:Python.Data4.File.1.A.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Class and Objects ===
  
* Classes &amp; Objects ([[Media:Python.Work2.Class.1A.20230906.pdf |pdf]])
* Inheritance

 
&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Python in Numerical Analysis  ==
 
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

==External links==
* [http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~fangohr/training/python/pdfs/Python-for-Computational-Science-and-Engineering.pdf Python and Computational Science and Engineering]</text>
      <sha1>2v86mhk0kzmdvtvzp7muxsp0i11z5ul</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816997</id>
      <parentid>2816995</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T18:05:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Using Libraries */</comment>
      <origin>2816997</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2647" sha1="4242nfz4sagn2jkdvkg9yi5onskt8jn" xml:space="preserve">==''' Part I '''==
&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
===  Introduction ===

* Overview 
* Memory 
* Number 

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;


=== Python for C programmers ===

* Hello, World! ([[Media:CProg.Hello.1A.20230406.pdf |pdf]])
* Statement Level  ([[Media:CProg.Statement.1A.20230509.pdf |pdf]])
* Output with print
* Formatted output
* File IO

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;


=== Using Libraries ===

* Scripts ([[Media:Python.Work2.Script.1A.20231129.pdf |pdf]])
* Modules ([[Media:Python.Work2.Module.1A.20231216.pdf |pdf]])
* Packages ([[Media:Python.Work2.Package.1A.20241207.pdf |pdf]])
* Libraries ([[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1A.20260623.pdf |pdf]])
* Namespaces ([[Media:Python.Work2.Scope.1A.20231021.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

===   Handling Repetition ===
 
* Control ([[Media:Python.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20230314.pdf |pdf]])

* Loop ([[Media:Repeat2.Loop.1A.20230401.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Handling a Big Work ===

* Functions ([[Media:Python.Work1.Function.1A.20230529.pdf |pdf]])
* Lambda ([[Media:Python.Work2.Lambda.1A.20230705.pdf |pdf]])
* Type Annotations ([[Media:Python.Work2.AtypeAnnot.1A.20230817.pdf |pdf]])

  
&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Handling Series of Data ===

* Arrays ([[Media:Python.Series1.Array.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series2.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Lists ([[Media:Python.Series3.List.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series4.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Sets ([[Media:Python.Series5.Set.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Dictionary ([[Media:Python.Series6.Dictionary.1A.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Handling Various Kinds of Data ===
  
* Types 
* Operators ([[Media:Python.Data3.Operators.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Files ([[Media:Python.Data4.File.1.A.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Class and Objects ===
  
* Classes &amp; Objects ([[Media:Python.Work2.Class.1A.20230906.pdf |pdf]])
* Inheritance

 
&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Python in Numerical Analysis  ==
 
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

==External links==
* [http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~fangohr/training/python/pdfs/Python-for-Computational-Science-and-Engineering.pdf Python and Computational Science and Engineering]</text>
      <sha1>4242nfz4sagn2jkdvkg9yi5onskt8jn</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2816999</id>
      <parentid>2816997</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T18:07:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Using Libraries */</comment>
      <origin>2816999</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2647" sha1="7o8mh8giee6sxvf8ekn4wv8pefnp0my" xml:space="preserve">==''' Part I '''==
&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
===  Introduction ===

* Overview 
* Memory 
* Number 

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;


=== Python for C programmers ===

* Hello, World! ([[Media:CProg.Hello.1A.20230406.pdf |pdf]])
* Statement Level  ([[Media:CProg.Statement.1A.20230509.pdf |pdf]])
* Output with print
* Formatted output
* File IO

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;


=== Using Libraries ===

* Scripts ([[Media:Python.Work2.Script.1A.20231129.pdf |pdf]])
* Modules ([[Media:Python.Work2.Module.1A.20231216.pdf |pdf]])
* Packages ([[Media:Python.Work2.Package.1A.20241207.pdf |pdf]])
* Libraries ([[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1A.20260624.pdf |pdf]])
* Namespaces ([[Media:Python.Work2.Scope.1A.20231021.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

===   Handling Repetition ===
 
* Control ([[Media:Python.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20230314.pdf |pdf]])

* Loop ([[Media:Repeat2.Loop.1A.20230401.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Handling a Big Work ===

* Functions ([[Media:Python.Work1.Function.1A.20230529.pdf |pdf]])
* Lambda ([[Media:Python.Work2.Lambda.1A.20230705.pdf |pdf]])
* Type Annotations ([[Media:Python.Work2.AtypeAnnot.1A.20230817.pdf |pdf]])

  
&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Handling Series of Data ===

* Arrays ([[Media:Python.Series1.Array.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series2.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Lists ([[Media:Python.Series3.List.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series4.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Sets ([[Media:Python.Series5.Set.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Dictionary ([[Media:Python.Series6.Dictionary.1A.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Handling Various Kinds of Data ===
  
* Types 
* Operators ([[Media:Python.Data3.Operators.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Files ([[Media:Python.Data4.File.1.A.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Class and Objects ===
  
* Classes &amp; Objects ([[Media:Python.Work2.Class.1A.20230906.pdf |pdf]])
* Inheritance

 
&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Python in Numerical Analysis  ==
 
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

==External links==
* [http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~fangohr/training/python/pdfs/Python-for-Computational-Science-and-Engineering.pdf Python and Computational Science and Engineering]</text>
      <sha1>7o8mh8giee6sxvf8ekn4wv8pefnp0my</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817001</id>
      <parentid>2816999</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T18:08:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Using Libraries */</comment>
      <origin>2817001</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2647" sha1="nrazg6o60f18nwsyu7k5wxlfqrm49rt" xml:space="preserve">==''' Part I '''==
&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
===  Introduction ===

* Overview 
* Memory 
* Number 

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;


=== Python for C programmers ===

* Hello, World! ([[Media:CProg.Hello.1A.20230406.pdf |pdf]])
* Statement Level  ([[Media:CProg.Statement.1A.20230509.pdf |pdf]])
* Output with print
* Formatted output
* File IO

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;


=== Using Libraries ===

* Scripts ([[Media:Python.Work2.Script.1A.20231129.pdf |pdf]])
* Modules ([[Media:Python.Work2.Module.1A.20231216.pdf |pdf]])
* Packages ([[Media:Python.Work2.Package.1A.20241207.pdf |pdf]])
* Libraries ([[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1A.20260625.pdf |pdf]])
* Namespaces ([[Media:Python.Work2.Scope.1A.20231021.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

===   Handling Repetition ===
 
* Control ([[Media:Python.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20230314.pdf |pdf]])

* Loop ([[Media:Repeat2.Loop.1A.20230401.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Handling a Big Work ===

* Functions ([[Media:Python.Work1.Function.1A.20230529.pdf |pdf]])
* Lambda ([[Media:Python.Work2.Lambda.1A.20230705.pdf |pdf]])
* Type Annotations ([[Media:Python.Work2.AtypeAnnot.1A.20230817.pdf |pdf]])

  
&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Handling Series of Data ===

* Arrays ([[Media:Python.Series1.Array.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series2.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Lists ([[Media:Python.Series3.List.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series4.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Sets ([[Media:Python.Series5.Set.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Dictionary ([[Media:Python.Series6.Dictionary.1A.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Handling Various Kinds of Data ===
  
* Types 
* Operators ([[Media:Python.Data3.Operators.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Files ([[Media:Python.Data4.File.1.A.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Class and Objects ===
  
* Classes &amp; Objects ([[Media:Python.Work2.Class.1A.20230906.pdf |pdf]])
* Inheritance

 
&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Python in Numerical Analysis  ==
 
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

==External links==
* [http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~fangohr/training/python/pdfs/Python-for-Computational-Science-and-Engineering.pdf Python and Computational Science and Engineering]</text>
      <sha1>nrazg6o60f18nwsyu7k5wxlfqrm49rt</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Computer Security/Ethical Hacking</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>216026</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2817040</id>
      <parentid>1654140</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T20:50:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hackername2</username>
        <id>3097484</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817040</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2669" sha1="iwtqgyhtm37a5lycfg15v1tphp4ujt0" xml:space="preserve">{{Talkheader}}

== Merge with Ethical hacking ==
{{ping|Dave Braunschweig}}, my dear new friend here at Wikiversity :-) It seems you have created this page based on [[User talk:Dandelko|Dandelko]]'s &quot;promotion&quot; of [[Ethical Hacking/White Hat Alliance|White Hat Alliance]] several places. But there was already a page about [[ethical hacking]]. I don't know if you missed it because you are using a different casing style ;-) But that page have not been placed/promoted/categorized in a good enough way, because I missed it too, and first found it when I was linking to it, with the expectation that it did not exist and I thought I should create it from scratch. By the way, I don't see much &quot;learning&quot; content on that page, so I think I will rewrite it and since I will create a whole course about the topic, that's another good reason to rewrite it.

/[[User:PatrikN|Patrik Näsfors]] ([[User talk:PatrikN|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PatrikN|contribs]]) 00:07, 14 October 2016 (UTC)

:If you want, you can add a {{tlx|Merge to}} on the resource page. Merging requires advanced rights, because it involves deleting and restoring the combined pages. But it's the best approach, because it preserves the edit histories of both versions. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 01:41, 14 October 2016 (UTC)

== Older version of page and talk page ==

Since there were no talk page when adding the topic above, I created a new page, but it said that was a previous version from 2009 I think, that could be retrieved or restored by an &quot;admin&quot;. In the history of the resource page and in the Page information, it says it was created in 2013. But have it been an earlier version of that page too??? Regards from a curious user. /[[User:PatrikN|Patrik Näsfors]] ([[User talk:PatrikN|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PatrikN|contribs]]) 00:40, 14 October 2016 (UTC)

:Yes, there was a previous version. It was nonsense, not even in English, not sure it was in any language at all. Per Wikimedia policy, only admins (Custodians or Bureaucrats here at Wikiversity) are allowed to view deleted content. The right to view deleted content requires community approval as a trusted user. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 01:38, 14 October 2016 (UTC)

how do you think networking can be secured safely  [[User:Hackername2|Hackername2]] ([[User talk:Hackername2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Hackername2|contribs]]) 20:50, 27 June 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>iwtqgyhtm37a5lycfg15v1tphp4ujt0</sha1>
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    <title>Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic</title>
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      <comment>/* Marking and feedback */ + marking rubric</comment>
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      <text bytes="21472" sha1="7awm2h7zrs7yy246l6ljim9secvsk0y" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Topic development — Guidelines}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Chapter plan and user page''
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;
&lt;!-- Count down --&gt;
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;&lt;!--
{{countdown
 |year       = 2025
 |month      = 08
 |day        = 14
 |hour       = 23
 |minute     = 0
 |second     = 0
 |event = this assessment is due
}}
--&gt; &lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/In development}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- Show this during semester --&gt;{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Contents}}&lt;/div&gt;
{{TOCright}}
==Overview==
* Weight: 10%
* Due: {{/Due}}
* Tasks: Develop a plan for the book chapter:
** Create a Wikiversity user account
** Select or negotiate an approved topic in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 table of contents]]
** Build wiki editing skills by developing a plan for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] which consists of:
*** Title and sub-title
*** Headings (and possibly sub-headings)
*** Key points for each section (and sub-section)
*** Figure (at least 1)
*** Learning feature (plan at least 1)
*** References (6+ relevant, high quality soruces)
*** Resources (2+ see also and 2+ external links)
** Create a Wikiversity user page
*** Introduce yourself
*** Summarise at least three different types of social contributions on your Wikiversity user page
* Follow the detailed [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]
* Guidance for this assignment is provided in Module 1:
** [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Introduction|Lecture 01]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Historical development and assessment skills|Lecture 02]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]

==Marking and feedback==
*Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]] and [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1yQd1-IekznJNLwhef-yEBaxKtRR6dAVESWXoTa-ti3c/edit?usp=sharing marking rubric]
*Feedback will be provided to help guide drafting of the full [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]]
*Marks and feedback should be returned before Census Date (end of Week 4)
**Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}
**Written feedback will be available via the topic's Wikiversity discussion page
*Follow up if you don't understand or would like more feedback

==Extensions and late submissions==
* Extension requests require an Extension Application Form to be submitted via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} with appropriate documentary evidence
* Submissions are accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day late)
* If you don't submit this assessment on time, withdrawal from the unit before Census Date (end of Week 4) is recommended

==Learning outcomes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| Identify the main psychological theories and peer-reviewed research which can be used to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| Propose how psychological knowledge can be applied to a specific topic to improve motivational and emotional lives. 
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:

{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;width:20%;&quot; | Category
! style=&quot;width:20%;&quot; | Graduate attribute
! style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | Assessment task
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''Be professional'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Communicate effectively
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Communicate your ideas by sharing a chapter plan; provide feedback on other plans.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Display initiative and drive, and use organisation skills to plan and manage workload
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Get organised by selecting a topic and submitting an on-time chapter plan.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''Be a lifelong learner'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Evaluate and adopt new technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Learn how to edit in a collaborative, online environment.
|}

==Instructions==
Follow these instructions for the topic development:
* Develop a plan for a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter]] which consists of:
*# Title and sub-title (pre-approved or negotiated)
*# Overview
*# 3-5 other top-level headings
*#* Key points for each heading/sub-heading with citations
*#* 1+ relevant figure(s)
*#* 1+ actual or planned learning feature
*# Conclusion
*# See also
*#* 2+ internal links (1 to Wikiversity (e.g., another book chapter) and 1 to a Wikipedia article)
*# References (at least 6, which are cited)
*# External links
*#* 2+ external links (to external resources)
*# Wikiversity user page
*#* Self-introduction
*#* A link to the chapter being worked on
*#* Social contributions in a numbered list with a summary and direct link to evidence:
*#** 1 direct edit to improve another book chapter (past or present)
*#** 1 talk page comment on another book chapter (past or present)
*#** 1 {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion post
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement
* &lt;span id=&quot;Word count&quot;&gt;Length (Word count):&lt;/span&gt; There is no minimum or maximum length. Top-ranked topic development [[#Examples|examples]] range from 875 to 2900 words (average 1700).
* Submit a PDF of the topic development via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}, with the title, sub-title, and user name in the submission comments

==Template==
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Quickstarttip}}

==Marking criteria==
[[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]]
{{anchor|Title}}
===Title and sub-title (10%)===
* Use the approved wording, [[w:Letter case#Sentence case|casing]], etc. for the title and sub-title (i.e., as per the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}})
* Do not include additional bold, italics, or change font size from the [[Template:Motivation_and_emotion/Book_chapter_structure|book chapter template]]
* Do not include user name; authorship is as per the page's editing history

{{anchor|Headings}}

===Headings (10%)===
* Use the standard headings recommended in the [[Template:Motivation_and_emotion/Book_chapter_structure|book chapter template]] (i.e., Overview, Conclusion, References, See also, External links)
* Provide 3 to 6 informative top-level headings between the Overview and Conclusion. These sections may each contain 2 to 5 sub-headings; avoid sections with only 1 sub-heading.
* The top-level headings should align with the sub-title and focus questions
* Headings should use [[w:Letter case#Sentence case|sentence casing]] (see also [[:Template:Heading casing|heading casing]])

{{anchor|Overview}}

===Overview (10%)===
* A scenario or case study (real or fictional), in a [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature box]]
* At least 3 bullet points outlining the &quot;problem&quot; (i.e., explain the key concept(s) and importance of the topic)—to be expanded into sentences and paragraphs for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]]
* 3 to 5 [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]] that unpack the topic and address the sub-title, in a [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature box]]

{{anchor|Key points}}

===Key points (10%)===
* At least 3 bullet points per section (i.e., per heading or sub-heading)
* Overview the most relevant theory(ies), including key citations
* Overview the most relevant research, including key citations
* Provide at least 1 introductory bullet point before branching into sub-sections
* Address the problem (i.e., answer the question in the sub-title)

{{Anchor|Figure}}
===Figure (10%)===
* Display at least 1 relevant figure. See [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#Figures|example]].
* Number each figure sequentially (e.g., Figure 1, Figure 2 etc.)
* Include a descriptive caption that connects the figure to the text
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1)
* Optimise image display size to make it easy to read (i.e., not too big or too small)

{{Anchor|Learning feature}}
===Learning feature (10%)===
* In addition to the scenario in the Overview, include at least 1 of the following learning features e.g.,:
** Another scenario/case study: A follow-up or second scenario/case study in the main body in a [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature box]]
** Internal (wiki) links:
*** At least 1 embedded link to a relevant book chapter
*** At least 1 embedded link to a relevant Wikipedia article
* Quiz question with correct and incorrect answers
** Table with an APA style caption

{{anchor|References}}
===References (10%)===
* Provide at least 6 APA style references to the best peer-reviewed sources about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals]])
* Each source should be cited at least once in the key points
* Include a balance of key theoretical and key research articles

{{anchor|Resources}}

===Resources (10%)===
* '''See also''' (Level 2 heading): Provide at least 2 internal (wiki) links (1 to a Wikiversity article; 1 to a Wikipedia article)
** Provide at least 1 bullet-pointed:
*** [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) link]] to a relevant book chapter
*** internal wiki link to a relevant Wikipedia page
** The linked text is the same as the name of the target page using [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
** Include the source in parentheses after the link (e.g., Book chapter, 2023)
** Use alphabetical order
* '''External links''' (Level 2 heading): Provide at least 2 external links to key internet resources
** Provide at least 2 bullet-pointed [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external link]]s to key internet resources (not Wikiversity or Wikipedia or academic articles)
** The linked text is the same as the name of the target page using [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
** Include the source in parentheses after the link (e.g., The Conversation)
** Use alphabetical order

{{anchor|User page}}

===User page (10%)===
* Create a Wikiversity user page for your user account
* Edit the user page to provide information about yourself
* Recommended headings:
** About me
** Book chapter I'm working on
*** Include an internal (wiki) link to the chapter page
** Social contributions
* Consider linking to your other online profiles

{{anchor|Social contribution}}
{{anchor|Socialcontribution}}

===Social contribution (10%)===
* On your Wikiversity user page, summarise and link to ''direct evidence'' that you made at least 3 different types of contributions:
*# direct edit to improve a [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter page]] (current or previous topics)
*# provided feedback by commenting on a book chapter's talk page (current or previous topics)
*# posted about motivation or emotion or the assessment tasks to the {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion forum&lt;!-- or contribute to the {{Motivation and emotion/Hashtag}} X hashtag --&gt;
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Social contributions|More info]]

==Examples==
;About
* Below are some examples of topic development submissions which received 100%
* The links go to snapshots of pages as submitted for the topic development; these are not the final book chapter submissions
* It is possible to get full marks using only bullet points, however some examples below go beyond the requirements for 100% (e.g., involve drafting a full chapter)

;2025
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Metacognition_and_emotional_regulation&amp;oldid=2729232 Metacognition and emotional regulation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Elina.jean.r&amp;oldid=2726043 Elina.jean.r]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Motivation_for_using_AI_companions&amp;oldid=2728874 Motivation for using AI companions] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3254978&amp;oldid=2727975 U3254978]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Self-determination_theory_and_social_media_use&amp;oldid=2740305 Self-determination theory and social media use] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3237996&amp;oldid=2739659 U3237996]

;2024
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2024/Groups_and_individual_motivation_reduction&amp;oldid=2644110 Groups and individual motivation reduction] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3216883&amp;oldid=2644098 U3216883]

;2023
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2023/Bedtime_procrastination&amp;oldid=2550954 Bedtime procrastination] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3227684&amp;oldid=2550752 U3227684]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2023/Conspiracy_theory_motivation&amp;oldid=2551397 Conspiracy theory motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3223114&amp;oldid=2552580 U3223114]
&lt;!-- * The topic development requirements and weighting increased in 2023 from 5% to 10%. So, the examples from 2022 and earlier may not warrant full marks if assessed against the 2023-present criteria. They should nevertheless serve as useful guides.

;2022
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Compassion&amp;oldid=2420004 Compassion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3203545&amp;oldid=2420008 U3203545]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Childhood_trauma_and_subsequent_drug_use&amp;oldid=2429214 Childhood trauma and subsequent drug use] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3210431&amp;oldid=2419862 U3210431]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment&amp;oldid=2420355 Disappointment] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3216256&amp;oldid=2420416 U3216256]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Fear&amp;oldid=2419996 Fear] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Icantchooseone&amp;oldid=2419390 Icantchooseone]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Financial_investing,_motivation,_and_emotion&amp;oldid=2420729 Financial investing, motivation, and emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3217287&amp;oldid=2420715 U3217287]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Money_priming,_motivation,_and_emotion&amp;oldid=2420693 Money priming, motivation, and emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Molzaroid&amp;oldid=2418874 Molzaroid]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Nature_therapy&amp;oldid=2420231 Nature therapy] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Ana028&amp;oldid=2420232 Ana028]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Video_conferencing_fatigue&amp;oldid=2421389 Video conferencing fatigue] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3211603&amp;oldid=2418246 U3211603]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Window_of_tolerance&amp;oldid=2419756 Window of tolerance] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3223109&amp;oldid=2417630 U3223109]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Work_and_flow&amp;oldid=2421675 Work and flow] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3213441&amp;oldid=2420956 U3213441]

;2021
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Affective_disorders&amp;oldid=2314003 Affective disorders] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3186377&amp;action=history U3186377]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Cognitive_dissonance_and_motivation&amp;oldid=2313463 Cognitive dissonance and motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3202904&amp;action=history U3202904]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Domestic_violence_motivation&amp;oldid=2313842 Domestic violence motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3194166&amp;oldid=2313868 U3194166]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Fantasy_and_sexual_motivation&amp;oldid=2313839 Fantasy and sexual motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187741&amp;oldid=2313844 U3187741]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Laziness&amp;oldid=2312068 Laziness] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187874&amp;oldid=2310813 U3187874]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Non-English_emotion_words Non-English emotion words] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3202854&amp;oldid=2312677 U3202854]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Positive_illusions_about_the_self&amp;oldid=2312873 Positive illusions about the self] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187178&amp;oldid=2311466 U3187178]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Torture_motivation&amp;oldid=2311842 Torture motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:J.Payten&amp;oldid=2311388 J.Payten]

;2020
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Body_image_flexibility&amp;oldid=2196896 Body image flexibility] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3170940&amp;oldid=2191350 U3170940]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Emotional_self-efficacy&amp;oldid=2200012 Emotional self-efficacy] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3190210&amp;oldid=2198005 U3190210]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Guilty_pleasure&amp;oldid=2196391 Guilty pleasure] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3160224&amp;oldid=2198079 U3160224]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Meta-emotion&amp;oldid=2199480 Meta-emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3190467&amp;oldid=2194797 U3190467]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Methamphetamine_and_emotion&amp;oldid=2199878 Methamphetamine and emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:NUMBLA0371&amp;oldid=2199869 NUMBLA0371]
;2019
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2019/Growth_mindset_development&amp;oldid=2052186 Growth mindset development] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3172958&amp;oldid=2051716 U3172958]
;2018
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2018/Familicide_motivation&amp;oldid=1916838 Familicide motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3160212&amp;oldid=1915671 U3160212]
;2017
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2017/Awe_and_well-being&amp;oldid=1730944 Awe and well-being] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3122707&amp;oldid=1730836 U3122707]
--&gt;

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 ShareAlike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) and [http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html GFDL] licenses. These licenses give permission for others to edit and re-use contributed content, with appropriate acknowledgement. These licenses are irrevocable.For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under these licenses, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment]] options with the unit convener.

==See also==
* Structure
** [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure|Book chapter structure template]]
** [[/Checklist|Topic development — Checklist]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|General feedback]]
** [[Template:METF|Feedback template]]
* Tutorials
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]]
{{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}}
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic| ]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]]</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ + [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1yQd1-IekznJNLwhef-yEBaxKtRR6dAVESWXoTa-ti3c/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]</comment>
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      <text bytes="21589" sha1="gnxwg55wjvu8wbcu987sf1liwm8m6ya" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Topic development — Guidelines}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Chapter plan and user page''
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;
&lt;!-- Count down --&gt;
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;&lt;!--
{{countdown
 |year       = 2025
 |month      = 08
 |day        = 14
 |hour       = 23
 |minute     = 0
 |second     = 0
 |event = this assessment is due
}}
--&gt; &lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/In development}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- Show this during semester --&gt;{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Contents}}&lt;/div&gt;
{{TOCright}}
==Overview==
* Weight: 10%
* Due: {{/Due}}
* Tasks: Develop a plan for the book chapter:
** Create a Wikiversity user account
** Select or negotiate an approved topic in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 table of contents]]
** Build wiki editing skills by developing a plan for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] which consists of:
*** Title and sub-title
*** Headings (and possibly sub-headings)
*** Key points for each section (and sub-section)
*** Figure (at least 1)
*** Learning feature (plan at least 1)
*** References (6+ relevant, high quality soruces)
*** Resources (2+ see also and 2+ external links)
** Create a Wikiversity user page
*** Introduce yourself
*** Summarise at least three different types of social contributions on your Wikiversity user page
* Follow the detailed [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]
* Guidance for this assignment is provided in Module 1:
** [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Introduction|Lecture 01]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Historical development and assessment skills|Lecture 02]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]

==Marking and feedback==
*Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]] and [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1yQd1-IekznJNLwhef-yEBaxKtRR6dAVESWXoTa-ti3c/edit?usp=sharing marking rubric]
*Feedback will be provided to help guide drafting of the full [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]]
*Marks and feedback should be returned before Census Date (end of Week 4)
**Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}
**Written feedback will be available via the topic's Wikiversity discussion page
*Follow up if you don't understand or would like more feedback

==Extensions and late submissions==
* Extension requests require an Extension Application Form to be submitted via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} with appropriate documentary evidence
* Submissions are accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day late)
* If you don't submit this assessment on time, withdrawal from the unit before Census Date (end of Week 4) is recommended

==Learning outcomes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| Identify the main psychological theories and peer-reviewed research which can be used to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| Propose how psychological knowledge can be applied to a specific topic to improve motivational and emotional lives. 
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:

{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;width:20%;&quot; | Category
! style=&quot;width:20%;&quot; | Graduate attribute
! style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | Assessment task
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''Be professional'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Communicate effectively
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Communicate your ideas by sharing a chapter plan; provide feedback on other plans.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Display initiative and drive, and use organisation skills to plan and manage workload
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Get organised by selecting a topic and submitting an on-time chapter plan.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''Be a lifelong learner'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Evaluate and adopt new technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Learn how to edit in a collaborative, online environment.
|}

==Instructions==
Follow these instructions for the topic development:
* Develop a plan for a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter]] which consists of:
*# Title and sub-title (pre-approved or negotiated)
*# Overview
*# 3-5 other top-level headings
*#* Key points for each heading/sub-heading with citations
*#* 1+ relevant figure(s)
*#* 1+ actual or planned learning feature
*# Conclusion
*# See also
*#* 2+ internal links (1 to Wikiversity (e.g., another book chapter) and 1 to a Wikipedia article)
*# References (at least 6, which are cited)
*# External links
*#* 2+ external links (to external resources)
*# Wikiversity user page
*#* Self-introduction
*#* A link to the chapter being worked on
*#* Social contributions in a numbered list with a summary and direct link to evidence:
*#** 1 direct edit to improve another book chapter (past or present)
*#** 1 talk page comment on another book chapter (past or present)
*#** 1 {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion post
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement
* &lt;span id=&quot;Word count&quot;&gt;Length (Word count):&lt;/span&gt; There is no minimum or maximum length. Top-ranked topic development [[#Examples|examples]] range from 875 to 2900 words (average 1700).
* Submit a PDF of the topic development via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}, with the title, sub-title, and user name in the submission comments

==Template==
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Quickstarttip}}

==Marking criteria==
[[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]]
{{anchor|Title}}
===Title and sub-title (10%)===
* Use the approved wording, [[w:Letter case#Sentence case|casing]], etc. for the title and sub-title (i.e., as per the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}})
* Do not include additional bold, italics, or change font size from the [[Template:Motivation_and_emotion/Book_chapter_structure|book chapter template]]
* Do not include user name; authorship is as per the page's editing history

{{anchor|Headings}}

===Headings (10%)===
* Use the standard headings recommended in the [[Template:Motivation_and_emotion/Book_chapter_structure|book chapter template]] (i.e., Overview, Conclusion, References, See also, External links)
* Provide 3 to 6 informative top-level headings between the Overview and Conclusion. These sections may each contain 2 to 5 sub-headings; avoid sections with only 1 sub-heading.
* The top-level headings should align with the sub-title and focus questions
* Headings should use [[w:Letter case#Sentence case|sentence casing]] (see also [[:Template:Heading casing|heading casing]])

{{anchor|Overview}}

===Overview (10%)===
* A scenario or case study (real or fictional), in a [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature box]]
* At least 3 bullet points outlining the &quot;problem&quot; (i.e., explain the key concept(s) and importance of the topic)—to be expanded into sentences and paragraphs for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]]
* 3 to 5 [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]] that unpack the topic and address the sub-title, in a [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature box]]

{{anchor|Key points}}

===Key points (10%)===
* At least 3 bullet points per section (i.e., per heading or sub-heading)
* Overview the most relevant theory(ies), including key citations
* Overview the most relevant research, including key citations
* Provide at least 1 introductory bullet point before branching into sub-sections
* Address the problem (i.e., answer the question in the sub-title)

{{Anchor|Figure}}
===Figure (10%)===
* Display at least 1 relevant figure. See [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#Figures|example]].
* Number each figure sequentially (e.g., Figure 1, Figure 2 etc.)
* Include a descriptive caption that connects the figure to the text
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1)
* Optimise image display size to make it easy to read (i.e., not too big or too small)

{{Anchor|Learning feature}}
===Learning feature (10%)===
* In addition to the scenario in the Overview, include at least 1 of the following learning features e.g.,:
** Another scenario/case study: A follow-up or second scenario/case study in the main body in a [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature box]]
** Internal (wiki) links:
*** At least 1 embedded link to a relevant book chapter
*** At least 1 embedded link to a relevant Wikipedia article
* Quiz question with correct and incorrect answers
** Table with an APA style caption

{{anchor|References}}
===References (10%)===
* Provide at least 6 APA style references to the best peer-reviewed sources about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals]])
* Each source should be cited at least once in the key points
* Include a balance of key theoretical and key research articles

{{anchor|Resources}}

===Resources (10%)===
* '''See also''' (Level 2 heading): Provide at least 2 internal (wiki) links (1 to a Wikiversity article; 1 to a Wikipedia article)
** Provide at least 1 bullet-pointed:
*** [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) link]] to a relevant book chapter
*** internal wiki link to a relevant Wikipedia page
** The linked text is the same as the name of the target page using [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
** Include the source in parentheses after the link (e.g., Book chapter, 2023)
** Use alphabetical order
* '''External links''' (Level 2 heading): Provide at least 2 external links to key internet resources
** Provide at least 2 bullet-pointed [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external link]]s to key internet resources (not Wikiversity or Wikipedia or academic articles)
** The linked text is the same as the name of the target page using [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
** Include the source in parentheses after the link (e.g., The Conversation)
** Use alphabetical order

{{anchor|User page}}

===User page (10%)===
* Create a Wikiversity user page for your user account
* Edit the user page to provide information about yourself
* Recommended headings:
** About me
** Book chapter I'm working on
*** Include an internal (wiki) link to the chapter page
** Social contributions
* Consider linking to your other online profiles

{{anchor|Social contribution}}
{{anchor|Socialcontribution}}

===Social contribution (10%)===
* On your Wikiversity user page, summarise and link to ''direct evidence'' that you made at least 3 different types of contributions:
*# direct edit to improve a [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter page]] (current or previous topics)
*# provided feedback by commenting on a book chapter's talk page (current or previous topics)
*# posted about motivation or emotion or the assessment tasks to the {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion forum&lt;!-- or contribute to the {{Motivation and emotion/Hashtag}} X hashtag --&gt;
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Social contributions|More info]]

==Examples==
;About
* Below are some examples of topic development submissions which received 100%
* The links go to snapshots of pages as submitted for the topic development; these are not the final book chapter submissions
* It is possible to get full marks using only bullet points, however some examples below go beyond the requirements for 100% (e.g., involve drafting a full chapter)

;2025
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Metacognition_and_emotional_regulation&amp;oldid=2729232 Metacognition and emotional regulation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Elina.jean.r&amp;oldid=2726043 Elina.jean.r]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Motivation_for_using_AI_companions&amp;oldid=2728874 Motivation for using AI companions] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3254978&amp;oldid=2727975 U3254978]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Self-determination_theory_and_social_media_use&amp;oldid=2740305 Self-determination theory and social media use] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3237996&amp;oldid=2739659 U3237996]

;2024
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2024/Groups_and_individual_motivation_reduction&amp;oldid=2644110 Groups and individual motivation reduction] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3216883&amp;oldid=2644098 U3216883]

;2023
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2023/Bedtime_procrastination&amp;oldid=2550954 Bedtime procrastination] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3227684&amp;oldid=2550752 U3227684]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2023/Conspiracy_theory_motivation&amp;oldid=2551397 Conspiracy theory motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3223114&amp;oldid=2552580 U3223114]
&lt;!-- * The topic development requirements and weighting increased in 2023 from 5% to 10%. So, the examples from 2022 and earlier may not warrant full marks if assessed against the 2023-present criteria. They should nevertheless serve as useful guides.

;2022
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Compassion&amp;oldid=2420004 Compassion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3203545&amp;oldid=2420008 U3203545]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Childhood_trauma_and_subsequent_drug_use&amp;oldid=2429214 Childhood trauma and subsequent drug use] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3210431&amp;oldid=2419862 U3210431]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment&amp;oldid=2420355 Disappointment] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3216256&amp;oldid=2420416 U3216256]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Fear&amp;oldid=2419996 Fear] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Icantchooseone&amp;oldid=2419390 Icantchooseone]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Financial_investing,_motivation,_and_emotion&amp;oldid=2420729 Financial investing, motivation, and emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3217287&amp;oldid=2420715 U3217287]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Money_priming,_motivation,_and_emotion&amp;oldid=2420693 Money priming, motivation, and emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Molzaroid&amp;oldid=2418874 Molzaroid]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Nature_therapy&amp;oldid=2420231 Nature therapy] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Ana028&amp;oldid=2420232 Ana028]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Video_conferencing_fatigue&amp;oldid=2421389 Video conferencing fatigue] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3211603&amp;oldid=2418246 U3211603]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Window_of_tolerance&amp;oldid=2419756 Window of tolerance] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3223109&amp;oldid=2417630 U3223109]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Work_and_flow&amp;oldid=2421675 Work and flow] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3213441&amp;oldid=2420956 U3213441]

;2021
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Affective_disorders&amp;oldid=2314003 Affective disorders] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3186377&amp;action=history U3186377]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Cognitive_dissonance_and_motivation&amp;oldid=2313463 Cognitive dissonance and motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3202904&amp;action=history U3202904]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Domestic_violence_motivation&amp;oldid=2313842 Domestic violence motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3194166&amp;oldid=2313868 U3194166]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Fantasy_and_sexual_motivation&amp;oldid=2313839 Fantasy and sexual motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187741&amp;oldid=2313844 U3187741]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Laziness&amp;oldid=2312068 Laziness] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187874&amp;oldid=2310813 U3187874]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Non-English_emotion_words Non-English emotion words] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3202854&amp;oldid=2312677 U3202854]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Positive_illusions_about_the_self&amp;oldid=2312873 Positive illusions about the self] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187178&amp;oldid=2311466 U3187178]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Torture_motivation&amp;oldid=2311842 Torture motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:J.Payten&amp;oldid=2311388 J.Payten]

;2020
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Body_image_flexibility&amp;oldid=2196896 Body image flexibility] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3170940&amp;oldid=2191350 U3170940]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Emotional_self-efficacy&amp;oldid=2200012 Emotional self-efficacy] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3190210&amp;oldid=2198005 U3190210]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Guilty_pleasure&amp;oldid=2196391 Guilty pleasure] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3160224&amp;oldid=2198079 U3160224]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Meta-emotion&amp;oldid=2199480 Meta-emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3190467&amp;oldid=2194797 U3190467]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Methamphetamine_and_emotion&amp;oldid=2199878 Methamphetamine and emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:NUMBLA0371&amp;oldid=2199869 NUMBLA0371]
;2019
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2019/Growth_mindset_development&amp;oldid=2052186 Growth mindset development] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3172958&amp;oldid=2051716 U3172958]
;2018
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2018/Familicide_motivation&amp;oldid=1916838 Familicide motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3160212&amp;oldid=1915671 U3160212]
;2017
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2017/Awe_and_well-being&amp;oldid=1730944 Awe and well-being] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3122707&amp;oldid=1730836 U3122707]
--&gt;

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 ShareAlike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) and [http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html GFDL] licenses. These licenses give permission for others to edit and re-use contributed content, with appropriate acknowledgement. These licenses are irrevocable.For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under these licenses, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment]] options with the unit convener.

==See also==
* Structure
** [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure|Book chapter structure template]]
** [[/Checklist|Topic development — Checklist]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|General feedback]]
** [[Template:METF|Feedback template]]
** [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1yQd1-IekznJNLwhef-yEBaxKtRR6dAVESWXoTa-ti3c/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]
* Tutorials
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]]
{{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}}
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic| ]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]]</text>
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      <comment>/* Marking criteria */ {{Notice|1=See also: [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1yQd1-IekznJNLwhef-yEBaxKtRR6dAVESWXoTa-ti3c/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]}}</comment>
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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Chapter plan and user page''
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;
&lt;!-- Count down --&gt;
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;&lt;!--
{{countdown
 |year       = 2025
 |month      = 08
 |day        = 14
 |hour       = 23
 |minute     = 0
 |second     = 0
 |event = this assessment is due
}}
--&gt; &lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/In development}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- Show this during semester --&gt;{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Contents}}&lt;/div&gt;
{{TOCright}}
==Overview==
* Weight: 10%
* Due: {{/Due}}
* Tasks: Develop a plan for the book chapter:
** Create a Wikiversity user account
** Select or negotiate an approved topic in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 table of contents]]
** Build wiki editing skills by developing a plan for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] which consists of:
*** Title and sub-title
*** Headings (and possibly sub-headings)
*** Key points for each section (and sub-section)
*** Figure (at least 1)
*** Learning feature (plan at least 1)
*** References (6+ relevant, high quality soruces)
*** Resources (2+ see also and 2+ external links)
** Create a Wikiversity user page
*** Introduce yourself
*** Summarise at least three different types of social contributions on your Wikiversity user page
* Follow the detailed [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]
* Guidance for this assignment is provided in Module 1:
** [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Introduction|Lecture 01]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Historical development and assessment skills|Lecture 02]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]

==Marking and feedback==
*Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]] and [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1yQd1-IekznJNLwhef-yEBaxKtRR6dAVESWXoTa-ti3c/edit?usp=sharing marking rubric]
*Feedback will be provided to help guide drafting of the full [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]]
*Marks and feedback should be returned before Census Date (end of Week 4)
**Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}
**Written feedback will be available via the topic's Wikiversity discussion page
*Follow up if you don't understand or would like more feedback

==Extensions and late submissions==
* Extension requests require an Extension Application Form to be submitted via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} with appropriate documentary evidence
* Submissions are accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day late)
* If you don't submit this assessment on time, withdrawal from the unit before Census Date (end of Week 4) is recommended

==Learning outcomes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| Identify the main psychological theories and peer-reviewed research which can be used to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| Propose how psychological knowledge can be applied to a specific topic to improve motivational and emotional lives. 
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:

{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;width:20%;&quot; | Category
! style=&quot;width:20%;&quot; | Graduate attribute
! style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | Assessment task
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''Be professional'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Communicate effectively
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Communicate your ideas by sharing a chapter plan; provide feedback on other plans.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Display initiative and drive, and use organisation skills to plan and manage workload
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Get organised by selecting a topic and submitting an on-time chapter plan.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''Be a lifelong learner'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Evaluate and adopt new technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Learn how to edit in a collaborative, online environment.
|}

==Instructions==
Follow these instructions for the topic development:
* Develop a plan for a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter]] which consists of:
*# Title and sub-title (pre-approved or negotiated)
*# Overview
*# 3-5 other top-level headings
*#* Key points for each heading/sub-heading with citations
*#* 1+ relevant figure(s)
*#* 1+ actual or planned learning feature
*# Conclusion
*# See also
*#* 2+ internal links (1 to Wikiversity (e.g., another book chapter) and 1 to a Wikipedia article)
*# References (at least 6, which are cited)
*# External links
*#* 2+ external links (to external resources)
*# Wikiversity user page
*#* Self-introduction
*#* A link to the chapter being worked on
*#* Social contributions in a numbered list with a summary and direct link to evidence:
*#** 1 direct edit to improve another book chapter (past or present)
*#** 1 talk page comment on another book chapter (past or present)
*#** 1 {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion post
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement
* &lt;span id=&quot;Word count&quot;&gt;Length (Word count):&lt;/span&gt; There is no minimum or maximum length. Top-ranked topic development [[#Examples|examples]] range from 875 to 2900 words (average 1700).
* Submit a PDF of the topic development via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}, with the title, sub-title, and user name in the submission comments

==Template==
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Quickstarttip}}

==Marking criteria==
{{Notice|1=See also: [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1yQd1-IekznJNLwhef-yEBaxKtRR6dAVESWXoTa-ti3c/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]}}
[[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]]
{{anchor|Title}}
===Title and sub-title (10%)===
* Use the approved wording, [[w:Letter case#Sentence case|casing]], etc. for the title and sub-title (i.e., as per the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}})
* Do not include additional bold, italics, or change font size from the [[Template:Motivation_and_emotion/Book_chapter_structure|book chapter template]]
* Do not include user name; authorship is as per the page's editing history

{{anchor|Headings}}

===Headings (10%)===
* Use the standard headings recommended in the [[Template:Motivation_and_emotion/Book_chapter_structure|book chapter template]] (i.e., Overview, Conclusion, References, See also, External links)
* Provide 3 to 6 informative top-level headings between the Overview and Conclusion. These sections may each contain 2 to 5 sub-headings; avoid sections with only 1 sub-heading.
* The top-level headings should align with the sub-title and focus questions
* Headings should use [[w:Letter case#Sentence case|sentence casing]] (see also [[:Template:Heading casing|heading casing]])

{{anchor|Overview}}

===Overview (10%)===
* A scenario or case study (real or fictional), in a [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature box]]
* At least 3 bullet points outlining the &quot;problem&quot; (i.e., explain the key concept(s) and importance of the topic)—to be expanded into sentences and paragraphs for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]]
* 3 to 5 [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]] that unpack the topic and address the sub-title, in a [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature box]]

{{anchor|Key points}}

===Key points (10%)===
* At least 3 bullet points per section (i.e., per heading or sub-heading)
* Overview the most relevant theory(ies), including key citations
* Overview the most relevant research, including key citations
* Provide at least 1 introductory bullet point before branching into sub-sections
* Address the problem (i.e., answer the question in the sub-title)

{{Anchor|Figure}}
===Figure (10%)===
* Display at least 1 relevant figure. See [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#Figures|example]].
* Number each figure sequentially (e.g., Figure 1, Figure 2 etc.)
* Include a descriptive caption that connects the figure to the text
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1)
* Optimise image display size to make it easy to read (i.e., not too big or too small)

{{Anchor|Learning feature}}
===Learning feature (10%)===
* In addition to the scenario in the Overview, include at least 1 of the following learning features e.g.,:
** Another scenario/case study: A follow-up or second scenario/case study in the main body in a [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature box]]
** Internal (wiki) links:
*** At least 1 embedded link to a relevant book chapter
*** At least 1 embedded link to a relevant Wikipedia article
* Quiz question with correct and incorrect answers
** Table with an APA style caption

{{anchor|References}}
===References (10%)===
* Provide at least 6 APA style references to the best peer-reviewed sources about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals]])
* Each source should be cited at least once in the key points
* Include a balance of key theoretical and key research articles

{{anchor|Resources}}

===Resources (10%)===
* '''See also''' (Level 2 heading): Provide at least 2 internal (wiki) links (1 to a Wikiversity article; 1 to a Wikipedia article)
** Provide at least 1 bullet-pointed:
*** [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) link]] to a relevant book chapter
*** internal wiki link to a relevant Wikipedia page
** The linked text is the same as the name of the target page using [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
** Include the source in parentheses after the link (e.g., Book chapter, 2023)
** Use alphabetical order
* '''External links''' (Level 2 heading): Provide at least 2 external links to key internet resources
** Provide at least 2 bullet-pointed [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external link]]s to key internet resources (not Wikiversity or Wikipedia or academic articles)
** The linked text is the same as the name of the target page using [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
** Include the source in parentheses after the link (e.g., The Conversation)
** Use alphabetical order

{{anchor|User page}}

===User page (10%)===
* Create a Wikiversity user page for your user account
* Edit the user page to provide information about yourself
* Recommended headings:
** About me
** Book chapter I'm working on
*** Include an internal (wiki) link to the chapter page
** Social contributions
* Consider linking to your other online profiles

{{anchor|Social contribution}}
{{anchor|Socialcontribution}}

===Social contribution (10%)===
* On your Wikiversity user page, summarise and link to ''direct evidence'' that you made at least 3 different types of contributions:
*# direct edit to improve a [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter page]] (current or previous topics)
*# provided feedback by commenting on a book chapter's talk page (current or previous topics)
*# posted about motivation or emotion or the assessment tasks to the {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion forum&lt;!-- or contribute to the {{Motivation and emotion/Hashtag}} X hashtag --&gt;
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Social contributions|More info]]

==Examples==
;About
* Below are some examples of topic development submissions which received 100%
* The links go to snapshots of pages as submitted for the topic development; these are not the final book chapter submissions
* It is possible to get full marks using only bullet points, however some examples below go beyond the requirements for 100% (e.g., involve drafting a full chapter)

;2025
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Metacognition_and_emotional_regulation&amp;oldid=2729232 Metacognition and emotional regulation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Elina.jean.r&amp;oldid=2726043 Elina.jean.r]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Motivation_for_using_AI_companions&amp;oldid=2728874 Motivation for using AI companions] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3254978&amp;oldid=2727975 U3254978]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Self-determination_theory_and_social_media_use&amp;oldid=2740305 Self-determination theory and social media use] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3237996&amp;oldid=2739659 U3237996]

;2024
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2024/Groups_and_individual_motivation_reduction&amp;oldid=2644110 Groups and individual motivation reduction] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3216883&amp;oldid=2644098 U3216883]

;2023
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2023/Bedtime_procrastination&amp;oldid=2550954 Bedtime procrastination] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3227684&amp;oldid=2550752 U3227684]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2023/Conspiracy_theory_motivation&amp;oldid=2551397 Conspiracy theory motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3223114&amp;oldid=2552580 U3223114]
&lt;!-- * The topic development requirements and weighting increased in 2023 from 5% to 10%. So, the examples from 2022 and earlier may not warrant full marks if assessed against the 2023-present criteria. They should nevertheless serve as useful guides.

;2022
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Compassion&amp;oldid=2420004 Compassion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3203545&amp;oldid=2420008 U3203545]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Childhood_trauma_and_subsequent_drug_use&amp;oldid=2429214 Childhood trauma and subsequent drug use] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3210431&amp;oldid=2419862 U3210431]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment&amp;oldid=2420355 Disappointment] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3216256&amp;oldid=2420416 U3216256]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Fear&amp;oldid=2419996 Fear] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Icantchooseone&amp;oldid=2419390 Icantchooseone]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Financial_investing,_motivation,_and_emotion&amp;oldid=2420729 Financial investing, motivation, and emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3217287&amp;oldid=2420715 U3217287]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Money_priming,_motivation,_and_emotion&amp;oldid=2420693 Money priming, motivation, and emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Molzaroid&amp;oldid=2418874 Molzaroid]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Nature_therapy&amp;oldid=2420231 Nature therapy] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Ana028&amp;oldid=2420232 Ana028]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Video_conferencing_fatigue&amp;oldid=2421389 Video conferencing fatigue] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3211603&amp;oldid=2418246 U3211603]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Window_of_tolerance&amp;oldid=2419756 Window of tolerance] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3223109&amp;oldid=2417630 U3223109]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Work_and_flow&amp;oldid=2421675 Work and flow] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3213441&amp;oldid=2420956 U3213441]

;2021
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Affective_disorders&amp;oldid=2314003 Affective disorders] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3186377&amp;action=history U3186377]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Cognitive_dissonance_and_motivation&amp;oldid=2313463 Cognitive dissonance and motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3202904&amp;action=history U3202904]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Domestic_violence_motivation&amp;oldid=2313842 Domestic violence motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3194166&amp;oldid=2313868 U3194166]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Fantasy_and_sexual_motivation&amp;oldid=2313839 Fantasy and sexual motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187741&amp;oldid=2313844 U3187741]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Laziness&amp;oldid=2312068 Laziness] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187874&amp;oldid=2310813 U3187874]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Non-English_emotion_words Non-English emotion words] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3202854&amp;oldid=2312677 U3202854]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Positive_illusions_about_the_self&amp;oldid=2312873 Positive illusions about the self] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187178&amp;oldid=2311466 U3187178]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Torture_motivation&amp;oldid=2311842 Torture motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:J.Payten&amp;oldid=2311388 J.Payten]

;2020
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Body_image_flexibility&amp;oldid=2196896 Body image flexibility] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3170940&amp;oldid=2191350 U3170940]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Emotional_self-efficacy&amp;oldid=2200012 Emotional self-efficacy] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3190210&amp;oldid=2198005 U3190210]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Guilty_pleasure&amp;oldid=2196391 Guilty pleasure] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3160224&amp;oldid=2198079 U3160224]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Meta-emotion&amp;oldid=2199480 Meta-emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3190467&amp;oldid=2194797 U3190467]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Methamphetamine_and_emotion&amp;oldid=2199878 Methamphetamine and emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:NUMBLA0371&amp;oldid=2199869 NUMBLA0371]
;2019
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2019/Growth_mindset_development&amp;oldid=2052186 Growth mindset development] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3172958&amp;oldid=2051716 U3172958]
;2018
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2018/Familicide_motivation&amp;oldid=1916838 Familicide motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3160212&amp;oldid=1915671 U3160212]
;2017
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2017/Awe_and_well-being&amp;oldid=1730944 Awe and well-being] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3122707&amp;oldid=1730836 U3122707]
--&gt;

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 ShareAlike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) and [http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html GFDL] licenses. These licenses give permission for others to edit and re-use contributed content, with appropriate acknowledgement. These licenses are irrevocable.For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under these licenses, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment]] options with the unit convener.

==See also==
* Structure
** [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure|Book chapter structure template]]
** [[/Checklist|Topic development — Checklist]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|General feedback]]
** [[Template:METF|Feedback template]]
** [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1yQd1-IekznJNLwhef-yEBaxKtRR6dAVESWXoTa-ti3c/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]
* Tutorials
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]]
{{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}}
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic| ]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]]</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817090</id>
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        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Marking criteria */ Topic developments will be marked against the following criteria.</comment>
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      <text bytes="21794" sha1="c38mqus5dczup5h56cs7r0p9hqvijq9" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Topic development — Guidelines}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Chapter plan and user page''
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;
&lt;!-- Count down --&gt;
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;&lt;!--
{{countdown
 |year       = 2025
 |month      = 08
 |day        = 14
 |hour       = 23
 |minute     = 0
 |second     = 0
 |event = this assessment is due
}}
--&gt; &lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/In development}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- Show this during semester --&gt;{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Contents}}&lt;/div&gt;
{{TOCright}}
==Overview==
* Weight: 10%
* Due: {{/Due}}
* Tasks: Develop a plan for the book chapter:
** Create a Wikiversity user account
** Select or negotiate an approved topic in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 table of contents]]
** Build wiki editing skills by developing a plan for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] which consists of:
*** Title and sub-title
*** Headings (and possibly sub-headings)
*** Key points for each section (and sub-section)
*** Figure (at least 1)
*** Learning feature (plan at least 1)
*** References (6+ relevant, high quality soruces)
*** Resources (2+ see also and 2+ external links)
** Create a Wikiversity user page
*** Introduce yourself
*** Summarise at least three different types of social contributions on your Wikiversity user page
* Follow the detailed [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]
* Guidance for this assignment is provided in Module 1:
** [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Introduction|Lecture 01]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Historical development and assessment skills|Lecture 02]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]

==Marking and feedback==
*Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]] and [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1yQd1-IekznJNLwhef-yEBaxKtRR6dAVESWXoTa-ti3c/edit?usp=sharing marking rubric]
*Feedback will be provided to help guide drafting of the full [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]]
*Marks and feedback should be returned before Census Date (end of Week 4)
**Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}
**Written feedback will be available via the topic's Wikiversity discussion page
*Follow up if you don't understand or would like more feedback

==Extensions and late submissions==
* Extension requests require an Extension Application Form to be submitted via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} with appropriate documentary evidence
* Submissions are accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day late)
* If you don't submit this assessment on time, withdrawal from the unit before Census Date (end of Week 4) is recommended

==Learning outcomes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| Identify the main psychological theories and peer-reviewed research which can be used to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| Propose how psychological knowledge can be applied to a specific topic to improve motivational and emotional lives. 
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:

{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;width:20%;&quot; | Category
! style=&quot;width:20%;&quot; | Graduate attribute
! style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | Assessment task
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''Be professional'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Communicate effectively
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Communicate your ideas by sharing a chapter plan; provide feedback on other plans.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Display initiative and drive, and use organisation skills to plan and manage workload
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Get organised by selecting a topic and submitting an on-time chapter plan.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''Be a lifelong learner'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Evaluate and adopt new technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Learn how to edit in a collaborative, online environment.
|}

==Instructions==
Follow these instructions for the topic development:
* Develop a plan for a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter]] which consists of:
*# Title and sub-title (pre-approved or negotiated)
*# Overview
*# 3-5 other top-level headings
*#* Key points for each heading/sub-heading with citations
*#* 1+ relevant figure(s)
*#* 1+ actual or planned learning feature
*# Conclusion
*# See also
*#* 2+ internal links (1 to Wikiversity (e.g., another book chapter) and 1 to a Wikipedia article)
*# References (at least 6, which are cited)
*# External links
*#* 2+ external links (to external resources)
*# Wikiversity user page
*#* Self-introduction
*#* A link to the chapter being worked on
*#* Social contributions in a numbered list with a summary and direct link to evidence:
*#** 1 direct edit to improve another book chapter (past or present)
*#** 1 talk page comment on another book chapter (past or present)
*#** 1 {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion post
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement
* &lt;span id=&quot;Word count&quot;&gt;Length (Word count):&lt;/span&gt; There is no minimum or maximum length. Top-ranked topic development [[#Examples|examples]] range from 875 to 2900 words (average 1700).
* Submit a PDF of the topic development via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}, with the title, sub-title, and user name in the submission comments

==Template==
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Quickstarttip}}

==Marking criteria==
{{Notice|1=See also: [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1yQd1-IekznJNLwhef-yEBaxKtRR6dAVESWXoTa-ti3c/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]}}
[[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]]

Topic developments will be marked against the following criteria.

{{anchor|Title}}
===Title and sub-title (10%)===
* Use the approved wording, [[w:Letter case#Sentence case|casing]], etc. for the title and sub-title (i.e., as per the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}})
* Do not include additional bold, italics, or change font size from the [[Template:Motivation_and_emotion/Book_chapter_structure|book chapter template]]
* Do not include user name; authorship is as per the page's editing history

{{anchor|Headings}}

===Headings (10%)===
* Use the standard headings recommended in the [[Template:Motivation_and_emotion/Book_chapter_structure|book chapter template]] (i.e., Overview, Conclusion, References, See also, External links)
* Provide 3 to 6 informative top-level headings between the Overview and Conclusion. These sections may each contain 2 to 5 sub-headings; avoid sections with only 1 sub-heading.
* The top-level headings should align with the sub-title and focus questions
* Headings should use [[w:Letter case#Sentence case|sentence casing]] (see also [[:Template:Heading casing|heading casing]])

{{anchor|Overview}}

===Overview (10%)===
* A scenario or case study (real or fictional), in a [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature box]]
* At least 3 bullet points outlining the &quot;problem&quot; (i.e., explain the key concept(s) and importance of the topic)—to be expanded into sentences and paragraphs for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]]
* 3 to 5 [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]] that unpack the topic and address the sub-title, in a [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature box]]

{{anchor|Key points}}

===Key points (10%)===
* At least 3 bullet points per section (i.e., per heading or sub-heading)
* Overview the most relevant theory(ies), including key citations
* Overview the most relevant research, including key citations
* Provide at least 1 introductory bullet point before branching into sub-sections
* Address the problem (i.e., answer the question in the sub-title)

{{Anchor|Figure}}
===Figure (10%)===
* Display at least 1 relevant figure. See [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#Figures|example]].
* Number each figure sequentially (e.g., Figure 1, Figure 2 etc.)
* Include a descriptive caption that connects the figure to the text
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1)
* Optimise image display size to make it easy to read (i.e., not too big or too small)

{{Anchor|Learning feature}}
===Learning feature (10%)===
* In addition to the scenario in the Overview, include at least 1 of the following learning features e.g.,:
** Another scenario/case study: A follow-up or second scenario/case study in the main body in a [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature box]]
** Internal (wiki) links:
*** At least 1 embedded link to a relevant book chapter
*** At least 1 embedded link to a relevant Wikipedia article
* Quiz question with correct and incorrect answers
** Table with an APA style caption

{{anchor|References}}
===References (10%)===
* Provide at least 6 APA style references to the best peer-reviewed sources about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals]])
* Each source should be cited at least once in the key points
* Include a balance of key theoretical and key research articles

{{anchor|Resources}}

===Resources (10%)===
* '''See also''' (Level 2 heading): Provide at least 2 internal (wiki) links (1 to a Wikiversity article; 1 to a Wikipedia article)
** Provide at least 1 bullet-pointed:
*** [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) link]] to a relevant book chapter
*** internal wiki link to a relevant Wikipedia page
** The linked text is the same as the name of the target page using [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
** Include the source in parentheses after the link (e.g., Book chapter, 2023)
** Use alphabetical order
* '''External links''' (Level 2 heading): Provide at least 2 external links to key internet resources
** Provide at least 2 bullet-pointed [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external link]]s to key internet resources (not Wikiversity or Wikipedia or academic articles)
** The linked text is the same as the name of the target page using [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
** Include the source in parentheses after the link (e.g., The Conversation)
** Use alphabetical order

{{anchor|User page}}

===User page (10%)===
* Create a Wikiversity user page for your user account
* Edit the user page to provide information about yourself
* Recommended headings:
** About me
** Book chapter I'm working on
*** Include an internal (wiki) link to the chapter page
** Social contributions
* Consider linking to your other online profiles

{{anchor|Social contribution}}
{{anchor|Socialcontribution}}

===Social contribution (10%)===
* On your Wikiversity user page, summarise and link to ''direct evidence'' that you made at least 3 different types of contributions:
*# direct edit to improve a [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter page]] (current or previous topics)
*# provided feedback by commenting on a book chapter's talk page (current or previous topics)
*# posted about motivation or emotion or the assessment tasks to the {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion forum&lt;!-- or contribute to the {{Motivation and emotion/Hashtag}} X hashtag --&gt;
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Social contributions|More info]]

==Examples==
;About
* Below are some examples of topic development submissions which received 100%
* The links go to snapshots of pages as submitted for the topic development; these are not the final book chapter submissions
* It is possible to get full marks using only bullet points, however some examples below go beyond the requirements for 100% (e.g., involve drafting a full chapter)

;2025
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Metacognition_and_emotional_regulation&amp;oldid=2729232 Metacognition and emotional regulation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Elina.jean.r&amp;oldid=2726043 Elina.jean.r]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Motivation_for_using_AI_companions&amp;oldid=2728874 Motivation for using AI companions] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3254978&amp;oldid=2727975 U3254978]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Self-determination_theory_and_social_media_use&amp;oldid=2740305 Self-determination theory and social media use] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3237996&amp;oldid=2739659 U3237996]

;2024
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2024/Groups_and_individual_motivation_reduction&amp;oldid=2644110 Groups and individual motivation reduction] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3216883&amp;oldid=2644098 U3216883]

;2023
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2023/Bedtime_procrastination&amp;oldid=2550954 Bedtime procrastination] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3227684&amp;oldid=2550752 U3227684]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2023/Conspiracy_theory_motivation&amp;oldid=2551397 Conspiracy theory motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3223114&amp;oldid=2552580 U3223114]
&lt;!-- * The topic development requirements and weighting increased in 2023 from 5% to 10%. So, the examples from 2022 and earlier may not warrant full marks if assessed against the 2023-present criteria. They should nevertheless serve as useful guides.

;2022
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Compassion&amp;oldid=2420004 Compassion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3203545&amp;oldid=2420008 U3203545]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Childhood_trauma_and_subsequent_drug_use&amp;oldid=2429214 Childhood trauma and subsequent drug use] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3210431&amp;oldid=2419862 U3210431]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment&amp;oldid=2420355 Disappointment] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3216256&amp;oldid=2420416 U3216256]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Fear&amp;oldid=2419996 Fear] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Icantchooseone&amp;oldid=2419390 Icantchooseone]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Financial_investing,_motivation,_and_emotion&amp;oldid=2420729 Financial investing, motivation, and emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3217287&amp;oldid=2420715 U3217287]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Money_priming,_motivation,_and_emotion&amp;oldid=2420693 Money priming, motivation, and emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Molzaroid&amp;oldid=2418874 Molzaroid]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Nature_therapy&amp;oldid=2420231 Nature therapy] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Ana028&amp;oldid=2420232 Ana028]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Video_conferencing_fatigue&amp;oldid=2421389 Video conferencing fatigue] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3211603&amp;oldid=2418246 U3211603]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Window_of_tolerance&amp;oldid=2419756 Window of tolerance] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3223109&amp;oldid=2417630 U3223109]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Work_and_flow&amp;oldid=2421675 Work and flow] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3213441&amp;oldid=2420956 U3213441]

;2021
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Affective_disorders&amp;oldid=2314003 Affective disorders] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3186377&amp;action=history U3186377]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Cognitive_dissonance_and_motivation&amp;oldid=2313463 Cognitive dissonance and motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3202904&amp;action=history U3202904]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Domestic_violence_motivation&amp;oldid=2313842 Domestic violence motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3194166&amp;oldid=2313868 U3194166]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Fantasy_and_sexual_motivation&amp;oldid=2313839 Fantasy and sexual motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187741&amp;oldid=2313844 U3187741]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Laziness&amp;oldid=2312068 Laziness] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187874&amp;oldid=2310813 U3187874]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Non-English_emotion_words Non-English emotion words] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3202854&amp;oldid=2312677 U3202854]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Positive_illusions_about_the_self&amp;oldid=2312873 Positive illusions about the self] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187178&amp;oldid=2311466 U3187178]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Torture_motivation&amp;oldid=2311842 Torture motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:J.Payten&amp;oldid=2311388 J.Payten]

;2020
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Body_image_flexibility&amp;oldid=2196896 Body image flexibility] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3170940&amp;oldid=2191350 U3170940]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Emotional_self-efficacy&amp;oldid=2200012 Emotional self-efficacy] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3190210&amp;oldid=2198005 U3190210]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Guilty_pleasure&amp;oldid=2196391 Guilty pleasure] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3160224&amp;oldid=2198079 U3160224]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Meta-emotion&amp;oldid=2199480 Meta-emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3190467&amp;oldid=2194797 U3190467]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Methamphetamine_and_emotion&amp;oldid=2199878 Methamphetamine and emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:NUMBLA0371&amp;oldid=2199869 NUMBLA0371]
;2019
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2019/Growth_mindset_development&amp;oldid=2052186 Growth mindset development] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3172958&amp;oldid=2051716 U3172958]
;2018
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2018/Familicide_motivation&amp;oldid=1916838 Familicide motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3160212&amp;oldid=1915671 U3160212]
;2017
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2017/Awe_and_well-being&amp;oldid=1730944 Awe and well-being] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3122707&amp;oldid=1730836 U3122707]
--&gt;

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 ShareAlike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) and [http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html GFDL] licenses. These licenses give permission for others to edit and re-use contributed content, with appropriate acknowledgement. These licenses are irrevocable.For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under these licenses, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment]] options with the unit convener.

==See also==
* Structure
** [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure|Book chapter structure template]]
** [[/Checklist|Topic development — Checklist]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|General feedback]]
** [[Template:METF|Feedback template]]
** [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1yQd1-IekznJNLwhef-yEBaxKtRR6dAVESWXoTa-ti3c/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]
* Tutorials
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]]
{{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}}
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic| ]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]]</text>
      <sha1>c38mqus5dczup5h56cs7r0p9hqvijq9</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Jtneill/Wikimedia</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>233950</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2817077</id>
      <parentid>2816388</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-28T09:58:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ Categories</comment>
      <origin>2817077</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="735" sha1="igp0y28tldenxhlf2w1j03w8bvobzzz" xml:space="preserve">==Art and museums==
* [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter|GLAM]] (Galleries Libraries Archives Museums) | [[Outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Archives|Archives]]

==Artificial intelligence==
* [[meta:Artificial intelligence]]
** [[meta:Artificial intelligence/2026 Wiki AI]]

==Categories==
* https://petscan.wmcloud.org/

==Education==
* [[Wikimedia Education]]
** [[outreach:Special:PermanentLink/45658|Ideas about Wikimedia Education]] (2013)
* [[meta:Learning_and_Evaluation/Newsletter|Learning Quarterly]]
* [[outreach:Education/Newsletters|This Month in Education]] | [[Outreach:Education/Newsletter/Archives|Archives]]

==Research==
* [[meta:Research:Newsletter]]

==Technology==
* [[Wikiversity:Newsletters/Tech News]]

[[Category:User:Jtneill]]</text>
      <sha1>igp0y28tldenxhlf2w1j03w8bvobzzz</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>C language in plain view</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>285380</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2816965</id>
      <parentid>2816874</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T14:01:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Applications */</comment>
      <origin>2816965</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9878" sha1="e4we49fbyscuqabpepba5qe0f98vbw3" xml:space="preserve">=== Introduction ===
* Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]])

=== Handling Repetition ===
* Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Handling a Big Work ===
* Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Functions &amp; Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Functions &amp; Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Functions &amp; Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Handling Series of Data ===

==== Background ==== 
* Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]])
 
==== Basics ====
* Pointers ([[Media:C04.S1.Pointer.1A.20240524.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Arrays ([[Media:C04.S2.Array.1A.20240514.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.S3.ArrayPointer.1A.20240208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20221130.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.1111.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]])

==== Examples ==== 
* Spreadsheet Example Programs
:: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]])
:: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]])
:: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]])
:: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]])

==== Applications ==== 
* Address-of and de-reference operators ([[Media:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20260627.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA1.AppPointer.1A.20241121.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.SA2.AppArray.1A.20240715.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA3.AppArrayPointer.1A.20240210.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]])

=== Handling Various Kinds of Data ===
* Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Handling Low Level Operations ===
* Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Declarations ===
* Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]])
* Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]])
* Scope 


=== Class Notes ===

* TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]])
* Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library
* Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements
* Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers
* Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts
* Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops
* Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control
* Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions
* Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope
* Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion
* Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions
* Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications
* Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions
* Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications
* Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) 
* Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2)
* Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO
* Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions
* Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications
* Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum
* Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List 
* Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing
* Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing


&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;
See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/

== '''Old Materials '''==

until 201201
* Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]])
* Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]])
* Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]])
* Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]])
* Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]])
* Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]])
* Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]])
* Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]])
* Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]])
* Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]])
* Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]])
* Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]])
 
&lt;br&gt;

until 201107
* Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]])
* Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]])
* Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]])
* Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]])
* Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]])


go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ]

[[Category:C programming language]]

&lt;/br&gt;</text>
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    <title>Wikiversity:GUS2Wiki</title>
    <ns>4</ns>
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      <id>2817029</id>
      <parentid>2816356</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T20:03:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alexis Jazz</username>
        <id>791434</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Updating gadget usage statistics from [[Special:GadgetUsage]] ([[phab:T121049]])</comment>
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      <text bytes="1280" sha1="92gjmedbw1c6qtk4lf90107jmimvvis" xml:space="preserve">{{#ifexist:Project:GUS2Wiki/top|{{/top}}|This page provides a historical record of [[Special:GadgetUsage]] through its page history. To get the data in CSV format, see wikitext. To customize this message or add categories, create [[/top]].}}
The following data is cached, and was last updated 2026-06-25T11:05:20Z. A maximum of {{PLURAL:5000|one result is|5000 results are}} available in the cache.
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! Gadget !! data-sort-type=&quot;number&quot; | Number of users !! data-sort-type=&quot;number&quot; | Active users
|-
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|-
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|-
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|-
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|-
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|-
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|-
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|-
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|-
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|-
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* [[Special:GadgetUsage]]
* [[m:Meta:GUS2Wiki/Script|GUS2Wiki]]
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  <page>
    <title>Bully Metric Timestamps</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>305659</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2817035</id>
      <parentid>2816768</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T20:14:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Time Estimation and Cosmic Redshift */</comment>
      <origin>2817035</origin>
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      <text bytes="25895" sha1="hg40cwrnb3er0043j4jp6kfkzny9c3c" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation and Cosmic Redshift ===
The exact value of the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant is unknown]; consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] cannot be determined. This uncertainty in cosmic age results in a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown.

As illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age.

Conversely, timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 3 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 4 maps them against lookback time.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr old) || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr old)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 5).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]]

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;Bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).

With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years.

* ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 43
* ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 44
* ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 45
* ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 46

==== Bully Galactic year 65 ====
As shown in Figure 7, Bully Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Ecliptic and Galactic Plane. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000.

[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]]

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year.

The following table (see Figure 6) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Bully Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}


* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 8''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 8''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 8''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 9''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 9: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 9''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 9''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
      <sha1>hg40cwrnb3er0043j4jp6kfkzny9c3c</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817036</id>
      <parentid>2817035</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T20:18:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817036</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="25899" sha1="e7ywhgylko6tcntbj29gwsaoyixz8dq" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation and Cosmic Redshift ===
The exact value of the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant is unknown]; consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] cannot be determined. This uncertainty in cosmic age results in a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown.

As illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age.

Conversely, timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 3 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 4 maps them against lookback time.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 5: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr old) || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr old)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 6).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 6:]]

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;Bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).

With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years.

* ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 43
* ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 44
* ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 45
* ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 46

==== Bully Galactic year 65 ====
As shown in Figure 7, Bully Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Ecliptic and Galactic Plane. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000.

[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]]

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year.

The following table (see Figure 8) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 8: Bully Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}


* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 9''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 9''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 9: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 9''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 10''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 10: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 10''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 10''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
      <sha1>e7ywhgylko6tcntbj29gwsaoyixz8dq</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817037</id>
      <parentid>2817036</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T20:24:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Time Estimation and Cosmic Redshift */</comment>
      <origin>2817037</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="25899" sha1="bj5vp3uhv65lwdb02av4d5afvh2tpp5" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation and Cosmic Redshift ===
The exact value of the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant is unknown]; consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] cannot be determined. This uncertainty in cosmic age results in a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 5: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr old) || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr old)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}

As illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age.

Conversely, timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 3 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 4 maps them against lookback time.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 6).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 6:]]

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;Bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).

With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years.

* ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 43
* ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 44
* ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 45
* ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 46

==== Bully Galactic year 65 ====
As shown in Figure 7, Bully Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Ecliptic and Galactic Plane. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000.

[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]]

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year.

The following table (see Figure 8) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 8: Bully Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}


* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 9''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 9''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 9: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 9''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 10''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 10: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 10''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 10''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
      <sha1>bj5vp3uhv65lwdb02av4d5afvh2tpp5</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817038</id>
      <parentid>2817037</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T20:24:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Time Estimation and Cosmic Redshift */</comment>
      <origin>2817038</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="25901" sha1="38aqeb8ld7ts1aoakq88t0vfmgmcnns" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
The exact value of the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant is unknown]; consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] cannot be determined. This uncertainty in cosmic age results in a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 5: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr old) || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr old)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}

As illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age.

Conversely, timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 3 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 4 maps them against lookback time.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 6).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 6:]]

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;Bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).

With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years.

* ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 43
* ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 44
* ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 45
* ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 46

==== Bully Galactic year 65 ====
As shown in Figure 7, Bully Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Ecliptic and Galactic Plane. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000.

[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]]

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year.

The following table (see Figure 8) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 8: Bully Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}


* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 9''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 9''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 9: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 9''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 10''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 10: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 10''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 10''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
      <sha1>38aqeb8ld7ts1aoakq88t0vfmgmcnns</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817039</id>
      <parentid>2817038</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T20:31:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift */</comment>
      <origin>2817039</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="26787" sha1="lchhpxz0g46kx55srmnl0biu1sr3tzz" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in the [[w:wavelength|wavelength]], or equivalently, a decrease in the [[w:frequency|frequency]], of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]] (such as light). Cosmological redshifts are caused by the [[w:expansion of the universe|universe expanding]].

 The value of a redshift is often denoted by the letter {{math|''z''}}, corresponding to the fractional change in wavelength (positive for redshifts, negative for blueshifts), and by the wavelength ratio {{math|1 + ''z''}} (which is greater than 1 for redshifts and less than 1 for blueshifts). Automated astronomical redshift surveys are an important tool for learning about the large-scale structure of the universe. Redshift and blueshift can also be related to [[photon energy]] and, via [[Planck's law]], to a corresponding [[blackbody temperature]].


The exact value of the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant is unknown]; consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] cannot be determined. This uncertainty in cosmic age results in a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 5: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr old) || {{nowrap|Panck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr old)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}

As illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age.

Conversely, timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 3 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 4 maps them against lookback time.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 6).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 6:]]

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;Bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).

With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years.

* ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 43
* ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 44
* ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 45
* ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 46

==== Bully Galactic year 65 ====
As shown in Figure 7, Bully Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Ecliptic and Galactic Plane. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000.

[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]]

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year.

The following table (see Figure 8) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 8: Bully Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}


* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 9''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 9''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 9: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 9''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 10''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 10: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 10''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 10''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
      <sha1>lchhpxz0g46kx55srmnl0biu1sr3tzz</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817041</id>
      <parentid>2817039</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T20:59:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift */</comment>
      <origin>2817041</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="27246" sha1="cssgb4kazith9xvt89gn9c0jularjmr" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in the [[w:wavelength|wavelength]], or equivalently, a decrease in the [[w:frequency|frequency]], of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]] (such as light). Cosmological redshifts are caused by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The value of a redshift is often denoted by the letter {{math|''z''}}, corresponding to the fractional change in wavelength, and by the wavelength ratio {{math|1 + ''z''}} (which is always greater than 1 for redshift). 

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, and the expansion rate of the universe is also known, then the redshift of electromagnetic radiation, as it travels through space, can be used to determined the elapsed time that passed while the radiation was in transit. Unfortunately, the exact expansion rate of the universe is not known due to uncertainty in the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant]. Consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] and the exact age of stars within the universe cannot be determined from redshift.

Uncertainty in the age of the universe is correlated with uncertainty when assigning Bully timestamps using redshift. The table in Figure 3 shows estimated Bully timestamps for given z values.  Two sets of estimations are provided. One column uses values from the &quot;SHOES Team&quot; with an estimated universe age of 12.7 Gyr. The other column uses values from the &quot;Planck Collaboration&quot; with an estimated universe age of 13.8 Gyr.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr old) || {{nowrap|Planck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr old)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}

a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown.

As illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age.

Conversely, timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 3 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 4 maps them against lookback time.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 6).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 6:]]

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;Bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).

With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years.

* ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 43
* ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 44
* ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 45
* ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 46

==== Bully Galactic year 65 ====
As shown in Figure 7, Bully Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Ecliptic and Galactic Plane. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000.

[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]]

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year.

The following table (see Figure 8) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 8: Bully Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}


* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 9''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 9''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 9: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 9''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 10''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 10: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 10''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 10''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
      <sha1>cssgb4kazith9xvt89gn9c0jularjmr</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817042</id>
      <parentid>2817041</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T21:00:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift */</comment>
      <origin>2817042</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="27200" sha1="bplt9r61d2k0tkxpj34klf0zjgjym2o" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in the [[w:wavelength|wavelength]], or equivalently, a decrease in the [[w:frequency|frequency]], of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]] (such as light). Cosmological redshifts are caused by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The value of a redshift is often denoted by the letter {{math|''z''}}, corresponding to the fractional change in wavelength, and by the wavelength ratio {{math|1 + ''z''}}. 

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, and the expansion rate of the universe is also known, then the redshift of electromagnetic radiation, as it travels through space, can be used to determined the elapsed time that passed while the radiation was in transit. Unfortunately, the exact expansion rate of the universe is not known due to uncertainty in the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant]. Consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] and the exact age of stars within the universe cannot be determined from redshift.

Uncertainty in the age of the universe is correlated with uncertainty when assigning Bully timestamps using redshift. The table in Figure 3 shows estimated Bully timestamps for given z values.  Two sets of estimations are provided. One column uses values from the &quot;SHOES Team&quot; with an estimated universe age of 12.7 Gyr. The other column uses values from the &quot;Planck Collaboration&quot; with an estimated universe age of 13.8 Gyr.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr old) || {{nowrap|Planck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr old)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}

a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown.

As illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age.

Conversely, timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 3 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 4 maps them against lookback time.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 6).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 6:]]

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;Bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).

With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years.

* ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 43
* ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 44
* ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 45
* ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 46

==== Bully Galactic year 65 ====
As shown in Figure 7, Bully Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Ecliptic and Galactic Plane. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000.

[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]]

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year.

The following table (see Figure 8) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 8: Bully Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}


* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 9''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 9''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 9: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 9''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 10''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 10: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 10''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 10''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
      <sha1>bplt9r61d2k0tkxpj34klf0zjgjym2o</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817043</id>
      <parentid>2817042</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T21:02:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift */</comment>
      <origin>2817043</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="27256" sha1="4rfa4sw86ad7y48umginxlb0am9gxai" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in the [[w:wavelength|wavelength]], or equivalently, a decrease in the [[w:frequency|frequency]], of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]] (such as light). Cosmological redshifts are caused by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The value of a redshift is often denoted by the letter {{math|''z''}}, corresponding to the fractional change in wavelength, and by the wavelength ratio {{math|1 + ''z''}}. 

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, and the expansion rate of the universe is also known, then the redshift of electromagnetic radiation, as it travels through space, can be used to determined the elapsed time that passed while the radiation was in transit. Unfortunately, the exact expansion rate of the universe is not known due to uncertainty in the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant]. Consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] and the exact age of stars within the universe cannot be determined from redshift.

Uncertainty in the age of the universe is correlated with uncertainty when assigning Bully timestamps using redshift. The table in Figure 3 shows estimated Bully timestamps for given z values.  Two sets of estimations are provided. One column estimates Bully timestamps using values from the &quot;SHOES Team&quot; with an estimated universe age of 12.7 Gyr. The other column estimates Bully timestamps using values from the &quot;Planck Collaboration&quot; with an estimated universe age of 13.8 Gyr.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr old) || {{nowrap|Planck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr old)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}

a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown.

As illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age.

Conversely, timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 3 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 4 maps them against lookback time.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 6).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 6:]]

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;Bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).

With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years.

* ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 43
* ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 44
* ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 45
* ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 46

==== Bully Galactic year 65 ====
As shown in Figure 7, Bully Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Ecliptic and Galactic Plane. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000.

[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]]

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year.

The following table (see Figure 8) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 8: Bully Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}


* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 9''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 9''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 9: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 9''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 10''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 10: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 10''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 10''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
      <sha1>4rfa4sw86ad7y48umginxlb0am9gxai</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817044</id>
      <parentid>2817043</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T21:04:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift */</comment>
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      <text bytes="27256" sha1="gh0xmx8eazoe05sk1ui4m9u3y0hkc6m" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in the [[w:wavelength|wavelength]], or equivalently, a decrease in the [[w:frequency|frequency]], of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]] (such as light). Cosmological redshifts are caused by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The value of a redshift is often denoted by the letter {{math|''z''}}, corresponding to the fractional change in wavelength, and by the wavelength ratio {{math|1 + ''z''}}. 

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, and the expansion rate of the universe is also known, then the redshift of electromagnetic radiation, as it travels through space, can be used to determined the elapsed time that passed while the radiation was in transit. Unfortunately, the exact expansion rate of the universe is not known due to uncertainty in the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant]. Consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] and the exact age of stars within the universe cannot be determined from redshift.

Uncertainty in the age of the universe is correlated with uncertainty when assigning Bully timestamps using redshift. The table in Figure 3 shows estimated Bully timestamps for given z values.  Two sets of estimations are provided. One column estimates Bully timestamps using values from the &quot;SHOES Team&quot; with an estimated universe age of 12.7 Gyr. The other column estimates Bully timestamps using values from the &quot;Planck Collaboration&quot; with an estimated universe age of 13.8 Gyr.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr old) || {{nowrap|Planck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr old)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}

a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown.

As illustrated in Figure 4 and Figure 5 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age.

Conversely, timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 4 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 5 maps them against lookback time.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 6).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 6:]]

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;Bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).

With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years.

* ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 43
* ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 44
* ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 45
* ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 46

==== Bully Galactic year 65 ====
As shown in Figure 7, Bully Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Ecliptic and Galactic Plane. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000.

[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]]

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year.

The following table (see Figure 8) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 8: Bully Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}


* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 9''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 9''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 9: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 9''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 10''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 10: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 10''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 10''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
      <sha1>gh0xmx8eazoe05sk1ui4m9u3y0hkc6m</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817045</id>
      <parentid>2817044</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T21:14:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift */</comment>
      <origin>2817045</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="26987" sha1="jtahsl30lumrottomwik0dbqmomcx7l" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value, denoted by {{math|''z''}}, represents the fractional change in wavelength, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly dictates the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr).


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr old) || {{nowrap|Planck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr old)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}

a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown.

As illustrated in Figure 4 and Figure 5 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age.

Conversely, timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 4 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 5 maps them against lookback time.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 6).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 6:]]

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;Bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).

With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years.

* ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 43
* ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 44
* ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 45
* ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 46

==== Bully Galactic year 65 ====
As shown in Figure 7, Bully Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Ecliptic and Galactic Plane. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000.

[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]]

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year.

The following table (see Figure 8) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 8: Bully Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}


* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 9''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 9''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 9: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 9''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 10''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 10: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 10''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 10''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
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      <id>2817046</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift */</comment>
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      <text bytes="26987" sha1="agbqsgoeoh66hhefb4phkgd95rp7v6h" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;


=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value, denoted by {{math|''z''}}, represents the fractional change in wavelength, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly dictates the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr).

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamp for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr old) || {{nowrap|Planck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr old)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}

a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown.

As illustrated in Figure 4 and Figure 5 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age.

Conversely, timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 4 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 5 maps them against lookback time.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 6).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 6:]]

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;Bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).

With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years.

* ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 43
* ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 44
* ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 45
* ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 46

==== Bully Galactic year 65 ====
As shown in Figure 7, Bully Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Ecliptic and Galactic Plane. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000.

[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]]

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year.

The following table (see Figure 8) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 8: Bully Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}


* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 9''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 9''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 9: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 9''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 10''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 10: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 10''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 10''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
      <sha1>agbqsgoeoh66hhefb4phkgd95rp7v6h</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817047</id>
      <parentid>2817046</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T21:18:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift */</comment>
      <origin>2817047</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="26988" sha1="4i2k6p0ubu77c2fq9czivhujygoisb9" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;


=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value, denoted by {{math|''z''}}, represents the fractional change in wavelength, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly dictates the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr).

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr old) || {{nowrap|Planck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr old)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}

a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown.

As illustrated in Figure 4 and Figure 5 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age.

Conversely, timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 4 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 5 maps them against lookback time.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 6).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 6:]]

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;Bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).

With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years.

* ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 43
* ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 44
* ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 45
* ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 46

==== Bully Galactic year 65 ====
As shown in Figure 7, Bully Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Ecliptic and Galactic Plane. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000.

[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]]

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year.

The following table (see Figure 8) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 8: Bully Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}


* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 9''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 9''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 9: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 9''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 10''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 10: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 10''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 10''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
      <sha1>4i2k6p0ubu77c2fq9czivhujygoisb9</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817048</id>
      <parentid>2817047</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T21:25:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift */</comment>
      <origin>2817048</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="27065" sha1="6mopv0syyzvmeb67yv13566fcx9zye0" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;


=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value, denoted by {{math|''z''}}, represents the fractional change in wavelength, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly dictates the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr).

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr old) || {{nowrap|Planck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr old)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. Each timestamp increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

A peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown.  

Conversely, timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 4 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 5 maps them against lookback time.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 6).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 6:]]

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;Bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).

With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years.

* ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 43
* ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 44
* ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 45
* ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 46

==== Bully Galactic year 65 ====
As shown in Figure 7, Bully Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Ecliptic and Galactic Plane. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000.

[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]]

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year.

The following table (see Figure 8) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 8: Bully Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}


* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 9''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 9''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 9: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 9''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 10''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 10: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 10''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 10''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
      <sha1>6mopv0syyzvmeb67yv13566fcx9zye0</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817049</id>
      <parentid>2817048</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T21:27:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift */</comment>
      <origin>2817049</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="27057" sha1="8wbuttik1vkkrmghkq0pvjo4azdvxse" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;


=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value, denoted by {{math|''z''}}, represents the fractional change in wavelength, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly dictates the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr).

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z
|| {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || {{nowrap|Planck Collaboration}} &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. Each timestamp increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

A peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown.  

Conversely, timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 4 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 5 maps them against lookback time.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 6).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 6:]]

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;Bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).

With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years.

* ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 43
* ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 44
* ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 45
* ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}''
** Bully Galactic Year 46

==== Bully Galactic year 65 ====
As shown in Figure 7, Bully Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Ecliptic and Galactic Plane. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000.

[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]]

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year.

The following table (see Figure 8) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 8: Bully Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}


* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 9''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 9''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 9: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 9''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 10''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 10: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 10''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 10''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
      <sha1>8wbuttik1vkkrmghkq0pvjo4azdvxse</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Perquirius</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>306424</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2816976</id>
      <parentid>2795857</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T17:00:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Perquirius</username>
        <id>2953041</id>
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      <origin>2816976</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="855" sha1="b5vnwpuphtb6ipfc4ql1gjs62ghxfms" xml:space="preserve">Welcome to my user page! I mainly used Wikiversity to develop ideas I had come up with on my own and to contribute to [[Wikidebate]], which (unfortunately) ended in March 2026. The debates I started were:
* [[Will we lose our consciousness after we die?]]
* [[Is it possible to philosophize if you don't speak any language?]]
* [[Can we know things for certain?]]
* [[May anyone call themselves a philosopher?]]
* [[Can something come from nothing?]]
* [[Is democracy the best form of governance?]]
* [[Do all religions and philosophies originate from one universal and timeless truth?]]
* [[Are all conspiracy theories nonsense?]]
* [[Is civil disobedience justifiable?]]
* [[Is World War III inevitable?]]
* [[Can a psychosis be the result of a mystical experience?]]
* [[Do dreams have a deeper meaning?]]
* [[Are Western countries truly democracies?]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Meteorological Piracicaba/Reclassification of the Piracicaba tornado</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>A.O Mapping</username>
        <id>2970106</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>A.O Mapping moved page [[Meteorological Piracicaba/2025 Piracicaba Tornado]] to [[Meteorological Piracicaba/Reclassification of the Piracicaba tornado]]: There is already a new study. This page is going to be an index.</comment>
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      <text bytes="7113" sha1="su7d8uomymncx049x3vp4f2y0zpizj0" xml:space="preserve">This article examines a potential tornado that may have occurred in Piracicaba, located in the interior of São Paulo state, Brazil, during the transition from late afternoon to early evening on January 31, 2025. There are uncertainties regarding the confirmation of the damage and the actual touchdown of the tornado, and this study will unravel them. Using multispectral data analysis, including videos from a storm chaser, radar images from IPMet/UNESP, satellite images, sounding data from CPTEC/INPE, and data from CIIAGRO, the study explores the formation, evolution, and atmospheric characteristics of the event.

=== '''Introduction''' ===
On January 31, 2025, a rapidly developing supercell may have produced a tornado in Piracicaba, observed at twilight between 7:04 PM and 7:06 PM (10:04 PM to 10:06 PM UTC). The phenomenon was notable primarily for the short duration of the funnel cloud, captured in a single video recorded several kilometers away by a storm chaser. Additionally, the extent of the damage remains uncertain. The objective of this study is to understand the dynamics of the event, identify the meteorological processes involved, and discuss the potential occurrence of an F0 tornado in the area.

=== '''Methodology''' ===
Various datasets and methods were used to analyze the event:

* '''Storm''' '''chaser video''': Footage taken by Erik dos Santos in the Jardim Itapuã neighborhood shows the onset of the storm, the formation of the funnel cloud, and the appearance of the wall cloud.
* '''Radar images''': Data from IPMet/UNESP in Bauru helped track the formation and movement of the storm across the rural area of Piracicaba.
* '''Satellite images and CPTEC/INPE sounding data''': These allowed for the observation of the rapid cloud development, from the initial stage of cumulonimbus congestus to the evolution of supercells. The data provided insights into the vertical structure and wind shear during the event.
* '''CIIAGRO data''': Indicated a temperature of around 25°C and relative humidity of approximately 80% at the time of the phenomenon.

=== '''Chronology''' ===
&lt;gallery widths=&quot;300&quot; heights=&quot;150&quot;&gt;
File:Wall cloud Piracicaba 31-01-2025.jpg|link=https://pt.wikiversity.org/wiki/Ficheiro:Wall_cloud_Piracicaba_31-01-2025.jpg|Wall cloud at 7:00 PM
File:Tornado Piracicaba 31-01-2025 1.jpg|link=https://pt.wikiversity.org/wiki/Ficheiro:Tornado_Piracicaba_31-01-2025_1.jpg|The funnel cloud in its initial phase
File:Tornado Piracicaba 31-01-2025 2.jpg|link=https://pt.wikiversity.org/wiki/Ficheiro:Tornado_Piracicaba_31-01-2025_2.jpg|The funnel cloud in its mature phase
File:Tornado Piracicaba 31-01-2025.gif|link=https://pt.wikiversity.org/wiki/Ficheiro:Tornado_Piracicaba_31-01-2025.gif|Timelapse of the phenomenon's passage
&lt;/gallery&gt;The storm originated in the central rural area of Piracicaba at approximately 6:50 PM, moving toward the urban area before diverting south. The cloud developed rapidly, transitioning from a cumulonimbus congestus to a mature cumulonimbus within about 30 minutes.

According to sounding data from CPTEC, there was significant wind shear in the Campinas and Piracicaba regions around 7:00 PM on January 31, 2025. This was due to a strong interaction between cold, humid southeast winds from the Atlantic Ocean and hot, dry northwest winds from the interior of São Paulo, which met in an opposing manner.

At 6:55 PM, the storm began with a rain curtain and a reddish sky, indicative of strong instability. Around 7:00 PM, the formation of a wall cloud, a sign of a mesocyclone, and the appearance of mammatus clouds, typical of supercells, were observed. A funnel cloud formed at 7:04 PM and remained visible for a few seconds before dissipating at 7:06 PM. Due to the low light conditions and limited visibility caused by hills and vegetation, the video quality makes it difficult to confirm whether the funnel made contact with the ground.

=== '''Data Analysis''' ===
The IPMet/UNESP radar in Bauru indicated an intense storm in the central rural area of Piracicaba, moving toward the urban area. Reports of heavy rainfall and wind gusts were recorded in the region. Satellite images confirmed the rapid growth of the system and the formation of a low-topped supercell (LT).

Atmospheric soundings showed an unstable profile with strong wind shear, which favored the development of the wall cloud. The temperature of 25°C and 80% humidity, as recorded by CIIAGRO, supported the storm and contributed to the formation of the funnel cloud.

The storm chaser video is the only evidence of the phenomenon, but its low quality and the fact that it was filmed kilometers away create uncertainties regarding whether the funnel made contact with the ground. The location of the funnel in the footage suggests it passed near the neighborhoods of Novo Horizonte and Campestre, but the lack of a clearly visible funnel on the ground makes it difficult to confirm the tornado's occurrence.

=== '''Discussion''' ===
The data analyzed supports the hypothesis that an F0 tornado may have occurred in the region. Wind shear and the rapid formation of a supercell are factors that favor tornado development. The observed wall cloud is also a typical feature of tornadic events.

The temperature of 25°C suggests there was enough warm air to sustain clouds with significant vertical development. The relative humidity of around 80% helped lift a mass of warm, humid air, promoting the formation of a strong updraft, which facilitated the rapid development of the supercell.

Upon reviewing the footage, it is likely that the phenomenon did touch the ground, although the condensation funnel was not visible, which is a common occurrence. The lack of damage and the short duration of the phenomenon—about two minutes—conclude that a F0 tornado on the Fujita Scale occurred in Piracicaba, Brazil, on January 31, 2025. The tornado affected an uninhabited area in the Jardim Belvedere housing development, in Campestre neighborhood, with no significant damage.

=== Conclusion ===
Based on the observations, it has been confirmed that a low-intensity, short-duration supercell tornado struck the Jardim Belvedere subdivision in the Campestre neighborhood of Piracicaba, Brazil, between 7:04 PM and 7:06 PM (10:04 PM to 10:06 PM UTC) on January 31, 2025. The tornado was triggered by a low-topped supercell that rapidly developed over the city due to the high availability of warm, humid air and strong wind shear at low atmospheric levels, resulting from the interaction between cold, moist winds from the Atlantic Ocean and warmer, drier winds from the interior of São Paulo. The phenomenon was classified as F0 on the Fujita Scale, with wind gusts of less than 100 km/h, due to the lack of significant damage.

=== '''Notes''' ===

* Study originally published on February 23, 2025, by the [[Meteorological Piracicaba study group]], subject to revisions.

* '''Bibliographic reference (for citations):''' METEOROLOGICAL PIRACICABA. ''2025 Piracicaba Tornado analysis''. February 2025.

[[Category:2020s in Brazil]]
[[Category:Tornadoes]]</text>
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      <timestamp>2026-06-28T02:22:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>A.O Mapping</username>
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      <text bytes="2677" sha1="a2uvsi6u0qlf45q3j8it585040dx2hg" xml:space="preserve">This index page serves as the central directory for the official research paper titled '''&quot;Reclassification of the Piracicaba Tornado (January 31, 2025): Retrospective Analysis of the Track Based on Meteorological, Botanical, Geological Evidence and Physical Modelling&quot;''', authored by Erik K. dos Santos.

The study provides a comprehensive diagnostic review and intensity reclassification of the severe weather event that occurred in southeastern Brazil, incorporating forensic environmental analysis and remote sensing data compiled across Piracicaba (Brazil) and St. Marys (Ontario, Canada).

== Document Directory ==
Select from the available versions and resources below:

=== 1. Study Metadata Page ===

* [[Meteorological Piracicaba/Reclassification of the Piracicaba tornado/Metadata]]
* '''Description:''' Contains full bibliographic information, structural metadata, author notes, institutional affiliations (Piracicaba Meteorológica and St. Marys District Collegiate and Vocational Institute), among others data.
* '''Format:''' Wiki/Webpage Metadata Schema
* '''Best For:''' Academic citation, quick reference, and indexing purposes.

=== 2. Full Study — Web Version (HTML) ===

* [[Meteorological Piracicaba/Reclassification of the Piracicaba tornado/Full article]]
* '''Description:''' The complete text of the research paper optimized for web browsers. Includes the full introduction, methodology, results, discussion, conclusion and complete references.
* '''Format:''' Rich-text HTML
* '''Best For:''' Online reading, search engine discovery, and inline screen reader accessibility.

=== 3. Full Study — Document Version (PDF) ===

* ''No page yet.''
* '''Description:''' The official, print-ready 30-page document version of the complete study published by Piracicaba Meteorológica. Maintains the formal academic layout, standard margins, and precise page numbering.
* '''Format:''' Digital PDF (Portable Document Format)
* '''Best For:''' Offline reading, printing, formal distribution, and archiving.

== Document Information Summary ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|'''Attribute'''
|'''Details'''
|-
|'''Author'''
|Erik K. dos Santos
|-
|'''Finish Date'''
|June 15, 2026
|-
|'''Acceptation Date (SMDCVI)'''
|June 19, 2026
|-
|'''Final Version and Publication Date (Piracicaba Meteorológica)'''
|June 25, 2026
|-
|'''Issuing Institutions'''
|Piracicaba Meteorológica / St. Marys District Collegiate and Vocational Institute
|-
|'''Classification Standard'''
|Enhanced Fujita Scale (EF1 Reclassification)
|-
|'''Subject Focus'''
|Tornado track analysis, supercell dynamics, structural vegetation damage
|}
[[Category:2020s in Brazil]]
[[Category:Tornadoes]]</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817061</id>
      <parentid>2817056</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-28T03:17:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>A.O Mapping</username>
        <id>2970106</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2817061</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2841" sha1="3u7gh6dgsl8b7drn8pfzwrkhoejx9f3" xml:space="preserve">This index page serves as the central directory for the official research paper titled '''&quot;Reclassification of the Piracicaba Tornado (January 31, 2025): Retrospective Analysis of the Track Based on Meteorological, Botanical, Geological Evidence and Physical Modelling&quot;''', authored by Erik K. dos Santos.

The study provides a comprehensive diagnostic review and intensity reclassification of the severe weather event that occurred in southeastern Brazil, incorporating forensic environmental analysis and remote sensing data compiled across Piracicaba (Brazil) and St. Marys (Ontario, Canada).

== Document Directory ==
Select from the available versions and resources below:

=== 1. Study Metadata Page ===

* [[Meteorological Piracicaba/Reclassification of the Piracicaba tornado/Metadata]]
* '''Description:''' Contains full bibliographic information, structural metadata, author notes, institutional affiliations (Piracicaba Meteorológica and St. Marys District Collegiate and Vocational Institute), among others data.
* '''Format:''' Wiki/Webpage Metadata Schema
* '''Best For:''' Academic citation, quick reference, and indexing purposes.

=== 2. Full Study — Web Version (HTML) ===

* [[Meteorological Piracicaba/Reclassification of the Piracicaba tornado/Full article]]
* '''Description:''' The complete text of the research paper optimized for web browsers. Includes the full introduction, methodology, results, discussion, conclusion and complete references.
* '''Format:''' Rich-text HTML
* '''Best For:''' Online reading, search engine discovery, and inline screen reader accessibility.

=== 3. Full Study — Document Version (PDF) ===

* [https://archive.org/download/reclassification-of-the-piracicaba-tornado-santos-2026/Reclassification%20of%20the%20Piracicaba%20Tornado%20%28Santos%2C%202026%29.pdf Available here]
* '''Description:''' The official, print-ready 30-page document version of the complete study published by Piracicaba Meteorológica. Maintains the formal academic layout, standard margins, and precise page numbering.
* '''Format:''' Digital PDF (Portable Document Format)
* '''Best For:''' Offline reading, printing, formal distribution, and archiving.

== Document Information Summary ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|'''Attribute'''
|'''Details'''
|-
|'''Author'''
|Erik K. dos Santos
|-
|'''Finish Date'''
|June 15, 2026
|-
|'''Acceptation Date (SMDCVI)'''
|June 19, 2026
|-
|'''Final Version and Publication Date (Piracicaba Meteorológica)'''
|June 25, 2026
|-
|'''Issuing Institutions'''
|Piracicaba Meteorológica / St. Marys District Collegiate and Vocational Institute
|-
|'''Classification Standard'''
|Enhanced Fujita Scale (EF1 Reclassification)
|-
|'''Subject Focus'''
|Tornado track analysis, supercell dynamics, structural vegetation damage
|}
[[Category:2020s in Brazil]]
[[Category:Tornadoes]]</text>
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    <title>Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion/Archives/23</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Undeletion request */ archive from [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
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      <text bytes="65470" sha1="gxcz4d188nqa2exckvzo5w5d3tr1xvw" xml:space="preserve">{{archive|Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion}}

== False flag &quot;authority hack&quot; user page deletion ==
{{archive top|'''Not undeleted''', the requester dropped the request. See Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion v. 2803217.--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:36, 10 May 2026 (UTC)}}
'''Undeletion requested'''

Hi, Juandev marked my user page as &quot;spam&quot; and &quot;authority hack&quot;, and deleted it. 

First, I asked him for help with &quot;time limit for new users&quot;, and he replied - I should admit I dont know, what is &quot;new user limit&quot;, but if filter blocks your page because of certain external link, you may force to save anyway and sometimes it works. It should not work, when the website is blacklisted. As of now, I am not seeing you to save page in main namespace, so try to save it without external links first. 

Then he wrote me another message: Well, I have analyzed your contribution to Wikiversity and I should point out here, that this project is not a place for advertising, so there is no way of promoting your books and authority this way. - probably referring to the intro of my About me page where I present me and my work. 

Before I could explain him the difference between the neutral information and advertising and promotion, he deleted my user page. 

Here is my answer I posted to the discussion today: 

: Hi, my About Me page is just an info page with the neutral as possible presentation of my work.
:
: There is a big difference between informing and advertising. Informing is neutrally stating that something exists and requiring no action, while advertising is a special communication form with intent to cause certain action from readers. For example, click here, click there, order this, buy that.
:
: There is no such intention, form, or terms on my info page. Just neutral information. I don't hide and I am not ashamed that I am write and author, and that is a part of the usual bio, including works. I checked your user page: &quot;I graduated from the Czech University of Life Sciences in Prague and studied information science at the Faculty of Arts of Charles University.&quot; I think that if you had written a book on Life Science, you would have mentioned that as well.
:
: Most of the Info page is about my research and AIPA Method which is a valid contribution to psychology, consciousness studies, identity theory, and personality development. Actually, my paper '''AIPA Method: A Cognitive-Phenomenological Model for Identity Reconstruction and Stabilization in Pure Awareness''' is now in the peer review procedure at Journal of Consciousness Studies.
:
: Here is a part from the Wikiversity AIPA Method page in creation (waiting for the end of the time limit for new users):

: == Introduction ==
: The AIPA Method addresses a gap in contemporary personal development and consciousness science: most evidence‑based approaches (CBT, MBSR, MBCT, standard meditation) operate at the level of mental content—reframing thoughts, observing them, or reducing their impact—rather than at the level of identity structure. In contrast, AIPA targets the structural relationship between the self and the mind, aiming at durable identity reconstruction rooted in Pure Awareness rather than symptom management.
:
: The central research question of the primary AIPA preprint is whether a structured, sequentially staged method can produce permanent identity reconstruction rooted in Pure Awareness, and how such a method compares to established approaches in scope, mechanism, and outcome.
:
: == Theoretical foundations ==
: The AIPA framework is grounded in the cognitive‑phenomenological tradition (e.g., McAdams, Varela, Metzinger, Erikson), contemporary consciousness science on minimal phenomenal experience, and qualitative methods advocacy in psychology. It builds directly on:
:* Empirical work on pure awareness and Minimal Phenomenal Experience (MPE), especially Gamma &amp; Metzinger’s large‑scale study of content‑reduced awareness states.
:* Metzinger’s proposal of minimal phenomenal experience as an entry point for a minimal unifying model of consciousness.
:* Narrative identity and partial‑self models within personality and identity theory.
: Within this backdrop, AIPA proposes Pure Awareness as a distinct, operationally specified state that can become a structural ground of identity rather than a transient meditative experience.
:
: == Experiential empiricism ==
: The empirical foundation of the AIPA Method is explicitly first‑person and experiential, combining:
:* A 22‑year longitudinal autoethnographic self‑study (2003–2025) documenting partial personality episodes, protocol use, and outcomes.
:* A 13‑year prospective verification period with zero self‑reported recurrence of targeted harmful behaviors after a dated stabilization point (1 January 2006).
:* A high‑ecological‑validity “stress test” during acute bereavement, used to examine whether non‑reactive awareness remains stable under maximal provocation.
:* Two independent practitioner cases (an Amazon‑verified report and a structured questionnaire case) providing preliminary convergent signals across cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and identity dimensions.
:
: All central constructs (Pure Awareness, partial personalities, the Switch, identity stabilization) are operationalized with explicit phenomenological and behavioral criteria intended to enable replication and future third‑person measurement.
:
: I believe this is a valid contribution to Wikiversity.
:
: Best regards, Senad [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]]


I suggest you check the deleted user page, and see for yourself if it is &quot;spam&quot; and &quot;authority hack&quot;, or a legit author's page with one paragraph short presentation, while the rest of the page is about my research project. 

Thank you for undeleting my user page, so I can use it. 

Best regards, 

Senad Dizdarević [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 07:26, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

:Hi Senad,
:Welcome to Wikiversity.
:It looks like you tried adding similar content to Wikipedia and ran into similar difficulties over there ([[w:User talk:Senad Dizdarević]])? Perhaps that is what has led to you Wikiversity?
:Basically, if you'd like to collaborate and help build open educational resources, feel free to contribute to Wikiversity. But if the primary motivation is to promote your autobiographical work you're probably going to run into challenges.
:Sincerely,
:James
:-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:11, 3 April 2026 (UTC)
::James, Hi, and thank you for your answer. 
::Yes, in 2025, I created the autobiographic page on Wikipedia, which was removed because of the links to my books on Amazon. To admin, I explained that I did not know the rules, and agreed that page is removed. Now I know that somebody else must write a Wikipedia page for you. 
::On the deleted user page on Wikiversity, there were no links to Amazon or any other form of promotion, just neutral as possible basic presentation of my writing (one sentence) and current project (the rest of the page). 
::I created Wikiversity page to present my AIPA Method project, to invite researchers to read it, give their opinion, and conduct empirical researches in their institutions. Now, it is in a theoretical phase, and needs more empirical testing. 
::Best regards, 
::Senad [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 07:03, 3 April 2026 (UTC)
:::It looks to me like the primary motivation for contributing to Wikiversity is to drive traffic / search engine ranking to your website?
:::* [[User:Senad Dizdarević]]
:::* [[AIPA Method]]
:::-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:36, 4 April 2026 (UTC)
::::No, it is not. There is no link to my website, so &quot;driving traffic to my website&quot; is not possible. 
::::For your educational purposes: 
::::Copilot &quot;AI:  [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 07:38, 4 April 2026 (UTC)
:::::So do you still insist of undeleting your former version of your userpage if you have created the new one? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:15, 6 April 2026 (UTC)
::::::No, because in the moment of undeletition, somebody could delete it again, and so on. Thank you for not deleting my new user page, as it is made in your user page image.  [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 08:59, 6 April 2026 (UTC)

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== [[LQR Control for an Inverted Pendulum]] ==
{{archive top|'''Deleted''' per nom. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:36, 17 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Underdeveloped resource, has not been edited for more than a decade. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 08:03, 16 March 2026 (UTC)

:Looks like a test, '''delete'''. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:30, 27 March 2026 (UTC)
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== [[Canadian Wilderness]] ==
{{archive top|Deleted per nom. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:07, 17 May 2026 (UTC)}}
This page doesn't seem to belong to wikiversity. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 09:55, 6 February 2026 (UTC)

:In principle there could be some material useful here but in practice, I don't see what this page is adding as an educational resource. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 12:54, 6 February 2026 (UTC)
:I can see this being a useful resource to a bigger project. Maybe we could move it to the &quot;[[Wikiversity:Drafts|Draft]]&quot; namespace vs. deleting it? —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:28, 6 February 2026 (UTC)
::Does anyone plan to work on it? [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 01:59, 8 February 2026 (UTC)
:::Next week the page has it's 17th birthday. Ever now and than someone added to it. With a lot of work it could be a nice encyclopedic article but making it educational .... Merging it may take more work than rewriting it. Move to Draft might be the best option. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 08:58, 12 February 2026 (UTC)
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== Undeletion request ==
{{archive top|'''Not done''' - discussion has been opened for over a month with no proper explanation as to why the page in question should be undeleted + author of the page failed to address any relevant arguments. I'd suggest reading [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity?]] and [[Wikiversity:Verifiability]] to find ways on how you can contribute to this site productively. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 21:49, 4 June 2026 (UTC)}}
It was deleted by an admin without discussion and with untrue rationale. If people take offense with the question that doesn't mean it's not a valid question and the page was good. Please undelete the Wikidebate page [https://web.archive.org/web/20250810030352/https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Is_it_likely_that_Earth_has_been_visited_by_aliens_millions_of_years_ago%3F Is it likely that Earth has been visited by aliens millions of years ago?]

There are lots of sources on the subject, the wikidebate is sourced very well compared to other wikidebates and wikiversity pages, and the page is educational, useful and of good quality. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 23:57, 10 April 2026 (UTC)

:Page: [[Is it likely that Earth has been visited by aliens millions of years ago?]]
:Ping: [[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:21, 11 April 2026 (UTC)
:There is no need for a discussion for straight garbage-level, pseudoscientific content.
:For '''Is it likely that Earth has been visited by aliens millions of years ago?''', the flaws for this page wouldn't even take someone more than a few minutes to assess:
:* Essentially, the &quot;pro&quot; arguments unproven claims being derived from irrelevant, established facts (basically: &quot;it is likely aliens have came because Earth has existed for so long [sources proving Earth's longevity]&quot;). These are not serious, scientifically-backed arguments - these are non sequiturs. It's as if I said Wikipedia has existed longer than my existence on Earth ([https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/74351725/eyJoIjogImZiODhmYzNkODU1N2UxMWExYzUyODJiYzgzZTRmZDM4OTBjODY5YWMzMjA3NDNmOWEyZTA0ZTU3ZGYwZjAyYTkiLCAidSI6ICJodHRwczovL3B1cmUuaHZhLm5sL3dz-libre.pdf?1636354596=&amp;response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DCritical_Point_of_View_A_Wikipedia_Reade.pdf&amp;Expires=1775872055&amp;Signature=GqbUZboYRvUYWi~aW40LT5eZSHrLuDL3o0-DxAH8vSvcJcGAuyByZWLF2oHTY6GlB72TqvZxpE-v9d4gvsA6myriYqO~QQQZgWxjT2JXjUWC-yiPcTF4l~lroJSi4dY0v9eKiBcU03l-aeUdrX8~UPfi0TfW0IhsmzH-VBR6X6FrzRpIqc6uM6n9YXfr5FRB3aCqqokU690af3n0Hguaub1Zgmh9qjYYqzBS0VOOHjKTTEQnDuadX3jl5CQeXYTaeCC3H0hMeVwHlratbrnuFEKC1aN0-5znCUoSzMEg21ECzGPTrSDM1W05dcK-u0ZTCeUGKAuC-2yRFL3sY46MIw__&amp;Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA#page=157 reputable source proving ''this'' fact]), therefore it's likely that my birth took place solely for the sake of me experiencing Wikipedia (0 backing). It makes no sense and no person with at least a high school-level of intelligence would take this seriously. 
:* What is worse is that the user is being misleading with their &quot;[the page is] sourced very well&quot; claim. The sources ''themselves'' don't even back up the claims. It's just used as proof for an established concept, where the user then uses this established concept to jump to an unsupported, laughable conclusion that is pulled out of thin air. It's utterly ridiculous to even consider such a page for mainspace since it clearly violates our [[Wikiversity:Verifiability]] policy. This is, once again, pseudoscientific content that has caused our website to reduce in quality over the last few years. 
:* Going source by source, we can see that:
:#[https://web.archive.org/web/20250918011642/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/thebigd/compress-earths-history-into-24-hrs-humans-came-at-1158-pm-yet-killed-70-of-wildlife/ ‘Compress Earth’s history into 24 hrs. Humans came at 11:58 pm, yet killed 70% of wildlife’] is literally just a blog post which doesn't even mention aliens or extraterrestrial life. It just talks about Earth's history in accordance with the 24-hour metric of time, and the author tries to use this article as a 'piece in the puzzle' of aliens &quot;possibly&quot; visiting Earth... which, once again, is unsupported and is not backed up anywhere in the article.
:#[https://web.archive.org/web/20250808053249/https://news.cornell.edu/stories/2023/11/jurassic-worlds-might-be-easier-spot-modern-earth The Cornell article does not even remotely support the idea that &quot;aliens visited Earth&quot;]. It mentions a ''chance'' of &quot;life there [a habitable exoplanet] might not be limited to microbes, but could include creatures as large and varied as the megalosauruses or microraptors that once roamed Earth.&quot;, but again, no justification to take this article as proof that &quot;aliens may have visited us!&quot;. There's no mention of aliens visiting Earth anywhere in the article. Once again this is only proving the background premise, but not the unsupported, nonsensical &quot;alien likelihood&quot; argument that the author of this garbage page is trying to push so desperately.
:#The Parker Solar Probe WP article does not even mention aliens either. It follows the same issues as the previous argument.
:And the other page this user complained about [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User_talk:Atcovi#Deletion_of_educational_page_because_of_personal_opinion on my talk page] holds almost similar, maybe even more fatal mistakes, than this one. It has nothing to do with &quot;taking offense&quot;, this is just low-quality, garbage content. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 00:56, 11 April 2026 (UTC)
::Why do you think pro claims are required to be proven? It's possible to object to them and these are arguments, not contextualized to be statements of proven facts. And it's not a strange or unreasonable argument to make that since Earth has existed for long, it's more likely that aliens have come here in the past than in recent times or the near future. Instead of insulting others' intelligence, maybe engage with the actual reasoning rather than censoring it away. And there are lots of sources, such as [https://interestingengineering.com/science/alien-civilizations-may-have-visited-earth-millions-of-years-ago-study-says Alien Civilizations May Have Visited Earth Millions of Years Ago, Study Says] etc etc. The sources are used for the arguments themselves individually. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 12:30, 11 April 2026 (UTC)
:::Because, once again, this is not a site that caters to rampant debating for the sake of &quot;we need to employ rationality and logic to solve the world's problems&quot;, we have policies that we need to fulfill. The claims made in the pro argument clearly do not meet [[Wikiversity:Verifiability]], since you cannot verify these arguments with the sources because they are not relevant. 
:::''&quot;And it's not a strange or unreasonable argument to make that since Earth has existed for long, it's more likely that aliens have come here in the past than in recent times or the near future.&quot;'' The point being is that these arguments are not supported by the sources. Even the article you mention poses the idea as a hypothetical model. This is just you twisting the article to fit your unsupported narrative. I'll bring direct quotes for you to show why the linked article does not help you:
:::* ''One problem the researchers do make sure to point out is that '''they are working with only one data point: our own behaviors and capabilities for space exploration'''. “We tried to come up with a model that would involve the fewest assumptions about sociology that we could,” Carroll-Nellenback told Business Insider. '''We have no real way of knowing the motivations of an alien civilization'''.'' --&gt; proves that this is just speculation and no evidence-based arguments have been provided for the idea that aliens likely visited Earth.
:::And I'm not sure if you read my entire response, but I ''did'' engage with your &quot;actual reasoning&quot; and exposed its weaknesses and lack of adherence to Wikiversity policies. If we allowed content that was just filled with non sequiturs we would have content that fails Wikiversity's educational objectives and reduces the overall quality of this website, hence why such a harsh stance needs to be taken. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:50, 11 April 2026 (UTC)
::::Thanks for proving that the Wikimedia ecosystem is unfit to deliberate on controversial topics. The question is entirely valid and the content is far better sourced than nearly all Wikidebates and has no genuine flaws. The only possible issue with it as far as I can see is that now that Wikidebates has been paused people can't add objections if they do have sth specific to say about the topic that's not already included on that page which already had plenty of Cons and objections.
::::The page was more educational than most of Wikiversity and it was well-sourced – wikidebates was for arguments so people were invited to make arguments based on sourced things or outlined logic and the page met [[WV:V]] and most pages on Wikiversity aren't sourced as good. Doesn't look like people can see beyond their biases and personal views here but that's more evident in the marginalization and deletion of wikidebates and the low activity in that project than these selective deletions. A constructive thing to do would be to add reasoned Cons and objections not yet on the page and people had plenty of time to do that. There are and will be other sites for free constructive rational adversarial deliberation (not a big loss in that sense). [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 16:31, 22 April 2026 (UTC)
:::::Thank you for failing to address any of my arguments and going on an unrelated, nonsensical tangent that has nothing to do with the discussion. Once you start producing work that aligns with Wikiversity's content policies instead of typing up laughable, pseudoscientific garbage, then maybe your work can be accepted and not removed. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 16:59, 22 April 2026 (UTC)
::::::I suggest you stop ridiculing things and learn respectfully forming genuine points about the subject at hand. {{tq|the idea as a hypothetical model}} but please learn first about what arguments are and why they're not the same as a statement of objective proven fact. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 17:18, 22 April 2026 (UTC)
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== [[:Category:LAMAI Theological Academy]] and all related content ==
{{archive top|'''Deleted''' - Obviously useless content that fails to meet Wikiversity's scope. I've also filed a [[meta:Steward_requests/Checkuser#Bmlamai@en.wikiversity|Checkuser]] request on Meta for all the new accounts voting in favor of this page. 2 accounts have been indef'd on the grounds of spam/promotional use only due to obvious association with the pages. EDIT: And of course, a massive thank you to [[User:AKA MBG|AKA MBG]] for raising this issue and Dave for bringing it to WV:RFD. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 12:46, 4 January 2026 (UTC)}}
See [[User_talk:Dave_Braunschweig#Theological_Academy]] for context. Based on a Google search, LAMAI appears to stand for the &quot;League of Arhats of the International Academy of Truth&quot;. Google AI indicates this &quot;is not a widely recognized organization, and there is no publicly available, verifiable information about its existence or activities through general search, legal records, or news reports.&quot; The only associated link is a telegram shortcut with a single member. Based on this background information, I agree with [[User:AKA MBG]] that it is very likely any user account associated with LAMAI is a single user and all of the related content was created in violation of a block from 2022.

While I am inclined to delete the content outright and block the associated user accounts, I am no longer active and want to defer to the community for confirmation.

[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 20:57, 11 December 2025 (UTC)
: '''Move to user space''' or, as a second best option, '''delete''' per Dave above. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:16, 12 December 2025 (UTC)
::; “Marginality” of the LAMAI Theological Academy — on the merits
::# Syncretic personal doctrine
::#* Buddhism + Hinduism + Christianity + Communism + political figures (“Two prophets — Lenin and Stalin.” (p. 132; page numbers refer to the Russian-language version of the textbook, which I reviewed. The textbook is available on the traditio.wiki website in both Russian and English and is the source on which the LAMAI Theological Academy course on Wikiversity is based)).
::#* This is not a course about religions, but a course of a single authorial system.
::# Lack of external verification
::#* No academic sources.
::#* No recognition in religious studies.
::#* No neutral third-party overview.
::# Normativity. The text constantly states:
::#* “in fact”
::#* “this is an error”
::#* religions lied (quotation: “As for cause and effect, the Bible, of course, lied.” p. 24)
::This is not research, but preaching.
::; Evaluation of the textbook “LAMAI. A Textbook of Spiritual Practice”
::Below is an evaluation of the text on which the course is based.
::1) '''Plagiarism / borrowings'''. There is no formal plagiarism. The text is an authorial synthesis, but:
::* it actively redefines:
::** Buddhist terms (nirvana, karma, bodhisattva);
::** Christian concepts (God, the devil, the Holy Spirit);
::* this is done without references and in contradiction to canonical interpretations.
::This is not plagiarism, but incorrect authorial eclecticism.
::2) '''Potential harm to individuals''' is present in the textbook, and it is direct. A critically dangerous fragment:
:: “The state of samadhi is achieved through interval dry fasting… One must fast for ten days… Interval dry fasting eliminates almost any disease.” (quotations from different pages of the book; this text is also present in the annotation to the book on p. 1).
::This is:
::* a medically false statement;
::* a potentially dangerous recommendation;
::* capable of leading to dehydration, kidney failure, and death.
::Other dangerous theses:
::* “Almost all diseases are the result of karma” (p. 33);
:::* → risk of refusing medical care.
::* “Cancer is the result of the karma of greed” (p. 33);
:::* → psychological traumatization of patients.
::All of this can be described as harmful health misinformation.
::3) Contradictions with modern science and evidence-based medicine
::There are many contradictions, and they are systemic:
::* Denial of the biological nature of diseases.
::* The assertion that plants “do not have a psyche” (pp. 32–33), and that diseases directly depend on moral qualities.
::* A mystical cosmology presented as ontological reality.
::This is acceptable as an object of study, but unacceptable as an educational guide.
::; My personal opinion:
::# Does not meet Wikiversity standards as an educational course
::# Contains potentially dangerous health-related assertions
::# May exist only:
::#* in user space;
::#* or as an object of critical analysis (“analysis of the LAMAI doctrine”). -- [[User:AKA MBG|Andrew Krizhanovsky]] ([[User talk:AKA MBG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AKA MBG|contribs]]) 16:20, 13 December 2025 (UTC)

I am against the deletion of the &quot;LAMAI Academy&quot;. It is a very good and useful educational project. [[User:Lamaibum|Lamaibum]] ([[User talk:Lamaibum|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lamaibum|contribs]]) 05:23, 20 December 2025 (UTC)

I am against the deletion of the &quot;LAMAI Academy&quot;, because this is quite an
innovative project.

I am against deletion of the &quot;LAMAI Academy&quot;. [[User:Alexa89898|Alexa89898]] ([[User talk:Alexa89898|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Alexa89898|contribs]]) 15:54, 21 December 2025 (UTC)

I am against deletion. [[User:AndyLane13|AndyLane13]] ([[User talk:AndyLane13|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AndyLane13|contribs]]) 16:37, 22 December 2025 (UTC)

I, too, am against deletion. Whether the aforementioned critiques have merit or not, it is clear to me that this some kind of new theological/metaphysical framework. We wouldn't delete, say, Ayurveda or TCM courses just because they don't strictly adhere to the scientific method. They still represent a field of human knowledge/endeavour.
I think the same applies here. Thus I am against the deletion. [[User:GiacintoDelArco|GiacintoDelArco]] ([[User talk:GiacintoDelArco|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/GiacintoDelArco|contribs]]) 11:35, 26 December 2025 (UTC)

I agree with what has been said here and I am against deletion. There is no need to delete it in my opinion. Leave it up. Otherwise, if one would really try to be consistent, one would have to delete a bazillion of other stuff as well. [[User:Bmlamai|Bmlamai]] ([[User talk:Bmlamai|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bmlamai|contribs]]) 11:53, 26 December 2025 (UTC)

: I am afraid, that [[User:Lamaibum]], [[User:Bmlamai]], [[User:Alexa89898]], [[User:AndyLane13]] and [[User:GiacintoDelArco]] are the same person. -- [[User:AKA MBG|Andrew Krizhanovsky]] ([[User talk:AKA MBG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AKA MBG|contribs]]) 07:55, 3 January 2026 (UTC)
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== [[Should Wiktionary avoid indefinite blocks of productive users?]] ==
{{archive top|'''deleted''' by Koavf. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 22:17, 19 January 2026 (UTC)}}
Page created by Dan Polanksy (now facing a 3-month block for disruptive editing), &quot;coincidentally&quot; created after his infinite block from the English Wiktionary. There are even more concerning pages listed [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User_talk:Dan_Polansky/2020-2024#Debates_on_policies_of_other_Wikimedia_projects here] that show how much of a joke the &quot;Wikidebate&quot; realm of Wikiversity has turned into. Hell, this one argument which Dan made up is just absurd: &quot;An indefinite block is un-Christian, failing to implement Christian forgiveness.&quot;. How is this educational whatsoever? Who would benefit from such useless content?

I'm inclined to delete this page as an attack page and out of scope anyhow, but I'd thought I'd leave this here for a few days for anyone else to give an opinion for. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 17:38, 30 December 2025 (UTC)

:This is absurd again. I'm just deleting this. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 22:12, 19 January 2026 (UTC)
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== [[Portal:Fencing]] ==
{{archive top|Closing, discussion had already reached a conclusion and an action was carried out [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 12:30, 11 March 2026 (UTC)}}
Is this really a useful portal, there doesn't seem to be any relevant links to other pages? [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:13, 29 January 2026 (UTC)

:I'd invite {{ping|VidanaliK}} to this discussion, and to be honest I don't think this needed to come to RFD. I think the page should be moved into the mainspace &quot;Fencing&quot; page and it is not fit for Portal namespace (per [[Wikiversity:Portal]]). I'd like VidanaliK to understand this or provide their input before I move the page. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 15:22, 29 January 2026 (UTC)
::I had no clue there was a mainspace fencing page: I had looked for that all over. I was going to add more pages that this could link to but exceeded my new user limit (see the three pages I've drafted in my sandbox). [[User:VidanaliK|VidanaliK]] ([[User talk:VidanaliK|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VidanaliK|contribs]]) 16:22, 29 January 2026 (UTC)
:::OK, now there is a linked page to Rapier fencing, and also, I don't see any mainspace &quot;Fencing&quot;; I could move it to that if it is inappropriate for Portal namespace. [[User:VidanaliK|VidanaliK]] ([[User talk:VidanaliK|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VidanaliK|contribs]]) 16:46, 29 January 2026 (UTC)
::::Hey {{ping|VidanaliK}} sorry that this is so messy. I've moved all of your recently created pages under the main Fencing learning project. You have some duplicates: [[Fencing/Thibault rapier]] &amp; [[Fencing/Rapier/Thibault]]. Please indicate which page you'd like to remove. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 16:52, 29 January 2026 (UTC)
:::::I prefer [[Fencing/Rapier/Thibault]] and [[Fencing/Rapier/Capo Ferro]]. It's easier organisation. [[User:VidanaliK|VidanaliK]] ([[User talk:VidanaliK|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VidanaliK|contribs]]) 16:53, 29 January 2026 (UTC)
:::::Also, I'd prefer that [[Fencing/Rapier fencing]] be moved to [[Fencing/Rapier]] since it's already implied that it's rapier. [[User:VidanaliK|VidanaliK]] ([[User talk:VidanaliK|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VidanaliK|contribs]]) 16:55, 29 January 2026 (UTC)
::::::Thanks for fixing everything! [[User:VidanaliK|VidanaliK]] ([[User talk:VidanaliK|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VidanaliK|contribs]]) 18:58, 29 January 2026 (UTC)
:::{{ping|VidanaliK}} I'd suggest making a main page, [[Fencing]], and the pages you are currently making ([[Capo Ferro rapier]], ex.) can be moved under this learning project. Ex, [[Capo Ferro rapier]] --&gt; [[Fencing/Capo Ferro rapier]]. See [[Help:Subpages]]. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 16:47, 29 January 2026 (UTC)
::Noted, Thanks. I will remember this for the future. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 06:35, 30 January 2026 (UTC)
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== [[Creating connected learning environments]] ==
{{archive top|'''Deleted''' per consensus.--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:07, 16 March 2026 (UTC)}}
Underdeveloped project with 2 authors who've been inactive for 5+ years. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 01:48, 1 January 2026 (UTC)

:Delete [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:16, 22 January 2026 (UTC)

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== [[Political theory]] ==
{{archive top|'''Deleted''' per consensus.--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:22, 16 March 2026 (UTC)}}
Underdeveloped since 2006. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 15:23, 21 January 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete''' —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 19:21, 21 January 2026 (UTC)

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== [[Quantum/Henry C. Kapteyn]] ==
{{archive top|'''Deleted''' as out of scope + user has been gblocked. NOTE: I also want to make it clear I never gave permission for Harold to remove the RFD tag, per my message to him on his talk page, and this seems to have came out through a misunderstanding. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:09, 10 March 2026 (UTC)}}
Per [[w:Wikipedia:Administrators'_noticeboard#Evading block?]]. [[User:Pppery|Pppery]] ([[User talk:Pppery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pppery|contribs]]) 19:40, 10 February 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] Does this even belong to Wikiversity ([[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity?]])? [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 10:50, 11 February 2026 (UTC)
::@[[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] Yes it does. [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Administrators'_noticeboard#Evading_block?|w:Wikipedia:Administrators'_noticeboard#Evading block]] has nothing to do with Wikiversity. So elaborate your question. 11:07, 11 February 2026 (UTC) [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 11:07, 11 February 2026 (UTC)
:::How is a biography got anything to do with wikiversity? [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:07, 11 February 2026 (UTC)
::::Since it will be part of an education section we are working on. Just curious, what brought you here? [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 11:12, 11 February 2026 (UTC)
:::::Can you elaborate how it will be part of it? I saw this while working on archiving this RFD page. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:13, 11 February 2026 (UTC)
:::I understand, it is brought to Rfd by someone outside Wikiversity. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 11:29, 11 February 2026 (UTC)
::::::@[[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] did you get the curator flag? [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 11:20, 11 February 2026 (UTC)
:::::::No, how is that part of this discussion? [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 12:00, 11 February 2026 (UTC)
::::::::It is not, just a question. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 12:36, 11 February 2026 (UTC)
::It looks like a Wikipedia page to me. [[User:Sesquilinear|Sesquilinear]] ([[User talk:Sesquilinear|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sesquilinear|contribs]]) 19:49, 11 February 2026 (UTC)
:::That's because it is one, by design. Foppele is currently subject to a block on En.Wikipedaia on “Creating new pages and uploading new files with an expiration time of indefinite” due to repeated issues with poor quality content. Foppele created the biography here, matching exactly the style and layout of a normal Wikipedia biography, and then created a cross-Wiki Wikilink to insert into a Wikipedia article, with the clear intent to game the system in order to evade the block. This is currently being discussed on the En.Wikipedia Administrators noticeboard [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Administrators%27_noticeboard#Evading_block?], and may well result in further sanctions. I've no in-depth understanding of Wikiversity policy on such things, but I can't help wondering whether the project would consider such practices to be in accord with its stated purpose, which presumably isn't as a conduit for evading blocks from other projects. [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-94094-0|&amp;#126;2026-94094-0]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-94094-0|talk]]) 22:39, 11 February 2026 (UTC)
::::Why this hidden account this happend before ?[[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 23:07, 11 February 2026 (UTC)
:::::I'm not attempting to hide anything - I'd just not realised that I wasn't signed in automatically, as normally happens between projects. Now how about giving an explanation for why you used the Wikiversity project to evade an En.Wikipedia block through deceptive linking? Do you consider that appropriate behaviour on either project? [[User:AndyTheGrump|AndyTheGrump]] ([[User talk:AndyTheGrump|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AndyTheGrump|contribs]]) 23:33, 11 February 2026 (UTC)
::::::The discussion at WP is closed. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 08:43, 12 February 2026 (UTC)
:::::::Indeed. Closed after you have been blocked for a week for what was &quot;blatantly an attempt at gaming the pblock&quot;, with a comment by the blocking admin that they were &quot;tempted to simply indef&quot;. So, where's the explanation for your behaviour '''here'''? Do you consider it appropriate to use Wikiversity project facilities for block evasion in other WMF projects? [[User:AndyTheGrump|AndyTheGrump]] ([[User talk:AndyTheGrump|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AndyTheGrump|contribs]]) 16:42, 12 February 2026 (UTC) 
::::::::The discussion is closed.[[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 16:53, 12 February 2026 (UTC)
:::::::::The discussion isn't actually closed, though you are blocked for a week for it. [[User:Sesquilinear|Sesquilinear]] ([[User talk:Sesquilinear|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sesquilinear|contribs]]) 02:38, 13 February 2026 (UTC)
::::::::::That closed the discussion. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 08:32, 13 February 2026 (UTC)
:::::::::::It’s not formally closed yet, you just got blocked for a week. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 08:48, 13 February 2026 (UTC)
::::::::::::So you want to keep discussing it here? [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 08:51, 13 February 2026 (UTC)
:::Correct and it need a lot of additions. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 21:31, 11 February 2026 (UTC)

* '''Keep''' since this will be part of future developments. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 12:42, 11 February 2026 (UTC)
*:What future developments are you talking about, by the way? [[User:Sesquilinear|Sesquilinear]] ([[User talk:Sesquilinear|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sesquilinear|contribs]]) 17:50, 12 February 2026 (UTC)
*::Q&amp;A [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 18:18, 12 February 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete''', User is just evading their block on English Wikipedia by creating the page here and making a interwiki link on English wiki. This also falls outside Wikiversity's scope. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 07:18, 13 February 2026 (UTC)
::[[File:Information orange.svg|35px|alt=Information icon]] The evading or not evading WP has nothing to do with the existence of the page here.Whether it falls within WV scope is for admins to decide [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 08:46, 13 February 2026 (UTC)
:Please see the related discussion [[#Wikipedia style personal profiles|below]] which includes this page. Consideration should be given to merging the discussions [[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]] ([[User talk:Timtrent|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Timtrent|contribs]]) 11:17, 17 February 2026 (UTC)
: I have reverted an attempt by Harold Foppele to remove the RfD tag out of process. [[User:Pppery|Pppery]] ([[User talk:Pppery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pppery|contribs]]) 18:01, 4 March 2026 (UTC)
::I have reverted your revert. For information contact [[user:atcovi|atcovi]]. @[[User:Pppery|Pppery]] you have a [[W:WP:SPA|WP:SPA]] account at the moment. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 21:37, 4 March 2026 (UTC)
::: Nope. I'm not a SPA. Far less than half of my edits to Wikiversity are related to this topic. And your comment here is frankly incoherent. [[User:Pppery|Pppery]] ([[User talk:Pppery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pppery|contribs]]) 22:23, 4 March 2026 (UTC)
::::In this case you are. But I'm not discussing that with you. Your last visit here was aug. 18 2024. So you are only here as SPA. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 22:44, 4 March 2026 (UTC)
*{{Comment}} The creating editor has now repeatedly removed the RFD notice form this item. I have explained to them that this behaviour is choosing to volunteer for a block and that it must remain until the deletion process is closed and concluded. 🇵🇸&amp;zwj;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User talk:Timtrent|talk to me]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;zwj;🇵🇸 22:52, 4 March 2026 (UTC)
*{{comment}} Harold Foppele and two socks are now indef globally blocked for LTA/xwiki abuse/sock-related disruption. [[User:DMacks|DMacks]] ([[User talk:DMacks|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DMacks|contribs]]) 13:11, 8 March 2026 (UTC)
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== Uploads by {{U|Harold Foppele}} ==
{{archive top|'''Deleted''' per improper licensing. Images can be restored through VRT approval. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:08, 10 March 2026 (UTC)}}
* [[:File:Professor Tenio Popmintchev.png]]
* [[:File:Henry C. Kapteyn.png]]
* [[:File:Dimitar Popmintchev.png]]

The uploader appears unable to find correct licencing for these files, and I do not believe that they have the correct permissions to upload them. The have now stated that they are PD, but each has previously been nominated as a copyvio (please see individual file history). They cannot be other than copyvios and the subject of the photograph is very unlikely to be able to release the to be PD.

Ownership or possession of a photo, proprietorship of the equipment used to take the photo, or being the subject of the photo does not equate to holding the copyright. The copyright holder is the photographer (i.e. the person who took the photo), rather than the subject (the person who appears in the photo) or the person possessing the photo, unless transferred by operation of law (e.g. inheritance, etc.) or by contract (written and signed by the copyright holder, and explicitly transfers the copyright). Evidence of any transfer of licencing must be sent via [[WV:VRT]] [[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]] ([[User talk:Timtrent|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Timtrent|contribs]]) 11:26, 13 February 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]] I just found https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Copyright_issues. Quote: This declaration of consent needs to be sent from the author (or forwarded from the author) to permissions-en AT wikimedia DOT org. Unquote. Exact quote. Someone should re-write it maybe. So I shall get the correct info or have it sent by the respective owners. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 11:44, 13 February 2026 (UTC)
::@[[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] Please make sure that the '''copyright owner''' furnishes the correct permissions. If the files have been deleted then VRT will organise reinstatement. My second paragraph above is not only information for you, but is part of the deletion rationale. [[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]] ([[User talk:Timtrent|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Timtrent|contribs]]) 12:10, 13 February 2026 (UTC)
:The descriptions seem to have been changed to &quot;fair use&quot; with rationale &quot;Infobox picture&quot;, which I believe is not a valid rationale for using nonfree content. [[User:Sesquilinear|Sesquilinear]] ([[User talk:Sesquilinear|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sesquilinear|contribs]]) 21:29, 13 February 2026 (UTC)
::@[[User:Sesquilinear|Sesquilinear]] if there is a ''genuine'' educational prpupose,then it may be borderline, but VRT permission is always the best, and leaves no doubt.
::A decision is still needed of in or out of scope, though. [[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]] ([[User talk:Timtrent|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Timtrent|contribs]]) 22:58, 13 February 2026 (UTC)
:::@[[User:Sesquilinear|Sesquilinear]] I see that your WV account is a [[Wikipedia:Single-purpose account|'''single-purpose''' '''account''']]  [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 22:37, 14 February 2026 (UTC)
*{{comment}} The uploader has now uploaded entirely different pictures with the same filename, something which is wholly inappropriate during a deletion discussion.  Each file page now shows that the file is copyright of the person featured. This is improbable because, as explained several times to the uploader:
*:{{Blue|Ownership or possession of a photo, proprietorship of the equipment used to take the photo, or being the subject of the photo does not equate to holding the copyright. The copyright holder is the photographer (i.e. the person who took the photo), rather than the subject (the person who appears in the photo) or the person possessing the photo, unless transferred by operation of law (e.g. inheritance, etc.) or by contract (written and signed by the copyright holder, and explicitly transfers the copyright). Evidence of any transfer of licencing must be sent via [[WV:VRT]]}}
:The claim of Fair Use is plausible ''&lt;u&gt;only&lt;/u&gt; if there is an education purpose as defined in the doctrine of Fair Use'', and only if the minimum possible of the original is used at the lowest reasonable resolution. Neither of these latter two is correct and I cannot see the educational purpose since the pictures are being used to decorate what took very much like enWiki articles as profile pictures, no more and no less. Wikiversity does not hold profile articles.
:For these pictures, these specific pictures, all of them under these three file names, to remain here I believe it is essential that prof of the right to upload them here is lodged via [[WV:VRT]], otherwise they must be deleted, each and every version of them. [[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]] ([[User talk:Timtrent|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Timtrent|contribs]]) 22:45, 16 February 2026 (UTC)
::I read through the entire discussion, and some of the discussion on the users talk pages, and support this statement made by Timtrent. Proof should be lodged to VRT, and if that’s not they should be deleted. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 01:05, 17 February 2026 (UTC)
*{{Comment}} The uploader has today nominated [[:File:Henry C. Kapteyn.png]] fr speedy deletion stating that it is obsolete. They modified the nomination to mention it. I have reverted that and am leaving this comment as a servce to the eventual closer of this discussion.  [[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]] ([[User talk:Timtrent|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Timtrent|contribs]]) 10:41, 19 February 2026 (UTC)
*{{Comment}} [[:File:Henry C. Kapteyn.png]] deleted as unused Fair use. --[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:33, 3 March 2026 (UTC)

:Has any response come from VRT? Note that the uploading user was globally blocked for sockpuppetry. [[User:Sesquilinear|Sesquilinear]] ([[User talk:Sesquilinear|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sesquilinear|contribs]]) 21:29, 9 March 2026 (UTC)
::{{Comment}} @[[User:Sesquilinear|Sesquilinear]] Were it to come the usual process is for VRT to lodge the ticket number and the permissions on the file page(s). What I can see is that no such annotation has been placed there, nor has any &quot;Correspondence has been received&quot; been placed there. 
::Sijce the VRT process also requests undeletion of any files deleted before or during the permissions process I believe it woful be safe for this to be closed as ''delete'' knowing that the process will restore them if necessary. The Global Block may be appealed, but, unless and until that is done, I doubt that anyone will choose to use those files. 🇵🇸&amp;zwj;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User talk:Timtrent|talk to me]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;zwj;🇵🇸 23:00, 9 March 2026 (UTC)
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== Wikipedia style personal profiles ==
{{archive top|'''Deleted''' - Pages are out of scope, user has been globally blocked, and pages have been moved to a private wiki. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:02, 10 March 2026 (UTC)}}
The following personal profiles fail [[Wikiversity:What Wikiversity is not]] in that they are are Wikipedia style articles. It is clear that ''Wikiversity is not Wikipedia''. Indeed, Wikipedia articles may be interwiki-linked where necessary to/from Wikiversity material:
*[[Quantum/Henry C. Kapteyn]] 
::(being discussed [[#Quantum/Henry C. Kapteyn|above]] with a suggestion that the earlier discussion should either continue there or be merged into this overall DR by any user in good standing) (See [[w:en:Henry Kapteyn]]}
*[[Quantum/Tenio Popmintchev]] 
::(See [[w:en:Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Tenio Popmintchev]])
*[[Quantum Ultra fast lasers/Dimitar popmintchev]]
They appear to be here because the creating user is blocked on enWiki - [[Special:CentralAuth/Harold Foppele]] with their block set to expire on 19 February.

We are not here to discuss the notability of these people, that is a Wikipedia issue. Assuming them to be notable they have a place there. We are here to determine whether they are items which should appear here.

We are not here to discuss enWiki block pseudo-evasion. That is irrelevant to Wikiversity (0.9 probability), though may be of concern to enWiki admins. We are only discussing whether they are items which should appear here.

&lt;small&gt;Courtesy pings to [[User:Pppery|Pppery]], [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]], [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]], [[Special:Contributions/~2026-94094-0|~2026-94094-0]], [[User:AndyTheGrump|AndyTheGrump]], all participants in the discussion above. My apologies if I have missed any participants.&lt;/small&gt; [[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]] ([[User talk:Timtrent|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Timtrent|contribs]]) 11:15, 17 February 2026 (UTC)

:While I'm not a Wikiversity regular, and thus not really familiar with all the details regarding WV's criteria for suitable topics, I'd have to agree that it would seem odd for WV to be acting as an alternative host for material that would normally be hosted on Wikipedia. One could quite reasonably assume that individuals looking for biographical material would be looking there, and not here. Projects are supposed to be complementary, and not competing for readers by hosting similar content. [[User:AndyTheGrump|AndyTheGrump]] ([[User talk:AndyTheGrump|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AndyTheGrump|contribs]]) 16:08, 17 February 2026 (UTC)
:&lt;small&gt;Some of the active custodians are on holidays, they should be back soon. &lt;/small&gt; [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:17, 18 February 2026 (UTC)
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== [[Gravitational torsion field]] ==
{{archive top|I have gone ahead and deleted this. I don’t see much point in moving to userspace as the users currently inactive. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 12:30, 27 March 2026 (UTC)}}
The article [[Gravitational torsion field]] is proposed for deletion. Firstly, this article has no relation to the gravitational torsion field described in the article [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Gravitational torsion field]]. Secondly, the article's content is a mishmash of unrelated ideas and assumptions, many of which are not even related to gravitation.
[[User:Fedosin|Fedosin]] ([[User talk:Fedosin|обсуждение]] • [[Special:Contributions/Fedosin|вклад]]) 12:38, 9 November 2025 (UTC)
: '''Move to user space''', which is quasi-deletion. Searching the article for &quot;Gravitational torsion field&quot; finds nothing, not in the text, not in the references. The article is not labeled as original research, yet the headword &quot;Gravitational torsion field&quot; does not trace anywhere (it cannot trace anywhere from the body text since the body text does not have the headword). These are red flags. Further reading: [[W:User_talk:Swbraithwaite]], [[W:User talk:SWBPAUSEWATCH]], more red flags. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 12:48, 9 November 2025 (UTC)
:'''Delete'''. Low quality. Out of scope. Author no longer active on Wikiversity and has problematic WMF editing history. More detail: [https://chatgpt.com/share/6911338b-99ac-8008-833a-fb64e569a010 ChatGPT review]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:40, 10 November 2025 (UTC)
:: I think we should move to user space unless we have a specific reason to outright delete, consistent with the position taken rather passionately by Guy vandegrift and supported by some other people, including probably by Dave Braunschweig who often moved pages to user space. Moreover, whether the page is out of scope, I am not sure; we do have author-specific articles (e.g.  [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Gravitational torsion field]]) and if the page was solid enough, it would not be out of scope, I think. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 08:33, 10 November 2025 (UTC)
:::Wikiversity is not free hosting service. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:47, 11 March 2026 (UTC)
:'''Delete'''. I dont understand its conntent, but the major obstacle is how to use this conentent. It looks like the copy of Wikipedia article so I would delete it. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:47, 11 March 2026 (UTC)

May be it is a simplest variant for the case.[[User:Fedosin|Fedosin]] ([[User talk:Fedosin|обсуждение]] • [[Special:Contributions/Fedosin|вклад]]) 14:10, 9 November 2025 (UTC)
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== [[Fairy Rings]] ==
{{archive top|Deleted, per consensus}}
The page and subpages do not show anything useful; this has been so since 2007, I think (maybe I do not concentrate). Author: [[User:Juandev]]. '''Move to user space''' (or delete if preferred by the author and co-authors?). --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 14:57, 18 November 2025 (UTC)

For instance, [[Fairy Rings/Database/Lublaňská 25]] was created in 2014 by [[User:Juandev (usurped)]]; there are lat-lon coordinates and an empty section for observations.

In [[Fairy Rings/Database]], I entered auto subpage generation. It found:
* [[Fairy Rings/Database/Lublaňská 25]]
* [[Fairy Rings/Database/Test]]
* [[Fairy Rings/Database/Test 2]]
* [[Fairy Rings/Database/Test 2/May 14, 2014]]
--[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 15:02, 18 November 2025 (UTC)

The project has an introduction to the issue and clearly stated instructions. I don't see the lack of participation in the project yet as a problem. Wikiversity is not Wikipedia, we are not aiming for pages full of text here, however, if someone is bothered by it, it can be deleted. For me, it would be enough to edit and update the project a little. --[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 19:40, 20 November 2025 (UTC)

'''Keep'''. Clear objective that is in scope. '''Delete''' the test database pages. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:01, 22 November 2025 (UTC)
: [[WV:Deletion]] indicates that pages for which &quot;learning outcomes are scarce&quot; (as is the case here) are to be deleted. I don't see any policy or guideline indicating that something having a clear objective that is in scope of the English Wikiversity is alone grounds for keeping, regardless of how useless or underdeveloped the page is (perhaps I was not looking carefully enough). --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:29, 12 December 2025 (UTC)
:Thats a good point. I would '''delete''' test pages which I have created and I would '''keep''' the rest. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:52, 11 March 2026 (UTC)
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== [[Theory of Everything (From Scratch) Project]] ==
{{archive top|Deleted [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:19, 3 April 2026 (UTC)}}
Underdeveloped project since 2010. Original author has been inactive wiki-wide since then. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 01:45, 1 January 2026 (UTC)

:Yup, I guess we can delete it. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:57, 16 March 2026 (UTC)
:@[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] @[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] Does this include, [[Theory of Everything (From Scratch) Project/The Origin]]? [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 09:53, 28 March 2026 (UTC)
::Yes as its low-quality, is part of the project, has not been improved on since 2010. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 18:43, 31 March 2026 (UTC)
::Yes, the tradition is, that it includes all subpages if it is not stated otherwise. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:41, 1 April 2026 (UTC)
:{{done}} [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:18, 3 April 2026 (UTC)
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== [[Seven Heavens]] ==
{{archive top|moved to userspace. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:23, 2 April 2026 (UTC)}}
Seems to be someone's personal beliefs rather than educational content that reflects Wikiversity's learning policies. It is not even labeled as such either. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 21:36, 19 January 2026 (UTC)

:This seems like '''speedy delete''' material to me. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 22:10, 19 January 2026 (UTC)
:Agree [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 23:26, 19 January 2026 (UTC)
::Moved to userspace. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:23, 2 April 2026 (UTC)
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== [[Peace studies]] ==
{{archive top|'''Deleted''' per consensus.--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:23, 27 March 2026 (UTC)}}
Underdeveloped since 2006/2007. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 17:39, 21 January 2026 (UTC)
:'''Delete''' —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 19:22, 21 January 2026 (UTC)
:Delete [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:15, 22 January 2026 (UTC)

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== [[Systemic Lupus Erythematosus]] ==
{{archive top|'''Deleted''' - AI-slop with no educational objectives}}
Clearly seems like an ai-generated article and it seems to be out of Wikiversity’s scope. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 10:08, 11 March 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete''', copy of Wikipedia article. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:28, 27 March 2026 (UTC)
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      <sha1>gxcz4d188nqa2exckvzo5w5d3tr1xvw</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Dc.samizdat/Golden chords of the 120-cell</title>
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      <text bytes="84314" sha1="jkdqetrsra0l3b1xwdqv3tsotugxzf0" xml:space="preserve">= Golden chords of the 120-cell =
{{align|center|David Brooks Christie}}
{{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}}
{{align|center|Draft in progress}}
{{align|center|January 2026 - June 2026}}

&lt;blockquote&gt;Steinbach discovered the formula for the ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. Fontaine and Hurley extended this result, discovering a formula for the reciprocal of a regular polygon chord derived geometrically from the chord's star polygon. We observe that these findings in plane geometry apply more generally, to polytopes of any dimensionality. Fontaine and Hurley's geometric procedure for finding the reciprocals of the chords of a regular polygon from their star polygons also finds the rotational geodesics of any polytope of any dimensionality.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Introduction ==
Steinbach discovered the Diagonal Product Formula and the Golden Fields family of ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. He showed how this family extends beyond the pentagon {5} with its well-known golden bisection proportional to 𝜙, finding that the heptagon {7} has an analogous trisection, the nonagon {9} has an analogous quadrasection, and the hendecagon {11} has an analogous pentasection, an extended family of golden proportions with quasiperiodic properties. 

Kappraff and Adamson extended these findings in plane geometry to a theory of Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, showing that the Golden Fields not only do not end with the hendecagon, they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. They found a relation between the edges of star polygons and dynamical systems in the state of chaos, revealing a connection between chaos theory, number, and rotations in Coxeter Euclidean geometry. 

Fontaine and Hurley examined Steinbach's finding that the length of each chord of a regular polygon is both the product of two chords and the sum of a set of smaller chords, so that in rotations to add is to multiply. They illustrated Steinbach's sets of additive chords lying parallel to each other in the plane (pointing in the same direction), and by applying Steinbach's formula more generally they found another summation relation of signed parallel chords (pointing in opposite directions) which relates each chord length to its reciprocal, and relates the summation to a distinct star polygon rotation. 

We examine these remarkable findings (which stem from study of the chords of humble regular polygons) in higher-dimensional spaces, specifically in the chords, polygons and rotations of the [[120-cell]], the largest four-dimensional regular convex polytope.

== Visualizing the 120-cell ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:120-cell.gif|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point 120-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; &quot;Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].&quot;}} In this simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges are shown; its 29 interior chords are not rendered. Therefore even though it is translucent, only its outer surface is visible. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 5-cells, 16-cells, 8-cells, 24-cells, 600-cells and its much larger inventory of polyhedra, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all.
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;.{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} The 120-cell is its convex hull. The projection to the left renders only the 120-cell's shortest chord, its 1200 edges. The projection above also renders only one of the 120-cell's 30 chords, the edges of its 120 inscribed regular 5-cells. The 120-cell itself (the convex hull) is invisible in this view, as its edges are not rendered.
|}

[[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except the regular polygons of more than {15} sides. 

The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. They are the [[5-cell|5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex]], the [[16-cell|8-point (16-cell) 4-orthoplex]], the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the [[24-cell|24-point (24-cell)]], the [[600-cell|120-point (600-cell)]], and the [[120-cell|600-point (120-cell)]]. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, and of 5 disjoint 600-cells.

The 120-cell contains an even larger inventory of irregular polytopes, created by the intersection of multiple instances of these component regular 4-polytopes. Many are quite unexpected, because they do not occur as components of any regular polytope smaller than the 120-cell. As just one example among the [[120-cell#Concentric hulls|sections of the 120-cell]], there is an irregular 24-point polyhedron with 16 triangle faces and 4 nonagon {9} faces.{{Sfn|Moxness|}}

Most renderings of the 120-cell, like the rotating projection here, only illustrate its outer surface, which is a honeycomb of face-bonded dodecahedral cells. Only the objects in its 3-dimensional surface are rendered, namely the 120 dodecahedra, their pentagon faces, and their edges. Although the 120-cell has chords of 30 distinct lengths, in this kind of simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges (its shortest chord) are shown. Its 29 interior chords, the edges of objects in the interior of the 120-cell, are not rendered, so interior objects are not visible at all.

Visualizing the complete interior of the 600-vertex 120-cell in a single image is impractical because of its complexity. Only four 120-cell edges are incident at each vertex, but [[120-cell#Chords|600 chords (of all 30 lengths)]] are incident at ''each'' vertex.

== Compounds in the 120-cell ==
The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell), is the smallest building block; it compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point (5-cell) does compound to the 600-point (120-cell), but it does not fit into any smaller regular 4-polytope. 

The 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 2 in the 16-point (8-cell), and by 3 in the 24-point (24-cell). The 16-point (8-cell) compounds in the 24-point (24-cell) by 3 non-disjoint instances of itself, with each of the 24 vertices shared by two 16-point (8-cells). The 24-point (24-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell), and the 120-point (600-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell).

The 24-point (24-cell) also compounds by 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; non-disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell); it compounds in 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever set of 5 disjoint 24-point (24-cells) are assembled, the resulting 120-point (600-cell) contains 25 distinct 24-point (24-cells), not just 5 (or 10). This implies that 15 disjoint 8-point (16-cells) will construct a 120-point (600-cell), which will contain 75 distinct 8-point (16-cells). 

The 600-point (120-cell) is 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways), so it is 10 distinct 120-point (600-cells). This implies that the 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 3 times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (75) disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell), which contains 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; times  5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (225) distinct instances of the 24-point (24-cell), and  3&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (675) distinct instances of the 8-point (16-cell). 

These facts were discovered painstakingly by various researchers, and no one has found a general rule governing subsumption relations among regular polytopes. The reasons for some of their numeric incidence relations are far from obvious. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''}}

So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] illustrated above, the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, and the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are &lt;math&gt;\phi^6&lt;/math&gt; as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:List of polyhedral stellations#Stellation process|stellation core]] deep inside.

The compound of 120 disjoint 5-point (5-cells) can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell.

== Thirty distinguished distances ==
The 30 numbers listed in the table are all-important in Euclidean geometry. A case can be made on symmetry grounds that their squares are the 30 most important numbers between 0 and 4. The 30 rows of the table are the 30 distinct [[120-cell#Geodesic rectangles|chord lengths of the unit-radius 120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope. Since the 120-cell subsumes all smaller regular polytopes, its 30 chords are the complete chord set of all the regular polytopes that can be constructed in the first four dimensions of Euclidean space, except for regular polygons of more than 15 sides.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|arc
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{n}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;\left\{p\right\}&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;m\left\{\frac{k}{d}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|Steinbach roots
!colspan=7|Chord lengths of the unit 120-cell
|-
!colspan=5|unit-radius length &lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!colspan=2|unit-edge length &lt;math&gt;c_t/c_1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;in 120-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;c_8=\sqrt{2}\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{1,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;15.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}-c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.270091&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.072949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;25.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{15\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(c_{18,1}-c_{4,1}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{3-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.437016&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.190983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;36{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{10\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3 \left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right) c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.381966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.28825&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;41.4{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.707107&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{5,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;44.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{\frac{15}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.756934&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.572949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.80252&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{6,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;49.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{17}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.831254&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5}}{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.690983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.07768&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{7,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;56.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.93913&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.881966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.47709&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;60{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.70246&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{9,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;66.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2 \phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.09132&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.04057&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{10,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;69.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2 \sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.14412&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi }{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{11,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;72{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{6}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.17557&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.38197}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \sqrt{3-\phi } \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.3525&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;75.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{24}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.22474&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.53457&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{13,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;81.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.30038&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.8146&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{14,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;84.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi } c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{1+\sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.345&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi }}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5} \phi }{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.9798&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{15,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;90.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.41421&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{16,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;95.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{29}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.4802&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.48037&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{17,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;98.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{31}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.51954&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(7+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.62605&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{18,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;104.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{8}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.58114&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5} \sqrt{\phi ^4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{19,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;108.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}+c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.9907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{20,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;110.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.64042&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.07359&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{21,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;113.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{19}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.67601&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\chi }{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.20537&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{22,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;120{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{10}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.73205&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{6} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.41285&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{23,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;124.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{41}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }+\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.7658&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.11803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.53779&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{24,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;130.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.81907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\sqrt{5}}{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.73503&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{25,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;135.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.85123&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi ^2}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^4}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.42705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^4&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{26,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;138.6{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{12}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.87083&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{7} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.92667&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{27,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;144{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{12}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{5}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.90211&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\phi +2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{2 \phi +4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.0425&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{28,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;154.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.95167&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.22598&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{29,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;164.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{14}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.98168&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3 \phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.92705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.33708&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{30,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;180{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{15}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.40492&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|rowspan=4 colspan=6|
|rowspan=4 colspan=4|
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; is the golden ratio:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2-\phi -1=0&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }+1=\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, and: &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi+1=\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }::1::\phi ::\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1/\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; and &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; are the golden sections of &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi +\frac{1}{\phi }=\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi = (\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\chi = (3\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = (3\sqrt{5} - 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = 11/\chi = 22/(3\sqrt{5} + 1)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The 16-cell 4-orthoplex ==
In 2-space we have the regular 8-point octagon, in 3-space the regular 8-point cube, and in 4-space the regular 8-point [[16-cell]].

A planar octagon with rigid edges of unit length has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_3=\sqrt{2}+1 \approx 2.414,r_4=\sqrt{4 + \sqrt{8}} \approx 2.613&lt;/math&gt;

The chord ratio &lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}+1&lt;/math&gt; is a geometrical proportion, the [[W:Silver ratio|silver ratio]]. Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that:

:&lt;math&gt;r_3-r_1-r_1=1/r_3 \approx 0.414&lt;/math&gt;

Note that &lt;math&gt;r_3-2=1/r_3=\sqrt{2}-1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over three &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of an {8/3} octagram. Over the first &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord the displacement is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}+r_1&lt;/math&gt;. Over the second &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves in the opposite direction a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt; . Over the third &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt;.

If we embed the planar octagon in 3-space, we can make it skew, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from three others instead of two others, at the vertices of a unit-edge cube with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1, r_2=\sqrt{2}, r_3=\sqrt{3}, r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

If we embed this cube in 4-space, we can skew it some more, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from six others instead of three others, at the vertices of a unit-edge 4-polytope with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=1,r_3=1,r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

All of its chords except its long diameters are the same unit length as its edge. In fact they are its 24 edges, and it is a 16-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;1/\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;.

[[File:octagon16cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of a regular 16-cell to the [[16-cell#Projections|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only its edges are shown; its long diameter chords are not drawn. All 24 edges are the same length and none lie parallel to the projection plane. The octagon circumference is a Petrie polygon. The two disjoint squares lie in completely orthogonal central planes. The blue octagram is a Clifford polygon. ]]

The [[16-cell]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 8 vertices, 24 edges, 32 equilateral triangle faces, and 16 regular tetrahedron cells. It is the [[16-cell#Octahedral dipyramid|four-dimensional analogue of the octahedron]], and each of its four orthogonal central hyperplanes is an octahedron.

The only planar regular polygons found in the 16-cell are face triangles and central plane squares, but the 16-cell also contains a skew regular octagon, its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]].{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} The chords of this regular octagon, which lies skew in 4-space, are those given above for the 16-cell, as opposed to those for the cube or the regular octagon in the plane. The 16-cell is a construct of 3 Petrie octagons which share the same 8 vertices but have disjoint sets of 8 edges each.

The regular octad has higher symmetry in 4-space than it does in 2-space. The 16-cell is the 4-[[w:Cross-polytope|orthoplex]], the simplest regular 4-polytope after the [[5-cell|4-simplex]]. All the larger regular convex 4-polytopes are compounds of the 16-cell. The regular octagon exhibits this high symmetry only when embedded in 4-space at the vertices of the 16-cell.

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal basis]] for the choice of a 4-dimensional Cartesian reference frame, because its vertices define four orthogonal axes. The eight vertices of a unit-radius 16-cell are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges except opposite pairs. 

The vertex coordinates of the 16-cell form 6 central squares lying in 6 pairwise [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] coordinate planes. Great squares in opposite planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

Since the unit-radius coordinate system is convenient, let us derive the unit-radius 16-cell by skewing a unit-radius planar octagon, which has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2-\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.765,r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_4=2&lt;/math&gt;

We will need a planar octagon with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords, rather than one with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; edges. The octagon's &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords form two disjoint great squares, visible in the orthogonal projection, which we can reposition in 3-space to form a cube by making them parallel, and in 4-space to form a 16-cell by making them completely orthogonal.

Since the edges of the 16-cell are all the same length &lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, those chords are distinct only in the context of a rotation. Each chord is a 4-vector with a length and a direction. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_i&lt;/math&gt; chord makes &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt; 45° turns.

[[File:16-cell-orig.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 8-point 16-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a double rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}}]]
[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in completely orthogonal planes. The general rotation in 4-space is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]] in pairs of completely orthogonal planes. Two completely orthogonal planes are called invariant planes of the rotation when all points in the plane rotate on circles that remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways (like a coin flipping) into another plane. The two completely orthogonal rotations of each plane (like a wheel, and like a coin flipping) are simultaneous but independent, in that they are not geometrically constrained to turn at the same rate. However, the most circular kind of rotation (as opposed to an elliptical double rotation of a rigid spherical object) occurs when the completely orthogonal planes do rotate through the same angle in the same time interval. Such equi-angled double rotations are called [[w:SO(4)#Isoclinic_rotations|isoclinic]], also [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|Clifford]] displacements.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a Petrie polygon {8/1} which zig-zags back and forth, in the left and right rotational directions, between two completely orthogonal great squares formed by &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords.

The &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords  form the ''edge polygon'' of the 16-cell {8/2}=2{4}. The two completely orthogonal great squares lie parallel and perpendicular to each other. A ''simple'' rotation of the 16-cell in ''one'' of those two square central planes rotates that square like a wheel, while the other square does not move.{{Efn|name=simple rotations}} The four vertices of the rotating square orbit on a great circle in the plane.

The &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a circular helix, visible as a blue {8/3} octagram in the orthogonal projection. A ''double'' rotation of the 16-cell, in both of two completely orthogonal invariant &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; square planes at once by equal angles, moves the eight vertices along the circular helix over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords. The vertex motion is a [[w:Geodesic|geodesic]] circle orbit on the 3-sphere of a special kind: it does not lie in a central plane, its [[w:Winding_number|winding number]] is not 1 (it is 3 in this case), its circumference is not &lt;math&gt;2\pi&lt;/math&gt;, and it moves in either a left or right handed circular spiral. We shall refer to such a chiral circle orbit as an ''isocline'', and to the skew polygram of its rotational chords as a ''Clifford polygon''.

The 16-cell is the simplest possible frame in which to [[16-cell#Rotations|observe 4-dimensional rotations]] because its characteristic rotations feature a single pair of invariant rotation planes. In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90° in any pair of invariant completely orthogonal square central planes takes every great square to its completely orthogonal great square in a twisting displacement, as the invariant planes tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally. All the vertices move at once along the same circular helix geodesic isocline of &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. In 360° of isoclinic rotation over four &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, each vertex makes six 90° turns and reaches its antipodal position.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over eight &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the four &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great square in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation.

Because this is the isoclinic rotation of the 16-cell in its invariant great circle edge planes we shall refer to it as the ''great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell'', and note once again that it is Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; star polygon, which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_3&lt;/math&gt;.

== The 8-cell tesseract ==
The long diameter of the unit-edge [[W:Hypercube|hypercube]] of dimension &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{n}&lt;/math&gt;, so the unit-edge [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube, the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract,]] has chords:
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;
Uniquely in its 4-dimensional case, the hypercube's edge length equals its radius, like the hexagon. We call such polytopes ''radially equilateral'', because they can be constructed from equilateral triangles which meet at their center, each contributing two radii and an edge. The [[w:Cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]] and the 24-cell are also radially equilateral.

[[File:8-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation about a plane in 4-space.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The stationary plane bisects the figure from front-left to back-right and top to bottom.]]
The [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 16 vertices, 32 edges, 24 square faces, and 8 cube cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube.

The 16-point tesseract is the convex hull of a compound of two 8-point 16-cells, in exact dimensional analogy to the way the 8-point cube is the convex hull of a [[W:Stellated octahedron|compound of two 4-point regular tetrahedra]]. The [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercubes]] occupy alternate vertices of the hypercubes. The diagonals of the square faces of the unit-edge, unit-radius tesseract are the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges of two unit-radius 16-cells, also the edges of the square central planes.

We can rotate the tesseract isoclinically the way we rotated the 16-cell, by 90° in the great square right rotation, with the same effect on both alternate-position 16-cells. In the course of a 720° revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cell. The two skew {8/3} octagram Clifford polygons lie on two disjoint parallel isoclines of the same chirality, of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chords. They form a circular double helix which intersects each vertex of the tesseract once. The helix is an 8-rung ladder twisted 3 times, bent into a circle in the fourth dimension. Each rung is a tesseract edge.

The tesseract is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 16-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew octagon, but the tesseract is a construct of 4 Petrie octagons with disjoint sets of 8 tesseract edges each. We can construct the tesseract by skewing two planar octagons. Because the tesseract is radially equilateral (unlike the 16-cell), we use two octagons of unit-edge length to build the unit-radius tesseract. To start we embed the planar octagons in 4-space at the same point and make them completely orthogonal. Then we skew each planar octagon into a cube, so we have a compound of two completely orthogonal cubes, provided we skewed them both in the same direction. The 16 vertices will be the vertices of a tesseract with half its 32 edges missing.

Because the tesseract contains two 16-cells in alternate positions it has two sets of 6 orthogonal square central planes. Two angles are required to specify the relationship between two planes in 4-space. Pairs of square central planes within each 16-cell are 90° apart in one angle, and either 0° or 90° apart in the other angle. They are 90° apart in both angles if and only if they are completely orthogonal planes, 90° apart by isoclinic rotation, with no vertices in common. Otherwise they are 0° apart in one of the angles, 90° apart by simple rotation, and they intersect in one axis and lie in a common 3-dimensional hyperplane.{{Efn|A double rotation in which one of the two angles of rotation is 0°, so that one of the completely orthogonal invariant planes does not rotate, is called a simple rotation. Ordinary rotations observed in a 3-dimensional space are simple rotations.|name=simple rotations}}

A pair of square central planes from alternate-position 16-cells are 60° apart by isoclinic rotation, with their corresponding vertices 120° apart. The planes are not orthogonal or parallel, so they intersect in a line somewhere, but they have no vertices in common, they have no 3-dimensional hyperplane in common, and they cannot reach each other by simple rotation. Such pairs of objects are called [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] because all their corresponding pairs of vertices are the same distance apart, although they are not parallel in the usual sense, because they have a common center. Not only the alternate-position 16-cells' corresponding square central planes, but also the 16-cells themselves, are Clifford parallel objects. More generally, multiple disjoint instances of a 4-polytope which compound to make a larger 4-polytope are Clifford parallel objects.

== The 24-cell ==
[[File:24-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the radially equilateral 24-cell, showing its 3 great circle polygons and its 4 chord lengths.]]
In 2-space we have the radially equilateral 6-point hexagon. In 3-space we have the radially equilateral 12-point cuboctahedron, with 4 hexagonal central planes. In 4-space we have the radially equilateral 24-point 24-cell, with 12 cuboctahedron central hyperplanes and 16 hexagonal central planes.

The [[24-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 24 vertices, 96 edges, 96 equilateral triangle faces, and 24 octahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cuboctahedron.

The 24-cell has the same chord set as the 4-hypercube tesseract:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

[[Image:24-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 24-point 24-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 24 octahedra is visible.]]
The 24-cell is [[W:Dual polytope|self-dual]], like the regular polygons and regular simplexes. It is the maximal regular construct of triangles and squares (with no pentagons). It is the convex hull of a compound of three disjoint 8-point 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. Each of the three pairs of 16-cells is a tesseract. Each 24-cell edge is also a tesseract edge. The corresponding vertices of two 16-cells or two tesseracts are 120° apart by a &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chord. Each tesseract has 8 cube cells, and each cube has four &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; long diameters. The &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords joining the corresponding vertices of two tesseracts belong to the third tesseract as cell long diameters.

The 24-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular dodecagon {12}, which has chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}-1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.518,r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}+1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.932,r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that: 

:&lt;math&gt;r_5-r_3+r_1+r_1-r_3=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;

when &lt;math&gt;r_1=1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over five &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of a {12/5} dodecagram. In the system of unit-radius coordinates &lt;math&gt;r_1=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of the planar dodecagon do not occur in the 24-cell, which is a construct of eight skew dodecagons with disjoint sets of twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges each. In the skew dodecagons the chord lengths are:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\sqrt{3},r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

[[File:dodecagon24cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of half a 24-cell to the [[24-cell#Geodesics|F&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only one Petrie dodecagon {12} of the 24-cell is shown. In a unit-radius 24-cell, all black lines are 24-cell edges of unit length, also tesseract edges. The two disjoint hexagons lie in Clifford parallel central planes. Blue chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; 16-cell edges, also isocline chords in square rotations. Green chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; distances between corresponding vertices of two 16-cells, also isocline chords in hexagon rotations. The green {12/5} dodecagram is a Clifford polygon.]]
[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in the great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell, with the same effect on all three 16-cells. In 720° each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cells. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Three Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular triple helix {24/9}=3{8/3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. The helix is an 8-step circular staircase twisted 3 times, bent into a circle in the fourth dimension. Each step is rung is a tesseract edge.


We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 4 Clifford parallel invariant great hexagon planes containing its &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges, over &lt;math&gt;r_{4}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This is the ''hexagon invariant plane right rotation characteristic of the 24-cell'', also Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt; star polygon which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_4&lt;/math&gt;. A complete hexagon right revolution requires 720° like a complete square right revolution, but it is completed in 12 isoclinic displacements of 60° each rather than 8 isoclinic displacements of 90° each. Eight Clifford parallel {3} triangle geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;2\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular fibration of 8 twisted parallel strands {24/8}=8{3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once.

[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 4 Clifford parallel invariant great hexagon planes containing its &lt;math&gt;r_{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges, over &lt;math&gt;r_{5}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This is Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; {12/5} star polygon which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;. A complete {12/5} right revolution requires 720° like a complete square right revolution, but it is completed in 12 isoclinic displacements of 60° each rather than 8 isoclinic displacements of 90° each. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chord makes five 30° turns. Two Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular double helix {24/10}=2{12/5} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. 

In the 24-cell a great hexagon right rotation by 60° in any invariant hexagon central plane takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 60° while rotating 60° internally. It also takes every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The 16-cells revolve within the 24-cell as well as rotating within it. All 24 vertices move at once on two Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 120° in different directions.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 60° rotational displacement is a one-twelfth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the six &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great hexagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 24-cell returns to its original orientation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;6&quot; |6 distinct 180° chord pairs make 6 distinct isoclinic rotations
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Edge chord
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Isocline chord
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_1&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_24.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/1}={24}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/11}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|15°
|165°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_2&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(12,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/2}=2{12}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(12,5).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/10}=2{12/5}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|30°
|150°
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_3&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/3}=3{8}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/9}=3{8/3}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{9}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|45°
|135°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_4&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_4(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/4}=4{6}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_8(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/8}=8{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{8}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|60°
|120°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_5&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-5.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/5}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/7}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{7}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|75°
|105°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_6&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(4,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/6}=6{4}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(4,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/6}=6{4}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{6}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|90°
|90°
|}

By examining the chords of the 24-cell's Petrie {12}-gon &lt;math&gt;r_i&lt;/math&gt; we found three isoclinic rotations. If we examine the chords of the 24-cell's {24}-gon &lt;math&gt;t_i&lt;/math&gt; we find these and three other distinct isoclinic rotations.

{{Clear}}

== The 600-cell ==
[[Image:600-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 120-point 600-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2011}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 600 tetrahedra is visible. Invisible in this rendering are 25 inscribed instances of the 24-cell (above), which occur in the 600-cell as interior boundary envelopes.]]
The [[600-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 120 vertices, 720 edges, 1200 equilateral triangle faces, and 600 tetrahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the icosahedron.

The 600-cell rounds out the 24-cell by adding 96 more vertices (four more disjoint 24-cells) between the 24-cell's existing 24 vertices, in effect adding twenty-four more distinct 24-cells inscribed in the 600-cell. The new surface thus formed is a honeycomb of smaller, more numerous cells: tetrahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt; instead of octahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;. It encloses the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of the 24-cells, which become invisible interior chords in the 600-cell, like the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords.

Since the tetrahedra are made of shorter triangle edges than the octahedra (by a factor of &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, the inverse golden ratio), the 600-cell is not radially equilateral like the 24-cell and the tesseract. Like them it is radially triangular in a special way, but one in which [[w:Golden_triangle_(mathematics)|golden triangles]] rather than equilateral triangles meet at the center.

In 2-space we have the ''radially golden'' [[W:Decagon#The golden ratio in decagon|regular decagon]]. In 3-space we have the radially golden 30-point [[W:icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]], with 6 decagon central planes. In 4-space we have the radially golden 120-point 600-cell, with 60 icosidodecahedron central hyperplanes and 72 decagon central planes.

The 600-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular [[w:Triacontagon|triacontagon {30}]]. The unit-radius planar {30}-gon has these distinct chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.209&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.416&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.813&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.338&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \cos (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.486&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \cos (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.827&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \cos (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.956&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \cos (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.989&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Only the chord lengths &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_6&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_9&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt; occur in the 600-cell, which is a construct of 24 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, six of which intersect in each icosahedral vertex figure. In the skew {30}-gons the chord lengths are:

[[File:600-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the 600-cell, showing its 5 regular great circle polygons and its 8 chord lengths with angles of arc. The golden ratio governs the fractional roots of every other chord, and the radial golden triangles which meet at the center.|400x400px]]
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;7&quot; |15 chords (4 distinct 180° pairs) make 4 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short edge chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long isocline chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0°
|180°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}=2{15/7}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|12°
|168°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|24°
|156°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V1 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|36°
|144°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|48°
|132°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V2 dodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Dodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|60°
|120°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{6}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V3 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{9}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|72°
|108°
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{7}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V4 icosidodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosidodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{8}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|84°
|96°
|}

The list of 600-cell chords &lt;math&gt;r_{i}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 8 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. The short chord and long chord each have their characteristic {30/n}-gon. Each row identifies a discrete isoclinic rotation of the 600-cell in invariant central planes containing the edges of the short chord {30}-gon, over the isocline chords of the long chord {30}-gon, the rotation's Clifford polygon.

Each distinct pair of complementary chord lengths is identified with a distinct [[w:600-cell#Polyhedral sections|polyhedral section of the 600-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 7 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; is a icosahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; is an [[W:Icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]] central section bisecting the 600-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal icosahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 7 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section).

[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell,  with the same effect on 15 disjoint 16-cells. Each 90° right displacement takes 15 pairs of completely orthogonal invariant great square planes to each other. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Fifteen Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular fibration of 15 twisted parallel strands 5{24/9}=15{8/3} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great square planes, which has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. This ''great square left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' takes place over &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. The {30/7} edge polygon is a skew helix of circumference &lt;math&gt;14\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge belonging to a distinct great square. The four {30/7} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. Each 90° left displacement takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The vertices of the invariant great squares each make seven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/7} edge makes seven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/7} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The {30/8}=2{15/4} Clifford polygon is a compound of two skew {15/4} pentadecagrams of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord belonging to a distinct 16-cell. The four {30/8} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/8} isocline chord makes eight 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/8} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

{{Clear}}
[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great hexagon right rotation characteristic of the 24-cell, over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords, with the same effect on 5 disjoint 24-cells. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions of its 24-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. Ten Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular fibration of ten twisted parallel strands 5{24/10}=10{12/5} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{4}=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_{11}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords This ''great hexagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. Its {30/11} Clifford polygon is a skew helix where each &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord is the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; diagonal of a great hexagon of a distinct 24-cell. The vertices of the invariant great hexagons of this rotation each make eleven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord makes eleven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/11} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;22\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in 12 Clifford parallel invariant decagon central planes containing its 36° &lt;math&gt;r_{3}&lt;/math&gt; edges, over 144° &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''great decagon right rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 5 and takes disjoint 24-cells to each other. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chord of its {5/2} Clifford polygon makes twelve 12° turns. 24 Clifford parallel {5/2} pentagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; over five &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular fibration of 24 twisted parallel strands 4{30/12}=24{5/2} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The right rotation of the 600-cell by 36° in any invariant decagon central plane takes every great decagon to a Clifford parallel great decagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 36° while rotating 36° internally. It also takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon, and every great square to a Clifford parallel great square. The 24-cells revolve within the 600-cell, as the 16-cells revolve within the 24-cells. All 120 vertices move at once on four Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 144° in different directions.

The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great decagon planes containing its 36° &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges, over 144° &lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''great decagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. The rotational curve over each 144° &lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord makes thirteen 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/13} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;26\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

{{Clear}}

== The 5-cell 4-simplex ==

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;9&quot; |30 chords (15 180° pairs) make 15 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{30}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;
|15.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}
|164.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.073~}}
|{{radic|3.927~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.270~
|1.982~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_2&lt;/math&gt;
|25.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|154.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{28}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.191~}}
|{{radic|3.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.437~
|1.952~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{27}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_4&lt;/math&gt;
|41.4~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|138.6~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{26}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.5}}
|{{radic|3.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.707~
|1.871~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_5&lt;/math&gt;
|44.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|135.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{25}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.573~}}
|{{radic|3.427~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.757~
|1.851~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_6&lt;/math&gt;
|49.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|130.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{24}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.691~}}
|{{radic|3.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.831~
|1.819~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_7&lt;/math&gt;
|56°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|124°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{23}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.882~}}
|{{radic|3.118~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.939~
|1.766~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_8&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{22}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_9&lt;/math&gt;
|66.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|113.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{21}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.191~}}
|{{radic|2.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.091~
|1.676~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|69.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|110.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{20}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.309~}}
|{{radic|2.691~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.144~
|1.640~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{19}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|75.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|104.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{18}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.5}}
|{{radic|2.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1.224~
|1.581~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|81.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|98.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{17}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.691~}}
|{{radic|2.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.300~
|1.520~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|84.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|95.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{16}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.809~}}
|{{radic|2.191~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.345~
|1.480~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|}

The [[User:Dc.samizdat/Golden chords of the 120-cell#Thirty distinguished distances|list of thirty 120-cell chords]] &lt;math&gt;c_{t}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 16 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. This table first appears in [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|''Regular Polytopes'']] (1947),{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=Table V(v): Simplified sections of {5,3,3} beginning with a vertex|pp=300-301}} where Coxeter identified each row with a distinct [[w:120-cell#Concentric_hulls|polyhedral section of the 120-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 29 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt; is a tetrahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; is a central section bisecting the 120-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal tetrahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 29 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section). Each section also lies completely orthogonal to a congruent section. 

Only 8 of the 30 chords in the table occur in the 600-cell and the planar {30)-gon. The 120-cell's additional chords arise originally from the regular 5-cell, in its interaction with the other regular 4-polytopes that compound to make the 120-cell. Since all those polytopes except the 5-cell occur in the 600-cell, and the 600-cell and the 120-cell have the same symmetry group, the 5-cell's symmetry group is what's new in the 120-cell.

...

{{Clear}}
== Finally the 120-cell ==
The [[120-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 600 vertices, 1200 edges, 720 pentagon faces, and 120 dodecahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the dodecahedron.

The 120-cell is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 600-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew triacontagon {30}, but the 120-cell is a construct of 40 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;, two of which intersect in each tetrahedral vertex figure.

... 

{{Clear}}

== Conclusions ==

Fontaine and Hurley's discovery is more than a geometric formula for the reciprocal of a regular ''n''-polygon diagonal. It also yields the discrete sequence of isocline chords of the characteristic isoclinic rotation of a ''d''-dimensional polytope in its invariant edge planes. The characteristic rotational chord sequence of the ''d''-polytope can be represented geometrically in two dimensions on a distinct star polygon, but it lies on a geodesic circle through ''d''-dimensional space. Fontaine and Hurley discovered the geodesic topology of polytopes generally. Their procedure will reveal the geodesics of arbitrary non-uniform polytopes, since it can be applied to a polytope of any dimensionality and irregularity, by first fitting the polytope to the smallest regular polygon whose chords include its chords. [If what is meant by this is its Petrie polygon, it is not quite necessary or possible with respect to the planar polygon chords, e.g. the planar Petrie polygon of the 600-cell does not contain the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chord. But perhaps it would work if the fit is to the smallest regular skew polygon in the ''d''-space.]

The discovery of a chordal construction for discrete isoclinic rotations generally closes the circuit on Kappraff and Adamson's discovery of a rotational connection between dynamical systems, Steinbach's golden fields, and Coxeter's Euclidean geometry of ''n'' dimensions. Application of the Fontaine and Hurley procedure in the 120-cell demonstrates why the connection exists: because polytope sequences generally, from Steinbach's golden chord sequences in polygons, to sequences of star polygons in isoclinic rotations, to subsumption relations in the sequence of regular 4-polytopes, arise as expressions of the reflections and rotations of distinct Coxeter symmetry groups, when those various groups interact.

== Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=1997 | title=Golden fields: A case for the Heptagon | journal=Mathematics Magazine | volume=70 | issue=Feb 1997 | pages=22–31 | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1997.11996494 | jstor=2691048 | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|1997}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=2000 | title=Sections Beyond Golden| journal=Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music and Science | issue=2000 | pages=35-44 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2000/bridges2000-35.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|2000}}}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Jablan | first2=Slavik | last3=Adamson | first3=Gary | last4=Sazdanovich | first4=Radmila | year=2004 | title=Golden Fields, Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, and Chaotic Matrices | journal=Forma | volume=19 | pages=367-387 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2005/bridges2005-369.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff, Jablan, Adamson &amp; Sazdanovich|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Adamson | first2=Gary | year=2004 | title=Polygons and Chaos | journal=Dynamical Systems and Geometric Theories | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2001/bridges2001-67.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff &amp; Adamson|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Fontaine | first1=Anne | last2=Hurley | first2=Susan | year=2006 | title=Proof by Picture: Products and Reciprocals of Diagonal Length Ratios in the Regular Polygon | journal=Forum Geometricorum | volume=6 | pages=97-101 | url=https://scispace.com/pdf/proof-by-picture-products-and-reciprocals-of-diagonal-length-1aian8mgp9.pdf }}
{{Refend}}</text>
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      <text bytes="84418" sha1="grop24wsduc7q61l9ksb0kbpqmwu6c9" xml:space="preserve">= Golden chords of the 120-cell =
{{align|center|David Brooks Christie}}
{{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}}
{{align|center|Draft in progress}}
{{align|center|January 2026 - June 2026}}

&lt;blockquote&gt;Steinbach discovered the formula for the ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. Fontaine and Hurley extended this result, discovering a formula for the reciprocal of a regular polygon chord derived geometrically from the chord's star polygon. We observe that these findings in plane geometry apply more generally, to polytopes of any dimensionality. Fontaine and Hurley's geometric procedure for finding the reciprocals of the chords of a regular polygon from their star polygons also finds the rotational geodesics of any polytope of any dimensionality.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Introduction ==
Steinbach discovered the Diagonal Product Formula and the Golden Fields family of ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. He showed how this family extends beyond the pentagon {5} with its well-known golden bisection proportional to 𝜙, finding that the heptagon {7} has an analogous trisection, the nonagon {9} has an analogous quadrasection, and the hendecagon {11} has an analogous pentasection, an extended family of golden proportions with quasiperiodic properties. 

Kappraff and Adamson extended these findings in plane geometry to a theory of Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, showing that the Golden Fields not only do not end with the hendecagon, they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. They found a relation between the edges of star polygons and dynamical systems in the state of chaos, revealing a connection between chaos theory, number, and rotations in Coxeter Euclidean geometry. 

Fontaine and Hurley examined Steinbach's finding that the length of each chord of a regular polygon is both the product of two chords and the sum of a set of smaller chords, so that in rotations to add is to multiply. They illustrated Steinbach's sets of additive chords lying parallel to each other in the plane (pointing in the same direction), and by applying Steinbach's formula more generally they found another summation relation of signed parallel chords (pointing in opposite directions) which relates each chord length to its reciprocal, and relates the summation to a distinct star polygon rotation. 

We examine these remarkable findings (which stem from study of the chords of humble regular polygons) in higher-dimensional spaces, specifically in the chords, polygons and rotations of the [[120-cell]], the largest four-dimensional regular convex polytope.

== Visualizing the 120-cell ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:120-cell.gif|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point 120-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; &quot;Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].&quot;}} In this simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges are shown; its 29 interior chords are not rendered. Therefore even though it is translucent, only its outer surface is visible. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 5-cells, 16-cells, 8-cells, 24-cells, 600-cells and its much larger inventory of polyhedra, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all.
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;.{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} The 120-cell is its convex hull. The projection to the left renders only the 120-cell's shortest chord, its 1200 edges. The projection above also renders only one of the 120-cell's 30 chords, the edges of its 120 inscribed regular 5-cells. The 120-cell itself (the convex hull) is invisible in this view, as its edges are not rendered.
|}

[[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except the regular polygons of more than {15} sides. 

The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. They are the [[5-cell|5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex]], the [[16-cell|8-point (16-cell) 4-orthoplex]], the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the [[24-cell|24-point (24-cell)]], the [[600-cell|120-point (600-cell)]], and the [[120-cell|600-point (120-cell)]]. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, and of 5 disjoint 600-cells.

The 120-cell contains an even larger inventory of irregular polytopes, created by the intersection of multiple instances of these component regular 4-polytopes. Many are quite unexpected, because they do not occur as components of any regular polytope smaller than the 120-cell. As just one example among the [[120-cell#Concentric hulls|sections of the 120-cell]], there is an irregular 24-point polyhedron with 16 triangle faces and 4 nonagon {9} faces.{{Sfn|Moxness|}}

Most renderings of the 120-cell, like the rotating projection here, only illustrate its outer surface, which is a honeycomb of face-bonded dodecahedral cells. Only the objects in its 3-dimensional surface are rendered, namely the 120 dodecahedra, their pentagon faces, and their edges. Although the 120-cell has chords of 30 distinct lengths, in this kind of simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges (its shortest chord) are shown. Its 29 interior chords, the edges of objects in the interior of the 120-cell, are not rendered, so interior objects are not visible at all.

Visualizing the complete interior of the 600-vertex 120-cell in a single image is impractical because of its complexity. Only four 120-cell edges are incident at each vertex, but [[120-cell#Chords|600 chords (of all 30 lengths)]] are incident at ''each'' vertex.

== Compounds in the 120-cell ==
The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell), is the smallest building block; it compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point (5-cell) does compound to the 600-point (120-cell), but it does not fit into any smaller regular 4-polytope. 

The 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 2 in the 16-point (8-cell), and by 3 in the 24-point (24-cell). The 16-point (8-cell) compounds in the 24-point (24-cell) by 3 non-disjoint instances of itself, with each of the 24 vertices shared by two 16-point (8-cells). The 24-point (24-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell), and the 120-point (600-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell).

The 24-point (24-cell) also compounds by 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; non-disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell); it compounds in 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever set of 5 disjoint 24-point (24-cells) are assembled, the resulting 120-point (600-cell) contains 25 distinct 24-point (24-cells), not just 5 (or 10). This implies that 15 disjoint 8-point (16-cells) will construct a 120-point (600-cell), which will contain 75 distinct 8-point (16-cells). 

The 600-point (120-cell) is 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways), so it is 10 distinct 120-point (600-cells). This implies that the 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 3 times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (75) disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell), which contains 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; times  5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (225) distinct instances of the 24-point (24-cell), and  3&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (675) distinct instances of the 8-point (16-cell). 

These facts were discovered painstakingly by various researchers, and no one has found a general rule governing subsumption relations among regular polytopes. The reasons for some of their numeric incidence relations are far from obvious. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''}}

So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] illustrated above, the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, and the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are &lt;math&gt;\phi^6&lt;/math&gt; as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:List of polyhedral stellations#Stellation process|stellation core]] deep inside.

The compound of 120 disjoint 5-point (5-cells) can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell.

== Thirty distinguished distances ==
The 30 numbers listed in the table are all-important in Euclidean geometry. A case can be made on symmetry grounds that their squares are the 30 most important numbers between 0 and 4. The 30 rows of the table are the 30 distinct [[120-cell#Geodesic rectangles|chord lengths of the unit-radius 120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope. Since the 120-cell subsumes all smaller regular polytopes, its 30 chords are the complete chord set of all the regular polytopes that can be constructed in the first four dimensions of Euclidean space, except for regular polygons of more than 15 sides.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|arc
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{n}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;\left\{p\right\}&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;m\left\{\frac{k}{d}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|Steinbach roots
!colspan=7|Chord lengths of the unit 120-cell
|-
!colspan=5|unit-radius length &lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!colspan=2|unit-edge length &lt;math&gt;c_t/c_1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;in 120-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;c_8=\sqrt{2}\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{1,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;15.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}-c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.270091&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.072949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;25.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{15\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(c_{18,1}-c_{4,1}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{3-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.437016&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.190983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;36{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{10\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3 \left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right) c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.381966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.28825&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;41.4{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.707107&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{5,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;44.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{\frac{15}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.756934&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.572949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.80252&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{6,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;49.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{17}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.831254&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5}}{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.690983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.07768&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{7,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;56.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.93913&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.881966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.47709&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;60{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.70246&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{9,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;66.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2 \phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.09132&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.04057&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{10,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;69.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2 \sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.14412&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi }{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{11,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;72{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{6}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.17557&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.38197}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \sqrt{3-\phi } \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.3525&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;75.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{24}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.22474&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.53457&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{13,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;81.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.30038&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.8146&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{14,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;84.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi } c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{1+\sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.345&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi }}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5} \phi }{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.9798&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{15,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;90.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.41421&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{16,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;95.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{29}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.4802&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.48037&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{17,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;98.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{31}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.51954&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(7+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.62605&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{18,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;104.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{8}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.58114&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5} \sqrt{\phi ^4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{19,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;108.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}+c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.9907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{20,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;110.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.64042&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.07359&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{21,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;113.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{19}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.67601&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\chi }{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.20537&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{22,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;120{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{10}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.73205&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{6} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.41285&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{23,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;124.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{41}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }+\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.7658&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.11803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.53779&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{24,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;130.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.81907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\sqrt{5}}{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.73503&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{25,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;135.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.85123&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi ^2}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^4}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.42705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^4&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{26,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;138.6{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{12}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.87083&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{7} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.92667&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{27,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;144{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{12}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{5}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.90211&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\phi +2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{2 \phi +4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.0425&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{28,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;154.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.95167&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.22598&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{29,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;164.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{14}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.98168&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3 \phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.92705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.33708&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{30,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;180{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{15}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.40492&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|rowspan=4 colspan=6|
|rowspan=4 colspan=4|
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; is the golden ratio:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2-\phi -1=0&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }+1=\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, and: &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi+1=\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }::1::\phi ::\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1/\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; and &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; are the golden sections of &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi +\frac{1}{\phi }=\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi = (\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\chi = (3\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = (3\sqrt{5} - 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = 11/\chi = 22/(3\sqrt{5} + 1)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The 16-cell 4-orthoplex ==
In 2-space we have the regular 8-point octagon, in 3-space the regular 8-point cube, and in 4-space the regular 8-point [[16-cell]].

A planar octagon with rigid edges of unit length has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_3=\sqrt{2}+1 \approx 2.414,r_4=\sqrt{4 + \sqrt{8}} \approx 2.613&lt;/math&gt;

The chord ratio &lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}+1&lt;/math&gt; is a geometrical proportion, the [[W:Silver ratio|silver ratio]]. Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that:

:&lt;math&gt;r_3-r_1-r_1=1/r_3 \approx 0.414&lt;/math&gt;

Note that &lt;math&gt;r_3-2=1/r_3=\sqrt{2}-1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over three &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of an {8/3} octagram. Over the first &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord the displacement is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}+r_1&lt;/math&gt;. Over the second &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves in the opposite direction a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt; . Over the third &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt;.

If we embed the planar octagon in 3-space, we can make it skew, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from three others instead of two others, at the vertices of a unit-edge cube with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1, r_2=\sqrt{2}, r_3=\sqrt{3}, r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

If we embed this cube in 4-space, we can skew it some more, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from six others instead of three others, at the vertices of a unit-edge 4-polytope with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=1,r_3=1,r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

All of its chords except its long diameters are the same unit length as its edge. In fact they are its 24 edges, and it is a 16-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;1/\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;.

[[File:octagon16cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of a regular 16-cell to the [[16-cell#Projections|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only its edges are shown; its long diameter chords are not drawn. All 24 edges are the same length and none lie parallel to the projection plane. The octagon circumference is a Petrie polygon. The two disjoint squares lie in completely orthogonal central planes. The blue octagram is a Clifford polygon. ]]

The [[16-cell]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 8 vertices, 24 edges, 32 equilateral triangle faces, and 16 regular tetrahedron cells. It is the [[16-cell#Octahedral dipyramid|four-dimensional analogue of the octahedron]], and each of its four orthogonal central hyperplanes is an octahedron.

The only planar regular polygons found in the 16-cell are face triangles and central plane squares, but the 16-cell also contains a skew regular octagon, its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]].{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} The chords of this regular octagon, which lies skew in 4-space, are those given above for the 16-cell, as opposed to those for the cube or the regular octagon in the plane. The 16-cell is a construct of 3 Petrie octagons which share the same 8 vertices but have disjoint sets of 8 edges each.

The regular octad has higher symmetry in 4-space than it does in 2-space. The 16-cell is the 4-[[w:Cross-polytope|orthoplex]], the simplest regular 4-polytope after the [[5-cell|4-simplex]]. All the larger regular convex 4-polytopes are compounds of the 16-cell. The regular octagon exhibits this high symmetry only when embedded in 4-space at the vertices of the 16-cell.

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal basis]] for the choice of a 4-dimensional Cartesian reference frame, because its vertices define four orthogonal axes. The eight vertices of a unit-radius 16-cell are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges except opposite pairs. 

The vertex coordinates of the 16-cell form 6 central squares lying in 6 pairwise [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] coordinate planes. Great squares in opposite planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

Since the unit-radius coordinate system is convenient, let us derive the unit-radius 16-cell by skewing a unit-radius planar octagon, which has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2-\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.765,r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_4=2&lt;/math&gt;

We will need a planar octagon with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords, rather than one with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; edges. The octagon's &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords form two disjoint great squares, visible in the orthogonal projection, which we can reposition in 3-space to form a cube by making them parallel, and in 4-space to form a 16-cell by making them completely orthogonal.

Since the edges of the 16-cell are all the same length &lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, those chords are distinct only in the context of a rotation. Each chord is a 4-vector with a length and a direction. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_i&lt;/math&gt; chord makes &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt; 45° turns.

[[File:16-cell-orig.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 8-point 16-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a double rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}}]]
[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in completely orthogonal planes. The general rotation in 4-space is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]] in pairs of completely orthogonal planes. Two completely orthogonal planes are called invariant planes of the rotation when all points in the plane rotate on circles that remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways (like a coin flipping) into another plane. The two completely orthogonal rotations of each plane (like a wheel, and like a coin flipping) are simultaneous but independent, in that they are not geometrically constrained to turn at the same rate. However, the most circular kind of rotation (as opposed to an elliptical double rotation of a rigid spherical object) occurs when the completely orthogonal planes do rotate through the same angle in the same time interval. Such equi-angled double rotations are called [[w:SO(4)#Isoclinic_rotations|isoclinic]], also [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|Clifford]] displacements.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a Petrie polygon {8/1} which zig-zags back and forth, in the left and right rotational directions, between two completely orthogonal great squares formed by &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords.

The &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords  form the ''edge polygon'' of the 16-cell {8/2}=2{4}. The two completely orthogonal great squares lie parallel and perpendicular to each other. A ''simple'' rotation of the 16-cell in ''one'' of those two square central planes rotates that square like a wheel, while the other square does not move.{{Efn|name=simple rotations}} The four vertices of the rotating square orbit on a great circle in the plane.

The &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a circular helix, visible as a blue {8/3} octagram in the orthogonal projection. A ''double'' rotation of the 16-cell, in both of two completely orthogonal invariant &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; square planes at once by equal angles, moves the eight vertices along the circular helix over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords. The vertex motion is a [[w:Geodesic|geodesic]] circle orbit on the 3-sphere of a special kind: it does not lie in a central plane, its [[w:Winding_number|winding number]] is not 1 (it is 3 in this case), its circumference is not &lt;math&gt;2\pi&lt;/math&gt;, and it moves in either a left or right handed circular spiral. We shall refer to such a chiral circle orbit as an ''isocline'', and to the skew polygram of its rotational chords as a ''Clifford polygon''.

The 16-cell is the simplest possible frame in which to [[16-cell#Rotations|observe 4-dimensional rotations]] because its characteristic rotations feature a single pair of invariant rotation planes. In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90° in any pair of invariant completely orthogonal square central planes takes every great square to its completely orthogonal great square in a twisting displacement, as the invariant planes tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally. All the vertices move at once along the same circular helix geodesic isocline of &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. In 360° of isoclinic rotation over four &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, each vertex makes six 90° turns and reaches its antipodal position.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over eight &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the four &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great square in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation.

Because this is the isoclinic rotation of the 16-cell in its invariant great circle edge planes we shall refer to it as the ''great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell'', and note once again that it is Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; star polygon, which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_3&lt;/math&gt;.

== The 8-cell tesseract ==
The long diameter of the unit-edge [[W:Hypercube|hypercube]] of dimension &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{n}&lt;/math&gt;, so the unit-edge [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube, the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract,]] has chords:
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;
Uniquely in its 4-dimensional case, the hypercube's edge length equals its radius, like the hexagon. We call such polytopes ''radially equilateral'', because they can be constructed from equilateral triangles which meet at their center, each contributing two radii and an edge. The [[w:Cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]] and the 24-cell are also radially equilateral.

[[File:8-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation about a plane in 4-space.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The stationary plane bisects the figure from front-left to back-right and top to bottom.]]
The [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 16 vertices, 32 edges, 24 square faces, and 8 cube cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube.

The 16-point tesseract is the convex hull of a compound of two 8-point 16-cells, in exact dimensional analogy to the way the 8-point cube is the convex hull of a [[W:Stellated octahedron|compound of two 4-point regular tetrahedra]]. The [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercubes]] occupy alternate vertices of the hypercubes. The diagonals of the square faces of the unit-edge, unit-radius tesseract are the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges of two unit-radius 16-cells, also the edges of the square central planes.

We can rotate the tesseract isoclinically the way we rotated the 16-cell, by 90° in the great square right rotation, with the same effect on both alternate-position 16-cells. In the course of a 720° revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cell. The two skew {8/3} octagram Clifford polygons lie on two disjoint parallel isoclines of the same chirality, of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chords. They form a circular double helix which intersects each vertex of the tesseract once. The helix is an 8-rung ladder twisted 3 times, bent into a circle in the fourth dimension. Each rung is a tesseract edge.

The tesseract is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 16-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew octagon, but the tesseract is a construct of 4 Petrie octagons with disjoint sets of 8 tesseract edges each. We can construct the tesseract by skewing two planar octagons. Because the tesseract is radially equilateral (unlike the 16-cell), we use two octagons of unit-edge length to build the unit-radius tesseract. To start we embed the planar octagons in 4-space at the same point and make them completely orthogonal. Then we skew each planar octagon into a cube, so we have a compound of two completely orthogonal cubes, provided we skewed them both in the same direction. The 16 vertices will be the vertices of a tesseract with half its 32 edges missing.

Because the tesseract contains two 16-cells in alternate positions it has two sets of 6 orthogonal square central planes. Two angles are required to specify the relationship between two planes in 4-space. Pairs of square central planes within each 16-cell are 90° apart in one angle, and either 0° or 90° apart in the other angle. They are 90° apart in both angles if and only if they are completely orthogonal planes, 90° apart by isoclinic rotation, with no vertices in common. Otherwise they are 0° apart in one of the angles, 90° apart by simple rotation, and they intersect in one axis and lie in a common 3-dimensional hyperplane.{{Efn|A double rotation in which one of the two angles of rotation is 0°, so that one of the completely orthogonal invariant planes does not rotate, is called a simple rotation. Ordinary rotations observed in a 3-dimensional space are simple rotations.|name=simple rotations}}

A pair of square central planes from alternate-position 16-cells are 60° apart by isoclinic rotation, with their corresponding vertices 120° apart. The planes are not orthogonal or parallel, so they intersect in a line somewhere, but they have no vertices in common, they have no 3-dimensional hyperplane in common, and they cannot reach each other by simple rotation. Such pairs of objects are called [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] because all their corresponding pairs of vertices are the same distance apart, although they are not parallel in the usual sense, because they have a common center. Not only the alternate-position 16-cells' corresponding square central planes, but also the 16-cells themselves, are Clifford parallel objects. More generally, multiple disjoint instances of a 4-polytope which compound to make a larger 4-polytope are Clifford parallel objects.

== The 24-cell ==
[[File:24-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the radially equilateral 24-cell, showing its 3 great circle polygons and its 4 chord lengths.]]
In 2-space we have the radially equilateral 6-point hexagon. In 3-space we have the radially equilateral 12-point cuboctahedron, with 4 hexagonal central planes. In 4-space we have the radially equilateral 24-point 24-cell, with 12 cuboctahedron central hyperplanes and 16 hexagonal central planes.

The [[24-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 24 vertices, 96 edges, 96 equilateral triangle faces, and 24 octahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cuboctahedron.

The 24-cell has the same chord set as the 4-hypercube tesseract:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

[[Image:24-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 24-point 24-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 24 octahedra is visible.]]
The 24-cell is [[W:Dual polytope|self-dual]], like the regular polygons and regular simplexes. It is the maximal regular construct of triangles and squares (with no pentagons). It is the convex hull of a compound of three disjoint 8-point 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. Each of the three pairs of 16-cells is a tesseract. Each 24-cell edge is also a tesseract edge. The corresponding vertices of two 16-cells or two tesseracts are 120° apart by a &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chord. Each tesseract has 8 cube cells, and each cube has four &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; long diameters. The &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords joining the corresponding vertices of two tesseracts belong to the third tesseract as cell long diameters.

The 24-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular dodecagon {12}, which has chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}-1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.518,r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}+1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.932,r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that: 

:&lt;math&gt;r_5-r_3+r_1+r_1-r_3=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;

when &lt;math&gt;r_1=1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over five &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of a {12/5} dodecagram. In the system of unit-radius coordinates &lt;math&gt;r_1=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of the planar dodecagon do not occur in the 24-cell, which is a construct of eight skew dodecagons with disjoint sets of twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges each. In the skew dodecagons the chord lengths are:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\sqrt{3},r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

[[File:dodecagon24cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of half a 24-cell to the [[24-cell#Geodesics|F&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only one Petrie dodecagon {12} of the 24-cell is shown. In a unit-radius 24-cell, all black lines are 24-cell edges of unit length, also tesseract edges. The two disjoint hexagons lie in Clifford parallel central planes. Blue chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; 16-cell edges, also isocline chords in square rotations. Green chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; distances between corresponding vertices of two 16-cells, also isocline chords in hexagon rotations. The green {12/5} dodecagram is a Clifford polygon.]]
[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in the great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell, with the same effect on all three 16-cells. In 720° each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cells. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Three Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular triple helix {24/9}=3{8/3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. The helix is an 8-step circular staircase twisted 3 times, bent into a circle in the fourth dimension. Each step is rung is a tesseract edge.

[[File:Regular_star_figure_8(3,1).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/8}=8{3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 4 Clifford parallel invariant great hexagon planes containing its &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges, over &lt;math&gt;r_{4}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This is the ''hexagon invariant plane right rotation characteristic of the 24-cell'', also Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt; star polygon which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_4&lt;/math&gt;. A complete hexagon right revolution requires 720° like a complete square right revolution, but it is completed in 12 isoclinic displacements of 60° each rather than 8 isoclinic displacements of 90° each. Eight Clifford parallel {3} triangle geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;2\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular fibration of 8 twisted parallel strands {24/8}=8{3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once.

[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 4 Clifford parallel invariant great hexagon planes containing its &lt;math&gt;r_{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges, over &lt;math&gt;r_{5}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This is Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; {12/5} star polygon which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;. A complete {12/5} right revolution requires 720° like a complete square right revolution, but it is completed in 12 isoclinic displacements of 60° each rather than 8 isoclinic displacements of 90° each. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chord makes five 30° turns. Two Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular double helix {24/10}=2{12/5} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. 

In the 24-cell a great hexagon right rotation by 60° in any invariant hexagon central plane takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 60° while rotating 60° internally. It also takes every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The 16-cells revolve within the 24-cell as well as rotating within it. All 24 vertices move at once on two Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 120° in different directions.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 60° rotational displacement is a one-twelfth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the six &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great hexagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 24-cell returns to its original orientation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;6&quot; |6 distinct 180° chord pairs make 6 distinct isoclinic rotations
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Edge chord
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Isocline chord
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_1&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_24.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/1}={24}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/11}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|15°
|165°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_2&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(12,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/2}=2{12}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(12,5).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/10}=2{12/5}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|30°
|150°
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_3&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/3}=3{8}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/9}=3{8/3}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{9}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|45°
|135°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_4&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_4(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/4}=4{6}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_8(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/8}=8{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{8}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|60°
|120°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_5&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-5.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/5}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/7}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{7}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|75°
|105°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_6&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(4,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/6}=6{4}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(4,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/6}=6{4}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{6}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|90°
|90°
|}

By examining the chords of the 24-cell's Petrie {12}-gon &lt;math&gt;r_i&lt;/math&gt; we found three isoclinic rotations. If we examine the chords of the 24-cell's {24}-gon &lt;math&gt;t_i&lt;/math&gt; we find these and three other distinct isoclinic rotations.

{{Clear}}

== The 600-cell ==
[[Image:600-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 120-point 600-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2011}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 600 tetrahedra is visible. Invisible in this rendering are 25 inscribed instances of the 24-cell (above), which occur in the 600-cell as interior boundary envelopes.]]
The [[600-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 120 vertices, 720 edges, 1200 equilateral triangle faces, and 600 tetrahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the icosahedron.

The 600-cell rounds out the 24-cell by adding 96 more vertices (four more disjoint 24-cells) between the 24-cell's existing 24 vertices, in effect adding twenty-four more distinct 24-cells inscribed in the 600-cell. The new surface thus formed is a honeycomb of smaller, more numerous cells: tetrahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt; instead of octahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;. It encloses the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of the 24-cells, which become invisible interior chords in the 600-cell, like the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords.

Since the tetrahedra are made of shorter triangle edges than the octahedra (by a factor of &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, the inverse golden ratio), the 600-cell is not radially equilateral like the 24-cell and the tesseract. Like them it is radially triangular in a special way, but one in which [[w:Golden_triangle_(mathematics)|golden triangles]] rather than equilateral triangles meet at the center.

In 2-space we have the ''radially golden'' [[W:Decagon#The golden ratio in decagon|regular decagon]]. In 3-space we have the radially golden 30-point [[W:icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]], with 6 decagon central planes. In 4-space we have the radially golden 120-point 600-cell, with 60 icosidodecahedron central hyperplanes and 72 decagon central planes.

The 600-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular [[w:Triacontagon|triacontagon {30}]]. The unit-radius planar {30}-gon has these distinct chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.209&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.416&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.813&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.338&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \cos (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.486&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \cos (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.827&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \cos (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.956&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \cos (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.989&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Only the chord lengths &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_6&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_9&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt; occur in the 600-cell, which is a construct of 24 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, six of which intersect in each icosahedral vertex figure. In the skew {30}-gons the chord lengths are:

[[File:600-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the 600-cell, showing its 5 regular great circle polygons and its 8 chord lengths with angles of arc. The golden ratio governs the fractional roots of every other chord, and the radial golden triangles which meet at the center.|400x400px]]
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;7&quot; |15 chords (4 distinct 180° pairs) make 4 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short edge chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long isocline chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0°
|180°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}=2{15/7}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|12°
|168°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|24°
|156°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V1 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|36°
|144°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|48°
|132°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V2 dodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Dodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|60°
|120°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{6}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V3 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{9}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|72°
|108°
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{7}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V4 icosidodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosidodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{8}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|84°
|96°
|}

The list of 600-cell chords &lt;math&gt;r_{i}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 8 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. The short chord and long chord each have their characteristic {30/n}-gon. Each row identifies a discrete isoclinic rotation of the 600-cell in invariant central planes containing the edges of the short chord {30}-gon, over the isocline chords of the long chord {30}-gon, the rotation's Clifford polygon.

Each distinct pair of complementary chord lengths is identified with a distinct [[w:600-cell#Polyhedral sections|polyhedral section of the 600-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 7 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; is a icosahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; is an [[W:Icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]] central section bisecting the 600-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal icosahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 7 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section).

[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell,  with the same effect on 15 disjoint 16-cells. Each 90° right displacement takes 15 pairs of completely orthogonal invariant great square planes to each other. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Fifteen Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular fibration of 15 twisted parallel strands 5{24/9}=15{8/3} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great square planes, which has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. This ''great square left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' takes place over &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. The {30/7} edge polygon is a skew helix of circumference &lt;math&gt;14\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge belonging to a distinct great square. The four {30/7} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. Each 90° left displacement takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The vertices of the invariant great squares each make seven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/7} edge makes seven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/7} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The {30/8}=2{15/4} Clifford polygon is a compound of two skew {15/4} pentadecagrams of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord belonging to a distinct 16-cell. The four {30/8} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/8} isocline chord makes eight 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/8} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

{{Clear}}
[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great hexagon right rotation characteristic of the 24-cell, over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords, with the same effect on 5 disjoint 24-cells. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions of its 24-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. Ten Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular fibration of ten twisted parallel strands 5{24/10}=10{12/5} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{4}=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_{11}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords This ''great hexagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. Its {30/11} Clifford polygon is a skew helix where each &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord is the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; diagonal of a great hexagon of a distinct 24-cell. The vertices of the invariant great hexagons of this rotation each make eleven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord makes eleven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/11} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;22\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in 12 Clifford parallel invariant decagon central planes containing its 36° &lt;math&gt;r_{3}&lt;/math&gt; edges, over 144° &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''great decagon right rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 5 and takes disjoint 24-cells to each other. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chord of its {5/2} Clifford polygon makes twelve 12° turns. 24 Clifford parallel {5/2} pentagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; over five &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular fibration of 24 twisted parallel strands 4{30/12}=24{5/2} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The right rotation of the 600-cell by 36° in any invariant decagon central plane takes every great decagon to a Clifford parallel great decagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 36° while rotating 36° internally. It also takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon, and every great square to a Clifford parallel great square. The 24-cells revolve within the 600-cell, as the 16-cells revolve within the 24-cells. All 120 vertices move at once on four Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 144° in different directions.

The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great decagon planes containing its 36° &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges, over 144° &lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''great decagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. The rotational curve over each 144° &lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord makes thirteen 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/13} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;26\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

{{Clear}}

== The 5-cell 4-simplex ==

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;9&quot; |30 chords (15 180° pairs) make 15 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{30}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;
|15.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}
|164.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.073~}}
|{{radic|3.927~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.270~
|1.982~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_2&lt;/math&gt;
|25.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|154.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{28}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.191~}}
|{{radic|3.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.437~
|1.952~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{27}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_4&lt;/math&gt;
|41.4~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|138.6~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{26}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.5}}
|{{radic|3.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.707~
|1.871~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_5&lt;/math&gt;
|44.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|135.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{25}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.573~}}
|{{radic|3.427~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.757~
|1.851~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_6&lt;/math&gt;
|49.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|130.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{24}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.691~}}
|{{radic|3.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.831~
|1.819~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_7&lt;/math&gt;
|56°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|124°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{23}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.882~}}
|{{radic|3.118~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.939~
|1.766~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_8&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{22}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_9&lt;/math&gt;
|66.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|113.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{21}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.191~}}
|{{radic|2.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.091~
|1.676~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|69.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|110.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{20}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.309~}}
|{{radic|2.691~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.144~
|1.640~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{19}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|75.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|104.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{18}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.5}}
|{{radic|2.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1.224~
|1.581~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|81.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|98.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{17}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.691~}}
|{{radic|2.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.300~
|1.520~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|84.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|95.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{16}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.809~}}
|{{radic|2.191~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.345~
|1.480~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|}

The [[User:Dc.samizdat/Golden chords of the 120-cell#Thirty distinguished distances|list of thirty 120-cell chords]] &lt;math&gt;c_{t}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 16 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. This table first appears in [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|''Regular Polytopes'']] (1947),{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=Table V(v): Simplified sections of {5,3,3} beginning with a vertex|pp=300-301}} where Coxeter identified each row with a distinct [[w:120-cell#Concentric_hulls|polyhedral section of the 120-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 29 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt; is a tetrahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; is a central section bisecting the 120-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal tetrahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 29 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section). Each section also lies completely orthogonal to a congruent section. 

Only 8 of the 30 chords in the table occur in the 600-cell and the planar {30)-gon. The 120-cell's additional chords arise originally from the regular 5-cell, in its interaction with the other regular 4-polytopes that compound to make the 120-cell. Since all those polytopes except the 5-cell occur in the 600-cell, and the 600-cell and the 120-cell have the same symmetry group, the 5-cell's symmetry group is what's new in the 120-cell.

...

{{Clear}}
== Finally the 120-cell ==
The [[120-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 600 vertices, 1200 edges, 720 pentagon faces, and 120 dodecahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the dodecahedron.

The 120-cell is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 600-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew triacontagon {30}, but the 120-cell is a construct of 40 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;, two of which intersect in each tetrahedral vertex figure.

... 

{{Clear}}

== Conclusions ==

Fontaine and Hurley's discovery is more than a geometric formula for the reciprocal of a regular ''n''-polygon diagonal. It also yields the discrete sequence of isocline chords of the characteristic isoclinic rotation of a ''d''-dimensional polytope in its invariant edge planes. The characteristic rotational chord sequence of the ''d''-polytope can be represented geometrically in two dimensions on a distinct star polygon, but it lies on a geodesic circle through ''d''-dimensional space. Fontaine and Hurley discovered the geodesic topology of polytopes generally. Their procedure will reveal the geodesics of arbitrary non-uniform polytopes, since it can be applied to a polytope of any dimensionality and irregularity, by first fitting the polytope to the smallest regular polygon whose chords include its chords. [If what is meant by this is its Petrie polygon, it is not quite necessary or possible with respect to the planar polygon chords, e.g. the planar Petrie polygon of the 600-cell does not contain the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chord. But perhaps it would work if the fit is to the smallest regular skew polygon in the ''d''-space.]

The discovery of a chordal construction for discrete isoclinic rotations generally closes the circuit on Kappraff and Adamson's discovery of a rotational connection between dynamical systems, Steinbach's golden fields, and Coxeter's Euclidean geometry of ''n'' dimensions. Application of the Fontaine and Hurley procedure in the 120-cell demonstrates why the connection exists: because polytope sequences generally, from Steinbach's golden chord sequences in polygons, to sequences of star polygons in isoclinic rotations, to subsumption relations in the sequence of regular 4-polytopes, arise as expressions of the reflections and rotations of distinct Coxeter symmetry groups, when those various groups interact.

== Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=1997 | title=Golden fields: A case for the Heptagon | journal=Mathematics Magazine | volume=70 | issue=Feb 1997 | pages=22–31 | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1997.11996494 | jstor=2691048 | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|1997}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=2000 | title=Sections Beyond Golden| journal=Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music and Science | issue=2000 | pages=35-44 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2000/bridges2000-35.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|2000}}}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Jablan | first2=Slavik | last3=Adamson | first3=Gary | last4=Sazdanovich | first4=Radmila | year=2004 | title=Golden Fields, Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, and Chaotic Matrices | journal=Forma | volume=19 | pages=367-387 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2005/bridges2005-369.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff, Jablan, Adamson &amp; Sazdanovich|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Adamson | first2=Gary | year=2004 | title=Polygons and Chaos | journal=Dynamical Systems and Geometric Theories | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2001/bridges2001-67.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff &amp; Adamson|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Fontaine | first1=Anne | last2=Hurley | first2=Susan | year=2006 | title=Proof by Picture: Products and Reciprocals of Diagonal Length Ratios in the Regular Polygon | journal=Forum Geometricorum | volume=6 | pages=97-101 | url=https://scispace.com/pdf/proof-by-picture-products-and-reciprocals-of-diagonal-length-1aian8mgp9.pdf }}
{{Refend}}</text>
      <sha1>grop24wsduc7q61l9ksb0kbpqmwu6c9</sha1>
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      <id>2817062</id>
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      <text bytes="84593" sha1="3dl7vfs7fmrx81qht5xt95uamc89u2p" xml:space="preserve">= Golden chords of the 120-cell =
{{align|center|David Brooks Christie}}
{{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}}
{{align|center|Draft in progress}}
{{align|center|January 2026 - June 2026}}

&lt;blockquote&gt;Steinbach discovered the formula for the ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. Fontaine and Hurley extended this result, discovering a formula for the reciprocal of a regular polygon chord derived geometrically from the chord's star polygon. We observe that these findings in plane geometry apply more generally, to polytopes of any dimensionality. Fontaine and Hurley's geometric procedure for finding the reciprocals of the chords of a regular polygon from their star polygons also finds the rotational geodesics of any polytope of any dimensionality.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Introduction ==
Steinbach discovered the Diagonal Product Formula and the Golden Fields family of ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. He showed how this family extends beyond the pentagon {5} with its well-known golden bisection proportional to 𝜙, finding that the heptagon {7} has an analogous trisection, the nonagon {9} has an analogous quadrasection, and the hendecagon {11} has an analogous pentasection, an extended family of golden proportions with quasiperiodic properties. 

Kappraff and Adamson extended these findings in plane geometry to a theory of Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, showing that the Golden Fields not only do not end with the hendecagon, they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. They found a relation between the edges of star polygons and dynamical systems in the state of chaos, revealing a connection between chaos theory, number, and rotations in Coxeter Euclidean geometry. 

Fontaine and Hurley examined Steinbach's finding that the length of each chord of a regular polygon is both the product of two chords and the sum of a set of smaller chords, so that in rotations to add is to multiply. They illustrated Steinbach's sets of additive chords lying parallel to each other in the plane (pointing in the same direction), and by applying Steinbach's formula more generally they found another summation relation of signed parallel chords (pointing in opposite directions) which relates each chord length to its reciprocal, and relates the summation to a distinct star polygon rotation. 

We examine these remarkable findings (which stem from study of the chords of humble regular polygons) in higher-dimensional spaces, specifically in the chords, polygons and rotations of the [[120-cell]], the largest four-dimensional regular convex polytope.

== Visualizing the 120-cell ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:120-cell.gif|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point 120-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; &quot;Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].&quot;}} In this simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges are shown; its 29 interior chords are not rendered. Therefore even though it is translucent, only its outer surface is visible. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 5-cells, 16-cells, 8-cells, 24-cells, 600-cells and its much larger inventory of polyhedra, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all.
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;.{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} The 120-cell is its convex hull. The projection to the left renders only the 120-cell's shortest chord, its 1200 edges. The projection above also renders only one of the 120-cell's 30 chords, the edges of its 120 inscribed regular 5-cells. The 120-cell itself (the convex hull) is invisible in this view, as its edges are not rendered.
|}

[[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except the regular polygons of more than {15} sides. 

The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. They are the [[5-cell|5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex]], the [[16-cell|8-point (16-cell) 4-orthoplex]], the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the [[24-cell|24-point (24-cell)]], the [[600-cell|120-point (600-cell)]], and the [[120-cell|600-point (120-cell)]]. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, and of 5 disjoint 600-cells.

The 120-cell contains an even larger inventory of irregular polytopes, created by the intersection of multiple instances of these component regular 4-polytopes. Many are quite unexpected, because they do not occur as components of any regular polytope smaller than the 120-cell. As just one example among the [[120-cell#Concentric hulls|sections of the 120-cell]], there is an irregular 24-point polyhedron with 16 triangle faces and 4 nonagon {9} faces.{{Sfn|Moxness|}}

Most renderings of the 120-cell, like the rotating projection here, only illustrate its outer surface, which is a honeycomb of face-bonded dodecahedral cells. Only the objects in its 3-dimensional surface are rendered, namely the 120 dodecahedra, their pentagon faces, and their edges. Although the 120-cell has chords of 30 distinct lengths, in this kind of simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges (its shortest chord) are shown. Its 29 interior chords, the edges of objects in the interior of the 120-cell, are not rendered, so interior objects are not visible at all.

Visualizing the complete interior of the 600-vertex 120-cell in a single image is impractical because of its complexity. Only four 120-cell edges are incident at each vertex, but [[120-cell#Chords|600 chords (of all 30 lengths)]] are incident at ''each'' vertex.

== Compounds in the 120-cell ==
The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell), is the smallest building block; it compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point (5-cell) does compound to the 600-point (120-cell), but it does not fit into any smaller regular 4-polytope. 

The 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 2 in the 16-point (8-cell), and by 3 in the 24-point (24-cell). The 16-point (8-cell) compounds in the 24-point (24-cell) by 3 non-disjoint instances of itself, with each of the 24 vertices shared by two 16-point (8-cells). The 24-point (24-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell), and the 120-point (600-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell).

The 24-point (24-cell) also compounds by 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; non-disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell); it compounds in 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever set of 5 disjoint 24-point (24-cells) are assembled, the resulting 120-point (600-cell) contains 25 distinct 24-point (24-cells), not just 5 (or 10). This implies that 15 disjoint 8-point (16-cells) will construct a 120-point (600-cell), which will contain 75 distinct 8-point (16-cells). 

The 600-point (120-cell) is 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways), so it is 10 distinct 120-point (600-cells). This implies that the 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 3 times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (75) disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell), which contains 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; times  5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (225) distinct instances of the 24-point (24-cell), and  3&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (675) distinct instances of the 8-point (16-cell). 

These facts were discovered painstakingly by various researchers, and no one has found a general rule governing subsumption relations among regular polytopes. The reasons for some of their numeric incidence relations are far from obvious. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''}}

So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] illustrated above, the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, and the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are &lt;math&gt;\phi^6&lt;/math&gt; as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:List of polyhedral stellations#Stellation process|stellation core]] deep inside.

The compound of 120 disjoint 5-point (5-cells) can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell.

== Thirty distinguished distances ==
The 30 numbers listed in the table are all-important in Euclidean geometry. A case can be made on symmetry grounds that their squares are the 30 most important numbers between 0 and 4. The 30 rows of the table are the 30 distinct [[120-cell#Geodesic rectangles|chord lengths of the unit-radius 120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope. Since the 120-cell subsumes all smaller regular polytopes, its 30 chords are the complete chord set of all the regular polytopes that can be constructed in the first four dimensions of Euclidean space, except for regular polygons of more than 15 sides.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|arc
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{n}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;\left\{p\right\}&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;m\left\{\frac{k}{d}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|Steinbach roots
!colspan=7|Chord lengths of the unit 120-cell
|-
!colspan=5|unit-radius length &lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!colspan=2|unit-edge length &lt;math&gt;c_t/c_1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;in 120-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;c_8=\sqrt{2}\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{1,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;15.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}-c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.270091&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.072949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;25.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{15\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(c_{18,1}-c_{4,1}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{3-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.437016&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.190983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;36{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{10\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3 \left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right) c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.381966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.28825&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;41.4{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.707107&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{5,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;44.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{\frac{15}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.756934&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.572949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.80252&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{6,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;49.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{17}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.831254&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5}}{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.690983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.07768&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{7,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;56.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.93913&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.881966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.47709&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;60{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.70246&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{9,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;66.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2 \phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.09132&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.04057&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{10,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;69.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2 \sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.14412&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi }{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{11,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;72{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{6}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.17557&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.38197}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \sqrt{3-\phi } \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.3525&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;75.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{24}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.22474&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.53457&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{13,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;81.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.30038&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.8146&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{14,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;84.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi } c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{1+\sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.345&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi }}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5} \phi }{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.9798&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{15,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;90.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.41421&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{16,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;95.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{29}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.4802&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.48037&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{17,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;98.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{31}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.51954&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(7+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.62605&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{18,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;104.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{8}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.58114&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5} \sqrt{\phi ^4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{19,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;108.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}+c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.9907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{20,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;110.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.64042&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.07359&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{21,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;113.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{19}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.67601&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\chi }{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.20537&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{22,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;120{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{10}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.73205&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{6} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.41285&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{23,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;124.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{41}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }+\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.7658&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.11803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.53779&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{24,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;130.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.81907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\sqrt{5}}{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.73503&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{25,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;135.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.85123&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi ^2}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^4}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.42705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^4&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{26,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;138.6{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{12}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.87083&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{7} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.92667&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{27,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;144{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{12}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{5}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.90211&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\phi +2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{2 \phi +4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.0425&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{28,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;154.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.95167&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.22598&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{29,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;164.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{14}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.98168&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3 \phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.92705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.33708&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{30,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;180{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{15}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.40492&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|rowspan=4 colspan=6|
|rowspan=4 colspan=4|
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; is the golden ratio:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2-\phi -1=0&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }+1=\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, and: &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi+1=\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }::1::\phi ::\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1/\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; and &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; are the golden sections of &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi +\frac{1}{\phi }=\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi = (\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\chi = (3\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = (3\sqrt{5} - 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = 11/\chi = 22/(3\sqrt{5} + 1)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The 16-cell 4-orthoplex ==
In 2-space we have the regular 8-point octagon, in 3-space the regular 8-point cube, and in 4-space the regular 8-point [[16-cell]].

A planar octagon with rigid edges of unit length has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_3=\sqrt{2}+1 \approx 2.414,r_4=\sqrt{4 + \sqrt{8}} \approx 2.613&lt;/math&gt;

The chord ratio &lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}+1&lt;/math&gt; is a geometrical proportion, the [[W:Silver ratio|silver ratio]]. Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that:

:&lt;math&gt;r_3-r_1-r_1=1/r_3 \approx 0.414&lt;/math&gt;

Note that &lt;math&gt;r_3-2=1/r_3=\sqrt{2}-1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over three &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of an {8/3} octagram. Over the first &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord the displacement is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}+r_1&lt;/math&gt;. Over the second &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves in the opposite direction a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt; . Over the third &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt;.

If we embed the planar octagon in 3-space, we can make it skew, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from three others instead of two others, at the vertices of a unit-edge cube with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1, r_2=\sqrt{2}, r_3=\sqrt{3}, r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

If we embed this cube in 4-space, we can skew it some more, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from six others instead of three others, at the vertices of a unit-edge 4-polytope with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=1,r_3=1,r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

All of its chords except its long diameters are the same unit length as its edge. In fact they are its 24 edges, and it is a 16-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;1/\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;.

[[File:octagon16cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of a regular 16-cell to the [[16-cell#Projections|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only its edges are shown; its long diameter chords are not drawn. All 24 edges are the same length and none lie parallel to the projection plane. The octagon circumference is a Petrie polygon. The two disjoint squares lie in completely orthogonal central planes. The blue octagram is a Clifford polygon. ]]

The [[16-cell]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 8 vertices, 24 edges, 32 equilateral triangle faces, and 16 regular tetrahedron cells. It is the [[16-cell#Octahedral dipyramid|four-dimensional analogue of the octahedron]], and each of its four orthogonal central hyperplanes is an octahedron.

The only planar regular polygons found in the 16-cell are face triangles and central plane squares, but the 16-cell also contains a skew regular octagon, its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]].{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} The chords of this regular octagon, which lies skew in 4-space, are those given above for the 16-cell, as opposed to those for the cube or the regular octagon in the plane. The 16-cell is a construct of 3 Petrie octagons which share the same 8 vertices but have disjoint sets of 8 edges each.

The regular octad has higher symmetry in 4-space than it does in 2-space. The 16-cell is the 4-[[w:Cross-polytope|orthoplex]], the simplest regular 4-polytope after the [[5-cell|4-simplex]]. All the larger regular convex 4-polytopes are compounds of the 16-cell. The regular octagon exhibits this high symmetry only when embedded in 4-space at the vertices of the 16-cell.

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal basis]] for the choice of a 4-dimensional Cartesian reference frame, because its vertices define four orthogonal axes. The eight vertices of a unit-radius 16-cell are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges except opposite pairs. 

The vertex coordinates of the 16-cell form 6 central squares lying in 6 pairwise [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] coordinate planes. Great squares in opposite planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

Since the unit-radius coordinate system is convenient, let us derive the unit-radius 16-cell by skewing a unit-radius planar octagon, which has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2-\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.765,r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_4=2&lt;/math&gt;

We will need a planar octagon with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords, rather than one with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; edges. The octagon's &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords form two disjoint great squares, visible in the orthogonal projection, which we can reposition in 3-space to form a cube by making them parallel, and in 4-space to form a 16-cell by making them completely orthogonal.

Since the edges of the 16-cell are all the same length &lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, those chords are distinct only in the context of a rotation. Each chord is a 4-vector with a length and a direction. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_i&lt;/math&gt; chord makes &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt; 45° turns.

[[File:16-cell-orig.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 8-point 16-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a double rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}}]]
[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in completely orthogonal planes. The general rotation in 4-space is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]] in pairs of completely orthogonal planes. Two completely orthogonal planes are called invariant planes of the rotation when all points in the plane rotate on circles that remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways (like a coin flipping) into another plane. The two completely orthogonal rotations of each plane (like a wheel, and like a coin flipping) are simultaneous but independent, in that they are not geometrically constrained to turn at the same rate. However, the most circular kind of rotation (as opposed to an elliptical double rotation of a rigid spherical object) occurs when the completely orthogonal planes do rotate through the same angle in the same time interval. Such equi-angled double rotations are called [[w:SO(4)#Isoclinic_rotations|isoclinic]], also [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|Clifford]] displacements.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a Petrie polygon {8/1} which zig-zags back and forth, in the left and right rotational directions, between two completely orthogonal great squares formed by &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords.

The &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords  form the ''edge polygon'' of the 16-cell {8/2}=2{4}. The two completely orthogonal great squares lie parallel and perpendicular to each other. A ''simple'' rotation of the 16-cell in ''one'' of those two square central planes rotates that square like a wheel, while the other square does not move.{{Efn|name=simple rotations}} The four vertices of the rotating square orbit on a great circle in the plane.

The &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a circular helix, visible as a blue {8/3} octagram in the orthogonal projection. A ''double'' rotation of the 16-cell, in both of two completely orthogonal invariant &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; square planes at once by equal angles, moves the eight vertices along the circular helix over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords. The vertex motion is a [[w:Geodesic|geodesic]] circle orbit on the 3-sphere of a special kind: it does not lie in a central plane, its [[w:Winding_number|winding number]] is not 1 (it is 3 in this case), its circumference is not &lt;math&gt;2\pi&lt;/math&gt;, and it moves in either a left or right handed circular spiral. We shall refer to such a chiral circle orbit as an ''isocline'', and to the skew polygram of its rotational chords as a ''Clifford polygon''.

The 16-cell is the simplest possible frame in which to [[16-cell#Rotations|observe 4-dimensional rotations]] because its characteristic rotations feature a single pair of invariant rotation planes. In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90° in any pair of invariant completely orthogonal square central planes takes every great square to its completely orthogonal great square in a twisting displacement, as the invariant planes tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally. All the vertices move at once along the same circular helix geodesic isocline of &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. In 360° of isoclinic rotation over four &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, each vertex makes six 90° turns and reaches its antipodal position.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over eight &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the four &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great square in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation.

Because this is the isoclinic rotation of the 16-cell in its invariant great circle edge planes we shall refer to it as the ''great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell'', and note once again that it is Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; star polygon, which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_3&lt;/math&gt;.

== The 8-cell tesseract ==
The long diameter of the unit-edge [[W:Hypercube|hypercube]] of dimension &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{n}&lt;/math&gt;, so the unit-edge [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube, the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract,]] has chords:
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;
Uniquely in its 4-dimensional case, the hypercube's edge length equals its radius, like the hexagon. We call such polytopes ''radially equilateral'', because they can be constructed from equilateral triangles which meet at their center, each contributing two radii and an edge. The [[w:Cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]] and the 24-cell are also radially equilateral.

[[File:8-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation about a plane in 4-space.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The stationary plane bisects the figure from front-left to back-right and top to bottom.]]
The [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 16 vertices, 32 edges, 24 square faces, and 8 cube cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube.

The 16-point tesseract is the convex hull of a compound of two 8-point 16-cells, in exact dimensional analogy to the way the 8-point cube is the convex hull of a [[W:Stellated octahedron|compound of two 4-point regular tetrahedra]]. The [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercubes]] occupy alternate vertices of the hypercubes. The diagonals of the square faces of the unit-edge, unit-radius tesseract are the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges of two unit-radius 16-cells, also the edges of the square central planes.

We can rotate the tesseract isoclinically the way we rotated the 16-cell, by 90° in the great square right rotation, with the same effect on both alternate-position 16-cells. In the course of a 720° revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cell. The two skew {8/3} octagram Clifford polygons lie on two disjoint parallel isoclines of the same chirality, of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chords. They form a circular double helix which intersects each vertex of the tesseract once. The helix is an 8-rung ladder twisted 3 times, bent into a circle in the fourth dimension. Each rung is a tesseract edge.

The tesseract is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 16-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew octagon, but the tesseract is a construct of 4 Petrie octagons with disjoint sets of 8 tesseract edges each. We can construct the tesseract by skewing two planar octagons. Because the tesseract is radially equilateral (unlike the 16-cell), we use two octagons of unit-edge length to build the unit-radius tesseract. To start we embed the planar octagons in 4-space at the same point and make them completely orthogonal. Then we skew each planar octagon into a cube, so we have a compound of two completely orthogonal cubes, provided we skewed them both in the same direction. The 16 vertices will be the vertices of a tesseract with half its 32 edges missing.

Because the tesseract contains two 16-cells in alternate positions it has two sets of 6 orthogonal square central planes. Two angles are required to specify the relationship between two planes in 4-space. Pairs of square central planes within each 16-cell are 90° apart in one angle, and either 0° or 90° apart in the other angle. They are 90° apart in both angles if and only if they are completely orthogonal planes, 90° apart by isoclinic rotation, with no vertices in common. Otherwise they are 0° apart in one of the angles, 90° apart by simple rotation, and they intersect in one axis and lie in a common 3-dimensional hyperplane.{{Efn|A double rotation in which one of the two angles of rotation is 0°, so that one of the completely orthogonal invariant planes does not rotate, is called a simple rotation. Ordinary rotations observed in a 3-dimensional space are simple rotations.|name=simple rotations}}

A pair of square central planes from alternate-position 16-cells are 60° apart by isoclinic rotation, with their corresponding vertices 120° apart. The planes are not orthogonal or parallel, so they intersect in a line somewhere, but they have no vertices in common, they have no 3-dimensional hyperplane in common, and they cannot reach each other by simple rotation. Such pairs of objects are called [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] because all their corresponding pairs of vertices are the same distance apart, although they are not parallel in the usual sense, because they have a common center. Not only the alternate-position 16-cells' corresponding square central planes, but also the 16-cells themselves, are Clifford parallel objects. More generally, multiple disjoint instances of a 4-polytope which compound to make a larger 4-polytope are Clifford parallel objects.

== The 24-cell ==
[[File:24-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the radially equilateral 24-cell, showing its 3 great circle polygons and its 4 chord lengths.]]
In 2-space we have the radially equilateral 6-point hexagon. In 3-space we have the radially equilateral 12-point cuboctahedron, with 4 hexagonal central planes. In 4-space we have the radially equilateral 24-point 24-cell, with 12 cuboctahedron central hyperplanes and 16 hexagonal central planes.

The [[24-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 24 vertices, 96 edges, 96 equilateral triangle faces, and 24 octahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cuboctahedron.

The 24-cell has the same chord set as the 4-hypercube tesseract:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

[[Image:24-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 24-point 24-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 24 octahedra is visible.]]
The 24-cell is [[W:Dual polytope|self-dual]], like the regular polygons and regular simplexes. It is the maximal regular construct of triangles and squares (with no pentagons). It is the convex hull of a compound of three disjoint 8-point 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. Each of the three pairs of 16-cells is a tesseract. Each 24-cell edge is also a tesseract edge. The corresponding vertices of two 16-cells or two tesseracts are 120° apart by a &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chord. Each tesseract has 8 cube cells, and each cube has four &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; long diameters. The &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords joining the corresponding vertices of two tesseracts belong to the third tesseract as cell long diameters.

The 24-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular dodecagon {12}, which has chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}-1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.518,r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}+1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.932,r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that: 

:&lt;math&gt;r_5-r_3+r_1+r_1-r_3=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;

when &lt;math&gt;r_1=1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over five &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of a {12/5} dodecagram. In the system of unit-radius coordinates &lt;math&gt;r_1=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of the planar dodecagon do not occur in the 24-cell, which is a construct of eight skew dodecagons with disjoint sets of twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges each. In the skew dodecagons the chord lengths are:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\sqrt{3},r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

[[File:dodecagon24cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of half a 24-cell to the [[24-cell#Geodesics|F&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only one Petrie dodecagon {12} of the 24-cell is shown. In a unit-radius 24-cell, all black lines are 24-cell edges of unit length, also tesseract edges. The two disjoint hexagons lie in Clifford parallel central planes. Blue chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; 16-cell edges, also isocline chords in square rotations. Green chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; distances between corresponding vertices of two 16-cells, also isocline chords in hexagon rotations. The green {12/5} dodecagram is a Clifford polygon.]]
[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in the great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell, with the same effect on all three 16-cells. In 720° each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cells. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Three Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular triple helix {24/9}=3{8/3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. The helix is an 8-step circular staircase twisted 3 times, bent into a circle in the fourth dimension. Each step is rung is a tesseract edge.

[[File:Regular_star_figure_8(3,1).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/8}=8{3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 4 Clifford parallel invariant great hexagon planes containing &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges, over &lt;math&gt;r_{4}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This is the great ''hexagon right rotation characteristic of the 24-cell'', also Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt; star polygon which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_4&lt;/math&gt;. A complete hexagon right revolution requires 720° like a complete square right revolution, but it is completed in 12 isoclinic displacements of 60° each rather than 8 isoclinic displacements of 90° each. Eight Clifford parallel skew triangle {3} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;2\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular fibration of 8 twisted parallel strands {24/8}=8{3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. In every 180° of isoclinic rotation each vertex returns to its original position, but the 24-cell returns to its original orientation only after four such circuits of each skew triangle.

[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 12 Clifford parallel invariant planes containing a single &lt;math&gt;r_{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge each, over &lt;math&gt;r_{5}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This is Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; {12/5} star polygon which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;. A complete {12/5} right revolution requires 720° like a complete square right revolution, but it is completed in 12 isoclinic displacements of 60° each rather than 8 isoclinic displacements of 90° each. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chord makes five 30° turns. Two Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular double helix {24/10}=2{12/5} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. 

In the 24-cell a great hexagon right rotation by 60° in any invariant hexagon central plane takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 60° while rotating 60° internally. It also takes every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The 16-cells revolve within the 24-cell as well as rotating within it. All 24 vertices move at once on two Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 120° in different directions.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 60° rotational displacement is a one-twelfth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the six &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great hexagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 24-cell returns to its original orientation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;6&quot; |6 distinct 180° chord pairs make 6 distinct isoclinic rotations
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Edge chord
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Isocline chord
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_1&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_24.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/1}={24}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/11}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|15°
|165°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_2&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(12,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/2}=2{12}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(12,5).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/10}=2{12/5}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|30°
|150°
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_3&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/3}=3{8}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/9}=3{8/3}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{9}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|45°
|135°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_4&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_4(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/4}=4{6}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_8(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/8}=8{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{8}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|60°
|120°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_5&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-5.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/5}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/7}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{7}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|75°
|105°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_6&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(4,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/6}=6{4}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(4,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/6}=6{4}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{6}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|90°
|90°
|}

By examining the chords of the 24-cell's Petrie {12}-gon &lt;math&gt;r_i&lt;/math&gt; we found three isoclinic rotations. If we examine the chords of the 24-cell's {24}-gon &lt;math&gt;t_i&lt;/math&gt; we find these and three other distinct isoclinic rotations.

{{Clear}}

== The 600-cell ==
[[Image:600-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 120-point 600-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2011}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 600 tetrahedra is visible. Invisible in this rendering are 25 inscribed instances of the 24-cell (above), which occur in the 600-cell as interior boundary envelopes.]]
The [[600-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 120 vertices, 720 edges, 1200 equilateral triangle faces, and 600 tetrahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the icosahedron.

The 600-cell rounds out the 24-cell by adding 96 more vertices (four more disjoint 24-cells) between the 24-cell's existing 24 vertices, in effect adding twenty-four more distinct 24-cells inscribed in the 600-cell. The new surface thus formed is a honeycomb of smaller, more numerous cells: tetrahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt; instead of octahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;. It encloses the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of the 24-cells, which become invisible interior chords in the 600-cell, like the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords.

Since the tetrahedra are made of shorter triangle edges than the octahedra (by a factor of &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, the inverse golden ratio), the 600-cell is not radially equilateral like the 24-cell and the tesseract. Like them it is radially triangular in a special way, but one in which [[w:Golden_triangle_(mathematics)|golden triangles]] rather than equilateral triangles meet at the center.

In 2-space we have the ''radially golden'' [[W:Decagon#The golden ratio in decagon|regular decagon]]. In 3-space we have the radially golden 30-point [[W:icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]], with 6 decagon central planes. In 4-space we have the radially golden 120-point 600-cell, with 60 icosidodecahedron central hyperplanes and 72 decagon central planes.

The 600-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular [[w:Triacontagon|triacontagon {30}]]. The unit-radius planar {30}-gon has these distinct chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.209&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.416&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.813&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.338&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \cos (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.486&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \cos (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.827&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \cos (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.956&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \cos (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.989&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Only the chord lengths &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_6&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_9&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt; occur in the 600-cell, which is a construct of 24 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, six of which intersect in each icosahedral vertex figure. In the skew {30}-gons the chord lengths are:

[[File:600-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the 600-cell, showing its 5 regular great circle polygons and its 8 chord lengths with angles of arc. The golden ratio governs the fractional roots of every other chord, and the radial golden triangles which meet at the center.|400x400px]]
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;7&quot; |15 chords (4 distinct 180° pairs) make 4 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short edge chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long isocline chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0°
|180°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}=2{15/7}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|12°
|168°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|24°
|156°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V1 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|36°
|144°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|48°
|132°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V2 dodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Dodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|60°
|120°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{6}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V3 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{9}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|72°
|108°
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{7}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V4 icosidodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosidodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{8}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|84°
|96°
|}

The list of 600-cell chords &lt;math&gt;r_{i}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 8 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. The short chord and long chord each have their characteristic {30/n}-gon. Each row identifies a discrete isoclinic rotation of the 600-cell in invariant central planes containing the edges of the short chord {30}-gon, over the isocline chords of the long chord {30}-gon, the rotation's Clifford polygon.

Each distinct pair of complementary chord lengths is identified with a distinct [[w:600-cell#Polyhedral sections|polyhedral section of the 600-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 7 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; is a icosahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; is an [[W:Icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]] central section bisecting the 600-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal icosahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 7 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section).

[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell,  with the same effect on 15 disjoint 16-cells. Each 90° right displacement takes 15 pairs of completely orthogonal invariant great square planes to each other. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Fifteen Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular fibration of 15 twisted parallel strands 5{24/9}=15{8/3} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great square planes, which has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. This ''great square left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' takes place over &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. The {30/7} edge polygon is a skew helix of circumference &lt;math&gt;14\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge belonging to a distinct great square. The four {30/7} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. Each 90° left displacement takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The vertices of the invariant great squares each make seven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/7} edge makes seven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/7} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The {30/8}=2{15/4} Clifford polygon is a compound of two skew {15/4} pentadecagrams of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord belonging to a distinct 16-cell. The four {30/8} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/8} isocline chord makes eight 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/8} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

{{Clear}}
[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great hexagon right rotation characteristic of the 24-cell, over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords, with the same effect on 5 disjoint 24-cells. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions of its 24-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. Ten Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular fibration of ten twisted parallel strands 5{24/10}=10{12/5} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{4}=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_{11}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords This ''great hexagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. Its {30/11} Clifford polygon is a skew helix where each &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord is the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; diagonal of a great hexagon of a distinct 24-cell. The vertices of the invariant great hexagons of this rotation each make eleven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord makes eleven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/11} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;22\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in 12 Clifford parallel invariant decagon central planes containing its 36° &lt;math&gt;r_{3}&lt;/math&gt; edges, over 144° &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''great decagon right rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 5 and takes disjoint 24-cells to each other. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chord of its {5/2} Clifford polygon makes twelve 12° turns. 24 Clifford parallel {5/2} pentagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; over five &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular fibration of 24 twisted parallel strands 4{30/12}=24{5/2} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The right rotation of the 600-cell by 36° in any invariant decagon central plane takes every great decagon to a Clifford parallel great decagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 36° while rotating 36° internally. It also takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon, and every great square to a Clifford parallel great square. The 24-cells revolve within the 600-cell, as the 16-cells revolve within the 24-cells. All 120 vertices move at once on four Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 144° in different directions.

The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great decagon planes containing its 36° &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges, over 144° &lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''great decagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. The rotational curve over each 144° &lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord makes thirteen 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/13} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;26\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

{{Clear}}

== The 5-cell 4-simplex ==

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;9&quot; |30 chords (15 180° pairs) make 15 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{30}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;
|15.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}
|164.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.073~}}
|{{radic|3.927~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.270~
|1.982~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_2&lt;/math&gt;
|25.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|154.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{28}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.191~}}
|{{radic|3.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.437~
|1.952~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{27}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_4&lt;/math&gt;
|41.4~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|138.6~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{26}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.5}}
|{{radic|3.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.707~
|1.871~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_5&lt;/math&gt;
|44.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|135.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{25}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.573~}}
|{{radic|3.427~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.757~
|1.851~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_6&lt;/math&gt;
|49.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|130.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{24}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.691~}}
|{{radic|3.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.831~
|1.819~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_7&lt;/math&gt;
|56°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|124°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{23}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.882~}}
|{{radic|3.118~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.939~
|1.766~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_8&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{22}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_9&lt;/math&gt;
|66.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|113.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{21}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.191~}}
|{{radic|2.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.091~
|1.676~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|69.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|110.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{20}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.309~}}
|{{radic|2.691~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.144~
|1.640~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{19}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|75.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|104.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{18}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.5}}
|{{radic|2.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1.224~
|1.581~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|81.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|98.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{17}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.691~}}
|{{radic|2.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.300~
|1.520~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|84.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|95.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{16}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.809~}}
|{{radic|2.191~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.345~
|1.480~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|}

The [[User:Dc.samizdat/Golden chords of the 120-cell#Thirty distinguished distances|list of thirty 120-cell chords]] &lt;math&gt;c_{t}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 16 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. This table first appears in [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|''Regular Polytopes'']] (1947),{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=Table V(v): Simplified sections of {5,3,3} beginning with a vertex|pp=300-301}} where Coxeter identified each row with a distinct [[w:120-cell#Concentric_hulls|polyhedral section of the 120-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 29 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt; is a tetrahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; is a central section bisecting the 120-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal tetrahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 29 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section). Each section also lies completely orthogonal to a congruent section. 

Only 8 of the 30 chords in the table occur in the 600-cell and the planar {30)-gon. The 120-cell's additional chords arise originally from the regular 5-cell, in its interaction with the other regular 4-polytopes that compound to make the 120-cell. Since all those polytopes except the 5-cell occur in the 600-cell, and the 600-cell and the 120-cell have the same symmetry group, the 5-cell's symmetry group is what's new in the 120-cell.

...

{{Clear}}
== Finally the 120-cell ==
The [[120-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 600 vertices, 1200 edges, 720 pentagon faces, and 120 dodecahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the dodecahedron.

The 120-cell is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 600-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew triacontagon {30}, but the 120-cell is a construct of 40 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;, two of which intersect in each tetrahedral vertex figure.

... 

{{Clear}}

== Conclusions ==

Fontaine and Hurley's discovery is more than a geometric formula for the reciprocal of a regular ''n''-polygon diagonal. It also yields the discrete sequence of isocline chords of the characteristic isoclinic rotation of a ''d''-dimensional polytope in its invariant edge planes. The characteristic rotational chord sequence of the ''d''-polytope can be represented geometrically in two dimensions on a distinct star polygon, but it lies on a geodesic circle through ''d''-dimensional space. Fontaine and Hurley discovered the geodesic topology of polytopes generally. Their procedure will reveal the geodesics of arbitrary non-uniform polytopes, since it can be applied to a polytope of any dimensionality and irregularity, by first fitting the polytope to the smallest regular polygon whose chords include its chords. [If what is meant by this is its Petrie polygon, it is not quite necessary or possible with respect to the planar polygon chords, e.g. the planar Petrie polygon of the 600-cell does not contain the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chord. But perhaps it would work if the fit is to the smallest regular skew polygon in the ''d''-space.]

The discovery of a chordal construction for discrete isoclinic rotations generally closes the circuit on Kappraff and Adamson's discovery of a rotational connection between dynamical systems, Steinbach's golden fields, and Coxeter's Euclidean geometry of ''n'' dimensions. Application of the Fontaine and Hurley procedure in the 120-cell demonstrates why the connection exists: because polytope sequences generally, from Steinbach's golden chord sequences in polygons, to sequences of star polygons in isoclinic rotations, to subsumption relations in the sequence of regular 4-polytopes, arise as expressions of the reflections and rotations of distinct Coxeter symmetry groups, when those various groups interact.

== Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=1997 | title=Golden fields: A case for the Heptagon | journal=Mathematics Magazine | volume=70 | issue=Feb 1997 | pages=22–31 | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1997.11996494 | jstor=2691048 | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|1997}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=2000 | title=Sections Beyond Golden| journal=Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music and Science | issue=2000 | pages=35-44 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2000/bridges2000-35.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|2000}}}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Jablan | first2=Slavik | last3=Adamson | first3=Gary | last4=Sazdanovich | first4=Radmila | year=2004 | title=Golden Fields, Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, and Chaotic Matrices | journal=Forma | volume=19 | pages=367-387 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2005/bridges2005-369.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff, Jablan, Adamson &amp; Sazdanovich|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Adamson | first2=Gary | year=2004 | title=Polygons and Chaos | journal=Dynamical Systems and Geometric Theories | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2001/bridges2001-67.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff &amp; Adamson|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Fontaine | first1=Anne | last2=Hurley | first2=Susan | year=2006 | title=Proof by Picture: Products and Reciprocals of Diagonal Length Ratios in the Regular Polygon | journal=Forum Geometricorum | volume=6 | pages=97-101 | url=https://scispace.com/pdf/proof-by-picture-products-and-reciprocals-of-diagonal-length-1aian8mgp9.pdf }}
{{Refend}}</text>
      <sha1>3dl7vfs7fmrx81qht5xt95uamc89u2p</sha1>
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      <id>2817064</id>
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        <username>Dc.samizdat</username>
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      <text bytes="85124" sha1="ml0nrewqerzs2v6cgclctz5bvb7fzdg" xml:space="preserve">= Golden chords of the 120-cell =
{{align|center|David Brooks Christie}}
{{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}}
{{align|center|Draft in progress}}
{{align|center|January 2026 - June 2026}}

&lt;blockquote&gt;Steinbach discovered the formula for the ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. Fontaine and Hurley extended this result, discovering a formula for the reciprocal of a regular polygon chord derived geometrically from the chord's star polygon. We observe that these findings in plane geometry apply more generally, to polytopes of any dimensionality. Fontaine and Hurley's geometric procedure for finding the reciprocals of the chords of a regular polygon from their star polygons also finds the rotational geodesics of any polytope of any dimensionality.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Introduction ==
Steinbach discovered the Diagonal Product Formula and the Golden Fields family of ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. He showed how this family extends beyond the pentagon {5} with its well-known golden bisection proportional to 𝜙, finding that the heptagon {7} has an analogous trisection, the nonagon {9} has an analogous quadrasection, and the hendecagon {11} has an analogous pentasection, an extended family of golden proportions with quasiperiodic properties. 

Kappraff and Adamson extended these findings in plane geometry to a theory of Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, showing that the Golden Fields not only do not end with the hendecagon, they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. They found a relation between the edges of star polygons and dynamical systems in the state of chaos, revealing a connection between chaos theory, number, and rotations in Coxeter Euclidean geometry. 

Fontaine and Hurley examined Steinbach's finding that the length of each chord of a regular polygon is both the product of two chords and the sum of a set of smaller chords, so that in rotations to add is to multiply. They illustrated Steinbach's sets of additive chords lying parallel to each other in the plane (pointing in the same direction), and by applying Steinbach's formula more generally they found another summation relation of signed parallel chords (pointing in opposite directions) which relates each chord length to its reciprocal, and relates the summation to a distinct star polygon rotation. 

We examine these remarkable findings (which stem from study of the chords of humble regular polygons) in higher-dimensional spaces, specifically in the chords, polygons and rotations of the [[120-cell]], the largest four-dimensional regular convex polytope.

== Visualizing the 120-cell ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:120-cell.gif|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point 120-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; &quot;Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].&quot;}} In this simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges are shown; its 29 interior chords are not rendered. Therefore even though it is translucent, only its outer surface is visible. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 5-cells, 16-cells, 8-cells, 24-cells, 600-cells and its much larger inventory of polyhedra, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all.
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;.{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} The 120-cell is its convex hull. The projection to the left renders only the 120-cell's shortest chord, its 1200 edges. The projection above also renders only one of the 120-cell's 30 chords, the edges of its 120 inscribed regular 5-cells. The 120-cell itself (the convex hull) is invisible in this view, as its edges are not rendered.
|}

[[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except the regular polygons of more than {15} sides. 

The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. They are the [[5-cell|5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex]], the [[16-cell|8-point (16-cell) 4-orthoplex]], the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the [[24-cell|24-point (24-cell)]], the [[600-cell|120-point (600-cell)]], and the [[120-cell|600-point (120-cell)]]. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, and of 5 disjoint 600-cells.

The 120-cell contains an even larger inventory of irregular polytopes, created by the intersection of multiple instances of these component regular 4-polytopes. Many are quite unexpected, because they do not occur as components of any regular polytope smaller than the 120-cell. As just one example among the [[120-cell#Concentric hulls|sections of the 120-cell]], there is an irregular 24-point polyhedron with 16 triangle faces and 4 nonagon {9} faces.{{Sfn|Moxness|}}

Most renderings of the 120-cell, like the rotating projection here, only illustrate its outer surface, which is a honeycomb of face-bonded dodecahedral cells. Only the objects in its 3-dimensional surface are rendered, namely the 120 dodecahedra, their pentagon faces, and their edges. Although the 120-cell has chords of 30 distinct lengths, in this kind of simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges (its shortest chord) are shown. Its 29 interior chords, the edges of objects in the interior of the 120-cell, are not rendered, so interior objects are not visible at all.

Visualizing the complete interior of the 600-vertex 120-cell in a single image is impractical because of its complexity. Only four 120-cell edges are incident at each vertex, but [[120-cell#Chords|600 chords (of all 30 lengths)]] are incident at ''each'' vertex.

== Compounds in the 120-cell ==
The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell), is the smallest building block; it compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point (5-cell) does compound to the 600-point (120-cell), but it does not fit into any smaller regular 4-polytope. 

The 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 2 in the 16-point (8-cell), and by 3 in the 24-point (24-cell). The 16-point (8-cell) compounds in the 24-point (24-cell) by 3 non-disjoint instances of itself, with each of the 24 vertices shared by two 16-point (8-cells). The 24-point (24-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell), and the 120-point (600-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell).

The 24-point (24-cell) also compounds by 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; non-disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell); it compounds in 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever set of 5 disjoint 24-point (24-cells) are assembled, the resulting 120-point (600-cell) contains 25 distinct 24-point (24-cells), not just 5 (or 10). This implies that 15 disjoint 8-point (16-cells) will construct a 120-point (600-cell), which will contain 75 distinct 8-point (16-cells). 

The 600-point (120-cell) is 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways), so it is 10 distinct 120-point (600-cells). This implies that the 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 3 times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (75) disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell), which contains 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; times  5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (225) distinct instances of the 24-point (24-cell), and  3&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (675) distinct instances of the 8-point (16-cell). 

These facts were discovered painstakingly by various researchers, and no one has found a general rule governing subsumption relations among regular polytopes. The reasons for some of their numeric incidence relations are far from obvious. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''}}

So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] illustrated above, the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, and the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are &lt;math&gt;\phi^6&lt;/math&gt; as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:List of polyhedral stellations#Stellation process|stellation core]] deep inside.

The compound of 120 disjoint 5-point (5-cells) can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell.

== Thirty distinguished distances ==
The 30 numbers listed in the table are all-important in Euclidean geometry. A case can be made on symmetry grounds that their squares are the 30 most important numbers between 0 and 4. The 30 rows of the table are the 30 distinct [[120-cell#Geodesic rectangles|chord lengths of the unit-radius 120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope. Since the 120-cell subsumes all smaller regular polytopes, its 30 chords are the complete chord set of all the regular polytopes that can be constructed in the first four dimensions of Euclidean space, except for regular polygons of more than 15 sides.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|arc
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{n}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;\left\{p\right\}&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;m\left\{\frac{k}{d}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|Steinbach roots
!colspan=7|Chord lengths of the unit 120-cell
|-
!colspan=5|unit-radius length &lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!colspan=2|unit-edge length &lt;math&gt;c_t/c_1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;in 120-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;c_8=\sqrt{2}\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{1,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;15.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}-c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.270091&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.072949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;25.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{15\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(c_{18,1}-c_{4,1}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{3-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.437016&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.190983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;36{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{10\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3 \left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right) c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.381966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.28825&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;41.4{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.707107&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{5,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;44.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{\frac{15}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.756934&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.572949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.80252&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{6,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;49.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{17}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.831254&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5}}{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.690983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.07768&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{7,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;56.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.93913&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.881966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.47709&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;60{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.70246&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{9,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;66.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2 \phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.09132&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.04057&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{10,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;69.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2 \sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.14412&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi }{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{11,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;72{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{6}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.17557&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.38197}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \sqrt{3-\phi } \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.3525&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;75.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{24}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.22474&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.53457&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{13,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;81.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.30038&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.8146&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{14,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;84.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi } c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{1+\sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.345&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi }}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5} \phi }{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.9798&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{15,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;90.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.41421&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{16,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;95.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{29}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.4802&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.48037&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{17,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;98.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{31}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.51954&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(7+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.62605&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{18,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;104.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{8}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.58114&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5} \sqrt{\phi ^4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{19,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;108.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}+c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.9907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{20,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;110.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.64042&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.07359&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{21,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;113.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{19}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.67601&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\chi }{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.20537&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{22,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;120{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{10}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.73205&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{6} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.41285&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{23,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;124.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{41}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }+\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.7658&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.11803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.53779&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{24,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;130.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.81907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\sqrt{5}}{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.73503&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{25,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;135.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.85123&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi ^2}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^4}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.42705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^4&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{26,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;138.6{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{12}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.87083&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{7} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.92667&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{27,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;144{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{12}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{5}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.90211&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\phi +2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{2 \phi +4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.0425&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{28,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;154.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.95167&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.22598&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{29,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;164.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{14}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.98168&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3 \phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.92705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.33708&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{30,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;180{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{15}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.40492&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|rowspan=4 colspan=6|
|rowspan=4 colspan=4|
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; is the golden ratio:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2-\phi -1=0&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }+1=\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, and: &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi+1=\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }::1::\phi ::\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1/\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; and &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; are the golden sections of &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi +\frac{1}{\phi }=\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi = (\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\chi = (3\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = (3\sqrt{5} - 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = 11/\chi = 22/(3\sqrt{5} + 1)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The 16-cell 4-orthoplex ==
In 2-space we have the regular 8-point octagon, in 3-space the regular 8-point cube, and in 4-space the regular 8-point [[16-cell]].

A planar octagon with rigid edges of unit length has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_3=\sqrt{2}+1 \approx 2.414,r_4=\sqrt{4 + \sqrt{8}} \approx 2.613&lt;/math&gt;

The chord ratio &lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}+1&lt;/math&gt; is a geometrical proportion, the [[W:Silver ratio|silver ratio]]. Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that:

:&lt;math&gt;r_3-r_1-r_1=1/r_3 \approx 0.414&lt;/math&gt;

Note that &lt;math&gt;r_3-2=1/r_3=\sqrt{2}-1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over three &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of an {8/3} octagram. Over the first &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord the displacement is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}+r_1&lt;/math&gt;. Over the second &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves in the opposite direction a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt; . Over the third &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt;.

If we embed the planar octagon in 3-space, we can make it skew, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from three others instead of two others, at the vertices of a unit-edge cube with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1, r_2=\sqrt{2}, r_3=\sqrt{3}, r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

If we embed this cube in 4-space, we can skew it some more, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from six others instead of three others, at the vertices of a unit-edge 4-polytope with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=1,r_3=1,r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

All of its chords except its long diameters are the same unit length as its edge. In fact they are its 24 edges, and it is a 16-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;1/\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;.

[[File:octagon16cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of a regular 16-cell to the [[16-cell#Projections|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only its edges are shown; its long diameter chords are not drawn. All 24 edges are the same length and none lie parallel to the projection plane. The octagon circumference is a Petrie polygon. The two disjoint squares lie in completely orthogonal central planes. The blue octagram is a Clifford polygon. ]]

The [[16-cell]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 8 vertices, 24 edges, 32 equilateral triangle faces, and 16 regular tetrahedron cells. It is the [[16-cell#Octahedral dipyramid|four-dimensional analogue of the octahedron]], and each of its four orthogonal central hyperplanes is an octahedron.

The only planar regular polygons found in the 16-cell are face triangles and central plane squares, but the 16-cell also contains a skew regular octagon, its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]].{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} The chords of this regular octagon, which lies skew in 4-space, are those given above for the 16-cell, as opposed to those for the cube or the regular octagon in the plane. The 16-cell is a construct of 3 Petrie octagons which share the same 8 vertices but have disjoint sets of 8 edges each.

The regular octad has higher symmetry in 4-space than it does in 2-space. The 16-cell is the 4-[[w:Cross-polytope|orthoplex]], the simplest regular 4-polytope after the [[5-cell|4-simplex]]. All the larger regular convex 4-polytopes are compounds of the 16-cell. The regular octagon exhibits this high symmetry only when embedded in 4-space at the vertices of the 16-cell.

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal basis]] for the choice of a 4-dimensional Cartesian reference frame, because its vertices define four orthogonal axes. The eight vertices of a unit-radius 16-cell are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges except opposite pairs. 

The vertex coordinates of the 16-cell form 6 central squares lying in 6 pairwise [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] coordinate planes. Great squares in opposite planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

Since the unit-radius coordinate system is convenient, let us derive the unit-radius 16-cell by skewing a unit-radius planar octagon, which has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2-\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.765,r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_4=2&lt;/math&gt;

We will need a planar octagon with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords, rather than one with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; edges. The octagon's &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords form two disjoint great squares, visible in the orthogonal projection, which we can reposition in 3-space to form a cube by making them parallel, and in 4-space to form a 16-cell by making them completely orthogonal.

Since the edges of the 16-cell are all the same length &lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, those chords are distinct only in the context of a rotation. Each chord is a 4-vector with a length and a direction. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_i&lt;/math&gt; chord makes &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt; 45° turns.

[[File:16-cell-orig.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 8-point 16-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a double rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}}]]
[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in completely orthogonal planes. The general rotation in 4-space is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]] in pairs of completely orthogonal planes. Two completely orthogonal planes are called invariant planes of the rotation when all points in the plane rotate on circles that remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways (like a coin flipping) into another plane. The two completely orthogonal rotations of each plane (like a wheel, and like a coin flipping) are simultaneous but independent, in that they are not geometrically constrained to turn at the same rate. However, the most circular kind of rotation (as opposed to an elliptical double rotation of a rigid spherical object) occurs when the completely orthogonal planes do rotate through the same angle in the same time interval. Such equi-angled double rotations are called [[w:SO(4)#Isoclinic_rotations|isoclinic]], also [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|Clifford]] displacements.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a Petrie polygon {8/1} which zig-zags back and forth, in the left and right rotational directions, between two completely orthogonal great squares formed by &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords.

The &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords  form the ''edge polygon'' of the 16-cell {8/2}=2{4}. The two completely orthogonal great squares lie parallel and perpendicular to each other. A ''simple'' rotation of the 16-cell in ''one'' of those two square central planes rotates that square like a wheel, while the other square does not move.{{Efn|name=simple rotations}} The four vertices of the rotating square orbit on a great circle in the plane.

The &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a circular helix, visible as a blue {8/3} octagram in the orthogonal projection. A ''double'' rotation of the 16-cell, in both of two completely orthogonal invariant &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; square planes at once by equal angles, moves the eight vertices along the circular helix over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords. The vertex motion is a [[w:Geodesic|geodesic]] circle orbit on the 3-sphere of a special kind: it does not lie in a central plane, its [[w:Winding_number|winding number]] is not 1 (it is 3 in this case), its circumference is not &lt;math&gt;2\pi&lt;/math&gt;, and it moves in either a left or right handed circular spiral. We shall refer to such a chiral circle orbit as an ''isocline'', and to the skew polygram of its rotational chords as a ''Clifford polygon''.

The 16-cell is the simplest possible frame in which to [[16-cell#Rotations|observe 4-dimensional rotations]] because its characteristic rotations feature a single pair of invariant rotation planes. In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90° in any pair of invariant completely orthogonal square central planes takes every great square to its completely orthogonal great square in a twisting displacement, as the invariant planes tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally. All the vertices move at once along the same circular helix geodesic isocline of &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. In 360° of isoclinic rotation over four &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, each vertex makes six 90° turns and reaches its antipodal position.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over eight &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the four &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great square in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation.

Because this is the isoclinic rotation of the 16-cell in its invariant great circle edge planes we shall refer to it as the ''great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell'', and note once again that it is Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; star polygon, which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_3&lt;/math&gt;.

== The 8-cell tesseract ==
The long diameter of the unit-edge [[W:Hypercube|hypercube]] of dimension &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{n}&lt;/math&gt;, so the unit-edge [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube, the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract,]] has chords:
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;
Uniquely in its 4-dimensional case, the hypercube's edge length equals its radius, like the hexagon. We call such polytopes ''radially equilateral'', because they can be constructed from equilateral triangles which meet at their center, each contributing two radii and an edge. The [[w:Cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]] and the 24-cell are also radially equilateral.

[[File:8-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation about a plane in 4-space.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The stationary plane bisects the figure from front-left to back-right and top to bottom.]]
The [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 16 vertices, 32 edges, 24 square faces, and 8 cube cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube.

The 16-point tesseract is the convex hull of a compound of two 8-point 16-cells, in exact dimensional analogy to the way the 8-point cube is the convex hull of a [[W:Stellated octahedron|compound of two 4-point regular tetrahedra]]. The [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercubes]] occupy alternate vertices of the hypercubes. The diagonals of the square faces of the unit-edge, unit-radius tesseract are the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges of two unit-radius 16-cells, also the edges of the square central planes.

We can rotate the tesseract isoclinically the way we rotated the 16-cell, by 90° in the great square right rotation, with the same effect on both alternate-position 16-cells. In the course of a 720° revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cell. The two skew {8/3} octagram Clifford polygons lie on two disjoint parallel isoclines of the same chirality, of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chords. They form a circular double helix which intersects each vertex of the tesseract once. The helix is an 8-rung ladder twisted 3 times, bent into a circle in the fourth dimension. Each rung is a tesseract edge.

The tesseract is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 16-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew octagon, but the tesseract is a construct of 4 Petrie octagons with disjoint sets of 8 tesseract edges each. We can construct the tesseract by skewing two planar octagons. Because the tesseract is radially equilateral (unlike the 16-cell), we use two octagons of unit-edge length to build the unit-radius tesseract. To start we embed the planar octagons in 4-space at the same point and make them completely orthogonal. Then we skew each planar octagon into a cube, so we have a compound of two completely orthogonal cubes, provided we skewed them both in the same direction. The 16 vertices will be the vertices of a tesseract with half its 32 edges missing.

Because the tesseract contains two 16-cells in alternate positions it has two sets of 6 orthogonal square central planes. Two angles are required to specify the relationship between two planes in 4-space. Pairs of square central planes within each 16-cell are 90° apart in one angle, and either 0° or 90° apart in the other angle. They are 90° apart in both angles if and only if they are completely orthogonal planes, 90° apart by isoclinic rotation, with no vertices in common. Otherwise they are 0° apart in one of the angles, 90° apart by simple rotation, and they intersect in one axis and lie in a common 3-dimensional hyperplane.{{Efn|A double rotation in which one of the two angles of rotation is 0°, so that one of the completely orthogonal invariant planes does not rotate, is called a simple rotation. Ordinary rotations observed in a 3-dimensional space are simple rotations.|name=simple rotations}}

A pair of square central planes from alternate-position 16-cells are 60° apart by isoclinic rotation, with their corresponding vertices 120° apart. The planes are not orthogonal or parallel, so they intersect in a line somewhere, but they have no vertices in common, they have no 3-dimensional hyperplane in common, and they cannot reach each other by simple rotation. Such pairs of objects are called [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] because all their corresponding pairs of vertices are the same distance apart, although they are not parallel in the usual sense, because they have a common center. Not only the alternate-position 16-cells' corresponding square central planes, but also the 16-cells themselves, are Clifford parallel objects. More generally, multiple disjoint instances of a 4-polytope which compound to make a larger 4-polytope are Clifford parallel objects.

== The 24-cell ==
[[File:24-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the radially equilateral 24-cell, showing its 3 great circle polygons and its 4 chord lengths.]]
In 2-space we have the radially equilateral 6-point hexagon. In 3-space we have the radially equilateral 12-point cuboctahedron, with 4 hexagonal central planes. In 4-space we have the radially equilateral 24-point 24-cell, with 12 cuboctahedron central hyperplanes and 16 hexagonal central planes.

The [[24-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 24 vertices, 96 edges, 96 equilateral triangle faces, and 24 octahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cuboctahedron.

The 24-cell has the same chord set as the 4-hypercube tesseract:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

[[Image:24-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 24-point 24-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 24 octahedra is visible.]]
The 24-cell is [[W:Dual polytope|self-dual]], like the regular polygons and regular simplexes. It is the maximal regular construct of triangles and squares (with no pentagons). It is the convex hull of a compound of three disjoint 8-point 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. Each of the three pairs of 16-cells is a tesseract. Each 24-cell edge is also a tesseract edge. The corresponding vertices of two 16-cells or two tesseracts are 120° apart by a &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chord. Each tesseract has 8 cube cells, and each cube has four &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; long diameters. The &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords joining the corresponding vertices of two tesseracts belong to the third tesseract as cell long diameters.

The 24-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular dodecagon {12}, which has chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}-1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.518,r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}+1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.932,r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that: 

:&lt;math&gt;r_5-r_3+r_1+r_1-r_3=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;

when &lt;math&gt;r_1=1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over five &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of a {12/5} dodecagram. In the system of unit-radius coordinates &lt;math&gt;r_1=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of the planar dodecagon do not occur in the 24-cell, which is a construct of eight skew dodecagons with disjoint sets of twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges each. In the skew dodecagons the chord lengths are:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\sqrt{3},r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

[[File:dodecagon24cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of half a 24-cell to the [[24-cell#Geodesics|F&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only one Petrie dodecagon {12} of the 24-cell is shown. In a unit-radius 24-cell, all black lines are 24-cell edges of unit length, also tesseract edges. The two disjoint hexagons lie in Clifford parallel central planes. Blue chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; 16-cell edges, also isocline chords in square rotations. Green chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; distances between corresponding vertices of two 16-cells, also isocline chords in hexagon rotations. The green {12/5} dodecagram is a Clifford polygon.]]
[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in the great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell, with the same effect on all three 16-cells. In 720° each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cells. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Three Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular triple helix {24/9}=3{8/3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. The helix is an 8-step circular staircase twisted 3 times, bent into a circle in the fourth dimension. Each step is rung is a tesseract edge.

[[File:Regular_star_figure_8(3,1).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/8}=8{3}&lt;small&gt; &lt;/small&gt;shows 8 of 32 skew&lt;small&gt; &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; triangles]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 4 Clifford parallel invariant great hexagon planes containing &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges, over &lt;math&gt;r_{4}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This is the great ''hexagon right rotation characteristic of the 24-cell'', also Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt; star polygon which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_4&lt;/math&gt;. A complete hexagon right revolution requires 720° like a complete square right revolution, but it is completed in 12 isoclinic displacements of 60° each rather than 8 isoclinic displacements of 90° each. Eight Clifford parallel skew triangle {3} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;2\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular fibration of 8 twisted parallel strands {24/8}=8{3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. In every 180° of isoclinic rotation each vertex circles a skew triangle and returns to its original position, but the 24-cell returns to its original orientation only after each vertex has completed circuits of the four distinct skew triangles which intersect at the vertex.

[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 12 Clifford parallel invariant planes containing a single &lt;math&gt;r_{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge each, over &lt;math&gt;r_{5}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This is Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; {12/5} star polygon which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;. A complete {12/5} right revolution requires 720° like a complete square right revolution, but it is completed in 12 isoclinic displacements of 60° each rather than 8 isoclinic displacements of 90° each. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chord makes five 30° turns. Two Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular double helix {24/10}=2{12/5} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. 

In the 24-cell a great hexagon right rotation by 60° in any invariant hexagon central plane takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 60° while rotating 60° internally. It also takes every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The 16-cells revolve within the 24-cell as well as rotating within it. All 24 vertices move at once on two Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 120° in different directions.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 60° rotational displacement is a one-twelfth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the six &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great hexagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 24-cell returns to its original orientation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;6&quot; |6 distinct 180° chord pairs make 6 distinct isoclinic rotations
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Edge chord
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Isocline chord
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_1&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_24.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/1}={24}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/11}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|15°
|165°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_2&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(12,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/2}=2{12}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(12,5).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/10}=2{12/5}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|30°
|150°
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_3&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/3}=3{8}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/9}=3{8/3}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{9}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|45°
|135°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_4&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_4(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/4}=4{6}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_8(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/8}=8{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{8}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|60°
|120°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_5&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-5.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/5}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/7}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{7}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|75°
|105°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_6&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(4,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/6}=6{4}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(4,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/6}=6{4}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{6}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|90°
|90°
|}

By examining the chords of the 24-cell's Petrie {12}-gon &lt;math&gt;r_i&lt;/math&gt; we found three isoclinic rotations. If we examine the chords of the 24-cell's {24}-gon &lt;math&gt;t_i&lt;/math&gt; we find these and three other distinct isoclinic rotations. In each rotation the lengths of the edge chord and the isocline chord sum to 180°. The rotational angles separating successive edge chords and successive isocline chords also sum to 180°. The edge chord forms an edge polygon over which one or more vertices circle in each moving invariant plane. The isocline chord forms the rotation's Clifford polygon over which the vertices circle in 4-space. 

{{Clear}}

== The 600-cell ==
[[Image:600-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 120-point 600-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2011}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 600 tetrahedra is visible. Invisible in this rendering are 25 inscribed instances of the 24-cell (above), which occur in the 600-cell as interior boundary envelopes.]]
The [[600-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 120 vertices, 720 edges, 1200 equilateral triangle faces, and 600 tetrahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the icosahedron.

The 600-cell rounds out the 24-cell by adding 96 more vertices (four more disjoint 24-cells) between the 24-cell's existing 24 vertices, in effect adding twenty-four more distinct 24-cells inscribed in the 600-cell. The new surface thus formed is a honeycomb of smaller, more numerous cells: tetrahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt; instead of octahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;. It encloses the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of the 24-cells, which become invisible interior chords in the 600-cell, like the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords.

Since the tetrahedra are made of shorter triangle edges than the octahedra (by a factor of &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, the inverse golden ratio), the 600-cell is not radially equilateral like the 24-cell and the tesseract. Like them it is radially triangular in a special way, but one in which [[w:Golden_triangle_(mathematics)|golden triangles]] rather than equilateral triangles meet at the center.

In 2-space we have the ''radially golden'' [[W:Decagon#The golden ratio in decagon|regular decagon]]. In 3-space we have the radially golden 30-point [[W:icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]], with 6 decagon central planes. In 4-space we have the radially golden 120-point 600-cell, with 60 icosidodecahedron central hyperplanes and 72 decagon central planes.

The 600-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular [[w:Triacontagon|triacontagon {30}]]. The unit-radius planar {30}-gon has these distinct chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.209&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.416&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.813&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.338&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \cos (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.486&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \cos (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.827&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \cos (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.956&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \cos (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.989&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Only the chord lengths &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_6&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_9&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt; occur in the 600-cell, which is a construct of 24 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, six of which intersect in each icosahedral vertex figure. In the skew {30}-gons the chord lengths are:

[[File:600-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the 600-cell, showing its 5 regular great circle polygons and its 8 chord lengths with angles of arc. The golden ratio governs the fractional roots of every other chord, and the radial golden triangles which meet at the center.|400x400px]]
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;7&quot; |15 chords (4 distinct 180° pairs) make 4 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short edge chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long isocline chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0°
|180°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}=2{15/7}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|12°
|168°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|24°
|156°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V1 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|36°
|144°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|48°
|132°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V2 dodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Dodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|60°
|120°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{6}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V3 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{9}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|72°
|108°
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{7}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V4 icosidodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosidodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{8}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|84°
|96°
|}

The list of 600-cell chords &lt;math&gt;r_{i}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 8 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. The short chord and long chord each have their characteristic {30/n}-gon. Each row identifies a discrete isoclinic rotation of the 600-cell in invariant central planes containing the edges of the short chord {30}-gon, over the isocline chords of the long chord {30}-gon, the rotation's Clifford polygon.

Each distinct pair of complementary chord lengths is identified with a distinct [[w:600-cell#Polyhedral sections|polyhedral section of the 600-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 7 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; is a icosahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; is an [[W:Icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]] central section bisecting the 600-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal icosahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 7 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section).

[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell,  with the same effect on 15 disjoint 16-cells. Each 90° right displacement takes 15 pairs of completely orthogonal invariant great square planes to each other. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Fifteen Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular fibration of 15 twisted parallel strands 5{24/9}=15{8/3} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great square planes, which has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. This ''great square left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' takes place over &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. The {30/7} edge polygon is a skew helix of circumference &lt;math&gt;14\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge belonging to a distinct great square. The four {30/7} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. Each 90° left displacement takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The vertices of the invariant great squares each make seven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/7} edge makes seven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/7} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The {30/8}=2{15/4} Clifford polygon is a compound of two skew {15/4} pentadecagrams of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord belonging to a distinct 16-cell. The four {30/8} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/8} isocline chord makes eight 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/8} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

{{Clear}}
[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great hexagon right rotation characteristic of the 24-cell, over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords, with the same effect on 5 disjoint 24-cells. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions of its 24-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. Ten Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular fibration of ten twisted parallel strands 5{24/10}=10{12/5} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{4}=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_{11}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords This ''great hexagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. Its {30/11} Clifford polygon is a skew helix where each &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord is the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; diagonal of a great hexagon of a distinct 24-cell. The vertices of the invariant great hexagons of this rotation each make eleven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord makes eleven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/11} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;22\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in 12 Clifford parallel invariant decagon central planes containing its 36° &lt;math&gt;r_{3}&lt;/math&gt; edges, over 144° &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''great decagon right rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 5 and takes disjoint 24-cells to each other. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chord of its {5/2} Clifford polygon makes twelve 12° turns. 24 Clifford parallel {5/2} pentagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; over five &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular fibration of 24 twisted parallel strands 4{30/12}=24{5/2} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The right rotation of the 600-cell by 36° in any invariant decagon central plane takes every great decagon to a Clifford parallel great decagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 36° while rotating 36° internally. It also takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon, and every great square to a Clifford parallel great square. The 24-cells revolve within the 600-cell, as the 16-cells revolve within the 24-cells. All 120 vertices move at once on four Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 144° in different directions.

The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great decagon planes containing its 36° &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges, over 144° &lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''great decagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. The rotational curve over each 144° &lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord makes thirteen 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/13} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;26\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

{{Clear}}

== The 5-cell 4-simplex ==

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;9&quot; |30 chords (15 180° pairs) make 15 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{30}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;
|15.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}
|164.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.073~}}
|{{radic|3.927~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.270~
|1.982~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_2&lt;/math&gt;
|25.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|154.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{28}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.191~}}
|{{radic|3.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.437~
|1.952~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{27}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_4&lt;/math&gt;
|41.4~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|138.6~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{26}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.5}}
|{{radic|3.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.707~
|1.871~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_5&lt;/math&gt;
|44.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|135.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{25}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.573~}}
|{{radic|3.427~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.757~
|1.851~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_6&lt;/math&gt;
|49.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|130.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{24}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.691~}}
|{{radic|3.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.831~
|1.819~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_7&lt;/math&gt;
|56°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|124°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{23}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.882~}}
|{{radic|3.118~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.939~
|1.766~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_8&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{22}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_9&lt;/math&gt;
|66.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|113.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{21}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.191~}}
|{{radic|2.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.091~
|1.676~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|69.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|110.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{20}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.309~}}
|{{radic|2.691~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.144~
|1.640~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{19}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|75.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|104.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{18}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.5}}
|{{radic|2.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1.224~
|1.581~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|81.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|98.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{17}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.691~}}
|{{radic|2.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.300~
|1.520~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|84.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|95.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{16}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.809~}}
|{{radic|2.191~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.345~
|1.480~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|}

The [[User:Dc.samizdat/Golden chords of the 120-cell#Thirty distinguished distances|list of thirty 120-cell chords]] &lt;math&gt;c_{t}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 16 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. This table first appears in [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|''Regular Polytopes'']] (1947),{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=Table V(v): Simplified sections of {5,3,3} beginning with a vertex|pp=300-301}} where Coxeter identified each row with a distinct [[w:120-cell#Concentric_hulls|polyhedral section of the 120-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 29 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt; is a tetrahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; is a central section bisecting the 120-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal tetrahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 29 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section). Each section also lies completely orthogonal to a congruent section. 

Only 8 of the 30 chords in the table occur in the 600-cell and the planar {30)-gon. The 120-cell's additional chords arise originally from the regular 5-cell, in its interaction with the other regular 4-polytopes that compound to make the 120-cell. Since all those polytopes except the 5-cell occur in the 600-cell, and the 600-cell and the 120-cell have the same symmetry group, the 5-cell's symmetry group is what's new in the 120-cell.

...

{{Clear}}
== Finally the 120-cell ==
The [[120-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 600 vertices, 1200 edges, 720 pentagon faces, and 120 dodecahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the dodecahedron.

The 120-cell is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 600-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew triacontagon {30}, but the 120-cell is a construct of 40 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;, two of which intersect in each tetrahedral vertex figure.

... 

{{Clear}}

== Conclusions ==

Fontaine and Hurley's discovery is more than a geometric formula for the reciprocal of a regular ''n''-polygon diagonal. It also yields the discrete sequence of isocline chords of the characteristic isoclinic rotation of a ''d''-dimensional polytope in its invariant edge planes. The characteristic rotational chord sequence of the ''d''-polytope can be represented geometrically in two dimensions on a distinct star polygon, but it lies on a geodesic circle through ''d''-dimensional space. Fontaine and Hurley discovered the geodesic topology of polytopes generally. Their procedure will reveal the geodesics of arbitrary non-uniform polytopes, since it can be applied to a polytope of any dimensionality and irregularity, by first fitting the polytope to the smallest regular polygon whose chords include its chords. [If what is meant by this is its Petrie polygon, it is not quite necessary or possible with respect to the planar polygon chords, e.g. the planar Petrie polygon of the 600-cell does not contain the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chord. But perhaps it would work if the fit is to the smallest regular skew polygon in the ''d''-space.]

The discovery of a chordal construction for discrete isoclinic rotations generally closes the circuit on Kappraff and Adamson's discovery of a rotational connection between dynamical systems, Steinbach's golden fields, and Coxeter's Euclidean geometry of ''n'' dimensions. Application of the Fontaine and Hurley procedure in the 120-cell demonstrates why the connection exists: because polytope sequences generally, from Steinbach's golden chord sequences in polygons, to sequences of star polygons in isoclinic rotations, to subsumption relations in the sequence of regular 4-polytopes, arise as expressions of the reflections and rotations of distinct Coxeter symmetry groups, when those various groups interact.

== Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=1997 | title=Golden fields: A case for the Heptagon | journal=Mathematics Magazine | volume=70 | issue=Feb 1997 | pages=22–31 | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1997.11996494 | jstor=2691048 | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|1997}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=2000 | title=Sections Beyond Golden| journal=Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music and Science | issue=2000 | pages=35-44 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2000/bridges2000-35.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|2000}}}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Jablan | first2=Slavik | last3=Adamson | first3=Gary | last4=Sazdanovich | first4=Radmila | year=2004 | title=Golden Fields, Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, and Chaotic Matrices | journal=Forma | volume=19 | pages=367-387 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2005/bridges2005-369.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff, Jablan, Adamson &amp; Sazdanovich|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Adamson | first2=Gary | year=2004 | title=Polygons and Chaos | journal=Dynamical Systems and Geometric Theories | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2001/bridges2001-67.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff &amp; Adamson|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Fontaine | first1=Anne | last2=Hurley | first2=Susan | year=2006 | title=Proof by Picture: Products and Reciprocals of Diagonal Length Ratios in the Regular Polygon | journal=Forum Geometricorum | volume=6 | pages=97-101 | url=https://scispace.com/pdf/proof-by-picture-products-and-reciprocals-of-diagonal-length-1aian8mgp9.pdf }}
{{Refend}}</text>
      <sha1>ml0nrewqerzs2v6cgclctz5bvb7fzdg</sha1>
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      <id>2817065</id>
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        <username>Dc.samizdat</username>
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      <text bytes="85125" sha1="2e6i5ikk7chfz5b4i1ckoc6811phyq8" xml:space="preserve">= Golden chords of the 120-cell =
{{align|center|David Brooks Christie}}
{{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}}
{{align|center|Draft in progress}}
{{align|center|January 2026 - June 2026}}

&lt;blockquote&gt;Steinbach discovered the formula for the ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. Fontaine and Hurley extended this result, discovering a formula for the reciprocal of a regular polygon chord derived geometrically from the chord's star polygon. We observe that these findings in plane geometry apply more generally, to polytopes of any dimensionality. Fontaine and Hurley's geometric procedure for finding the reciprocals of the chords of a regular polygon from their star polygons also finds the rotational geodesics of any polytope of any dimensionality.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Introduction ==
Steinbach discovered the Diagonal Product Formula and the Golden Fields family of ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. He showed how this family extends beyond the pentagon {5} with its well-known golden bisection proportional to 𝜙, finding that the heptagon {7} has an analogous trisection, the nonagon {9} has an analogous quadrasection, and the hendecagon {11} has an analogous pentasection, an extended family of golden proportions with quasiperiodic properties. 

Kappraff and Adamson extended these findings in plane geometry to a theory of Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, showing that the Golden Fields not only do not end with the hendecagon, they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. They found a relation between the edges of star polygons and dynamical systems in the state of chaos, revealing a connection between chaos theory, number, and rotations in Coxeter Euclidean geometry. 

Fontaine and Hurley examined Steinbach's finding that the length of each chord of a regular polygon is both the product of two chords and the sum of a set of smaller chords, so that in rotations to add is to multiply. They illustrated Steinbach's sets of additive chords lying parallel to each other in the plane (pointing in the same direction), and by applying Steinbach's formula more generally they found another summation relation of signed parallel chords (pointing in opposite directions) which relates each chord length to its reciprocal, and relates the summation to a distinct star polygon rotation. 

We examine these remarkable findings (which stem from study of the chords of humble regular polygons) in higher-dimensional spaces, specifically in the chords, polygons and rotations of the [[120-cell]], the largest four-dimensional regular convex polytope.

== Visualizing the 120-cell ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:120-cell.gif|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point 120-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; &quot;Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].&quot;}} In this simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges are shown; its 29 interior chords are not rendered. Therefore even though it is translucent, only its outer surface is visible. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 5-cells, 16-cells, 8-cells, 24-cells, 600-cells and its much larger inventory of polyhedra, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all.
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;.{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} The 120-cell is its convex hull. The projection to the left renders only the 120-cell's shortest chord, its 1200 edges. The projection above also renders only one of the 120-cell's 30 chords, the edges of its 120 inscribed regular 5-cells. The 120-cell itself (the convex hull) is invisible in this view, as its edges are not rendered.
|}

[[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except the regular polygons of more than {15} sides. 

The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. They are the [[5-cell|5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex]], the [[16-cell|8-point (16-cell) 4-orthoplex]], the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the [[24-cell|24-point (24-cell)]], the [[600-cell|120-point (600-cell)]], and the [[120-cell|600-point (120-cell)]]. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, and of 5 disjoint 600-cells.

The 120-cell contains an even larger inventory of irregular polytopes, created by the intersection of multiple instances of these component regular 4-polytopes. Many are quite unexpected, because they do not occur as components of any regular polytope smaller than the 120-cell. As just one example among the [[120-cell#Concentric hulls|sections of the 120-cell]], there is an irregular 24-point polyhedron with 16 triangle faces and 4 nonagon {9} faces.{{Sfn|Moxness|}}

Most renderings of the 120-cell, like the rotating projection here, only illustrate its outer surface, which is a honeycomb of face-bonded dodecahedral cells. Only the objects in its 3-dimensional surface are rendered, namely the 120 dodecahedra, their pentagon faces, and their edges. Although the 120-cell has chords of 30 distinct lengths, in this kind of simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges (its shortest chord) are shown. Its 29 interior chords, the edges of objects in the interior of the 120-cell, are not rendered, so interior objects are not visible at all.

Visualizing the complete interior of the 600-vertex 120-cell in a single image is impractical because of its complexity. Only four 120-cell edges are incident at each vertex, but [[120-cell#Chords|600 chords (of all 30 lengths)]] are incident at ''each'' vertex.

== Compounds in the 120-cell ==
The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell), is the smallest building block; it compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point (5-cell) does compound to the 600-point (120-cell), but it does not fit into any smaller regular 4-polytope. 

The 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 2 in the 16-point (8-cell), and by 3 in the 24-point (24-cell). The 16-point (8-cell) compounds in the 24-point (24-cell) by 3 non-disjoint instances of itself, with each of the 24 vertices shared by two 16-point (8-cells). The 24-point (24-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell), and the 120-point (600-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell).

The 24-point (24-cell) also compounds by 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; non-disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell); it compounds in 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever set of 5 disjoint 24-point (24-cells) are assembled, the resulting 120-point (600-cell) contains 25 distinct 24-point (24-cells), not just 5 (or 10). This implies that 15 disjoint 8-point (16-cells) will construct a 120-point (600-cell), which will contain 75 distinct 8-point (16-cells). 

The 600-point (120-cell) is 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways), so it is 10 distinct 120-point (600-cells). This implies that the 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 3 times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (75) disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell), which contains 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; times  5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (225) distinct instances of the 24-point (24-cell), and  3&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (675) distinct instances of the 8-point (16-cell). 

These facts were discovered painstakingly by various researchers, and no one has found a general rule governing subsumption relations among regular polytopes. The reasons for some of their numeric incidence relations are far from obvious. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''}}

So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] illustrated above, the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, and the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are &lt;math&gt;\phi^6&lt;/math&gt; as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:List of polyhedral stellations#Stellation process|stellation core]] deep inside.

The compound of 120 disjoint 5-point (5-cells) can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell.

== Thirty distinguished distances ==
The 30 numbers listed in the table are all-important in Euclidean geometry. A case can be made on symmetry grounds that their squares are the 30 most important numbers between 0 and 4. The 30 rows of the table are the 30 distinct [[120-cell#Geodesic rectangles|chord lengths of the unit-radius 120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope. Since the 120-cell subsumes all smaller regular polytopes, its 30 chords are the complete chord set of all the regular polytopes that can be constructed in the first four dimensions of Euclidean space, except for regular polygons of more than 15 sides.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|arc
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{n}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;\left\{p\right\}&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;m\left\{\frac{k}{d}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|Steinbach roots
!colspan=7|Chord lengths of the unit 120-cell
|-
!colspan=5|unit-radius length &lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!colspan=2|unit-edge length &lt;math&gt;c_t/c_1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;in 120-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;c_8=\sqrt{2}\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{1,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;15.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}-c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.270091&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.072949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;25.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{15\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(c_{18,1}-c_{4,1}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{3-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.437016&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.190983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;36{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{10\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3 \left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right) c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.381966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.28825&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;41.4{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.707107&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{5,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;44.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{\frac{15}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.756934&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.572949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.80252&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{6,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;49.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{17}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.831254&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5}}{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.690983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.07768&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{7,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;56.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.93913&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.881966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.47709&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;60{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.70246&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{9,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;66.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2 \phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.09132&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.04057&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{10,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;69.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2 \sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.14412&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi }{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{11,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;72{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{6}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.17557&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.38197}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \sqrt{3-\phi } \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.3525&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;75.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{24}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.22474&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.53457&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{13,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;81.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.30038&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.8146&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{14,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;84.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi } c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{1+\sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.345&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi }}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5} \phi }{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.9798&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{15,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;90.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.41421&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{16,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;95.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{29}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.4802&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.48037&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{17,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;98.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{31}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.51954&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(7+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.62605&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{18,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;104.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{8}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.58114&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5} \sqrt{\phi ^4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{19,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;108.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}+c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.9907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{20,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;110.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.64042&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.07359&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{21,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;113.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{19}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.67601&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\chi }{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.20537&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{22,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;120{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{10}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.73205&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{6} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.41285&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{23,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;124.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{41}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }+\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.7658&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.11803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.53779&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{24,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;130.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.81907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\sqrt{5}}{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.73503&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{25,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;135.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.85123&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi ^2}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^4}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.42705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^4&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{26,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;138.6{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{12}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.87083&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{7} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.92667&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{27,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;144{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{12}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{5}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.90211&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\phi +2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{2 \phi +4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.0425&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{28,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;154.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.95167&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.22598&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{29,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;164.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{14}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.98168&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3 \phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.92705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.33708&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{30,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;180{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{15}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.40492&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|rowspan=4 colspan=6|
|rowspan=4 colspan=4|
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; is the golden ratio:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2-\phi -1=0&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }+1=\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, and: &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi+1=\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }::1::\phi ::\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1/\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; and &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; are the golden sections of &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi +\frac{1}{\phi }=\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi = (\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\chi = (3\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = (3\sqrt{5} - 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = 11/\chi = 22/(3\sqrt{5} + 1)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The 16-cell 4-orthoplex ==
In 2-space we have the regular 8-point octagon, in 3-space the regular 8-point cube, and in 4-space the regular 8-point [[16-cell]].

A planar octagon with rigid edges of unit length has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_3=\sqrt{2}+1 \approx 2.414,r_4=\sqrt{4 + \sqrt{8}} \approx 2.613&lt;/math&gt;

The chord ratio &lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}+1&lt;/math&gt; is a geometrical proportion, the [[W:Silver ratio|silver ratio]]. Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that:

:&lt;math&gt;r_3-r_1-r_1=1/r_3 \approx 0.414&lt;/math&gt;

Note that &lt;math&gt;r_3-2=1/r_3=\sqrt{2}-1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over three &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of an {8/3} octagram. Over the first &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord the displacement is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}+r_1&lt;/math&gt;. Over the second &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves in the opposite direction a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt; . Over the third &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt;.

If we embed the planar octagon in 3-space, we can make it skew, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from three others instead of two others, at the vertices of a unit-edge cube with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1, r_2=\sqrt{2}, r_3=\sqrt{3}, r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

If we embed this cube in 4-space, we can skew it some more, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from six others instead of three others, at the vertices of a unit-edge 4-polytope with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=1,r_3=1,r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

All of its chords except its long diameters are the same unit length as its edge. In fact they are its 24 edges, and it is a 16-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;1/\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;.

[[File:octagon16cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of a regular 16-cell to the [[16-cell#Projections|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only its edges are shown; its long diameter chords are not drawn. All 24 edges are the same length and none lie parallel to the projection plane. The octagon circumference is a Petrie polygon. The two disjoint squares lie in completely orthogonal central planes. The blue octagram is a Clifford polygon. ]]

The [[16-cell]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 8 vertices, 24 edges, 32 equilateral triangle faces, and 16 regular tetrahedron cells. It is the [[16-cell#Octahedral dipyramid|four-dimensional analogue of the octahedron]], and each of its four orthogonal central hyperplanes is an octahedron.

The only planar regular polygons found in the 16-cell are face triangles and central plane squares, but the 16-cell also contains a skew regular octagon, its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]].{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} The chords of this regular octagon, which lies skew in 4-space, are those given above for the 16-cell, as opposed to those for the cube or the regular octagon in the plane. The 16-cell is a construct of 3 Petrie octagons which share the same 8 vertices but have disjoint sets of 8 edges each.

The regular octad has higher symmetry in 4-space than it does in 2-space. The 16-cell is the 4-[[w:Cross-polytope|orthoplex]], the simplest regular 4-polytope after the [[5-cell|4-simplex]]. All the larger regular convex 4-polytopes are compounds of the 16-cell. The regular octagon exhibits this high symmetry only when embedded in 4-space at the vertices of the 16-cell.

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal basis]] for the choice of a 4-dimensional Cartesian reference frame, because its vertices define four orthogonal axes. The eight vertices of a unit-radius 16-cell are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges except opposite pairs. 

The vertex coordinates of the 16-cell form 6 central squares lying in 6 pairwise [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] coordinate planes. Great squares in opposite planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

Since the unit-radius coordinate system is convenient, let us derive the unit-radius 16-cell by skewing a unit-radius planar octagon, which has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2-\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.765,r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_4=2&lt;/math&gt;

We will need a planar octagon with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords, rather than one with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; edges. The octagon's &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords form two disjoint great squares, visible in the orthogonal projection, which we can reposition in 3-space to form a cube by making them parallel, and in 4-space to form a 16-cell by making them completely orthogonal.

Since the edges of the 16-cell are all the same length &lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, those chords are distinct only in the context of a rotation. Each chord is a 4-vector with a length and a direction. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_i&lt;/math&gt; chord makes &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt; 45° turns.

[[File:16-cell-orig.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 8-point 16-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a double rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}}]]
[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in completely orthogonal planes. The general rotation in 4-space is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]] in pairs of completely orthogonal planes. Two completely orthogonal planes are called invariant planes of the rotation when all points in the plane rotate on circles that remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways (like a coin flipping) into another plane. The two completely orthogonal rotations of each plane (like a wheel, and like a coin flipping) are simultaneous but independent, in that they are not geometrically constrained to turn at the same rate. However, the most circular kind of rotation (as opposed to an elliptical double rotation of a rigid spherical object) occurs when the completely orthogonal planes do rotate through the same angle in the same time interval. Such equi-angled double rotations are called [[w:SO(4)#Isoclinic_rotations|isoclinic]], also [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|Clifford]] displacements.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a Petrie polygon {8/1} which zig-zags back and forth, in the left and right rotational directions, between two completely orthogonal great squares formed by &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords.

The &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords  form the ''edge polygon'' of the 16-cell {8/2}=2{4}. The two completely orthogonal great squares lie parallel and perpendicular to each other. A ''simple'' rotation of the 16-cell in ''one'' of those two square central planes rotates that square like a wheel, while the other square does not move.{{Efn|name=simple rotations}} The four vertices of the rotating square orbit on a great circle in the plane.

The &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a circular helix, visible as a blue {8/3} octagram in the orthogonal projection. A ''double'' rotation of the 16-cell, in both of two completely orthogonal invariant &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; square planes at once by equal angles, moves the eight vertices along the circular helix over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords. The vertex motion is a [[w:Geodesic|geodesic]] circle orbit on the 3-sphere of a special kind: it does not lie in a central plane, its [[w:Winding_number|winding number]] is not 1 (it is 3 in this case), its circumference is not &lt;math&gt;2\pi&lt;/math&gt;, and it moves in either a left or right handed circular spiral. We shall refer to such a chiral circle orbit as an ''isocline'', and to the skew polygram of its rotational chords as a ''Clifford polygon''.

The 16-cell is the simplest possible frame in which to [[16-cell#Rotations|observe 4-dimensional rotations]] because its characteristic rotations feature a single pair of invariant rotation planes. In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90° in any pair of invariant completely orthogonal square central planes takes every great square to its completely orthogonal great square in a twisting displacement, as the invariant planes tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally. All the vertices move at once along the same circular helix geodesic isocline of &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. In 360° of isoclinic rotation over four &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, each vertex makes six 90° turns and reaches its antipodal position.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over eight &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the four &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great square in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation.

Because this is the isoclinic rotation of the 16-cell in its invariant great circle edge planes we shall refer to it as the ''great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell'', and note once again that it is Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; star polygon, which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_3&lt;/math&gt;.

== The 8-cell tesseract ==
The long diameter of the unit-edge [[W:Hypercube|hypercube]] of dimension &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{n}&lt;/math&gt;, so the unit-edge [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube, the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract,]] has chords:
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;
Uniquely in its 4-dimensional case, the hypercube's edge length equals its radius, like the hexagon. We call such polytopes ''radially equilateral'', because they can be constructed from equilateral triangles which meet at their center, each contributing two radii and an edge. The [[w:Cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]] and the 24-cell are also radially equilateral.

[[File:8-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation about a plane in 4-space.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The stationary plane bisects the figure from front-left to back-right and top to bottom.]]
The [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 16 vertices, 32 edges, 24 square faces, and 8 cube cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube.

The 16-point tesseract is the convex hull of a compound of two 8-point 16-cells, in exact dimensional analogy to the way the 8-point cube is the convex hull of a [[W:Stellated octahedron|compound of two 4-point regular tetrahedra]]. The [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercubes]] occupy alternate vertices of the hypercubes. The diagonals of the square faces of the unit-edge, unit-radius tesseract are the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges of two unit-radius 16-cells, also the edges of the square central planes.

We can rotate the tesseract isoclinically the way we rotated the 16-cell, by 90° in the great square right rotation, with the same effect on both alternate-position 16-cells. In the course of a 720° revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cell. The two skew {8/3} octagram Clifford polygons lie on two disjoint parallel isoclines of the same chirality, of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chords. They form a circular double helix which intersects each vertex of the tesseract once. The helix is an 8-rung ladder twisted 3 times, bent into a circle in the fourth dimension. Each rung is a tesseract edge.

The tesseract is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 16-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew octagon, but the tesseract is a construct of 4 Petrie octagons with disjoint sets of 8 tesseract edges each. We can construct the tesseract by skewing two planar octagons. Because the tesseract is radially equilateral (unlike the 16-cell), we use two octagons of unit-edge length to build the unit-radius tesseract. To start we embed the planar octagons in 4-space at the same point and make them completely orthogonal. Then we skew each planar octagon into a cube, so we have a compound of two completely orthogonal cubes, provided we skewed them both in the same direction. The 16 vertices will be the vertices of a tesseract with half its 32 edges missing.

Because the tesseract contains two 16-cells in alternate positions it has two sets of 6 orthogonal square central planes. Two angles are required to specify the relationship between two planes in 4-space. Pairs of square central planes within each 16-cell are 90° apart in one angle, and either 0° or 90° apart in the other angle. They are 90° apart in both angles if and only if they are completely orthogonal planes, 90° apart by isoclinic rotation, with no vertices in common. Otherwise they are 0° apart in one of the angles, 90° apart by simple rotation, and they intersect in one axis and lie in a common 3-dimensional hyperplane.{{Efn|A double rotation in which one of the two angles of rotation is 0°, so that one of the completely orthogonal invariant planes does not rotate, is called a simple rotation. Ordinary rotations observed in a 3-dimensional space are simple rotations.|name=simple rotations}}

A pair of square central planes from alternate-position 16-cells are 60° apart by isoclinic rotation, with their corresponding vertices 120° apart. The planes are not orthogonal or parallel, so they intersect in a line somewhere, but they have no vertices in common, they have no 3-dimensional hyperplane in common, and they cannot reach each other by simple rotation. Such pairs of objects are called [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] because all their corresponding pairs of vertices are the same distance apart, although they are not parallel in the usual sense, because they have a common center. Not only the alternate-position 16-cells' corresponding square central planes, but also the 16-cells themselves, are Clifford parallel objects. More generally, multiple disjoint instances of a 4-polytope which compound to make a larger 4-polytope are Clifford parallel objects.

== The 24-cell ==
[[File:24-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the radially equilateral 24-cell, showing its 3 great circle polygons and its 4 chord lengths.]]
In 2-space we have the radially equilateral 6-point hexagon. In 3-space we have the radially equilateral 12-point cuboctahedron, with 4 hexagonal central planes. In 4-space we have the radially equilateral 24-point 24-cell, with 12 cuboctahedron central hyperplanes and 16 hexagonal central planes.

The [[24-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 24 vertices, 96 edges, 96 equilateral triangle faces, and 24 octahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cuboctahedron.

The 24-cell has the same chord set as the 4-hypercube tesseract:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

[[Image:24-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 24-point 24-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 24 octahedra is visible.]]
The 24-cell is [[W:Dual polytope|self-dual]], like the regular polygons and regular simplexes. It is the maximal regular construct of triangles and squares (with no pentagons). It is the convex hull of a compound of three disjoint 8-point 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. Each of the three pairs of 16-cells is a tesseract. Each 24-cell edge is also a tesseract edge. The corresponding vertices of two 16-cells or two tesseracts are 120° apart by a &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chord. Each tesseract has 8 cube cells, and each cube has four &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; long diameters. The &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords joining the corresponding vertices of two tesseracts belong to the third tesseract as cell long diameters.

The 24-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular dodecagon {12}, which has chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}-1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.518,r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}+1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.932,r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that: 

:&lt;math&gt;r_5-r_3+r_1+r_1-r_3=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;

when &lt;math&gt;r_1=1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over five &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of a {12/5} dodecagram. In the system of unit-radius coordinates &lt;math&gt;r_1=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of the planar dodecagon do not occur in the 24-cell, which is a construct of eight skew dodecagons with disjoint sets of twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges each. In the skew dodecagons the chord lengths are:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\sqrt{3},r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

[[File:dodecagon24cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of half a 24-cell to the [[24-cell#Geodesics|F&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only one Petrie dodecagon {12} of the 24-cell is shown. In a unit-radius 24-cell, all black lines are 24-cell edges of unit length, also tesseract edges. The two disjoint hexagons lie in Clifford parallel central planes. Blue chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; 16-cell edges, also isocline chords in square rotations. Green chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; distances between corresponding vertices of two 16-cells, also isocline chords in hexagon rotations. The green {12/5} dodecagram is a Clifford polygon.]]
[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in the great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell, with the same effect on all three 16-cells. In 720° each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cells. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Three Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular triple helix {24/9}=3{8/3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. The helix is an 8-step circular staircase twisted 3 times, bent into a circle in the fourth dimension. Each triangular step is a 24-cell face.

[[File:Regular_star_figure_8(3,1).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/8}=8{3}&lt;small&gt; &lt;/small&gt;shows 8 of 32 skew&lt;small&gt; &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; triangles]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 4 Clifford parallel invariant great hexagon planes containing &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges, over &lt;math&gt;r_{4}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This is the great ''hexagon right rotation characteristic of the 24-cell'', also Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt; star polygon which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_4&lt;/math&gt;. A complete hexagon right revolution requires 720° like a complete square right revolution, but it is completed in 12 isoclinic displacements of 60° each rather than 8 isoclinic displacements of 90° each. Eight Clifford parallel skew triangle {3} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;2\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular fibration of 8 twisted parallel strands {24/8}=8{3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. In every 180° of isoclinic rotation each vertex circles a skew triangle and returns to its original position, but the 24-cell returns to its original orientation only after each vertex has completed circuits of the four distinct skew triangles which intersect at the vertex.

[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 12 Clifford parallel invariant planes containing a single &lt;math&gt;r_{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge each, over &lt;math&gt;r_{5}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This is Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; {12/5} star polygon which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;. A complete {12/5} right revolution requires 720° like a complete square right revolution, but it is completed in 12 isoclinic displacements of 60° each rather than 8 isoclinic displacements of 90° each. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chord makes five 30° turns. Two Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular double helix {24/10}=2{12/5} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. 

In the 24-cell a great hexagon right rotation by 60° in any invariant hexagon central plane takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 60° while rotating 60° internally. It also takes every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The 16-cells revolve within the 24-cell as well as rotating within it. All 24 vertices move at once on two Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 120° in different directions.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 60° rotational displacement is a one-twelfth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the six &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great hexagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 24-cell returns to its original orientation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;6&quot; |6 distinct 180° chord pairs make 6 distinct isoclinic rotations
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Edge chord
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Isocline chord
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_1&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_24.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/1}={24}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/11}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|15°
|165°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_2&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(12,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/2}=2{12}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(12,5).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/10}=2{12/5}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|30°
|150°
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_3&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/3}=3{8}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/9}=3{8/3}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{9}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|45°
|135°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_4&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_4(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/4}=4{6}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_8(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/8}=8{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{8}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|60°
|120°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_5&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-5.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/5}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/7}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{7}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|75°
|105°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_6&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(4,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/6}=6{4}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(4,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/6}=6{4}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{6}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|90°
|90°
|}

By examining the chords of the 24-cell's Petrie {12}-gon &lt;math&gt;r_i&lt;/math&gt; we found three isoclinic rotations. If we examine the chords of the 24-cell's {24}-gon &lt;math&gt;t_i&lt;/math&gt; we find these and three other distinct isoclinic rotations. In each rotation the lengths of the edge chord and the isocline chord sum to 180°. The rotational angles separating successive edge chords and successive isocline chords also sum to 180°. The edge chord forms an edge polygon over which one or more vertices circle in each moving invariant plane. The isocline chord forms the rotation's Clifford polygon over which the vertices circle in 4-space. 

{{Clear}}

== The 600-cell ==
[[Image:600-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 120-point 600-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2011}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 600 tetrahedra is visible. Invisible in this rendering are 25 inscribed instances of the 24-cell (above), which occur in the 600-cell as interior boundary envelopes.]]
The [[600-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 120 vertices, 720 edges, 1200 equilateral triangle faces, and 600 tetrahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the icosahedron.

The 600-cell rounds out the 24-cell by adding 96 more vertices (four more disjoint 24-cells) between the 24-cell's existing 24 vertices, in effect adding twenty-four more distinct 24-cells inscribed in the 600-cell. The new surface thus formed is a honeycomb of smaller, more numerous cells: tetrahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt; instead of octahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;. It encloses the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of the 24-cells, which become invisible interior chords in the 600-cell, like the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords.

Since the tetrahedra are made of shorter triangle edges than the octahedra (by a factor of &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, the inverse golden ratio), the 600-cell is not radially equilateral like the 24-cell and the tesseract. Like them it is radially triangular in a special way, but one in which [[w:Golden_triangle_(mathematics)|golden triangles]] rather than equilateral triangles meet at the center.

In 2-space we have the ''radially golden'' [[W:Decagon#The golden ratio in decagon|regular decagon]]. In 3-space we have the radially golden 30-point [[W:icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]], with 6 decagon central planes. In 4-space we have the radially golden 120-point 600-cell, with 60 icosidodecahedron central hyperplanes and 72 decagon central planes.

The 600-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular [[w:Triacontagon|triacontagon {30}]]. The unit-radius planar {30}-gon has these distinct chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.209&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.416&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.813&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.338&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \cos (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.486&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \cos (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.827&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \cos (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.956&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \cos (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.989&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Only the chord lengths &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_6&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_9&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt; occur in the 600-cell, which is a construct of 24 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, six of which intersect in each icosahedral vertex figure. In the skew {30}-gons the chord lengths are:

[[File:600-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the 600-cell, showing its 5 regular great circle polygons and its 8 chord lengths with angles of arc. The golden ratio governs the fractional roots of every other chord, and the radial golden triangles which meet at the center.|400x400px]]
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;7&quot; |15 chords (4 distinct 180° pairs) make 4 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short edge chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long isocline chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0°
|180°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}=2{15/7}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|12°
|168°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|24°
|156°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V1 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|36°
|144°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|48°
|132°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V2 dodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Dodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|60°
|120°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{6}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V3 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{9}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|72°
|108°
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{7}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V4 icosidodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosidodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{8}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|84°
|96°
|}

The list of 600-cell chords &lt;math&gt;r_{i}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 8 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. The short chord and long chord each have their characteristic {30/n}-gon. Each row identifies a discrete isoclinic rotation of the 600-cell in invariant central planes containing the edges of the short chord {30}-gon, over the isocline chords of the long chord {30}-gon, the rotation's Clifford polygon.

Each distinct pair of complementary chord lengths is identified with a distinct [[w:600-cell#Polyhedral sections|polyhedral section of the 600-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 7 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; is a icosahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; is an [[W:Icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]] central section bisecting the 600-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal icosahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 7 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section).

[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell,  with the same effect on 15 disjoint 16-cells. Each 90° right displacement takes 15 pairs of completely orthogonal invariant great square planes to each other. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Fifteen Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular fibration of 15 twisted parallel strands 5{24/9}=15{8/3} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great square planes, which has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. This ''great square left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' takes place over &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. The {30/7} edge polygon is a skew helix of circumference &lt;math&gt;14\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge belonging to a distinct great square. The four {30/7} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. Each 90° left displacement takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The vertices of the invariant great squares each make seven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/7} edge makes seven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/7} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The {30/8}=2{15/4} Clifford polygon is a compound of two skew {15/4} pentadecagrams of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord belonging to a distinct 16-cell. The four {30/8} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/8} isocline chord makes eight 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/8} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

{{Clear}}
[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great hexagon right rotation characteristic of the 24-cell, over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords, with the same effect on 5 disjoint 24-cells. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions of its 24-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. Ten Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular fibration of ten twisted parallel strands 5{24/10}=10{12/5} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{4}=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_{11}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords This ''great hexagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. Its {30/11} Clifford polygon is a skew helix where each &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord is the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; diagonal of a great hexagon of a distinct 24-cell. The vertices of the invariant great hexagons of this rotation each make eleven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord makes eleven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/11} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;22\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in 12 Clifford parallel invariant decagon central planes containing its 36° &lt;math&gt;r_{3}&lt;/math&gt; edges, over 144° &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''great decagon right rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 5 and takes disjoint 24-cells to each other. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chord of its {5/2} Clifford polygon makes twelve 12° turns. 24 Clifford parallel {5/2} pentagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; over five &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular fibration of 24 twisted parallel strands 4{30/12}=24{5/2} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The right rotation of the 600-cell by 36° in any invariant decagon central plane takes every great decagon to a Clifford parallel great decagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 36° while rotating 36° internally. It also takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon, and every great square to a Clifford parallel great square. The 24-cells revolve within the 600-cell, as the 16-cells revolve within the 24-cells. All 120 vertices move at once on four Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 144° in different directions.

The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great decagon planes containing its 36° &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges, over 144° &lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''great decagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. The rotational curve over each 144° &lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord makes thirteen 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/13} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;26\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

{{Clear}}

== The 5-cell 4-simplex ==

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;9&quot; |30 chords (15 180° pairs) make 15 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{30}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;
|15.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}
|164.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.073~}}
|{{radic|3.927~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.270~
|1.982~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_2&lt;/math&gt;
|25.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|154.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{28}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.191~}}
|{{radic|3.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.437~
|1.952~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{27}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_4&lt;/math&gt;
|41.4~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|138.6~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{26}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.5}}
|{{radic|3.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.707~
|1.871~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_5&lt;/math&gt;
|44.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|135.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{25}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.573~}}
|{{radic|3.427~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.757~
|1.851~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_6&lt;/math&gt;
|49.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|130.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{24}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.691~}}
|{{radic|3.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.831~
|1.819~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_7&lt;/math&gt;
|56°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|124°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{23}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.882~}}
|{{radic|3.118~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.939~
|1.766~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_8&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{22}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_9&lt;/math&gt;
|66.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|113.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{21}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.191~}}
|{{radic|2.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.091~
|1.676~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|69.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|110.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{20}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.309~}}
|{{radic|2.691~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.144~
|1.640~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{19}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|75.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|104.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{18}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.5}}
|{{radic|2.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1.224~
|1.581~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|81.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|98.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{17}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.691~}}
|{{radic|2.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.300~
|1.520~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|84.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|95.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{16}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.809~}}
|{{radic|2.191~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.345~
|1.480~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|}

The [[User:Dc.samizdat/Golden chords of the 120-cell#Thirty distinguished distances|list of thirty 120-cell chords]] &lt;math&gt;c_{t}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 16 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. This table first appears in [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|''Regular Polytopes'']] (1947),{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=Table V(v): Simplified sections of {5,3,3} beginning with a vertex|pp=300-301}} where Coxeter identified each row with a distinct [[w:120-cell#Concentric_hulls|polyhedral section of the 120-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 29 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt; is a tetrahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; is a central section bisecting the 120-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal tetrahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 29 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section). Each section also lies completely orthogonal to a congruent section. 

Only 8 of the 30 chords in the table occur in the 600-cell and the planar {30)-gon. The 120-cell's additional chords arise originally from the regular 5-cell, in its interaction with the other regular 4-polytopes that compound to make the 120-cell. Since all those polytopes except the 5-cell occur in the 600-cell, and the 600-cell and the 120-cell have the same symmetry group, the 5-cell's symmetry group is what's new in the 120-cell.

...

{{Clear}}
== Finally the 120-cell ==
The [[120-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 600 vertices, 1200 edges, 720 pentagon faces, and 120 dodecahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the dodecahedron.

The 120-cell is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 600-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew triacontagon {30}, but the 120-cell is a construct of 40 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;, two of which intersect in each tetrahedral vertex figure.

... 

{{Clear}}

== Conclusions ==

Fontaine and Hurley's discovery is more than a geometric formula for the reciprocal of a regular ''n''-polygon diagonal. It also yields the discrete sequence of isocline chords of the characteristic isoclinic rotation of a ''d''-dimensional polytope in its invariant edge planes. The characteristic rotational chord sequence of the ''d''-polytope can be represented geometrically in two dimensions on a distinct star polygon, but it lies on a geodesic circle through ''d''-dimensional space. Fontaine and Hurley discovered the geodesic topology of polytopes generally. Their procedure will reveal the geodesics of arbitrary non-uniform polytopes, since it can be applied to a polytope of any dimensionality and irregularity, by first fitting the polytope to the smallest regular polygon whose chords include its chords. [If what is meant by this is its Petrie polygon, it is not quite necessary or possible with respect to the planar polygon chords, e.g. the planar Petrie polygon of the 600-cell does not contain the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chord. But perhaps it would work if the fit is to the smallest regular skew polygon in the ''d''-space.]

The discovery of a chordal construction for discrete isoclinic rotations generally closes the circuit on Kappraff and Adamson's discovery of a rotational connection between dynamical systems, Steinbach's golden fields, and Coxeter's Euclidean geometry of ''n'' dimensions. Application of the Fontaine and Hurley procedure in the 120-cell demonstrates why the connection exists: because polytope sequences generally, from Steinbach's golden chord sequences in polygons, to sequences of star polygons in isoclinic rotations, to subsumption relations in the sequence of regular 4-polytopes, arise as expressions of the reflections and rotations of distinct Coxeter symmetry groups, when those various groups interact.

== Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=1997 | title=Golden fields: A case for the Heptagon | journal=Mathematics Magazine | volume=70 | issue=Feb 1997 | pages=22–31 | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1997.11996494 | jstor=2691048 | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|1997}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=2000 | title=Sections Beyond Golden| journal=Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music and Science | issue=2000 | pages=35-44 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2000/bridges2000-35.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|2000}}}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Jablan | first2=Slavik | last3=Adamson | first3=Gary | last4=Sazdanovich | first4=Radmila | year=2004 | title=Golden Fields, Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, and Chaotic Matrices | journal=Forma | volume=19 | pages=367-387 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2005/bridges2005-369.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff, Jablan, Adamson &amp; Sazdanovich|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Adamson | first2=Gary | year=2004 | title=Polygons and Chaos | journal=Dynamical Systems and Geometric Theories | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2001/bridges2001-67.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff &amp; Adamson|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Fontaine | first1=Anne | last2=Hurley | first2=Susan | year=2006 | title=Proof by Picture: Products and Reciprocals of Diagonal Length Ratios in the Regular Polygon | journal=Forum Geometricorum | volume=6 | pages=97-101 | url=https://scispace.com/pdf/proof-by-picture-products-and-reciprocals-of-diagonal-length-1aian8mgp9.pdf }}
{{Refend}}</text>
      <sha1>2e6i5ikk7chfz5b4i1ckoc6811phyq8</sha1>
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      <id>2817066</id>
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      <text bytes="85203" sha1="192frwr00lkjnbsale0uv03gdjkpjnu" xml:space="preserve">= Golden chords of the 120-cell =
{{align|center|David Brooks Christie}}
{{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}}
{{align|center|Draft in progress}}
{{align|center|January 2026 - June 2026}}

&lt;blockquote&gt;Steinbach discovered the formula for the ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. Fontaine and Hurley extended this result, discovering a formula for the reciprocal of a regular polygon chord derived geometrically from the chord's star polygon. We observe that these findings in plane geometry apply more generally, to polytopes of any dimensionality. Fontaine and Hurley's geometric procedure for finding the reciprocals of the chords of a regular polygon from their star polygons also finds the rotational geodesics of any polytope of any dimensionality.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Introduction ==
Steinbach discovered the Diagonal Product Formula and the Golden Fields family of ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. He showed how this family extends beyond the pentagon {5} with its well-known golden bisection proportional to 𝜙, finding that the heptagon {7} has an analogous trisection, the nonagon {9} has an analogous quadrasection, and the hendecagon {11} has an analogous pentasection, an extended family of golden proportions with quasiperiodic properties. 

Kappraff and Adamson extended these findings in plane geometry to a theory of Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, showing that the Golden Fields not only do not end with the hendecagon, they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. They found a relation between the edges of star polygons and dynamical systems in the state of chaos, revealing a connection between chaos theory, number, and rotations in Coxeter Euclidean geometry. 

Fontaine and Hurley examined Steinbach's finding that the length of each chord of a regular polygon is both the product of two chords and the sum of a set of smaller chords, so that in rotations to add is to multiply. They illustrated Steinbach's sets of additive chords lying parallel to each other in the plane (pointing in the same direction), and by applying Steinbach's formula more generally they found another summation relation of signed parallel chords (pointing in opposite directions) which relates each chord length to its reciprocal, and relates the summation to a distinct star polygon rotation. 

We examine these remarkable findings (which stem from study of the chords of humble regular polygons) in higher-dimensional spaces, specifically in the chords, polygons and rotations of the [[120-cell]], the largest four-dimensional regular convex polytope.

== Visualizing the 120-cell ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:120-cell.gif|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point 120-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; &quot;Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].&quot;}} In this simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges are shown; its 29 interior chords are not rendered. Therefore even though it is translucent, only its outer surface is visible. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 5-cells, 16-cells, 8-cells, 24-cells, 600-cells and its much larger inventory of polyhedra, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all.
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;.{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} The 120-cell is its convex hull. The projection to the left renders only the 120-cell's shortest chord, its 1200 edges. The projection above also renders only one of the 120-cell's 30 chords, the edges of its 120 inscribed regular 5-cells. The 120-cell itself (the convex hull) is invisible in this view, as its edges are not rendered.
|}

[[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except the regular polygons of more than {15} sides. 

The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. They are the [[5-cell|5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex]], the [[16-cell|8-point (16-cell) 4-orthoplex]], the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the [[24-cell|24-point (24-cell)]], the [[600-cell|120-point (600-cell)]], and the [[120-cell|600-point (120-cell)]]. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, and of 5 disjoint 600-cells.

The 120-cell contains an even larger inventory of irregular polytopes, created by the intersection of multiple instances of these component regular 4-polytopes. Many are quite unexpected, because they do not occur as components of any regular polytope smaller than the 120-cell. As just one example among the [[120-cell#Concentric hulls|sections of the 120-cell]], there is an irregular 24-point polyhedron with 16 triangle faces and 4 nonagon {9} faces.{{Sfn|Moxness|}}

Most renderings of the 120-cell, like the rotating projection here, only illustrate its outer surface, which is a honeycomb of face-bonded dodecahedral cells. Only the objects in its 3-dimensional surface are rendered, namely the 120 dodecahedra, their pentagon faces, and their edges. Although the 120-cell has chords of 30 distinct lengths, in this kind of simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges (its shortest chord) are shown. Its 29 interior chords, the edges of objects in the interior of the 120-cell, are not rendered, so interior objects are not visible at all.

Visualizing the complete interior of the 600-vertex 120-cell in a single image is impractical because of its complexity. Only four 120-cell edges are incident at each vertex, but [[120-cell#Chords|600 chords (of all 30 lengths)]] are incident at ''each'' vertex.

== Compounds in the 120-cell ==
The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell), is the smallest building block; it compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point (5-cell) does compound to the 600-point (120-cell), but it does not fit into any smaller regular 4-polytope. 

The 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 2 in the 16-point (8-cell), and by 3 in the 24-point (24-cell). The 16-point (8-cell) compounds in the 24-point (24-cell) by 3 non-disjoint instances of itself, with each of the 24 vertices shared by two 16-point (8-cells). The 24-point (24-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell), and the 120-point (600-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell).

The 24-point (24-cell) also compounds by 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; non-disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell); it compounds in 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever set of 5 disjoint 24-point (24-cells) are assembled, the resulting 120-point (600-cell) contains 25 distinct 24-point (24-cells), not just 5 (or 10). This implies that 15 disjoint 8-point (16-cells) will construct a 120-point (600-cell), which will contain 75 distinct 8-point (16-cells). 

The 600-point (120-cell) is 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways), so it is 10 distinct 120-point (600-cells). This implies that the 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 3 times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (75) disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell), which contains 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; times  5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (225) distinct instances of the 24-point (24-cell), and  3&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (675) distinct instances of the 8-point (16-cell). 

These facts were discovered painstakingly by various researchers, and no one has found a general rule governing subsumption relations among regular polytopes. The reasons for some of their numeric incidence relations are far from obvious. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''}}

So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] illustrated above, the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, and the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are &lt;math&gt;\phi^6&lt;/math&gt; as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:List of polyhedral stellations#Stellation process|stellation core]] deep inside.

The compound of 120 disjoint 5-point (5-cells) can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell.

== Thirty distinguished distances ==
The 30 numbers listed in the table are all-important in Euclidean geometry. A case can be made on symmetry grounds that their squares are the 30 most important numbers between 0 and 4. The 30 rows of the table are the 30 distinct [[120-cell#Geodesic rectangles|chord lengths of the unit-radius 120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope. Since the 120-cell subsumes all smaller regular polytopes, its 30 chords are the complete chord set of all the regular polytopes that can be constructed in the first four dimensions of Euclidean space, except for regular polygons of more than 15 sides.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|arc
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{n}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;\left\{p\right\}&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;m\left\{\frac{k}{d}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|Steinbach roots
!colspan=7|Chord lengths of the unit 120-cell
|-
!colspan=5|unit-radius length &lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!colspan=2|unit-edge length &lt;math&gt;c_t/c_1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;in 120-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;c_8=\sqrt{2}\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{1,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;15.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}-c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.270091&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.072949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;25.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{15\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(c_{18,1}-c_{4,1}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{3-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.437016&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.190983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;36{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{10\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3 \left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right) c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.381966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.28825&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;41.4{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.707107&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{5,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;44.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{\frac{15}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.756934&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.572949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.80252&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{6,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;49.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{17}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.831254&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5}}{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.690983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.07768&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{7,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;56.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.93913&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.881966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.47709&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;60{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.70246&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{9,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;66.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2 \phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.09132&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.04057&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{10,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;69.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2 \sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.14412&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi }{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{11,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;72{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{6}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.17557&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.38197}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \sqrt{3-\phi } \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.3525&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;75.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{24}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.22474&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.53457&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{13,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;81.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.30038&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.8146&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{14,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;84.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi } c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{1+\sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.345&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi }}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5} \phi }{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.9798&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{15,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;90.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.41421&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{16,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;95.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{29}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.4802&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.48037&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{17,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;98.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{31}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.51954&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(7+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.62605&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{18,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;104.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{8}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.58114&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5} \sqrt{\phi ^4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{19,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;108.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}+c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.9907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{20,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;110.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.64042&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.07359&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{21,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;113.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{19}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.67601&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\chi }{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.20537&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{22,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;120{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{10}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.73205&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{6} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.41285&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{23,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;124.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{41}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }+\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.7658&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.11803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.53779&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{24,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;130.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.81907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\sqrt{5}}{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.73503&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{25,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;135.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.85123&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi ^2}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^4}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.42705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^4&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{26,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;138.6{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{12}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.87083&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{7} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.92667&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{27,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;144{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{12}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{5}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.90211&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\phi +2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{2 \phi +4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.0425&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{28,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;154.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.95167&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.22598&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{29,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;164.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{14}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.98168&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3 \phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.92705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.33708&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{30,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;180{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{15}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.40492&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|rowspan=4 colspan=6|
|rowspan=4 colspan=4|
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; is the golden ratio:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2-\phi -1=0&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }+1=\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, and: &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi+1=\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }::1::\phi ::\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1/\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; and &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; are the golden sections of &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi +\frac{1}{\phi }=\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi = (\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\chi = (3\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = (3\sqrt{5} - 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = 11/\chi = 22/(3\sqrt{5} + 1)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The 16-cell 4-orthoplex ==
In 2-space we have the regular 8-point octagon, in 3-space the regular 8-point cube, and in 4-space the regular 8-point [[16-cell]].

A planar octagon with rigid edges of unit length has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_3=\sqrt{2}+1 \approx 2.414,r_4=\sqrt{4 + \sqrt{8}} \approx 2.613&lt;/math&gt;

The chord ratio &lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}+1&lt;/math&gt; is a geometrical proportion, the [[W:Silver ratio|silver ratio]]. Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that:

:&lt;math&gt;r_3-r_1-r_1=1/r_3 \approx 0.414&lt;/math&gt;

Note that &lt;math&gt;r_3-2=1/r_3=\sqrt{2}-1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over three &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of an {8/3} octagram. Over the first &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord the displacement is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}+r_1&lt;/math&gt;. Over the second &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves in the opposite direction a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt; . Over the third &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt;.

If we embed the planar octagon in 3-space, we can make it skew, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from three others instead of two others, at the vertices of a unit-edge cube with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1, r_2=\sqrt{2}, r_3=\sqrt{3}, r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

If we embed this cube in 4-space, we can skew it some more, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from six others instead of three others, at the vertices of a unit-edge 4-polytope with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=1,r_3=1,r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

All of its chords except its long diameters are the same unit length as its edge. In fact they are its 24 edges, and it is a 16-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;1/\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;.

[[File:octagon16cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of a regular 16-cell to the [[16-cell#Projections|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only its edges are shown; its long diameter chords are not drawn. All 24 edges are the same length and none lie parallel to the projection plane. The octagon circumference is a Petrie polygon. The two disjoint squares lie in completely orthogonal central planes. The blue octagram is a Clifford polygon. ]]

The [[16-cell]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 8 vertices, 24 edges, 32 equilateral triangle faces, and 16 regular tetrahedron cells. It is the [[16-cell#Octahedral dipyramid|four-dimensional analogue of the octahedron]], and each of its four orthogonal central hyperplanes is an octahedron.

The only planar regular polygons found in the 16-cell are face triangles and central plane squares, but the 16-cell also contains a skew regular octagon, its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]].{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} The chords of this regular octagon, which lies skew in 4-space, are those given above for the 16-cell, as opposed to those for the cube or the regular octagon in the plane. The 16-cell is a construct of 3 Petrie octagons which share the same 8 vertices but have disjoint sets of 8 edges each.

The regular octad has higher symmetry in 4-space than it does in 2-space. The 16-cell is the 4-[[w:Cross-polytope|orthoplex]], the simplest regular 4-polytope after the [[5-cell|4-simplex]]. All the larger regular convex 4-polytopes are compounds of the 16-cell. The regular octagon exhibits this high symmetry only when embedded in 4-space at the vertices of the 16-cell.

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal basis]] for the choice of a 4-dimensional Cartesian reference frame, because its vertices define four orthogonal axes. The eight vertices of a unit-radius 16-cell are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges except opposite pairs. 

The vertex coordinates of the 16-cell form 6 central squares lying in 6 pairwise [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] coordinate planes. Great squares in opposite planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

Since the unit-radius coordinate system is convenient, let us derive the unit-radius 16-cell by skewing a unit-radius planar octagon, which has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2-\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.765,r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_4=2&lt;/math&gt;

We will need a planar octagon with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords, rather than one with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; edges. The octagon's &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords form two disjoint great squares, visible in the orthogonal projection, which we can reposition in 3-space to form a cube by making them parallel, and in 4-space to form a 16-cell by making them completely orthogonal.

Since the edges of the 16-cell are all the same length &lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, those chords are distinct only in the context of a rotation. Each chord is a 4-vector with a length and a direction. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_i&lt;/math&gt; chord makes &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt; 45° turns.

[[File:16-cell-orig.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 8-point 16-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a double rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}}]]
[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in completely orthogonal planes. The general rotation in 4-space is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]] in pairs of completely orthogonal planes. Two completely orthogonal planes are called invariant planes of the rotation when all points in the plane rotate on circles that remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways (like a coin flipping) into another plane. The two completely orthogonal rotations of each plane (like a wheel, and like a coin flipping) are simultaneous but independent, in that they are not geometrically constrained to turn at the same rate. However, the most circular kind of rotation (as opposed to an elliptical double rotation of a rigid spherical object) occurs when the completely orthogonal planes do rotate through the same angle in the same time interval. Such equi-angled double rotations are called [[w:SO(4)#Isoclinic_rotations|isoclinic]], also [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|Clifford]] displacements.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a Petrie polygon {8/1} which zig-zags back and forth, in the left and right rotational directions, between two completely orthogonal great squares formed by &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords.

The &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords  form the ''edge polygon'' of the 16-cell {8/2}=2{4}. The two completely orthogonal great squares lie parallel and perpendicular to each other. A ''simple'' rotation of the 16-cell in ''one'' of those two square central planes rotates that square like a wheel, while the other square does not move.{{Efn|name=simple rotations}} The four vertices of the rotating square orbit on a great circle in the plane.

The &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a circular helix, visible as a blue {8/3} octagram in the orthogonal projection. A ''double'' rotation of the 16-cell, in both of two completely orthogonal invariant &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; square planes at once by equal angles, moves the eight vertices along the circular helix over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords. The vertex motion is a [[w:Geodesic|geodesic]] circle orbit on the 3-sphere of a special kind: it does not lie in a central plane, its [[w:Winding_number|winding number]] is not 1 (it is 3 in this case), its circumference is not &lt;math&gt;2\pi&lt;/math&gt;, and it moves in either a left or right handed circular spiral. We shall refer to such a chiral circle orbit as an ''isocline'', and to the skew polygram of its rotational chords as a ''Clifford polygon''.

The 16-cell is the simplest possible frame in which to [[16-cell#Rotations|observe 4-dimensional rotations]] because its characteristic rotations feature a single pair of invariant rotation planes. In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90° in any pair of invariant completely orthogonal square central planes takes every great square to its completely orthogonal great square in a twisting displacement, as the invariant planes tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally. All the vertices move at once along the same circular helix geodesic isocline of &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. In 360° of isoclinic rotation over four &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, each vertex makes six 90° turns and reaches its antipodal position.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over eight &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the four &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great square in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation.

Because this is the isoclinic rotation of the 16-cell in its invariant great circle edge planes we shall refer to it as the ''great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell'', and note once again that it is Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; star polygon, which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_3&lt;/math&gt;.

== The 8-cell tesseract ==
The long diameter of the unit-edge [[W:Hypercube|hypercube]] of dimension &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{n}&lt;/math&gt;, so the unit-edge [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube, the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract,]] has chords:
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;
Uniquely in its 4-dimensional case, the hypercube's edge length equals its radius, like the hexagon. We call such polytopes ''radially equilateral'', because they can be constructed from equilateral triangles which meet at their center, each contributing two radii and an edge. The [[w:Cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]] and the 24-cell are also radially equilateral.

[[File:8-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation about a plane in 4-space.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The stationary plane bisects the figure from front-left to back-right and top to bottom.]]
The [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 16 vertices, 32 edges, 24 square faces, and 8 cube cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube.

The 16-point tesseract is the convex hull of a compound of two 8-point 16-cells, in exact dimensional analogy to the way the 8-point cube is the convex hull of a [[W:Stellated octahedron|compound of two 4-point regular tetrahedra]]. The [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercubes]] occupy alternate vertices of the hypercubes. The diagonals of the square faces of the unit-edge, unit-radius tesseract are the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges of two unit-radius 16-cells, also the edges of the square central planes.

We can rotate the tesseract isoclinically the way we rotated the 16-cell, by 90° in the great square right rotation, with the same effect on both alternate-position 16-cells. In the course of a 720° revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cell. The two skew {8/3} octagram Clifford polygons lie on two disjoint parallel isoclines of the same chirality, of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chords. They form a circular double helix which intersects each vertex of the tesseract once. The helix is an 8-rung ladder twisted 3 times, bent into a circle in the fourth dimension. Each rung is a tesseract edge.

The tesseract is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 16-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew octagon, but the tesseract is a construct of 4 Petrie octagons with disjoint sets of 8 tesseract edges each. We can construct the tesseract by skewing two planar octagons. Because the tesseract is radially equilateral (unlike the 16-cell), we use two octagons of unit-edge length to build the unit-radius tesseract. To start we embed the planar octagons in 4-space at the same point and make them completely orthogonal. Then we skew each planar octagon into a cube, so we have a compound of two completely orthogonal cubes, provided we skewed them both in the same direction. The 16 vertices will be the vertices of a tesseract with half its 32 edges missing.

Because the tesseract contains two 16-cells in alternate positions it has two sets of 6 orthogonal square central planes. Two angles are required to specify the relationship between two planes in 4-space. Pairs of square central planes within each 16-cell are 90° apart in one angle, and either 0° or 90° apart in the other angle. They are 90° apart in both angles if and only if they are completely orthogonal planes, 90° apart by isoclinic rotation, with no vertices in common. Otherwise they are 0° apart in one of the angles, 90° apart by simple rotation, and they intersect in one axis and lie in a common 3-dimensional hyperplane.{{Efn|A double rotation in which one of the two angles of rotation is 0°, so that one of the completely orthogonal invariant planes does not rotate, is called a simple rotation. Ordinary rotations observed in a 3-dimensional space are simple rotations.|name=simple rotations}}

A pair of square central planes from alternate-position 16-cells are 60° apart by isoclinic rotation, with their corresponding vertices 120° apart. The planes are not orthogonal or parallel, so they intersect in a line somewhere, but they have no vertices in common, they have no 3-dimensional hyperplane in common, and they cannot reach each other by simple rotation. Such pairs of objects are called [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] because all their corresponding pairs of vertices are the same distance apart, although they are not parallel in the usual sense, because they have a common center. Not only the alternate-position 16-cells' corresponding square central planes, but also the 16-cells themselves, are Clifford parallel objects. More generally, multiple disjoint instances of a 4-polytope which compound to make a larger 4-polytope are Clifford parallel objects.

== The 24-cell ==
[[File:24-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the radially equilateral 24-cell, showing its 3 great circle polygons and its 4 chord lengths.]]
In 2-space we have the radially equilateral 6-point hexagon. In 3-space we have the radially equilateral 12-point cuboctahedron, with 4 hexagonal central planes. In 4-space we have the radially equilateral 24-point 24-cell, with 12 cuboctahedron central hyperplanes and 16 hexagonal central planes.

The [[24-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 24 vertices, 96 edges, 96 equilateral triangle faces, and 24 octahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cuboctahedron.

The 24-cell has the same chord set as the 4-hypercube tesseract:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

[[Image:24-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 24-point 24-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 24 octahedra is visible.]]
The 24-cell is [[W:Dual polytope|self-dual]], like the regular polygons and regular simplexes. It is the maximal regular construct of triangles and squares (with no pentagons). It is the convex hull of a compound of three disjoint 8-point 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. Each of the three pairs of 16-cells is a tesseract. Each 24-cell edge is also a tesseract edge. The corresponding vertices of two 16-cells or two tesseracts are 120° apart by a &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chord. Each tesseract has 8 cube cells, and each cube has four &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; long diameters. The &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords joining the corresponding vertices of two tesseracts belong to the third tesseract as cell long diameters.

The 24-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular dodecagon {12}, which has chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}-1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.518,r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}+1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.932,r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that: 

:&lt;math&gt;r_5-r_3+r_1+r_1-r_3=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;

when &lt;math&gt;r_1=1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over five &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of a {12/5} dodecagram. In the system of unit-radius coordinates &lt;math&gt;r_1=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of the planar dodecagon do not occur in the 24-cell, which is a construct of eight skew dodecagons with disjoint sets of twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges each. In the skew dodecagons the chord lengths are:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\sqrt{3},r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

[[File:dodecagon24cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of half a 24-cell to the [[24-cell#Geodesics|F&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only one Petrie dodecagon {12} of the 24-cell is shown. In a unit-radius 24-cell, all black lines are 24-cell edges of unit length, also tesseract edges. The two disjoint hexagons lie in Clifford parallel central planes. Blue chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; 16-cell edges, also isocline chords in square rotations. Green chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; distances between corresponding vertices of two 16-cells, also isocline chords in hexagon rotations. The green {12/5} dodecagram is a Clifford polygon.]]
[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in the great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell, with the same effect on all three 16-cells. In 720° each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cells. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Three Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular triple helix {24/9}=3{8/3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. The helix is an 8-step circular staircase twisted 3 times, bent into a circle in the fourth dimension. Each triangular step is a 24-cell face.

[[File:Regular_star_figure_8(3,1).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/8}=8{3}&lt;small&gt; &lt;/small&gt;shows 8 of 32 skew&lt;small&gt; &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; triangles]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 4 Clifford parallel invariant great hexagon planes containing &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges, over &lt;math&gt;r_{4}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This is the ''hexagon right rotation characteristic of the 24-cell'', also Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt; star polygon which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_4&lt;/math&gt;. A complete hexagon right revolution requires 720° like a complete square right revolution, but it is completed in 12 isoclinic displacements of 60° each rather than 8 isoclinic displacements of 90° each. Eight Clifford parallel skew triangle {3} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;2\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular fibration of 8 twisted parallel strands {24/8}=8{3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. In every 180° of isoclinic rotation each vertex circles a skew triangle and returns to its original position, but the 24-cell returns to its original orientation only after each vertex has completed circuits of the four distinct skew triangles which intersect at the vertex. The isocline curves over a self-intersecting dodecagram of &lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt; chords.

[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 12 Clifford parallel invariant planes containing a single &lt;math&gt;r_{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge each, over &lt;math&gt;r_{5}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This is Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; {12/5} star polygon which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;. A complete {12/5} right revolution requires 720° like a complete square right revolution, but it is completed in 12 isoclinic displacements of 60° each rather than 8 isoclinic displacements of 90° each. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chord makes five 30° turns. Two Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular double helix {24/10}=2{12/5} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. 

In the 24-cell a great hexagon right rotation by 60° in any invariant hexagon central plane takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 60° while rotating 60° internally. It also takes every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The 16-cells revolve within the 24-cell as well as rotating within it. All 24 vertices move at once on two Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 120° in different directions.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 60° rotational displacement is a one-twelfth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the six &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great hexagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 24-cell returns to its original orientation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;6&quot; |6 distinct 180° chord pairs make 6 distinct isoclinic rotations
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Edge chord
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Isocline chord
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_1&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_24.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/1}={24}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/11}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|15°
|165°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_2&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(12,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/2}=2{12}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(12,5).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/10}=2{12/5}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|30°
|150°
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_3&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/3}=3{8}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/9}=3{8/3}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{9}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|45°
|135°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_4&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_4(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/4}=4{6}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_8(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/8}=8{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{8}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|60°
|120°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_5&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-5.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/5}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/7}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{7}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|75°
|105°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_6&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(4,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/6}=6{4}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(4,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/6}=6{4}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{6}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|90°
|90°
|}

By examining the chords of the 24-cell's Petrie {12}-gon &lt;math&gt;r_i&lt;/math&gt; we found three isoclinic rotations. If we examine the chords of the 24-cell's {24}-gon &lt;math&gt;t_i&lt;/math&gt; we find these and three other distinct isoclinic rotations. In each rotation the lengths of the edge chord and the isocline chord sum to 180°. The rotational angles separating successive edge chords and successive isocline chords also sum to 180°. The edge chord forms an edge polygon over which one or more vertices circle in each moving invariant plane. The isocline chord forms the rotation's Clifford polygon over which the vertices circle in 4-space. 

{{Clear}}

== The 600-cell ==
[[Image:600-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 120-point 600-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2011}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 600 tetrahedra is visible. Invisible in this rendering are 25 inscribed instances of the 24-cell (above), which occur in the 600-cell as interior boundary envelopes.]]
The [[600-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 120 vertices, 720 edges, 1200 equilateral triangle faces, and 600 tetrahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the icosahedron.

The 600-cell rounds out the 24-cell by adding 96 more vertices (four more disjoint 24-cells) between the 24-cell's existing 24 vertices, in effect adding twenty-four more distinct 24-cells inscribed in the 600-cell. The new surface thus formed is a honeycomb of smaller, more numerous cells: tetrahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt; instead of octahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;. It encloses the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of the 24-cells, which become invisible interior chords in the 600-cell, like the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords.

Since the tetrahedra are made of shorter triangle edges than the octahedra (by a factor of &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, the inverse golden ratio), the 600-cell is not radially equilateral like the 24-cell and the tesseract. Like them it is radially triangular in a special way, but one in which [[w:Golden_triangle_(mathematics)|golden triangles]] rather than equilateral triangles meet at the center.

In 2-space we have the ''radially golden'' [[W:Decagon#The golden ratio in decagon|regular decagon]]. In 3-space we have the radially golden 30-point [[W:icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]], with 6 decagon central planes. In 4-space we have the radially golden 120-point 600-cell, with 60 icosidodecahedron central hyperplanes and 72 decagon central planes.

The 600-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular [[w:Triacontagon|triacontagon {30}]]. The unit-radius planar {30}-gon has these distinct chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.209&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.416&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.813&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.338&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \cos (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.486&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \cos (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.827&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \cos (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.956&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \cos (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.989&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Only the chord lengths &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_6&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_9&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt; occur in the 600-cell, which is a construct of 24 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, six of which intersect in each icosahedral vertex figure. In the skew {30}-gons the chord lengths are:

[[File:600-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the 600-cell, showing its 5 regular great circle polygons and its 8 chord lengths with angles of arc. The golden ratio governs the fractional roots of every other chord, and the radial golden triangles which meet at the center.|400x400px]]
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;7&quot; |15 chords (4 distinct 180° pairs) make 4 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short edge chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long isocline chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0°
|180°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}=2{15/7}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|12°
|168°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|24°
|156°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V1 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|36°
|144°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|48°
|132°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V2 dodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Dodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|60°
|120°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{6}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V3 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{9}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|72°
|108°
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{7}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V4 icosidodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosidodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{8}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|84°
|96°
|}

The list of 600-cell chords &lt;math&gt;r_{i}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 8 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. The short chord and long chord each have their characteristic {30/n}-gon. Each row identifies a discrete isoclinic rotation of the 600-cell in invariant central planes containing the edges of the short chord {30}-gon, over the isocline chords of the long chord {30}-gon, the rotation's Clifford polygon.

Each distinct pair of complementary chord lengths is identified with a distinct [[w:600-cell#Polyhedral sections|polyhedral section of the 600-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 7 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; is a icosahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; is an [[W:Icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]] central section bisecting the 600-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal icosahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 7 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section).

[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell,  with the same effect on 15 disjoint 16-cells. Each 90° right displacement takes 15 pairs of completely orthogonal invariant great square planes to each other. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Fifteen Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular fibration of 15 twisted parallel strands 5{24/9}=15{8/3} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great square planes, which has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. This ''great square left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' takes place over &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. The {30/7} edge polygon is a skew helix of circumference &lt;math&gt;14\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge belonging to a distinct great square. The four {30/7} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. Each 90° left displacement takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The vertices of the invariant great squares each make seven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/7} edge makes seven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/7} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The {30/8}=2{15/4} Clifford polygon is a compound of two skew {15/4} pentadecagrams of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord belonging to a distinct 16-cell. The four {30/8} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/8} isocline chord makes eight 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/8} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

{{Clear}}
[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great hexagon right rotation characteristic of the 24-cell, over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords, with the same effect on 5 disjoint 24-cells. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions of its 24-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. Ten Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular fibration of ten twisted parallel strands 5{24/10}=10{12/5} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{4}=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_{11}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords This ''great hexagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. Its {30/11} Clifford polygon is a skew helix where each &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord is the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; diagonal of a great hexagon of a distinct 24-cell. The vertices of the invariant great hexagons of this rotation each make eleven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord makes eleven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/11} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;22\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in 12 Clifford parallel invariant decagon central planes containing its 36° &lt;math&gt;r_{3}&lt;/math&gt; edges, over 144° &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''great decagon right rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 5 and takes disjoint 24-cells to each other. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chord of its {5/2} Clifford polygon makes twelve 12° turns. 24 Clifford parallel {5/2} pentagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; over five &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular fibration of 24 twisted parallel strands 4{30/12}=24{5/2} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The right rotation of the 600-cell by 36° in any invariant decagon central plane takes every great decagon to a Clifford parallel great decagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 36° while rotating 36° internally. It also takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon, and every great square to a Clifford parallel great square. The 24-cells revolve within the 600-cell, as the 16-cells revolve within the 24-cells. All 120 vertices move at once on four Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 144° in different directions.

The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great decagon planes containing its 36° &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges, over 144° &lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''great decagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. The rotational curve over each 144° &lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord makes thirteen 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/13} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;26\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

{{Clear}}

== The 5-cell 4-simplex ==

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;9&quot; |30 chords (15 180° pairs) make 15 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{30}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;
|15.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}
|164.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.073~}}
|{{radic|3.927~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.270~
|1.982~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_2&lt;/math&gt;
|25.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|154.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{28}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.191~}}
|{{radic|3.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.437~
|1.952~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{27}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_4&lt;/math&gt;
|41.4~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|138.6~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{26}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.5}}
|{{radic|3.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.707~
|1.871~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_5&lt;/math&gt;
|44.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|135.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{25}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.573~}}
|{{radic|3.427~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.757~
|1.851~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_6&lt;/math&gt;
|49.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|130.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{24}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.691~}}
|{{radic|3.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.831~
|1.819~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_7&lt;/math&gt;
|56°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|124°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{23}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.882~}}
|{{radic|3.118~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.939~
|1.766~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_8&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{22}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_9&lt;/math&gt;
|66.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|113.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{21}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.191~}}
|{{radic|2.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.091~
|1.676~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|69.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|110.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{20}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.309~}}
|{{radic|2.691~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.144~
|1.640~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{19}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|75.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|104.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{18}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.5}}
|{{radic|2.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1.224~
|1.581~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|81.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|98.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{17}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.691~}}
|{{radic|2.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.300~
|1.520~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|84.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|95.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{16}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.809~}}
|{{radic|2.191~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.345~
|1.480~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|}

The [[User:Dc.samizdat/Golden chords of the 120-cell#Thirty distinguished distances|list of thirty 120-cell chords]] &lt;math&gt;c_{t}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 16 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. This table first appears in [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|''Regular Polytopes'']] (1947),{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=Table V(v): Simplified sections of {5,3,3} beginning with a vertex|pp=300-301}} where Coxeter identified each row with a distinct [[w:120-cell#Concentric_hulls|polyhedral section of the 120-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 29 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt; is a tetrahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; is a central section bisecting the 120-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal tetrahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 29 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section). Each section also lies completely orthogonal to a congruent section. 

Only 8 of the 30 chords in the table occur in the 600-cell and the planar {30)-gon. The 120-cell's additional chords arise originally from the regular 5-cell, in its interaction with the other regular 4-polytopes that compound to make the 120-cell. Since all those polytopes except the 5-cell occur in the 600-cell, and the 600-cell and the 120-cell have the same symmetry group, the 5-cell's symmetry group is what's new in the 120-cell.

...

{{Clear}}
== Finally the 120-cell ==
The [[120-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 600 vertices, 1200 edges, 720 pentagon faces, and 120 dodecahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the dodecahedron.

The 120-cell is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 600-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew triacontagon {30}, but the 120-cell is a construct of 40 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;, two of which intersect in each tetrahedral vertex figure.

... 

{{Clear}}

== Conclusions ==

Fontaine and Hurley's discovery is more than a geometric formula for the reciprocal of a regular ''n''-polygon diagonal. It also yields the discrete sequence of isocline chords of the characteristic isoclinic rotation of a ''d''-dimensional polytope in its invariant edge planes. The characteristic rotational chord sequence of the ''d''-polytope can be represented geometrically in two dimensions on a distinct star polygon, but it lies on a geodesic circle through ''d''-dimensional space. Fontaine and Hurley discovered the geodesic topology of polytopes generally. Their procedure will reveal the geodesics of arbitrary non-uniform polytopes, since it can be applied to a polytope of any dimensionality and irregularity, by first fitting the polytope to the smallest regular polygon whose chords include its chords. [If what is meant by this is its Petrie polygon, it is not quite necessary or possible with respect to the planar polygon chords, e.g. the planar Petrie polygon of the 600-cell does not contain the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chord. But perhaps it would work if the fit is to the smallest regular skew polygon in the ''d''-space.]

The discovery of a chordal construction for discrete isoclinic rotations generally closes the circuit on Kappraff and Adamson's discovery of a rotational connection between dynamical systems, Steinbach's golden fields, and Coxeter's Euclidean geometry of ''n'' dimensions. Application of the Fontaine and Hurley procedure in the 120-cell demonstrates why the connection exists: because polytope sequences generally, from Steinbach's golden chord sequences in polygons, to sequences of star polygons in isoclinic rotations, to subsumption relations in the sequence of regular 4-polytopes, arise as expressions of the reflections and rotations of distinct Coxeter symmetry groups, when those various groups interact.

== Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=1997 | title=Golden fields: A case for the Heptagon | journal=Mathematics Magazine | volume=70 | issue=Feb 1997 | pages=22–31 | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1997.11996494 | jstor=2691048 | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|1997}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=2000 | title=Sections Beyond Golden| journal=Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music and Science | issue=2000 | pages=35-44 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2000/bridges2000-35.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|2000}}}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Jablan | first2=Slavik | last3=Adamson | first3=Gary | last4=Sazdanovich | first4=Radmila | year=2004 | title=Golden Fields, Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, and Chaotic Matrices | journal=Forma | volume=19 | pages=367-387 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2005/bridges2005-369.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff, Jablan, Adamson &amp; Sazdanovich|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Adamson | first2=Gary | year=2004 | title=Polygons and Chaos | journal=Dynamical Systems and Geometric Theories | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2001/bridges2001-67.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff &amp; Adamson|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Fontaine | first1=Anne | last2=Hurley | first2=Susan | year=2006 | title=Proof by Picture: Products and Reciprocals of Diagonal Length Ratios in the Regular Polygon | journal=Forum Geometricorum | volume=6 | pages=97-101 | url=https://scispace.com/pdf/proof-by-picture-products-and-reciprocals-of-diagonal-length-1aian8mgp9.pdf }}
{{Refend}}</text>
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  <page>
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    <ns>4</ns>
    <id>327551</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2816980</id>
      <parentid>2791379</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T17:08:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Pages by Harold Foppele */ archive from [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
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==Pages by Harold Foppele==
{{archive top|All deleted, user page blanked [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 04:33, 6 June 2026 (UTC)}}
[[User:Harold Foppele]] is locally blocked indefinitely and globally banned for sockpuppetry. There were also WMF and local community concerns expressed about copyright violation and AI (over)use. As a result, I think the Wikiversity pages created by this account warrant review with regard what should be deleted, what should be retained etc.:
* [[Completing the square]]
* [[Number of independent spatial modes in a spherical volume]]
* [[Quantum]]
** [[Quantum/Andrew N. Jordan]]
* [[Quantum A Matter Of Size]]
* [[Quantum A Spooky Action at a Distance]]
* [[Quantum: A Walk Through the Universe]]
* [[Quantum Computing Algorithms in the NISQ Era]]
* [[Quantum Formulas Collection]]
* [[Quantum harmonic oscillator]]
* [[Quantum Matter Elements and Particles]]
* [[Quantum mechanics]]
** [[Quantum mechanics/Timeline]]
* [[Quantum mechanics learning module]]
* [[Quantum mechanics measurements]]
* [[Quantum Noisy Qubits]]
* [[Quantum optics beam splitter experiments]]
* [[Quantum: The Secret of Cohesion: How Waves Hold Matter Together]]
* [[Quantum Ultra fast lasers]]
* [[Speed of sound experiments]]
* [[User:Harold Foppele]]
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:12, 17 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete all''' Not worth keeping. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 08:27, 17 May 2026 (UTC)
{{Archive bottom}}</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2816982</id>
      <parentid>2816980</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T17:08:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Film writing */ archive from [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
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==Pages by Harold Foppele==
{{archive top|All deleted, user page blanked [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 04:33, 6 June 2026 (UTC)}}
[[User:Harold Foppele]] is locally blocked indefinitely and globally banned for sockpuppetry. There were also WMF and local community concerns expressed about copyright violation and AI (over)use. As a result, I think the Wikiversity pages created by this account warrant review with regard what should be deleted, what should be retained etc.:
* [[Completing the square]]
* [[Number of independent spatial modes in a spherical volume]]
* [[Quantum]]
** [[Quantum/Andrew N. Jordan]]
* [[Quantum A Matter Of Size]]
* [[Quantum A Spooky Action at a Distance]]
* [[Quantum: A Walk Through the Universe]]
* [[Quantum Computing Algorithms in the NISQ Era]]
* [[Quantum Formulas Collection]]
* [[Quantum harmonic oscillator]]
* [[Quantum Matter Elements and Particles]]
* [[Quantum mechanics]]
** [[Quantum mechanics/Timeline]]
* [[Quantum mechanics learning module]]
* [[Quantum mechanics measurements]]
* [[Quantum Noisy Qubits]]
* [[Quantum optics beam splitter experiments]]
* [[Quantum: The Secret of Cohesion: How Waves Hold Matter Together]]
* [[Quantum Ultra fast lasers]]
* [[Speed of sound experiments]]
* [[User:Harold Foppele]]
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:12, 17 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete all''' Not worth keeping. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 08:27, 17 May 2026 (UTC)
{{Archive bottom}}

== [[Film writing]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to keep after vote changes. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:20, 31 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Undeveloped since 2007. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:05, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

:&lt;del&gt;'''Delete''' Nothing here. Great idea in principle, tho. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:25, 20 May 2026 (UTC)&lt;/del&gt;&lt;ins&gt;'''Keep''': It's now at least developed enough to be something. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:42, 31 May 2026 (UTC)&lt;/ins&gt;
: '''Keep''' as part of [[:Category:Film]] resources. I've tidied the page, so it looks less abandoned. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:57, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
:@[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] The page seems to have been tidied up. Do you want to reevaluate your votes? [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:40, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}</text>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* United States UFO files */ archive from [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
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==[[United States UFO files]]==
{{archive top|Deleted, but the author of the resource did not respond here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:16, 31 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Seems to be WP-like; material copied from [[w:United States UFO files]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:46, 21 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete''', but why would a PROD template not suffice? My logic was that it is a newly created page (made just today), and isn't a big project/difficult page to deal with. Do we not deal with newly created pages that appear to not satisfy Wikiversity's objectives/mission with a PROD template? Wouldn't we best reserve RFDs for long-standing pages (like the two pages above this section being listed for deletion) or ''after'' the PROD template isn't enough to determine the fate of such pages (per [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy#Proposed deletion (prod)|here]]: &quot;Anyone still considering that the resource should be deleted [after the placement of the PROD template] may discuss deletion.&quot;)? A PROD template may also be useful in this case to alert the author that the page is not compatible with Wikiversity's learning objectives and communicates a concise opportunity to refine the page with the 90-day limit. Maybe even in this case, a speedy would've been enough (possibly fitting [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy#Criteria for speedy deletion|#12]]: &quot;No research objectives or discussion in history. Welcome users and resources when likely to be expanded shortly.&quot;).
:Interested to hear your thoughts as I want to make sure this is clear, as I've been cleaning up a lot of 'dead' pages around Wikiversity and find myself confused on whether to use PROD or RFD. Thanks, —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 02:08, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
: Yes, could be speedy deleted. Otherwise, I don't know about the merits about leaving it around for 90 days, hence me bringing it to here. There is some comment in [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy]] about the specific deletion templates not being so important. More important I think is to flag for discussion. However, we could also improve the proposed policy to make the process clearer. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:20, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
: Ping {{u|User:Realcosmixyt}} for comment -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:54, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

==Pages by Harold Foppele==
{{archive top|All deleted, user page blanked [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 04:33, 6 June 2026 (UTC)}}
[[User:Harold Foppele]] is locally blocked indefinitely and globally banned for sockpuppetry. There were also WMF and local community concerns expressed about copyright violation and AI (over)use. As a result, I think the Wikiversity pages created by this account warrant review with regard what should be deleted, what should be retained etc.:
* [[Completing the square]]
* [[Number of independent spatial modes in a spherical volume]]
* [[Quantum]]
** [[Quantum/Andrew N. Jordan]]
* [[Quantum A Matter Of Size]]
* [[Quantum A Spooky Action at a Distance]]
* [[Quantum: A Walk Through the Universe]]
* [[Quantum Computing Algorithms in the NISQ Era]]
* [[Quantum Formulas Collection]]
* [[Quantum harmonic oscillator]]
* [[Quantum Matter Elements and Particles]]
* [[Quantum mechanics]]
** [[Quantum mechanics/Timeline]]
* [[Quantum mechanics learning module]]
* [[Quantum mechanics measurements]]
* [[Quantum Noisy Qubits]]
* [[Quantum optics beam splitter experiments]]
* [[Quantum: The Secret of Cohesion: How Waves Hold Matter Together]]
* [[Quantum Ultra fast lasers]]
* [[Speed of sound experiments]]
* [[User:Harold Foppele]]
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:12, 17 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete all''' Not worth keeping. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 08:27, 17 May 2026 (UTC)
{{Archive bottom}}

== [[Film writing]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to keep after vote changes. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:20, 31 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Undeveloped since 2007. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:05, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

:&lt;del&gt;'''Delete''' Nothing here. Great idea in principle, tho. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:25, 20 May 2026 (UTC)&lt;/del&gt;&lt;ins&gt;'''Keep''': It's now at least developed enough to be something. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:42, 31 May 2026 (UTC)&lt;/ins&gt;
: '''Keep''' as part of [[:Category:Film]] resources. I've tidied the page, so it looks less abandoned. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:57, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
:@[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] The page seems to have been tidied up. Do you want to reevaluate your votes? [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:40, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2816986</id>
      <parentid>2816984</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T17:09:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Emergency Operation Centre GIS */ archive from [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
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==[[United States UFO files]]==
{{archive top|Deleted, but the author of the resource did not respond here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:16, 31 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Seems to be WP-like; material copied from [[w:United States UFO files]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:46, 21 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete''', but why would a PROD template not suffice? My logic was that it is a newly created page (made just today), and isn't a big project/difficult page to deal with. Do we not deal with newly created pages that appear to not satisfy Wikiversity's objectives/mission with a PROD template? Wouldn't we best reserve RFDs for long-standing pages (like the two pages above this section being listed for deletion) or ''after'' the PROD template isn't enough to determine the fate of such pages (per [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy#Proposed deletion (prod)|here]]: &quot;Anyone still considering that the resource should be deleted [after the placement of the PROD template] may discuss deletion.&quot;)? A PROD template may also be useful in this case to alert the author that the page is not compatible with Wikiversity's learning objectives and communicates a concise opportunity to refine the page with the 90-day limit. Maybe even in this case, a speedy would've been enough (possibly fitting [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy#Criteria for speedy deletion|#12]]: &quot;No research objectives or discussion in history. Welcome users and resources when likely to be expanded shortly.&quot;).
:Interested to hear your thoughts as I want to make sure this is clear, as I've been cleaning up a lot of 'dead' pages around Wikiversity and find myself confused on whether to use PROD or RFD. Thanks, —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 02:08, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
: Yes, could be speedy deleted. Otherwise, I don't know about the merits about leaving it around for 90 days, hence me bringing it to here. There is some comment in [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy]] about the specific deletion templates not being so important. More important I think is to flag for discussion. However, we could also improve the proposed policy to make the process clearer. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:20, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
: Ping {{u|User:Realcosmixyt}} for comment -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:54, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

==Pages by Harold Foppele==
{{archive top|All deleted, user page blanked [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 04:33, 6 June 2026 (UTC)}}
[[User:Harold Foppele]] is locally blocked indefinitely and globally banned for sockpuppetry. There were also WMF and local community concerns expressed about copyright violation and AI (over)use. As a result, I think the Wikiversity pages created by this account warrant review with regard what should be deleted, what should be retained etc.:
* [[Completing the square]]
* [[Number of independent spatial modes in a spherical volume]]
* [[Quantum]]
** [[Quantum/Andrew N. Jordan]]
* [[Quantum A Matter Of Size]]
* [[Quantum A Spooky Action at a Distance]]
* [[Quantum: A Walk Through the Universe]]
* [[Quantum Computing Algorithms in the NISQ Era]]
* [[Quantum Formulas Collection]]
* [[Quantum harmonic oscillator]]
* [[Quantum Matter Elements and Particles]]
* [[Quantum mechanics]]
** [[Quantum mechanics/Timeline]]
* [[Quantum mechanics learning module]]
* [[Quantum mechanics measurements]]
* [[Quantum Noisy Qubits]]
* [[Quantum optics beam splitter experiments]]
* [[Quantum: The Secret of Cohesion: How Waves Hold Matter Together]]
* [[Quantum Ultra fast lasers]]
* [[Speed of sound experiments]]
* [[User:Harold Foppele]]
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:12, 17 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete all''' Not worth keeping. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 08:27, 17 May 2026 (UTC)
{{Archive bottom}}

== [[Film writing]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to keep after vote changes. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:20, 31 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Undeveloped since 2007. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:05, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

:&lt;del&gt;'''Delete''' Nothing here. Great idea in principle, tho. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:25, 20 May 2026 (UTC)&lt;/del&gt;&lt;ins&gt;'''Keep''': It's now at least developed enough to be something. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:42, 31 May 2026 (UTC)&lt;/ins&gt;
: '''Keep''' as part of [[:Category:Film]] resources. I've tidied the page, so it looks less abandoned. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:57, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
:@[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] The page seems to have been tidied up. Do you want to reevaluate your votes? [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:40, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

== [[Emergency Operation Centre GIS]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to delete. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:39, 30 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Undeveloped for over a decade (only thing present is just an outline). —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:44, 22 May 2026 (UTC)

:*'''Delete'''
:―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 15:59, 22 May 2026 (UTC)
:* '''Delete'''. Insufficiently developed. Was moved from [[b:Emergency Operation Centre GIS]].
: -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:13, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}</text>
      <sha1>2bim05zks7nyxis6lmmftxv4stmu5fh</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816988</id>
      <parentid>2816986</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T17:10:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Mippedia */ archive from [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
      <origin>2816988</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8444" sha1="2s8s5478cjas9ucao6g7cb7n50ywgli" xml:space="preserve">
==[[Mippedia]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to delete, and the author of the template did not respond to Jtneill's comment. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:37, 30 May 2026 (UTC)}}
I propose the deletion of the page &quot;[[Mippedia]]&quot;, due to the subject not being backed by reputable sources. Pages with the same subject has been deleted multiple times on the Indonesian Wikipedia. The original writer of the page did it solely to promote his wiki site. [[User:ANNAFscience|ANNAFscience]] ([[User talk:ANNAFscience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ANNAFscience|contribs]]) 10:39, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
: {{ping|Sevent Me}} any comment? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:10, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
:'''Delete''' I don't know what the point of this is. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:26, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Delete'''. Advertising. Points to a non-English, copyright restricted website. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:58, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

==[[United States UFO files]]==
{{archive top|Deleted, but the author of the resource did not respond here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:16, 31 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Seems to be WP-like; material copied from [[w:United States UFO files]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:46, 21 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete''', but why would a PROD template not suffice? My logic was that it is a newly created page (made just today), and isn't a big project/difficult page to deal with. Do we not deal with newly created pages that appear to not satisfy Wikiversity's objectives/mission with a PROD template? Wouldn't we best reserve RFDs for long-standing pages (like the two pages above this section being listed for deletion) or ''after'' the PROD template isn't enough to determine the fate of such pages (per [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy#Proposed deletion (prod)|here]]: &quot;Anyone still considering that the resource should be deleted [after the placement of the PROD template] may discuss deletion.&quot;)? A PROD template may also be useful in this case to alert the author that the page is not compatible with Wikiversity's learning objectives and communicates a concise opportunity to refine the page with the 90-day limit. Maybe even in this case, a speedy would've been enough (possibly fitting [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy#Criteria for speedy deletion|#12]]: &quot;No research objectives or discussion in history. Welcome users and resources when likely to be expanded shortly.&quot;).
:Interested to hear your thoughts as I want to make sure this is clear, as I've been cleaning up a lot of 'dead' pages around Wikiversity and find myself confused on whether to use PROD or RFD. Thanks, —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 02:08, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
: Yes, could be speedy deleted. Otherwise, I don't know about the merits about leaving it around for 90 days, hence me bringing it to here. There is some comment in [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy]] about the specific deletion templates not being so important. More important I think is to flag for discussion. However, we could also improve the proposed policy to make the process clearer. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:20, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
: Ping {{u|User:Realcosmixyt}} for comment -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:54, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

==Pages by Harold Foppele==
{{archive top|All deleted, user page blanked [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 04:33, 6 June 2026 (UTC)}}
[[User:Harold Foppele]] is locally blocked indefinitely and globally banned for sockpuppetry. There were also WMF and local community concerns expressed about copyright violation and AI (over)use. As a result, I think the Wikiversity pages created by this account warrant review with regard what should be deleted, what should be retained etc.:
* [[Completing the square]]
* [[Number of independent spatial modes in a spherical volume]]
* [[Quantum]]
** [[Quantum/Andrew N. Jordan]]
* [[Quantum A Matter Of Size]]
* [[Quantum A Spooky Action at a Distance]]
* [[Quantum: A Walk Through the Universe]]
* [[Quantum Computing Algorithms in the NISQ Era]]
* [[Quantum Formulas Collection]]
* [[Quantum harmonic oscillator]]
* [[Quantum Matter Elements and Particles]]
* [[Quantum mechanics]]
** [[Quantum mechanics/Timeline]]
* [[Quantum mechanics learning module]]
* [[Quantum mechanics measurements]]
* [[Quantum Noisy Qubits]]
* [[Quantum optics beam splitter experiments]]
* [[Quantum: The Secret of Cohesion: How Waves Hold Matter Together]]
* [[Quantum Ultra fast lasers]]
* [[Speed of sound experiments]]
* [[User:Harold Foppele]]
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:12, 17 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete all''' Not worth keeping. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 08:27, 17 May 2026 (UTC)
{{Archive bottom}}

== [[Film writing]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to keep after vote changes. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:20, 31 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Undeveloped since 2007. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:05, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

:&lt;del&gt;'''Delete''' Nothing here. Great idea in principle, tho. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:25, 20 May 2026 (UTC)&lt;/del&gt;&lt;ins&gt;'''Keep''': It's now at least developed enough to be something. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:42, 31 May 2026 (UTC)&lt;/ins&gt;
: '''Keep''' as part of [[:Category:Film]] resources. I've tidied the page, so it looks less abandoned. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:57, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
:@[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] The page seems to have been tidied up. Do you want to reevaluate your votes? [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:40, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

== [[Emergency Operation Centre GIS]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to delete. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:39, 30 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Undeveloped for over a decade (only thing present is just an outline). —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:44, 22 May 2026 (UTC)

:*'''Delete'''
:―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 15:59, 22 May 2026 (UTC)
:* '''Delete'''. Insufficiently developed. Was moved from [[b:Emergency Operation Centre GIS]].
: -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:13, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}</text>
      <sha1>2s8s5478cjas9ucao6g7cb7n50ywgli</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816990</id>
      <parentid>2816988</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T17:10:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Wikiphilosophers */ archive from [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
      <origin>2816990</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="10461" sha1="8intvtdwdqxs8iy4g3kx3ozj6z4wmfl" xml:space="preserve">
==[[Mippedia]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to delete, and the author of the template did not respond to Jtneill's comment. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:37, 30 May 2026 (UTC)}}
I propose the deletion of the page &quot;[[Mippedia]]&quot;, due to the subject not being backed by reputable sources. Pages with the same subject has been deleted multiple times on the Indonesian Wikipedia. The original writer of the page did it solely to promote his wiki site. [[User:ANNAFscience|ANNAFscience]] ([[User talk:ANNAFscience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ANNAFscience|contribs]]) 10:39, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
: {{ping|Sevent Me}} any comment? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:10, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
:'''Delete''' I don't know what the point of this is. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:26, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Delete'''. Advertising. Points to a non-English, copyright restricted website. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:58, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

==[[United States UFO files]]==
{{archive top|Deleted, but the author of the resource did not respond here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:16, 31 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Seems to be WP-like; material copied from [[w:United States UFO files]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:46, 21 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete''', but why would a PROD template not suffice? My logic was that it is a newly created page (made just today), and isn't a big project/difficult page to deal with. Do we not deal with newly created pages that appear to not satisfy Wikiversity's objectives/mission with a PROD template? Wouldn't we best reserve RFDs for long-standing pages (like the two pages above this section being listed for deletion) or ''after'' the PROD template isn't enough to determine the fate of such pages (per [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy#Proposed deletion (prod)|here]]: &quot;Anyone still considering that the resource should be deleted [after the placement of the PROD template] may discuss deletion.&quot;)? A PROD template may also be useful in this case to alert the author that the page is not compatible with Wikiversity's learning objectives and communicates a concise opportunity to refine the page with the 90-day limit. Maybe even in this case, a speedy would've been enough (possibly fitting [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy#Criteria for speedy deletion|#12]]: &quot;No research objectives or discussion in history. Welcome users and resources when likely to be expanded shortly.&quot;).
:Interested to hear your thoughts as I want to make sure this is clear, as I've been cleaning up a lot of 'dead' pages around Wikiversity and find myself confused on whether to use PROD or RFD. Thanks, —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 02:08, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
: Yes, could be speedy deleted. Otherwise, I don't know about the merits about leaving it around for 90 days, hence me bringing it to here. There is some comment in [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy]] about the specific deletion templates not being so important. More important I think is to flag for discussion. However, we could also improve the proposed policy to make the process clearer. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:20, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
: Ping {{u|User:Realcosmixyt}} for comment -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:54, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

==Pages by Harold Foppele==
{{archive top|All deleted, user page blanked [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 04:33, 6 June 2026 (UTC)}}
[[User:Harold Foppele]] is locally blocked indefinitely and globally banned for sockpuppetry. There were also WMF and local community concerns expressed about copyright violation and AI (over)use. As a result, I think the Wikiversity pages created by this account warrant review with regard what should be deleted, what should be retained etc.:
* [[Completing the square]]
* [[Number of independent spatial modes in a spherical volume]]
* [[Quantum]]
** [[Quantum/Andrew N. Jordan]]
* [[Quantum A Matter Of Size]]
* [[Quantum A Spooky Action at a Distance]]
* [[Quantum: A Walk Through the Universe]]
* [[Quantum Computing Algorithms in the NISQ Era]]
* [[Quantum Formulas Collection]]
* [[Quantum harmonic oscillator]]
* [[Quantum Matter Elements and Particles]]
* [[Quantum mechanics]]
** [[Quantum mechanics/Timeline]]
* [[Quantum mechanics learning module]]
* [[Quantum mechanics measurements]]
* [[Quantum Noisy Qubits]]
* [[Quantum optics beam splitter experiments]]
* [[Quantum: The Secret of Cohesion: How Waves Hold Matter Together]]
* [[Quantum Ultra fast lasers]]
* [[Speed of sound experiments]]
* [[User:Harold Foppele]]
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:12, 17 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete all''' Not worth keeping. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 08:27, 17 May 2026 (UTC)
{{Archive bottom}}

== [[Film writing]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to keep after vote changes. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:20, 31 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Undeveloped since 2007. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:05, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

:&lt;del&gt;'''Delete''' Nothing here. Great idea in principle, tho. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:25, 20 May 2026 (UTC)&lt;/del&gt;&lt;ins&gt;'''Keep''': It's now at least developed enough to be something. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:42, 31 May 2026 (UTC)&lt;/ins&gt;
: '''Keep''' as part of [[:Category:Film]] resources. I've tidied the page, so it looks less abandoned. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:57, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
:@[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] The page seems to have been tidied up. Do you want to reevaluate your votes? [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:40, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

== [[Emergency Operation Centre GIS]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to delete. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:39, 30 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Undeveloped for over a decade (only thing present is just an outline). —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:44, 22 May 2026 (UTC)

:*'''Delete'''
:―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 15:59, 22 May 2026 (UTC)
:* '''Delete'''. Insufficiently developed. Was moved from [[b:Emergency Operation Centre GIS]].
: -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:13, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

==[[Wikiphilosophers]]==
{{Archive top|Consensus is for '''deletion'''. Regardless, thank you for your efforts to improve Wikiversity @Perquirius. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 17:01, 27 June 2026 (UTC)}}
Moving from {{tl|prod}} by {{at|Atcovi}}: &quot;similar &quot;philosophy&quot;-related content has been removed in the past [issue of pseudoscience] + very little moderation (mirroring the issues of [[Wikidebates]]) + lacks educational value.&quot; The project has also been nominated for deletion on its talk page: [[Talk:Wikiphilosophers]]. There are many subpages: 
{{Special:PrefixIndex/Wikiphilosophers/}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:45, 24 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete'''. Unfortunately, this project wasn't as successful as I had hoped. Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 14:29, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
::Don't forget to delete [[Template:Wikiphilosophers]], [[Template:Wikiphilosophers/doc]] and [[Template:Wikiphilosophers topics]] also. [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 14:30, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
:'''Delete''' Wikiversity should not be used as a host for failed sister projects. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 05:06, 6 June 2026 (UTC)
::When will these pages be deleted? Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 12:13, 27 June 2026 (UTC)
:::Don't forget to delete [[:Category:Wikiphilosophers]] and [[:Category:Wikiphilosophers templates]] also! Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 16:56, 27 June 2026 (UTC)
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        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
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==[[Mippedia]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to delete, and the author of the template did not respond to Jtneill's comment. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:37, 30 May 2026 (UTC)}}
I propose the deletion of the page &quot;[[Mippedia]]&quot;, due to the subject not being backed by reputable sources. Pages with the same subject has been deleted multiple times on the Indonesian Wikipedia. The original writer of the page did it solely to promote his wiki site. [[User:ANNAFscience|ANNAFscience]] ([[User talk:ANNAFscience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ANNAFscience|contribs]]) 10:39, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
: {{ping|Sevent Me}} any comment? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:10, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
:'''Delete''' I don't know what the point of this is. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:26, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Delete'''. Advertising. Points to a non-English, copyright restricted website. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:58, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

==[[United States UFO files]]==
{{archive top|Deleted, but the author of the resource did not respond here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:16, 31 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Seems to be WP-like; material copied from [[w:United States UFO files]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:46, 21 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete''', but why would a PROD template not suffice? My logic was that it is a newly created page (made just today), and isn't a big project/difficult page to deal with. Do we not deal with newly created pages that appear to not satisfy Wikiversity's objectives/mission with a PROD template? Wouldn't we best reserve RFDs for long-standing pages (like the two pages above this section being listed for deletion) or ''after'' the PROD template isn't enough to determine the fate of such pages (per [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy#Proposed deletion (prod)|here]]: &quot;Anyone still considering that the resource should be deleted [after the placement of the PROD template] may discuss deletion.&quot;)? A PROD template may also be useful in this case to alert the author that the page is not compatible with Wikiversity's learning objectives and communicates a concise opportunity to refine the page with the 90-day limit. Maybe even in this case, a speedy would've been enough (possibly fitting [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy#Criteria for speedy deletion|#12]]: &quot;No research objectives or discussion in history. Welcome users and resources when likely to be expanded shortly.&quot;).
:Interested to hear your thoughts as I want to make sure this is clear, as I've been cleaning up a lot of 'dead' pages around Wikiversity and find myself confused on whether to use PROD or RFD. Thanks, —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 02:08, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
: Yes, could be speedy deleted. Otherwise, I don't know about the merits about leaving it around for 90 days, hence me bringing it to here. There is some comment in [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy]] about the specific deletion templates not being so important. More important I think is to flag for discussion. However, we could also improve the proposed policy to make the process clearer. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:20, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
: Ping {{u|User:Realcosmixyt}} for comment -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:54, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
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==Pages by Harold Foppele==
{{archive top|All deleted, user page blanked [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 04:33, 6 June 2026 (UTC)}}
[[User:Harold Foppele]] is locally blocked indefinitely and globally banned for sockpuppetry. There were also WMF and local community concerns expressed about copyright violation and AI (over)use. As a result, I think the Wikiversity pages created by this account warrant review with regard what should be deleted, what should be retained etc.:
* [[Completing the square]]
* [[Number of independent spatial modes in a spherical volume]]
* [[Quantum]]
** [[Quantum/Andrew N. Jordan]]
* [[Quantum A Matter Of Size]]
* [[Quantum A Spooky Action at a Distance]]
* [[Quantum: A Walk Through the Universe]]
* [[Quantum Computing Algorithms in the NISQ Era]]
* [[Quantum Formulas Collection]]
* [[Quantum harmonic oscillator]]
* [[Quantum Matter Elements and Particles]]
* [[Quantum mechanics]]
** [[Quantum mechanics/Timeline]]
* [[Quantum mechanics learning module]]
* [[Quantum mechanics measurements]]
* [[Quantum Noisy Qubits]]
* [[Quantum optics beam splitter experiments]]
* [[Quantum: The Secret of Cohesion: How Waves Hold Matter Together]]
* [[Quantum Ultra fast lasers]]
* [[Speed of sound experiments]]
* [[User:Harold Foppele]]
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:12, 17 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete all''' Not worth keeping. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 08:27, 17 May 2026 (UTC)
{{Archive bottom}}

== [[Film writing]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to keep after vote changes. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:20, 31 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Undeveloped since 2007. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:05, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

:&lt;del&gt;'''Delete''' Nothing here. Great idea in principle, tho. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:25, 20 May 2026 (UTC)&lt;/del&gt;&lt;ins&gt;'''Keep''': It's now at least developed enough to be something. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:42, 31 May 2026 (UTC)&lt;/ins&gt;
: '''Keep''' as part of [[:Category:Film]] resources. I've tidied the page, so it looks less abandoned. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:57, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
:@[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] The page seems to have been tidied up. Do you want to reevaluate your votes? [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:40, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
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== [[Emergency Operation Centre GIS]] ==
{{archive top|Consensus to delete. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:39, 30 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Undeveloped for over a decade (only thing present is just an outline). —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:44, 22 May 2026 (UTC)

:*'''Delete'''
:―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 15:59, 22 May 2026 (UTC)
:* '''Delete'''. Insufficiently developed. Was moved from [[b:Emergency Operation Centre GIS]].
: -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:13, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
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==[[Wikiphilosophers]]==
{{Archive top|Consensus is for '''deletion'''. Regardless, thank you for your efforts to improve Wikiversity @Perquirius. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 17:01, 27 June 2026 (UTC)}}
Moving from {{tl|prod}} by {{at|Atcovi}}: &quot;similar &quot;philosophy&quot;-related content has been removed in the past [issue of pseudoscience] + very little moderation (mirroring the issues of [[Wikidebates]]) + lacks educational value.&quot; The project has also been nominated for deletion on its talk page: [[Talk:Wikiphilosophers]]. There are many subpages: 
{{Special:PrefixIndex/Wikiphilosophers/}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:45, 24 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete'''. Unfortunately, this project wasn't as successful as I had hoped. Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 14:29, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
::Don't forget to delete [[Template:Wikiphilosophers]], [[Template:Wikiphilosophers/doc]] and [[Template:Wikiphilosophers topics]] also. [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 14:30, 24 May 2026 (UTC)
:'''Delete''' Wikiversity should not be used as a host for failed sister projects. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 05:06, 6 June 2026 (UTC)
::When will these pages be deleted? Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 12:13, 27 June 2026 (UTC)
:::Don't forget to delete [[:Category:Wikiphilosophers]] and [[:Category:Wikiphilosophers templates]] also! Kind regards, [[User:Perquirius|Perquirius]] ([[User talk:Perquirius|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/Perquirius|bijdragen]]) 16:56, 27 June 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

== [[Template:UserSkype]] ==
{{archive top|Deleted, template and category was removed from all pages. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:14, 14 June 2026 (UTC)}}
Service was discontinued over a year ago. I suggest deleting the Userbox and [[:Category:Users familiar with Skype]], as it can only confuse or mislead. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 21:17, 30 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Delete''' per reasoning. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 22:40, 30 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Delete''' -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:48, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
:Yup delete. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 16:59, 8 June 2026 (UTC)
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[[File:Oil Portrait of Maharaja Virendra Mohan Dar of Akhnoor.jpg|thumb|Claude-Sterling Oil Portrait of Maharaja Virendra Mohan Dar of Akhnoor- ''The Maharaja at 26'']]
== Maharaja Virendra Mohan Dar - Founder of the Dar Raj ==
[[W:Maharaja|Maharaja]] Virendra Vasudev Mohan Dar, otherwise known as the effective founder of the Dar Raj's political and ceremonial standing, was born on Thursday, the 14th of September 1758, in the ancestral quarters of the Akhnoor region of Kashmir. He was the eldest son of Ram Hari Mohan Dar and Smt. Annapurna Devi, the third daughter of the esteemed merchant Pandit Narayan Kaul of Srinagar. His lineage traces back to his grandfather, Hari Krishna Mohan Dar (1687–1768), a saffron merchant and learned Kashmiri Pandit who established the family’s zamindari foundations in the late 17th century. [[File:Portrait of Ahmad Shah Durrani.jpg|thumb|Ahmed Shah Durrani of the House of Durrau]]From his earliest years, Virendra exhibited a discerning mind and a keen disposition for learning. He was educated under several specialized tutors: Pandit Madhusudan Kaul (classical literature, Sanskrit, Persian, and land management), Pandit Gopesh Raina (arithmetic, accounts, and revenue management), and Pandit Jagannath Bhat (Durrani administrative customs and local jurisprudence). By the age of ten, he was already distinguished for his recitals of historical and sacred texts, and by seventeen, he was accompanying his father on tours of the family's vast estates in both Kashmir and Bengal, including Dhamrai and Char Talibari

== Accession and the Title of Maharaja ==
Upon the death of his father in 1778, Virendra Mohan Dar assumed full responsibility for the administration of the Dar Raj estates.His accession occurred during a period of significant political flux as the [[wikipedia:Durrani Empire|Durrani Empire]] consolidated power in the Punjab and Kashmir. In 1771, following his judicious resolution of disputes among neighboring zamindars, the court of [[wikipedia:Ahmad Shah Durrani|Ahmad Shah Durrani]] conferred upon him the prestigious hereditary title of &quot;Maharaja&quot;.

The formal investiture took place, in the autumn of 1771 in the principal hall of the Akhnoor estate.The Maharaja was presented with robes of state and a ceremonial sword, and he pledged to govern with fairness and diligence. To consolidate his authority, he convened a formal Assembly of Zamindars at Akhnur in 1771 to settle boundary disputes and restate revenue obligations. He was known for a &quot;calculated exercise of power,&quot; notably seen in 1782 when he resolved a case of revenue defiance through public inquiry and surveyors rather than armed force

== The Migration to Bengal ==
[[File:Dhar Zamindar Bari Full View with Pond 03.jpg|thumb|Dhar Zamindar Bari (Front View)]]
By the late 18th century, the political stability of the northern territories declined. Provincial governors began prioritizing immediate revenue extraction, and the Akhnoor holdings faced increasing pressure from irregular levies and armed groups associated with local power brokers. In response, the Maharaja implemented a strategic reorientation, gradually shifting the center of his administration to the fertile and more stable plains of [[W:Bengal|Bengal]].

This transition was finalized by a natural calamity in the late 1790s. An exceptionally severe flooding of the [[W:Padma River|Padma River]] resulted in the rapid submergence of the Char Talibari estate, erasing established boundaries and rendering the former seat uninhabitable. Consequently, in 1801, the Maharaja established the Nannar Rajbari (later known as the Dhar Zamindar Bari) in the Dhamrai region. The new residence featured thick brick walls bound with lime-surki mortar and included the Maharaja Virendra Sagar, a large reservoir providing water for both the household and local irrigation.

== Courtly Life and Administration ==
[[File:Territories of Dar Raj in Dhamrai Upazila, Bangladesh.svg|thumb|Territories of Dar Raj in Dhamrai Upazila, [[Bangladesh]]
{{Legend|#aa162a|Territories under the Dar Raj}}{{Legend|#fde4e7|Disputed territories under the Dar Raj}}|left]]Courtly life at Nannar was governed by a disciplined structure, distinguishing between public functions in the outer courts and private life in the inner quarters. Daily routines included administrative sessions where estate officers presented accounts of cultivation and revenue. The Maharaja was known to dress in fine muslin and silk robes, and the meals served at court reflected a blending of both Kashmiri and Bengali culinary influences
Dhamrai was once under the Thana (now Upazila) of Savar. Dhamrai became a Thana itself in 1914 during the British rule; the same year Dhamrai Hardinge High School was established. In 1947 it was put under the district of Dhaka. On December 15, 1984, Dhamrai was upgraded into a full-fledged Upazila.
The administration of the Bengal estates—including villages such as ''Rajrajeshwar'', ''Rowail'', ''Sharifbagh'', and ''Ashulia''—was conducted with diligence. The Maharaja personally inspected irrigation works and canals, ensuring that the welfare of the cultivators was protected.

== Later Years and Succession ==

In his later years, the Maharaja withdrew from daily arduous labor but remained steadfast in his supervision of revenue and justice. In 1820, his health began to decline due to a malady of the stomach. Maharaja Virendra Mohan Dar passed away on the 3rd of February, 1821, at the age of sixty-two.
[[File:Emblem (or seal) of Dar Raj دار راج.png|thumb|Seal of Dar Raj]]
The legacy of the Dar Raj was carried forward by his sons, Raja Mukund Mohan Dar and Bhupendra Mohan Dhar. His lineage continued to produce distinguished figures, including Rai Bahadur Hara Mohan Dhar (a barrister of the Middle Temple), Justice Mohini Mohan Dhar, Judge and former Dewan of Mayurbhanj, Satyendra Mohan Dhar, C.I.E. I.C.S.

== See also ==
Other resources at the [[School:History|School of History]]:
*[[W:Kashmiri Pandits|History of Kashmiri Pandits]]
*[[W:Zamindar|The Zamindari System of Bengal]]
*[[W:Durrani Empire|The Durrani Empire in India]]

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[[File:Oil Portrait of Maharaja Virendra Mohan Dar of Akhnoor.jpg|thumb|Claude-Sterling Oil Portrait of Maharaja Virendra Mohan Dar of Akhnoor- ''The Maharaja at 26'']]
== Maharaja Virendra Mohan Dar - Founder of the Dar Raj ==
[[W:Maharaja|Maharaja]] Virendra Vasudev Mohan Dar, otherwise known as the effective founder of the Dar Raj's political and ceremonial standing, was born on Thursday, the 14th of September 1758, in the ancestral quarters of the Akhnoor region of Kashmir. He was the eldest son of Ram Hari Mohan Dar and Smt. Annapurna Devi, the third daughter of the esteemed merchant Pandit Narayan Kaul of Srinagar. His lineage traces back to his grandfather, Hari Krishna Mohan Dar (1687–1768), a saffron merchant and learned Kashmiri Pandit who established the family’s zamindari foundations in the late 17th century.  
[[file:Kalighat Patachitra of Maharaja Virendra Mohan Dar.jpg|thumb|Posthumous Kalighat patachitra, commissioned by his great-grandson Mohini Mohan Dhar, 1929, Kalighat, Calcutta.]]
From his earliest years, Virendra exhibited a discerning mind and a keen disposition for learning. He was educated under several specialized tutors: Pandit Madhusudan Kaul (classical literature, Sanskrit, Persian, and land management), Pandit Gopesh Raina (arithmetic, accounts, and revenue management), and Pandit Jagannath Bhat (Durrani administrative customs and local jurisprudence). By the age of ten, he was already distinguished for his recitals of historical and sacred texts, and by seventeen, he was accompanying his father on tours of the family's vast estates in both Kashmir and Bengal, including Dhamrai and Char Talibari

== Accession and the Title of Maharaja ==
Upon the death of his father in 1778, Virendra Mohan Dar assumed full responsibility for the administration of the Dar Raj estates.His accession occurred during a period of significant political flux as the [[wikipedia:Durrani Empire|Durrani Empire]] consolidated power in the Punjab and Kashmir. In 1771, following his judicious resolution of disputes among neighboring zamindars, the court of [[wikipedia:Ahmad Shah Durrani|Ahmad Shah Durrani]] conferred upon him the prestigious hereditary title of &quot;Maharaja&quot;.

The formal investiture took place, in the autumn of 1771 in the principal hall of the Akhnoor estate.The Maharaja was presented with robes of state and a ceremonial sword, and he pledged to govern with fairness and diligence. To consolidate his authority, he convened a formal Assembly of Zamindars at Akhnur in 1771 to settle boundary disputes and restate revenue obligations. He was known for a &quot;calculated exercise of power,&quot; notably seen in 1782 when he resolved a case of revenue defiance through public inquiry and surveyors rather than armed force

== The Migration to Bengal ==
[[File:Dhar Zamindar Bari Full View with Pond 03.jpg|thumb|Dhar Zamindar Bari (Front View)]]
By the late 18th century, the political stability of the northern territories declined. Provincial governors began prioritizing immediate revenue extraction, and the Akhnoor holdings faced increasing pressure from irregular levies and armed groups associated with local power brokers. In response, the Maharaja implemented a strategic reorientation, gradually shifting the center of his administration to the fertile and more stable plains of [[W:Bengal|Bengal]].

This transition was finalized by a natural calamity in the late 1790s. An exceptionally severe flooding of the [[W:Padma River|Padma River]] resulted in the rapid submergence of the Char Talibari estate, erasing established boundaries and rendering the former seat uninhabitable. Consequently, in 1801, the Maharaja established the Nannar Rajbari (later known as the Dhar Zamindar Bari) in the Dhamrai region. The new residence featured thick brick walls bound with lime-surki mortar and included the Maharaja Virendra Sagar, a large reservoir providing water for both the household and local irrigation.

== Courtly Life and Administration ==
[[File:Territories of Dar Raj in Dhamrai Upazila, Bangladesh.svg|thumb|Territories of Dar Raj in Dhamrai Upazila, [[Bangladesh]]
{{Legend|#aa162a|Territories under the Dar Raj}}{{Legend|#fde4e7|Disputed territories under the Dar Raj}}|left]]Courtly life at Nannar was governed by a disciplined structure, distinguishing between public functions in the outer courts and private life in the inner quarters. Daily routines included administrative sessions where estate officers presented accounts of cultivation and revenue. The Maharaja was known to dress in fine muslin and silk robes, and the meals served at court reflected a blending of both Kashmiri and Bengali culinary influences
Dhamrai was once under the Thana (now Upazila) of Savar. Dhamrai became a Thana itself in 1914 during the British rule; the same year Dhamrai Hardinge High School was established. In 1947 it was put under the district of Dhaka. On December 15, 1984, Dhamrai was upgraded into a full-fledged Upazila.
The administration of the Bengal estates—including villages such as ''Rajrajeshwar'', ''Rowail'', ''Sharifbagh'', and ''Ashulia''—was conducted with diligence. The Maharaja personally inspected irrigation works and canals, ensuring that the welfare of the cultivators was protected.

== Later Years and Succession ==

In his later years, the Maharaja withdrew from daily arduous labor but remained steadfast in his supervision of revenue and justice. In 1820, his health began to decline due to a malady of the stomach. Maharaja Virendra Mohan Dar passed away on the 3rd of February, 1821, at the age of sixty-two.
[[File:Emblem (or seal) of Dar Raj دار راج.png|thumb|Seal of Dar Raj]]
The legacy of the Dar Raj was carried forward by his sons, Raja Mukund Mohan Dar and Bhupendra Mohan Dhar. His lineage continued to produce distinguished figures, including Rai Bahadur Hara Mohan Dhar (a barrister of the Middle Temple), Justice Mohini Mohan Dhar, Judge and former Dewan of Mayurbhanj, Satyendra Mohan Dhar, C.I.E. I.C.S.

== See also ==
Other resources at the [[School:History|School of History]]:
*[[W:Kashmiri Pandits|History of Kashmiri Pandits]]
*[[W:Zamindar|The Zamindari System of Bengal]]
*[[W:Durrani Empire|The Durrani Empire in India]]

[[Category:History of India]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Social Victorians/Irish Aristocracy</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>329829</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2817050</id>
      <parentid>2816841</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T21:50:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Scogdill</username>
        <id>1331941</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Irish Aristocrats at the Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 Fancy-dress Ball */</comment>
      <origin>2817050</origin>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="46915" sha1="10o45qedkpi9x84s2k7l9c5xeqm85ff" xml:space="preserve">= The Irish Aristocracy at the End of the 19th Century =

== The Irish Peerage ==
Minus the people who attended the ball, which are in [[Social Victorians/Irish Aristocracy#Irish Aristocrats at the Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 Fancy-dress Ball|this section, below]].

=== Dukes and Duchesses ===

==== Duke of Leinster ====
Irish peerage

* Gerald FitzGerald, 5th Duke of Leinster (16 August 1851 – 1 December 1893)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p1207.htm#i12063|title=Gerald FitzGerald, 5th Duke of Leinster|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-05-24}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Maurice FitzGerald, 6th Duke of Leinster, 6 years old when he succeeded to the dukedom&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p2767.htm#i27667|title=Maurice FitzGerald, 6th Duke of Leinster|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-05-24}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* Subsidiary Titles
# Marquess of Kildare (Irish peerage), did not attend the ball.
# Earl of Kildare (Irish peerage), did not attend the ball.
# Earl of Offaly (Irish peerage)
# Viscount Leinster of Taplow (GB peerage)
# Baron Offaly (Irish peerage)
# Baron Kildare of Kildare (UK peerage)

=== Marquesses and Marchionesses ===

==== Marquess Conyngham&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-01-13|title=Marquess Conyngham|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marquess_Conyngham&amp;oldid=1332742873|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; ====

* Did not attend the ball but did attend a number of social events about this time.
* Pronounced &quot;''Cunn''ingum.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-01-13|title=Marquess Conyngham|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marquess_Conyngham&amp;oldid=1332742873|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Henry Francis Conyngham, 4th Marquess Conyngham (1857–1897)&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Henry Francis Conyngham, 4th Marquess Conyngham.&quot; ''The Peerage: A Genealogical Survey of the Peerage of Britain as Well as the Royal Families of Europe''. Person page 7198

https://www.thepeerage.com/p7199.htm#i71982.&lt;/ref&gt;
* Victor George Henry Francis Conyngham, 5th Marquess Conyngham (1883–1918)&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Victor George Henry Francis Conyngham, 5th Marquess Conyngham.&quot; ''The Peerage: A Genealogical Survey of the Peerage of Britain as Well as the Royal Families of Europe''. Person page 7198 https://www.thepeerage.com/p7199.htm#i71983.&lt;/ref&gt;

* Subsidiary Titles
** Earl of Conyngham
** Viscount Conyngham
** Viscount Mount Charles

==== Marquess of Donegall ====

* Did not attend the ball.
* Subsidiary Titles
** Earl of Donegall, did not attend the ball.
** Viscount Chichester — did not attend the ball; some Chichesters attended social events at about this time.

==== Marquess and Marchioness of Downshire ====
* Arthur Wills John Wellington Trumbull Blundell Hill, 6th Marquess of Downshire (2 July 1871 – 29 May 1918) in 1893 married Katherine Mary (&quot;Kitty&quot;) Hare (1872–1959)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-02-10|title=Arthur Hill, 6th Marquess of Downshire|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arthur_Hill,_6th_Marquess_of_Downshire&amp;oldid=1274976272|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Did not attend the ball.
* Subsidiary Titles
** Earl of Hillsborough, did not attend the ball, also not at any social events described so far.
** Viscount Kilwarlin — 6th, Arthur Wills John Wellington Trumbull Hill (31 March 1874 – 29 May 1918)&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Arthur Wills John Wellington Trumbull '''Hill''', 6th Marquess of Downshire.&quot; ''The Peerage: A Genealogical Survey of the Peerage of Britain as Well as the Royal Families of Europe''. Person page #3810

https://www.thepeerage.com/p3811.htm#i38104.&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Marquess of Ely ====

* Did not attend the ball, but members of the Loftus family attended a number of social events at about this time.
* 4th Marquess: John Henry Wellington Graham Loftus (15 July 1857 – 3 April 1889)&lt;ref&gt;&quot;John Henry Wellington Graham Loftus, 4th Marquess of Ely.&quot; ''The Peerage: A Genealogical Survey of the Peerage of Britain as Well as the Royal Families of Europe''. Person page 8545 https://www.thepeerage.com/p8545.htm#i85450.&lt;/ref&gt;
* 5th Marquess: John Henry Loftus (3 April 1889 – 18 December 1925)&lt;ref&gt;&quot;John Henry Loftus, 5th Marquess of Ely.&quot; ''The Peerage: A Genealogical Survey of the Peerage of Britain as Well as the Royal Families of Europe''. Person page 8546 https://www.thepeerage.com/p8546.htm#i85459.&lt;/ref&gt;
* Subsidiary Titles
** Earl of Ely — did not attend the ball.
** Viscount Loftus

==== [[Social Victorians/People/Bective|Marquess and Marchioness of Headfort]] ====
* Did not attend the ball, but a number of people in this family attended many social events at about this time.
* Subsidiary Titles
** [[Social Victorians/People/Bective|Earl of Bective]]
** Viscount Headfort&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;
*** 4th: Thomas Taylour (6 December 1870 – 22 July 1894)
*** 5th: Geoffrey Thomas Taylour (22 July 1894 – 29 January 1943)
*Papers

==== Marquess of Sligo ====

* Did not attend the ball, but many people with the surname Browne attended a number of social events at about this time.
* Subsidiary Titles
** Earl of Altamont. Did not attend the ball; did not attend any social events analyzed so far.
** Earl of Clanricarde — Did not attend the ball but did attend a few social events about this time.
** Viscount of Westport&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;&quot;Index to Viscounts and Viscountesses.&quot; ''The Peerage: A Genealogical Survey of the Peerage of Britain as Well as the Royal Families of Europe''. 

https://www.thepeerage.com/index_viscount.htm.&lt;/ref&gt;
*** 5th: George John Browne (26 January 1845 – 30 December 1896), 5th Marquess
*** 6th: John Thomas Browne (30 December 1896 – 30 December 1903), 6th Marquess

==== Marquess of Waterford ====
* John Henry de La Poer Beresford, 5th Marquess of Waterford (1844–1895)
* Henry de La Poer Beresford, 6th Marquess of Waterford (1875–1911)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-02-10|title=Henry Beresford, 6th Marquess of Waterford|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Henry_Beresford,_6th_Marquess_of_Waterford&amp;oldid=1337565707|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* Did not attend the ball, but members of the Beresford family were prominent socially at about this time.
* Subsidiary Titles
** Viscount Tyrone

=== Earls and Countesses ===

==== Earl of Annesley ====

* Did not attend the ball but did attend a number of social events in the 1890s.
* Subsidiary Title
** Viscount Glerawly&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;: 6th: Hugh Annesley (10 August 1874 – 15 December 1908), 6th Earl of Annesley

==== Earl of Bessborough ====
* Frederick George Brabazon Ponsonby, 6th Earl of Bessborough (1815–1895)
* Walter William Brabazon Ponsonby, 7th Earl of Bessborough (1821–1906), would have been Viscount Duncannon 1880–1895
* Edward Ponsonby, 8th Earl of Bessborough (1851–1920), would have been Viscount Duncannon 1895–1906

* Did not attend the ball, but the [[Social Victorians/People/Ponsonby|Ponsonby]] family attended many social events at about this time, including mention of Lady Duncannon's school that taught fabric arts.
* Subsidiary Titles
** Viscount Duncannon

==== Earl of Caledon ====

* Did not attend the ball but did attend a number of social events about this time.
* James Alexander, 4th Earl of Caledon (1846–1898)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-11-21|title=James Alexander, 4th Earl of Caledon|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Alexander,_4th_Earl_of_Caledon&amp;oldid=1323312651|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Eric James Desmond Alexander, 5th Earl of Caledon (1885–1968), succeeded as earl in 1898.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-11-21|title=Eric Alexander, 5th Earl of Caledon|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eric_Alexander,_5th_Earl_of_Caledon&amp;oldid=1323313583|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Subsidiary Title
** Viscount Caledon

==== Earl of Carrick ====

* Did not attend the ball.

==== Earl Castle Stewart ====

* Did not attend the ball.
* 5th Earl: Henry James Stuart-Richardson (12 September 1874 – 5 June 1914)&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Henry James Stuart-Richardson, 5th Earl Castle Stewart.&quot; ''The Peerage: A Genealogical Survey of the Peerage of Britain as Well as the Royal Families of Europe''. Person page 2412 https://www.thepeerage.com/p12413.htm#i124125.&lt;/ref&gt;
* Subsidiary Title
** Viscount Castle Stewart

==== Earl of Cavan ====

* Did not attend the ball.

==== Earl of Clancarty ====

* Did not attend the ball and attended few social events researched so far.
* Richard Somerset Le Poer Trench, 4th Earl of Clancarty (1834–1891)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-01-10|title=Richard Trench, 4th Earl of Clancarty|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Richard_Trench,_4th_Earl_of_Clancarty&amp;oldid=1332219771|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* William Frederick Le Poer Trench, 5th Earl of Clancarty (1868–1929)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-11-05|title=William Trench, 5th Earl of Clancarty|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Trench,_5th_Earl_of_Clancarty&amp;oldid=1320532351|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Subsidiary Title
** Viscount Dunlo

==== [[Social Victorians/People/Clanwilliam|Earl and Countess of Clanwilliam]] ====

* Did not attend the ball.
* Subsidiary Title
** Viscount Clanwilliam&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;: 4th: Richard James Meade (7 October 1879 – 4 August 1907), 4th Earl

==== Earl of Cork, Earl of Orrery ====

* Cork and Orrery, did attend the ball.

==== Earl of Courtown ====

* Did not attend the ball.

==== Earl of Darnley ====
* John Bligh, 6th Earl of Darnley (1827–1896), British&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-02-07|title=John Bligh, 6th Earl of Darnley|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Bligh,_6th_Earl_of_Darnley&amp;oldid=1337113925|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Edward Bligh, 7th Earl of Darnley (1851–1900), Lord Clifton much of his adult life, &quot;English&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-05-05|title=Edward Bligh, 7th Earl of Darnley|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edward_Bligh,_7th_Earl_of_Darnley&amp;oldid=1352607379|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Did not attend the ball, but the Bligh family attended some social events from about this time.
* Subsidiary Titles:
** Viscount Darnley

==== Earl of Desmond ====

* Did not attend the ball.

==== [[Social Victorians/People/Donoughmore|Earl of Donoughmore]] ====

* Did not attend the ball but did attend a number of social events about this time.
* John Luke George Hely-Hutchinson, 5th Earl of Donoughmore (1848–1900)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-05-01|title=John Hely-Hutchinson, 5th Earl of Donoughmore|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Hely-Hutchinson,_5th_Earl_of_Donoughmore&amp;oldid=1288332715|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Subsidiary Title
** Viscount Donoughmore

==== Earl of Drogheda ====

* Did not attend the ball.

* Subsidiary Titles
** Viscount Moore — no evidence of the Viscount or Viscountess Moore at social events at about this time.

==== Earl of Granard ====
* Did not attend the ball.
* Bernard Arthur William Patrick Hastings Forbes, 8th Earl of Granard (17 September 1874 – 10 September 1948)[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Forbes,_8th_Earl_of_Granard]
* Anglo-Irish
* Subsidiary Titles
** Bernard Arthur William Patrick Hastings Forbes, styled Viscount Forbes from 1874 to 1889

==== Earl of Kingston ====
* Did not attend the ball.
* Subsidiary Title
** Viscount Kingsborough (of Viscount Kingston of Kingborough, co. Sligo)&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;
*** 8th: Henry Newcomen King-Tenison (21 June 1871 – 13 January 1896)
*** 9th: Henry Edwyn King-Tenison (13 January 1896 – 11 January 1946)
**Viscount Lorton

==== Earl of Lisburne ====
* Did not attend the ball.
* Ernest Augustus Malet Vaughan, 5th Earl of Lisburne (1836–1888)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-12-03|title=Ernest Augustus Malet Vaughan, 5th Earl of Lisburne|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Augustus_Malet_Vaughan,_5th_Earl_of_Lisburne&amp;oldid=1325511612|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
** Owned a lot of land in Cardiganshire, Wales
** Conservative, but withdrew from politics
* George Henry Arthur Vaughan, 6th Earl of Lisburne (1862–1899)
* Ernest Edmund Henry Malet Vaughan, 7th Earl of Lisburne (1892–1965)
** Welsh nobleman, of Trawsgoed, Cardiganshire. 7 years old when he succeeded to the earldom

==== Earl of Longford ====

* Did not attend the ball.

==== Earl and Countess of Meath ====

* Did not attend the ball.

==== Earl of Mexborough ====

* Did not attend the ball

==== Earl of Mornington ====

* Subsidiary title of the Duke of Wellington (in the peerage of the UK).

==== Earl of Normanton ====

* Did not attend the ball, but did attend some social events in the 1880s and 1890s.
* James Charles Herbert Welbore Ellis Agar, 3rd Earl of Normanton (1818–1896)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-10-06|title=James Agar, 3rd Earl of Normanton|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Agar,_3rd_Earl_of_Normanton&amp;oldid=1315461436|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Sidney James Agar, 4th Earl of Normanton (1865–1933)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-05-19|title=Sidney James Agar, 4th Earl of Normanton|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sidney_James_Agar,_4th_Earl_of_Normanton&amp;oldid=1355064165|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Subsidiary Title
** Viscount Somerton

==== Earl of Portarlington ====

* Did not attend the ball. Members of this family attended a few social events at about this time.
* Subsidiary Title
** Viscount Carlow&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;
*** 5th: Lionel Seymour William Dawson-Damer (1 March 1889 – 17 December 1892), Earl of Portarlington
*** 6th: Lionel George Henry Seymour Dawson-Damer (17 December 1892 – 31 August 1900)

==== Earl of Roden ====

* Did not attend the ball.
* Subsidiary Title
** Viscount Jocelyn&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;
*** 6th: John Strange Jocelyn (9 January 1880 – 3 July 1897)
*** 7th: William Henry Jocelyn (3 July 1897 – 23 January 1910)

==== Earl of Shannon ====

* Did not attend the ball.

==== Earl of Shelburne ====

* Subsidiary title of the Marquess of Lansdowne (in the peerage of Great Britain).
* Did not attend the ball, and did not attend any social events analyzed so far.

==== Earl of Tyrone ====

* Did not attend

==== Earl of Waterford ====

* Not a subsidiary title of the Marquess of Waterford but of the Earl of Shrewsbury in the peerage of England.

==== Earl of Westmeath ====

* Did not attend the ball.

==== Earl of Winterton ====

* Did not attend the ball.

=== Viscounts and Viscountesses ===

==== Viscount Ashbrook ====
* William Spencer Flower, 7th Viscount Ashbrook (1830–1906)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-12-01|title=Viscount Ashbrook|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Viscount_Ashbrook&amp;oldid=1325071512|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Did not attend the ball, has no social presence at about this time.

==== Viscount Banger ====

* Did not attend the ball but attended a few social events at about this time.
* Edward Ward, 4th Viscount Bangor (1827–1881)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-03-16|title=Edward Ward, 4th Viscount Bangor|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edward_Ward,_4th_Viscount_Bangor&amp;oldid=1343882576|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Henry William Crosbie Ward, 5th Viscount Bangor (1828–1911)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-03-02|title=Henry Ward, 5th Viscount Bangor|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Henry_Ward,_5th_Viscount_Bangor&amp;oldid=1341354058|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Viscount Boyne ====

* Did not attend the ball, but did attend a number of events at about this time.

==== Viscount Callan ====

* Did not attend the ball, and does not have much if any social presence at about this time.
* The Viscount Callan is a subsidiary title of the Earl of Denbigh in the Peerage of England.

==== Viscount Charlemont ====
* Did not attend the ball.
* Colonel James Alfred Caulfeild, 7th Viscount Charlemont (20 March 1830 – 4 July 1913), Irish&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-05-02|title=James Caulfeild, 7th Viscount Charlemont|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Caulfeild,_7th_Viscount_Charlemont&amp;oldid=1352129469|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Unionist

==== Viscount Chetwynd ====
* Does not seem to have attended the ball, but Chetwynds were socially very active at about this time.
* Godfrey John Boyle Chetwynd, 8th Viscount Chetwynd (1863–1936), British&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-05-24|title=Godfrey Chetwynd, 8th Viscount Chetwynd|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Godfrey_Chetwynd,_8th_Viscount_Chetwynd&amp;oldid=1355878192|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Viscount de Vesci ====

* Did not attend the ball but attended several social events at about this time.
* 4th Viscount de Vesci: John Robert William Vesey (23 December 1875 – 6 July 1903)&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;
* &quot;The family seat was Abbeyleix House, near Abbeyleix, County Laois.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-02-09|title=Viscount de Vesci|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Viscount_de_Vesci&amp;oldid=1337491855|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Viscount Dillon ====

* Did not attend the ball, but several Dillons attended other social events at about this time.

==== Viscount Doneraile&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-01-16|title=Viscount Doneraile|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Viscount_Doneraile&amp;oldid=1333262628|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; ====

* Did not attend the ball, but did attend the Warwick Bal Poudré and few other social events at about this time.
* Hayes St Leger, 4th Viscount Doneraile (1818–1887)
* Richard Arthur St Leger, 5th Viscount Doneraile (1825–1891)
* Edward St Leger, 6th Viscount Doneraile (1866–1941)

==== [[Social Victorians/People/Downe|Viscount Downe]] ====
* Did not attend the ball but attended many social events at about this time.
* Major-General Hugh Richard Dawnay, 8th Viscount Downe (20 July 1844 – 21 January 1924)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-03-24|title=Hugh Dawnay, 8th Viscount Downe|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hugh_Dawnay,_8th_Viscount_Downe&amp;oldid=1345146095|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* British Army general

==== Viscount Ferrard ====

* See Viscount Massereene, below. By the end of the century, it was the Viscount and Viscountess of Massereene and Ferrard.

==== Viscount Fitzmaurice ====

* A subsidiary title of the Marquess of Lansdowne (in the Peerage of Great Britain).
* 6th Viscount Fitzmaurice, Henry Charles Keith Petty-FitzMaurice (5 July 1866 – 3 June 1927)&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Henry Charles Keith Petty-FitzMaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne.&quot; ''The Peerage: A Genealogical Survey of the Peerage of Britain as Well as the Royal Families of Europe''. Person page 958

https://www.thepeerage.com/p959.htm#i9586.&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Viscount Gage ====
* Henry Charles Gage, 5th Viscount Gage (1854–1912)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-06-21|title=Viscount Gage|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Viscount_Gage&amp;oldid=1296646030|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Did not attend the ball, but members of this family attended a number of social events at about this time.

==== Viscount Galway ====
* George Edmund Milnes Monckton-Arundell, 7th Viscount Galway (1844–1931), British conservative&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-08|title=George Monckton-Arundell, 7th Viscount Galway|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Monckton-Arundell,_7th_Viscount_Galway&amp;oldid=1304770631|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Did not attend the ball, but Viscount and Viscountess Galway attended many social events at about this time.
* Subsidiary Title
** Baron Monckton (in the Peerage of the United Kingdom)

==== Viscount Gormanston ====

* Did not attend the ball, has no social presence in the late 19th-century newspapers at this time.

==== [[Social Victorians/People/Gort|Viscount Gort]] ====

* Did not attend the ball, but attended some social events at about this time.
* Standish Prendergast Vereker, 4th Viscount Gort (1819–1900)&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Standish Prendergast Vereker, 4th Viscount Gort.&quot; ''The Peerage: A Genealogical Survey of the Peerage of Britain as Well as the Royal Families of Europe''. Person page 4626 https://www.thepeerage.com/p4627.htm#i46261.&lt;/ref&gt;
* John Gage Prendergast Vereker, 5th Viscount Gort (1849–1902)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-05-28|title=John Vereker, 5th Viscount Gort|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Vereker,_5th_Viscount_Gort&amp;oldid=1292670203|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Viscount Grandison ====

* Did not attend the ball, has no social presence in the late 19th-century newspapers at this time.
* The Viscount Grandison is a subsidiary title of the Earl of Jersey in the Peerage of England.

==== Viscount Grimston ====
* Subsidiary title of the Earl of Verulam (in the Peerage of the United Kingdom)
* Did not attend the ball, but a number of members of this family attended social events at about this time.

==== Viscount Harberton ====

* Did not attend the ball; Viscountess Harberton is mentioned once in social events at about this time so far.
* James Spencer Pomeroy, 6th Viscount Harberton (1836–1912)&lt;ref&gt;&quot;James Spencer Pomeroy, 6th Viscount Harberton.&quot; ''The Peerage: A Genealogical Survey of the Peerage of Britain as Well as the Royal Families of Europe''. Person Page 4315 https://www.thepeerage.com/p43151.htm#i431502.&lt;/ref&gt;
* Florence Wallace Pomeroy, Viscountess Harberton (1843–1911), suffragette, cyclist, President of the Rational Dress Society&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-03-12|title=Florence Wallace Pomeroy, Viscountess Harberton|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Florence_Wallace_Pomeroy,_Viscountess_Harberton&amp;oldid=1343082631|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Viscount Lifford ====

* Did not attend the ball; the only social event at about this time so far is the Queen's Diamond Jubilee garden party.
* James Hewitt, 4th Viscount Lifford (1811–1887)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-09-11|title=James Hewitt, 4th Viscount Lifford|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Hewitt,_4th_Viscount_Lifford&amp;oldid=1310741456|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* James Wilfrid Hewitt, 5th Viscount Lifford (12 October 1837 – 20 March 1913)&lt;ref&gt;&quot;James Wilfrid Hewitt, 5th Viscount Lifford.&quot; ''The Peerage: A Genealogical Survey of the Peerage of Britain as Well as the Royal Families of Europe''. Person Page 2227 https://www.thepeerage.com/p22271.htm#i222701.&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Earl of Listowel ====
* Pronounced &quot;Lish-''toe''-ell.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2024-10-15|title=Earl of Listowel|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Earl_of_Listowel&amp;oldid=1251322273|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Did not attend the ball, but hosted and attended social events at about this time.
* William Hare, 3rd Earl of Listowel (1833–1924)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-04-17|title=William Hare, 3rd Earl of Listowel|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Hare,_3rd_Earl_of_Listowel&amp;oldid=1349570352|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, Irish peer
* Subsidiary Title
** Viscount Ennismore and Listowel
** Baron Ennismore

==== Viscount Massereene ====
* Did not attend the ball but did attend a few events at about this time. See Viscount Ferrard, above. By the end of the century, it was the Viscount and Viscountess of Massereene and Ferrard.
* Anglo-Irish
* Clotworthy John Eyre Skeffington, 11th Viscount Massereene (9 October 1842 – 26 June 1905)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2024-11-23|title=Clotworthy Skeffington, 11th Viscount Massereene|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Clotworthy_Skeffington,_11th_Viscount_Massereene&amp;oldid=1259199982|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; and 4th Viscount Ferrard (28 April 1863 – 26 June 1905)

==== Viscount Molesworth ====
* Did not attend the ball, but attended the Warwick Bal Poudré and a number of other social events at about this time.
* Samuel Molesworth, 8th Viscount Molesworth (1829–1906), may have been a Quaker

==== Viscount Monck ====

* Did not attend the ball, but attended a number of social events at about this time.
* Charles Stanley Monck, 4th Viscount Monck (1819–1894)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-04-05|title=Charles Monck, 4th Viscount Monck|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles_Monck,_4th_Viscount_Monck&amp;oldid=1347311992|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, British
* Henry Power Charles Stanley Monck, 5th Viscount Monck (1849–1927)&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Henry Power Charles Stanley Monck, 5th Viscount Monck of Ballytrammon.&quot; ''The Peerage: A Genealogical Survey of the Peerage of Britain as Well as the Royal Families of Europe''. Person page 3880 https://www.thepeerage.com/p3881.htm#i38802.&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Viscount Mountgarret ====

* Did not attend the ball, has no social presence in the late 19th-century newspapers at this time.

==== [[Social Victorians/People/Powerscourt|Viscount Powerscourt]] ====
* Mervyn Wingfield, 7th Viscount Powerscourt (1836–1904)&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-02-18|title=Mervyn Wingfield, 7th Viscount Powerscourt|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mervyn_Wingfield,_7th_Viscount_Powerscourt&amp;oldid=1339057453|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Did not attend the ball, but members of this family attended a number of social events at about this time.
* Subsidiary Title
** Baron Powerscourt (in the Peerage of the United Kingdom), 1885&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

==== Viscount Southwell ====

* Did not attend the ball, though the Viscount and Viscountess attended a few social events at about this time.
* 5th&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;: Arthur Robert Pyers Southwell (26 April 1878 – 5 October 1944)&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Arthur Robert Pyers Southwell, 5th Viscount Southwell of Castle Mattress.&quot; ''The Peerage: A Genealogical Survey of the Peerage of Britain as Well as the Royal Families of Europe''. Person page

https://www.thepeerage.com/p7550.htm#i75497.&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Viscount Valentia ====

* Did not attend the ball, attended some social events at about this time. Was on the Welcome Council for the 1887 American Exhibition.

=== Barons and Baronesses ===
Not all the barons extant at the end of the 19th century and listed on the Wikipedia [[wikipedia:Peerage_of_Ireland|Peerage of Ireland]] page are here — only the ones who were active socially.

==== Baron Conway and Killultagh ====

* Did not attend the ball, but people from the Conway and Seymour families attended a number of social events at about this time.
* Subsidiary title of the Marquess of Hertford (in the Peerage of England and Great Britain).
* Francis Hugh George Seymour, 5th Marquess of Hertford (1812–1884)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-04-05|title=Francis Seymour, 5th Marquess of Hertford|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Francis_Seymour,_5th_Marquess_of_Hertford&amp;oldid=1347294689|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Hugh de Grey Seymour, 6th Marquess of Hertford (1843–1912)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-04-05|title=Hugh Seymour, 6th Marquess of Hertford|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hugh_Seymour,_6th_Marquess_of_Hertford&amp;oldid=1347303090|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Baron Digby ====

* Did not attend the ball, but people from this family attended a number of social events at about this time.
* Edward St Vincent Digby, 9th and 3rd Baron Digby (1809–1889)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-12-15|title=Edward Digby, 9th Baron Digby|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edward_Digby,_9th_Baron_Digby&amp;oldid=1327712265|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Edward Henry Trafalgar Digby, 10th and 4th Baron Digby (1846–1920)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-01-26|title=Edward Digby, 10th Baron Digby|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edward_Digby,_10th_Baron_Digby&amp;oldid=1334892957|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Baron Inchiquin ====

* Did not attend the ball, but people from this family attended a number of social events at about this time.
* Edward Donough O'Brien, 14th Baron Inchiquin (1839–1900)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-04-28|title=Edward O'Brien, 14th Baron Inchiquin|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edward_O%27Brien,_14th_Baron_Inchiquin&amp;oldid=1351543832|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Peerage of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland ==
After the forced 1801 Act of Union.

=== Earls and Countesses ===

==== Earl of Limerick ====

* Did not attend the ball, but did attend a number of events at about this time.

==== Earl of Norbury ====

* Did not attend the ball, but attended some social events at about this time.
* Subsidiary Title
** Baron Norbury

==== Earl of Ranfurly ====

* Did not attend the ball, and they have a small social presence in the newspapers in the 1880s and 1890s.

==== Earl of Rosse ====

* Did not attend the ball, but did attend a few events at about this time.

== Peerage of the United Kingdom ==

* Lurgan

== Irish Nationalists ==

== Irish Unionists ==

== Irish Aristocrats at the Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 Fancy-dress Ball ==

==== [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Duke and Duchess of Abercorn]] ====
* This dukedom is in the peerage of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland

* James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Abercorn (1811–1885), elder son of Lord Hamilton, &quot;styled Viscount Hamilton from 1814 to 1818 and The Marquess of Abercorn from 1818 to 1868, was a Conservative statesman who twice served as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-04-05|title=James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Abercorn|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Hamilton,_1st_Duke_of_Abercorn&amp;oldid=1347253763|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn (1838–1913), eldest son of the 1st Duke, &quot;styled Viscount Hamilton until 1868 and Marquess of Hamilton from 1868 to 1885, was a British nobleman, courtier, and diplomat.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-01-25|title=James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Hamilton,_2nd_Duke_of_Abercorn&amp;oldid=1334676058|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* The Hamilton who became the 3rd duke attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House, as did a few other members of this family.

* Subsidiary Titles
** Marquess of Abercorn
** Viscount Hamilton
** Viscount Strabane, county Tyrone
*Papers
**PRONI for the Abercorn papers [GB 0255 PRONI/D623]
**Some individuals' papers (the Tighe Hamilton Howard papers, https://iar.ie/archive/tighe-hamilton-howard-papers) from the Hamilton family are in the National Library of Ireland. &quot;An item level catalogue is available online. These papers form part of the Wicklow Papers (Collection List 69) that are held in the Department of Manuscripts at the National Library of Ireland.&quot;
***VII. Sarah Howard Papers, 1830-1887.
****[***] VII.ii. Letters from Sarah Howard to her husband the Hon. Rev. Francis Howard, [n.d.] Call number: '''MS 38,639/2/2''' [n.d., 3 pp, 2 letters?, so 1 Folder? includes social events]
****[***] VII.iii. Correspondence between Sarah Howard and her daughter Lady Caroline Howard, ca. 1851 - ca. 1891. Call number: '''MS 38,639/2/3''' [letters from Sarah Howard, Folders 1–3; letters from Lady Caroline Howard, Folder 4]
****VII.iv. Correspondence between Sarah Howard and her son Charles Howard, 5th Earl of Wicklow, 1853-ca.1870. Call number: '''MS 38,639/2/4''' [36 items, 2 folders]
****VII.v. Correpondence between Sarah Howard and her son Cecil Howard, 6th Earl of Wicklow, ca. 1855-1876. Call number: '''MS 38,639/2/5''' [11 items, 1 Folder?] ['''8 folders total, I think, so far''']
****[***] VII.vi. Correspondence between Sarah Howard and her daughters Lady Louisa and Lady Alice Howard, 1855-ca. 1877. Call number:  '''MS 38,639/2/6''' [36 items, 2 folders]
****[***] VII.vix. Additional correspondence of Sarah Howard of Wingfield, Bray Co. Wicklow, 1865-1887. Call number: '''MS 38,639/2/9''' [22 items, 2 folders]
***VIII. Lady Caroline Howard Papers, 1852-1919.
****[**] VIII.i. Correspondence between Lady Caroline Howard and her brother Charles, Earl of Wicklow, 1852-1880. Call number: '''MS 38,639/2/11''' [36 items; 3 folders]
****[**] VIII.iv. Additional correspondence of Lady Caroline Howard, 1868-1919. Call number: '''MS 38,639/2/14''' [32 items, 2 folders]
****[**] VIII.v. Additional papers of Lady Caroline Howard, 1900. Call number: '''MS 38,639/2/15''' [6pp, 1 Folder?; &quot;Contains a manuscript draft of the first chapter of a novel, written in Caroline Howard's hand; the setting being a 'noble mansion in the south of England'. Incomplete and untitled, with corrections throughout. Also included is printed chart of the 'Outlines of the History from the Creation of the World to the Abolition of the Regal Dignity of Rome'; manuscript annotations on the verso made by Howard.&quot;]
***IX. Additional Howard family correspondence, 1773-1900.
****[**] IX.vii. Correspondence and papers of Lady Louisa Howard, 1856-1907. Call number: '''MS 38,639/2/22''' [55 items, 3 folders]
****[***] IX.viii. Correspondence and papers of Lady Alice Howard, [n.d.] Call number: '''MS 38,639/2/23''' [3pp, 1 folder?]
***XI. Other papers, 1737-1913.
****XI.i. Miscellaneous correspondence, 1753-1891. Call number: '''MS 38,639/2/27''' [11 items, 1 folder?]
***Wicklow Papers
****[**] Journals of Lady Caroline Howard including some accounts of her tours abroad, 1873 Jan. - March, 1875 Aug. - Sept., &amp; 1882 Jan. - April. Call number: '''MS 3586-3588''' [3 vols.]
****[**] Diaries of Lady Louisa Howard including accounts of her travels on the Continent, 1862 Oct. - 1869 June, 1871 April - 1873 April and 1877 Oct. - 1883 July. Call number: '''MS 3589-3593''' [5 vols.]
****Diaries of Lady Caroline Howard, 1862 Oct. - 1870 May. Call number: '''MS 3594-3599''' [6 vols.]
****[***] Diaries of Lady Alice Howard, Shelton Abbey and Bray, Co. Wicklow, 1874-1922. Call number: '''MS 3600-3625''' [26 vols.]
***[**] Journals of Lady Alice Howard, including account of tours on the Continent, 1860 June - Oct, 1865 Aug. - 1866 Feb., 1869 Nov. - 1870 Nov. Call number: '''MS 4793-4795''' [3 vols.]
==== [[Social Victorians/People/Londonderry|Marquess and Marchioness of Londonderry]] ====
* The Marquess and Marchioness attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House, she led one of the courts as Maria Thérèse, plus two of their children attended, one of whom is Viscount Castlereagh.
* Charles Stewart Vane-Tempest-Stewart, 6th Marquess of Londonderry&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Charles Stewart Vane-Tempest-Stewart, 6th Marquess of Londonderry.&quot; ''The Peerage: A Genealogical Survey of the Peerage of Britain as Well as the Royal Families of Europe''. Person page 1277 https://www.thepeerage.com/p1278.htm#i12772.&lt;/ref&gt;
* Lady Theresa Susey Helen Chetwynd-Talbot, Marchioness of Londonderry&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lady Theresa Susey Helen Chetwynd-Talbot.&quot; ''The Peerage: A Genealogical Survey of the Peerage of Britain as Well as the Royal Families of Europe''. Person page 1277 https://www.thepeerage.com/p1278.htm#i12771.&lt;/ref&gt;
* Subsidiary Titles
** [[Social Victorians/People/Londonderry|Earl of Londonderry]]
** Viscount Castlereagh — Charles Stewart Henry Vane-Tempest-Stewart (6 November 1884 – 8 February 1915)
*Papers
**In PRONI [GB 0255 PRONI/D2846]: &quot;The Theresa, Lady Londonderry Papers comprise c.4,600 papers and 15 volumes of diaries, scrapbooks, etc, 1858-1919, mainly of Theresa, Marchioness of Londonderry (1856-1919), wife/widow of the 6th Marquess, but including some papers of the 6th Marquess himself, of and about his mother, Mary Cornelia, widow of the 5th Marquess, and of his brothers Lords Henry and Herbert Vane-Tempest.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://iar.ie/archive/theresa-lady-londonderry-papers/|title=Theresa, Lady Londonderry Papers|website=Irish Archives Resource|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;
**In PRONI [GB 0255 PRONI/D3099]: the &quot;Papers of the 7th Marquess of Londonderry and his wife Edith&quot; collection also hold the papers of Edith's father, [[Social Victorians/People/Henry Chaplin|Henry, 1st Viscount Chaplin]], who attended the ball, as did she and a brother. [D3099/1 Henry, 1st Viscount Chaplin, father-in-law of 7th Marquess of Londonderry. Political and personal papers; D3099/3 Edith Helen Chaplin, wife of 7th Marquess of Londonderry. Personal letters and papers]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://iar.ie/archive/papers-7th-marquess-londonderry-wife-edith/|title=Papers of the 7th Marquess of Londonderry and his wife Edith|website=Irish Archives Resource|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== [[Social Victorians/People/Lucan|Earl of Lucan]] ====

* Some members of the family attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House, and the family attended a number of social events at this time.
* Papers: Irish Archives Resource has one listing for Lucan, but it doesn't seem to be relevant: too late and not about the family.

==== [[Social Victorians/People/Ormonde|Marquess and Marchioness of Ormonde]] ====
* The marchioness and her daughters attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House, though nobody mentions the Marquess.
* James Edward Butler, 3rd Marquess of Ormonde and 21st Earl of Ormonde (1844–1919)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-05-03|title=Earl of Ormond (Ireland)|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Earl_of_Ormond_(Ireland)&amp;oldid=1352334266|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Now extinct; earldom dormant. Castle Kilkenny was their manor, but they don't appear to have any papers.

* Subsidiary Titles
* Papers: Irish Archives Resource has one listing, but it's not about the family, the name of a road uses the word ''Ormonde''.

==== [[Social Victorians/People/Antrim|Earl of Antrim]] ====

* The earl and countess did not attend the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House, but two of his brothers did.
* Papers
** [https://iar.ie/archive/earl-antrim-estate-papers/ Estate papers of the Earls of Antrim] [GB 0255 PRONI/D2977] are in PRONI. I don't see personal papers listed, but the collection has 50,000 documents 1603–1967.
** Also &quot;D4091 Papers of Sir Schomberg MacDonnell, Louisa Countess of Antrim and the Stuart family of Dalness. MIC615 The diaries of Louisa, Countess of Antrim.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://iar.ie/archive/earl-antrim-estate-papers/|title=Earl of Antrim Estate Papers|website=Irish Archives Resource|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== [[Social Victorians/People/Arran|Earl of Arran]] ====

* Attended the ball.
* Subsidiary Titles
** Viscount Sudley: 5th: Arthur Saunders William Charles Fox Gore (25 Jun 1884-14 Mar 1901), 5th Earl of Arran&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;
*Papers

==== [[Social Victorians/People/Belmore|Earl Belmore]] ====

* Did not attend the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House, although [[Social Victorians/People/Rowton|Montagu Lowry-Corry, 1st Baron Rowton]] did, but did attend a number of social events about this time.
* 4th Earl: Somerset Richard Lowry-Corry (17 Dec 1845-6 Apr 1913)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-04-17|title=Somerset Lowry-Corry, 4th Earl Belmore|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Somerset_Lowry-Corry,_4th_Earl_Belmore&amp;oldid=1349375684|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Subsidiary Title
** Viscount Belmore (though the subsidiary title for the heir apparent is Viscount Corry?)
*Papers: Belmore Papers [GB 0255 PRONI/D3007]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://iar.ie/archive/belmore-papers/|title=Belmore Papers|website=Irish Archives Resource|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-07}}&lt;/ref&gt;
**D3007/B Rentals and account books (estate, household and personal papers)
**D3007/F Curiosa and personal ephemera
**D3007/I Private and family letters to Honoria Gladstone, Countess Belmore
**D3007/Y Letters and papers of Viscount Corry and the Hon. Cecil Corry, later 5th and 6th Earls Belmore respectively
**D3007/Z Family and other photographs

==== [[Social Victorians/People/Dunraven|Earl of Dunraven and Mount-Earl]] ====

* The [[Social Victorians/People/Dunraven|Earl of Dunraven and Mount-Earl]] and Countess of Dunraven, and their daughter Lady Aileen May Wyndham-Quin attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House.
* Windham Wyndham-Quin, 4th Earl of Dunraven and Mount-Earl (1841–1926)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-05-22|title=Windham Wyndham-Quin, 4th Earl of Dunraven and Mount-Earl|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Windham_Wyndham-Quin,_4th_Earl_of_Dunraven_and_Mount-Earl&amp;oldid=1355461019|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, Anglo-Irish
* Papers

==== [[Social Victorians/People/Cole|Earl and Countess of Enniskillen]] ====

* The Earl and Countess and a daughter attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House. Papers in PRONI.
* Subsidiary Title
** 4th Viscount Enniskillen: Lowry Egerton Cole (12 November 1886 – 28 April 1924)&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;
*Papers

==== [[Social Victorians/People/Crichton|Earl of Erne]] ====

* Some members of the family attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House.
* The newspapers were very inconsistent in the spelling of the family name Crichton.
* Subsidiary Title
** Viscount Erne&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;
*** 3rd Earl of Erne: John Crichton (10 June 1842 – 3 October 1885)
*** 4th Earl of Erne: John Henry Crichton (3 October 1885 – 2 December 1914)
*Papers: in PRONI.

==== [[Social Victorians/People/Gosford|Earl of Gosford]] ====

* The Earl and Countess of Gosford attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House, as did a son and a daughter. They attended many social events at about this time.
* Subsidiary Title
** Viscount Gosford of Market Hill, co. Armagh&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;
*** 5th Earl of Gosford: Archibald Brabazon Sparrow Acheson (15 June 1864 – 11 April 1922)
*Papers

==== Earl of Kerry ====
* Subsidiary title of the [[Social Victorians/People/Lansdowne|Marquess of Lansdowne]] (in the peerage of Great Britain). Attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House.
* Subsidiary Titles
** Viscount Clanmaurice
*Papers

==== [[Social Victorians/People/Kilmorey|Earl of Kilmorey]] ====

* Anglo-Irish
* Nellie Countess of Kilmorey attended the ball; Francis, 3rd Earl was alive at the time, did he attend? Both he and she attended a number of social events from about this time.
* Papers

==== [[Social Victorians/People/Mayo|Earl of Mayo]] ====

* Some members of the family attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House.
* Viscount Mayo of Monycrower, co. Mayo&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;
** 7th Earl of Mayo: Dermot Robert Wyndham Bourke (8 February 1872 – 31 December 1927)
*Papers

==== [[Social Victorians/People/Midleton|Viscount Midleton]] ====
* Some people from this family seem to have attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House as well as many other social events at about this time.
* William Brodrick, 8th Viscount Midleton (6 January 1830 – 18 April 1907), &quot;Irish peer, landowner and Conservative politician in both Houses of Parliament&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-01-05|title=William Brodrick, 8th Viscount Midleton|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Brodrick,_8th_Viscount_Midleton&amp;oldid=1267418489|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Sight and hearing disabilities caused by intermarriage. A daughter became a Republican.
* Papers

==== [[Social Victorians/People/Lurgan|Baron Lurgan]] ====

* The Baron, his wife and probably his uncle attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House.
** Emily Lady Lurgan
** William Brownlow, Baron Lurgan
** Hon. Cecil Brownlow
* Papers, PRONI&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://iar.ie/archive/brownlow-papers/|title=Brownlow Papers|website=Irish Archives Resource|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-07}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Baron Carrington ====
* [[Social Victorians/People/Carrington|Charles Robert Wynn-Carington, 1st Marquess of Lincolnshire]] (1843–1928) attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House.
* Baron Carrington is a subsidiary title of the Marquess of Lincolnshire (created in 1912; Earl Carrington created in 1895).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-05-20|title=Baron Carrington|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baron_Carrington&amp;oldid=1355207880|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Papers

==== Baron Dufferin and Claneboye&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-02-07|title=Baron Dufferin and Claneboye|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baron_Dufferin_and_Claneboye&amp;oldid=1337113957|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; ====

* Members of this family did attend the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House as well as many social events at about this time.
* [[Social Victorians/People/Hamilton Temple Blackwood|Frederick Temple Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood]], 1st Marquess of Dufferin and Ava (1826–1902)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-05-27|title=Frederick Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 1st Marquess of Dufferin and Ava|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood,_1st_Marquess_of_Dufferin_and_Ava&amp;oldid=1356387854|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Papers

==== Baron Garvagh ====

* [[Social Victorians/People/Garvagh|Florence Canning, Lady Garvagh]] attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House.
* Charles John Spencer George Canning, 3rd Baron Garvagh (1852–1915)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-02-06|title=Baron Garvagh|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baron_Garvagh&amp;oldid=1336941309|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Papers

==== Baron Rossmore of Monaghan ====

* A [[Social Victorians/People/Naylor|Miss Naylor]] (Lady Rossmore's sister) of this family attended the ball.
* Derrick Warner William Westenra, 5th Baron Rossmore (1853–1921)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2024-08-27|title=Derrick Westenra, 5th Baron Rossmore|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Derrick_Westenra,_5th_Baron_Rossmore&amp;oldid=1242602083|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Papers

== References ==
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    <title>Universal Bibliography/Languages</title>
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      <text bytes="24905" sha1="9np01smj3dr2kl7qmlsziifs6zm87fa" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages.

World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Origin
*Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ]
*Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1933#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ]
*Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Classification
*April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ]

Extinct
*Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ]
*K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Dead
*Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Indo-European
*Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993.
*Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ]

Anatolian
*Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26.

Hittite
*Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ]
*Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936.

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Asian
*Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

South Asian
*Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

East Asian
*Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC]
*Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ]
*Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese, Japanese and Korean
*Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan and Korea
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Korean
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ainu
*Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ]
*Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up].
*Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C]

==Japanese==
Bibliography
*Oskar Nachod. &quot;Linguistics&quot;. Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754.
*Wenckstern. &quot;Philology: The Japanese Language&quot;. A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA74#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89.

General
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ]
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Study
*Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Courses
*Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ]
*Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ]
*Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

For scientists and engineers
*Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Idioms
*Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ]
*Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC]

Grammar
*Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ]
*Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Linguistics
*Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 
*Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ]

Periodicals, Linguistics
*Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ]

Syntax and semantics
*Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ]

Semantics and pragmatics
*Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR4#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Syntax
*Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ]

Sociolinguistics
*Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ]

Translation
*Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

[[Category:Languages]]</text>
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      <text bytes="25080" sha1="jz6urhaqkogpx4mi6vnwubnerzvx05t" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages.

World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Origin
*Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ]
*Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1933#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ]
*Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Classification
*April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ]

Extinct
*Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ]
*K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Dead
*Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Indo-European
*Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993.
*Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ]

Anatolian
*Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26.

Hittite
*Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ]
*Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936.

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Asian
*Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

South Asian
*Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

East Asian
*Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC]
*Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ]
*Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese, Japanese and Korean
*Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan and Korea
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Korean
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ainu
*Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ]
*Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up].
*Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C]

==Japanese==
Bibliography
*Oskar Nachod. &quot;Linguistics&quot;. Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754.
*Wenckstern. &quot;Philology: The Japanese Language&quot;. A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA74#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89.

General
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ]
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Study
*Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Courses
*Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ]
*Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ]
*Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

For scientists and engineers
*Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Idioms
*Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ]
*Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC]

Grammar
*Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ]
*Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Linguistics
*Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 
*Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ]

Periodicals, Linguistics
*Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ]

Syntax and semantics
*Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ]

Semantics and pragmatics
*Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR4#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Syntax
*Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ]

Sociolinguistics
*Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ]

Translation
*Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

[[Category:Languages]]</text>
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      <text bytes="25252" sha1="r4n364o07v83i5u4wj1fq296z9lpxhq" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages.

World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Origin
*Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ]
*Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1933#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ]
*Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Classification
*April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ]

Extinct
*Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ]
*K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Dead
*Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Indo-European
*Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993.
*Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ]

Anatolian
*Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26.

Hittite
*Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ]
*Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936.

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Asian
*Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

South Asian
*Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

East Asian
*Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC]
*Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ]
*Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese, Japanese and Korean
*Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan and Korea
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Korean
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ainu
*Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ]
*Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up].
*Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C]

==Japanese==
Bibliography
*Oskar Nachod. &quot;Linguistics&quot;. Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754.
*Wenckstern. &quot;Philology: The Japanese Language&quot;. A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA74#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89.

General
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ]
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Study
*Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Courses
*Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ]
*Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ]
*Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

For scientists and engineers
*Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

*Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Idioms
*Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ]
*Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC]

Grammar
*Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ]
*Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Linguistics
*Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 
*Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ]

Periodicals, Linguistics
*Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ]

Syntax and semantics
*Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ]

Semantics and pragmatics
*Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR4#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Syntax
*Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ]

Sociolinguistics
*Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ]

Translation
*Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

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This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages.

World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Origin
*Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ]
*Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1933#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ]
*Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Classification
*April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ]

Extinct
*Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ]
*K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Dead
*Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Indo-European
*Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993.
*Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ]

Anatolian
*Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26.

Hittite
*Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ]
*Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936.

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Asian
*Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

South Asian
*Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

East Asian
*Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC]
*Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ]
*Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese, Japanese and Korean
*Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan and Korea
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hajime Hoji (ed). Japanese/Korean Linguistics. 1990. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Suwm4WrQB6IC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Korean
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ainu
*Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ]
*Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up].
*Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C]

==Japanese==
Bibliography
*Oskar Nachod. &quot;Linguistics&quot;. Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754.
*Wenckstern. &quot;Philology: The Japanese Language&quot;. A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA74#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89.

General
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ]
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Study
*Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Courses
*Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ]
*Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ]
*Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

For scientists and engineers
*Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

*Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Idioms
*Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ]
*Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC]

Grammar
*Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ]
*Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Linguistics
*Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 
*Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ]

Periodicals, Linguistics
*Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ]

Syntax and semantics
*Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ]

Semantics and pragmatics
*Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR4#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Syntax
*Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ]

Sociolinguistics
*Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ]

Translation
*Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

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      <text bytes="25391" sha1="k2oyfvtxuld0rhlxvrcscga2sgpf0vh" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages.

World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Origin
*Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ]
*Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1933#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ]
*Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Classification
*April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ]

Extinct
*Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ]
*K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Dead
*Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Indo-European
*Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993.
*Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ]

Anatolian
*Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26.

Hittite
*Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ]
*Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936.

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Asian
*Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

South Asian
*Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

East Asian
*Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC]
*Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ]
*Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese, Japanese and Korean
*Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan and Korea; Japanese and Korean
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hajime Hoji (ed). Japanese/Korean Linguistics. 1990. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Suwm4WrQB6IC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ainu
*Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ]
*Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up].
*Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C]

==Japanese==
Bibliography
*Oskar Nachod. &quot;Linguistics&quot;. Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754.
*Wenckstern. &quot;Philology: The Japanese Language&quot;. A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA74#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89.

General
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ]
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Study
*Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Courses
*Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ]
*Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ]
*Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

For scientists and engineers
*Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

*Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Idioms
*Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ]
*Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC]

Grammar
*Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ]
*Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Linguistics
*Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 
*Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ]

Periodicals, Linguistics
*Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ]

Syntax and semantics
*Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ]

Semantics and pragmatics
*Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR4#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Syntax
*Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ]

Sociolinguistics
*Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ]

Translation
*Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

[[Category:Languages]]</text>
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      <text bytes="25657" sha1="ksbknh1qt2ldbopwyvddnau17jmd4r3" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages.

World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Origin
*Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ]
*Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1933#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ]
*Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Classification
*April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ]

Extinct
*Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ]
*K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Dead
*Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Indo-European
*Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993.
*Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ]

Anatolian
*Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26.

Hittite
*Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ]
*Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936.

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Asian
*Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

South Asian
*Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

East Asian
*Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC]
*Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ]
*Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese, Japanese and Korean
*Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese and Japanese
*Teruhiro Ishiguro and Kang Kwong Luke. Grammar in Cross-Linguistic Perspective: The Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics of Japanese and Chinese. (Linguistic insights, vol 57). Peter Lang. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p1OqlAEACAAJ]

Japan and Korea; Japanese and Korean
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hajime Hoji (ed). Japanese/Korean Linguistics. 1990. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Suwm4WrQB6IC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ainu
*Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ]
*Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up].
*Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C]

==Japanese==
Bibliography
*Oskar Nachod. &quot;Linguistics&quot;. Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754.
*Wenckstern. &quot;Philology: The Japanese Language&quot;. A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA74#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89.

General
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ]
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Study
*Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Courses
*Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ]
*Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ]
*Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

For scientists and engineers
*Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

*Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Idioms
*Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ]
*Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC]

Grammar
*Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ]
*Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Linguistics
*Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 
*Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ]

Periodicals, Linguistics
*Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ]

Syntax and semantics
*Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ]

Semantics and pragmatics
*Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR4#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Syntax
*Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ]

Sociolinguistics
*Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ]

Translation
*Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

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      <text bytes="25741" sha1="g7q70j9seykk3hbjzs453oki59gkvap" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages.

World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Origin
*Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ]
*Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1933#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ]
*Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Classification
*April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ]

Extinct
*Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ]
*K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Dead
*Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Indo-European
*Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993.
*Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ]

Anatolian
*Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26.

Hittite
*Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ]
*Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936.

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Asian
*Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

South Asian
*Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

East Asian
*Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC]
*Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ]
*Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese, Japanese and Korean
*Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese and Japanese
*Teruhiro Ishiguro and Kang Kwong Luke. Grammar in Cross-Linguistic Perspective: The Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics of Japanese and Chinese. (Linguistic insights, vol 57). Peter Lang. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p1OqlAEACAAJ]

Japan and Korea; Japanese and Korean
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hajime Hoji (ed). Japanese/Korean Linguistics. 1990. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Suwm4WrQB6IC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ainu
*Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ]
*Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up].
*Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C]

==Japanese==
Bibliography
*Oskar Nachod. &quot;Linguistics&quot;. Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754.
*Wenckstern. &quot;Philology: The Japanese Language&quot;. A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA74#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89.

General
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ]
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Study
*Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Courses
*Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ]
*Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ]
*Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

For scientists and engineers
*Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

*Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Idioms
*Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ]
*Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC]

Grammar
*Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ]
*Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Linguistics
*Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 
*Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ]

Periodicals, Linguistics
*Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ]
*Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ]

Syntax and semantics
*Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ]

Semantics and pragmatics
*Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR4#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Syntax
*Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ]

Sociolinguistics
*Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ]

Translation
*Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

[[Category:Languages]]</text>
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      <text bytes="25859" sha1="oo3z9hy90oh7c3dyw0331tseqbqxcbv" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages.

World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Origin
*Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ]
*Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1933#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ]
*Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Classification
*April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ]

Extinct
*Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ]
*K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Dead
*Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Indo-European
*Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993.
*Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ]

Anatolian
*Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26.

Hittite
*Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ]
*Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936.

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Asian
*Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

South Asian
*Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

East Asian
*Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC]
*Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ]
*Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese, Japanese and Korean
*Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese and Japanese
*Teruhiro Ishiguro and Kang Kwong Luke. Grammar in Cross-Linguistic Perspective: The Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics of Japanese and Chinese. (Linguistic insights, vol 57). Peter Lang. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p1OqlAEACAAJ]

Japan and Korea; Japanese and Korean
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hajime Hoji (ed). Japanese/Korean Linguistics. 1990. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Suwm4WrQB6IC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ainu
*Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ]
*Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up].
*Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C]

==Japanese==
Bibliography
*Oskar Nachod. &quot;Linguistics&quot;. Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754.
*Wenckstern. &quot;Philology: The Japanese Language&quot;. A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA74#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89.

General
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ]
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Study
*Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Courses
*Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ]
*Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ]
*Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

For scientists and engineers
*Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

*Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Idioms
*Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ]
*Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC]

Grammar
*Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ]
*Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ]
*Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Linguistics
*Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 
*Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ]

Periodicals, Linguistics
*Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ]
*Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ]

Syntax and semantics
*Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ]

Semantics and pragmatics
*Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR4#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Syntax
*Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ]

Sociolinguistics
*Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ]

Translation
*Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

[[Category:Languages]]</text>
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This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages.

World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Origin
*Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ]
*Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1933#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ]
*Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Classification
*April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ]

Extinct
*Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ]
*K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Dead
*Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Indo-European
*Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993.
*Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ]

Anatolian
*Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26.

Hittite
*Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ]
*Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936.

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Asian
*Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

South Asian
*Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

East Asian
*Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC]
*Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ]
*Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese, Japanese and Korean
*Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese and Japanese
*Teruhiro Ishiguro and Kang Kwong Luke. Grammar in Cross-Linguistic Perspective: The Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics of Japanese and Chinese. (Linguistic insights, vol 57). Peter Lang. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p1OqlAEACAAJ]

Japan and Korea; Japanese and Korean
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hajime Hoji (ed). Japanese/Korean Linguistics. 1990. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Suwm4WrQB6IC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ainu
*Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ]
*Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up].
*Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C]

==Japanese==
Bibliography
*Oskar Nachod. &quot;Linguistics&quot;. Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754.
*Wenckstern. &quot;Philology: The Japanese Language&quot;. A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA74#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89.

General
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ]
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Study
*Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Courses
*Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ]
*Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ]
*Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

For scientists and engineers
*Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

*Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Idioms
*Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ]
*Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC]

Grammar
*Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ]
*Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ]
*Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Linguistics
*Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 
*Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ]

Periodicals, Linguistics
*Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ]
*Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ]

Syntax and semantics
*Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ]

Semantics and pragmatics
*Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR4#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Syntax
*Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ]

Sociolinguistics
*Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ]

Translation
*Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

[[Category:Languages]]</text>
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      <text bytes="26252" sha1="gd07osua3kkxuivcyke1r2zjw1sr55g" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages.

World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Origin
*Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ]
*Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1933#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ]
*Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Classification
*April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ]

Extinct
*Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ]
*K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Dead
*Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Indo-European
*Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993.
*Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ]

Anatolian
*Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26.

Hittite
*Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ]
*Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936.

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Asian
*Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

South Asian
*Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

East Asian
*Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC]
*Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ]
*Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese, Japanese and Korean
*Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese and Japanese
*Teruhiro Ishiguro and Kang Kwong Luke. Grammar in Cross-Linguistic Perspective: The Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics of Japanese and Chinese. (Linguistic insights, vol 57). Peter Lang. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p1OqlAEACAAJ]

Japan and Korea; Japanese and Korean
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hajime Hoji (ed). Japanese/Korean Linguistics. 1990. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Suwm4WrQB6IC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ainu
*Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ]
*Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up].
*Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C]

==Japanese==
Bibliography
*Oskar Nachod. &quot;Linguistics&quot;. Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754.
*Wenckstern. &quot;Philology: The Japanese Language&quot;. A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA74#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89.

General
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ]
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Study
*Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Courses
*Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ]
*Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ]
*Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

For scientists and engineers
*Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

*Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Idioms
*Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ]
*Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC]

Grammar
*Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ]
*Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ]
*Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Linguistics
*Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 
*Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ]

Periodicals, Linguistics
*Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ]
*Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ]

Syntax and semantics
*Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ]

Semantics and pragmatics
*Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR4#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Morphology and phonology
*Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Syntax
*Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ]

Sociolinguistics
*Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ]

Translation
*Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

[[Category:Languages]]</text>
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      <text bytes="26305" sha1="jn0m0o925nujwh7ijzvj6jvhakt180j" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages.

World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Origin
*Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ]
*Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1933#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ]
*Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Classification
*April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ]

Extinct
*Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ]
*K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Dead
*Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Indo-European
*Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993.
*Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ]

Anatolian
*Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26.

Hittite
*Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ]
*Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936.

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Asian
*Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

South Asian
*Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

East Asian
*Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC]
*Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ]
*Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese, Japanese and Korean
*Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese and Japanese
*Teruhiro Ishiguro and Kang Kwong Luke. Grammar in Cross-Linguistic Perspective: The Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics of Japanese and Chinese. (Linguistic insights, vol 57). Peter Lang. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p1OqlAEACAAJ]

Japan and Korea; Japanese and Korean
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hajime Hoji (ed). Japanese/Korean Linguistics. 1990. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Suwm4WrQB6IC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ainu
*Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ]
*Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up].
*Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C]

==Japanese==
Bibliography
*Oskar Nachod. &quot;Linguistics&quot;. Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754.
*Wenckstern. &quot;Philology: The Japanese Language&quot;. A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA74#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89.

General
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ]
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Study
*Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Courses
*Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ]
*Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ]
*Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

For scientists and engineers
*Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

*Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Idioms
*Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ]
*Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC]

Grammar
*Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ]
*Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ]
*Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Linguistics
*Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 
*Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ]

Periodicals, Linguistics
*Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ]
*Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ]

Syntax and semantics
*Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ]

Semantics and pragmatics
*Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR4#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Morphology and phonology
*Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Syntax
*Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ]

Sociolinguistics
*Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ]

Translation
*Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

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This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages.

World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Origin
*Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ]
*Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1933#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ]
*Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Classification
*April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ]

Extinct
*Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ]
*K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Dead
*Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Indo-European
*Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993.
*Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ]

Anatolian
*Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26.

Hittite
*Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ]
*Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936.

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Asian
*Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

South Asian
*Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

East Asian
*Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC]
*Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ]
*Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese, Japanese and Korean
*Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese and Japanese
*Teruhiro Ishiguro and Kang Kwong Luke. Grammar in Cross-Linguistic Perspective: The Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics of Japanese and Chinese. (Linguistic insights, vol 57). Peter Lang. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p1OqlAEACAAJ]

Japan and Korea; Japanese and Korean
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hajime Hoji (ed). Japanese/Korean Linguistics. 1990. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Suwm4WrQB6IC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ainu
*Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ]
*Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up].
*Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C]

==Japanese==
Bibliography
*Oskar Nachod. &quot;Linguistics&quot;. Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754.
*Wenckstern. &quot;Philology: The Japanese Language&quot;. A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA74#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89.

General
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ]
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Study
*Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Courses
*Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ]
*Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ]
*Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

For scientists and engineers
*Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

*Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Idioms
*Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ]
*Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC]

Grammar
*Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ]
*Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ]
*Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Linguistics
*[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. NDL.
*Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 
*Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ]

Periodicals, Linguistics
*Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ]
*Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ]

Syntax and semantics
*Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ]

Semantics and pragmatics
*Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR4#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Morphology and phonology
*Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Syntax
*Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ]

Sociolinguistics
*Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ]

Translation
*Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

[[Category:Languages]]</text>
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      <text bytes="26463" sha1="rc1ssk32luym4jppfqdbyu419fohbdt" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages.

World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Origin
*Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ]
*Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1933#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ]
*Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Classification
*April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ]

Extinct
*Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ]
*K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Dead
*Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Indo-European
*Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993.
*Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ]

Anatolian
*Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26.

Hittite
*Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ]
*Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936.

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Asian
*Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

South Asian
*Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

East Asian
*Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC]
*Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ]
*Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese, Japanese and Korean
*Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese and Japanese
*Teruhiro Ishiguro and Kang Kwong Luke. Grammar in Cross-Linguistic Perspective: The Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics of Japanese and Chinese. (Linguistic insights, vol 57). Peter Lang. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p1OqlAEACAAJ]

Japan and Korea; Japanese and Korean
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hajime Hoji (ed). Japanese/Korean Linguistics. 1990. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Suwm4WrQB6IC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ainu
*Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ]
*Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up].
*Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C]

==Japanese==
Bibliography
*Oskar Nachod. &quot;Linguistics&quot;. Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754.
*Wenckstern. &quot;Philology: The Japanese Language&quot;. A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA74#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89.

General
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ]
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Study
*Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Courses
*Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ]
*Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ]
*Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

For scientists and engineers
*Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

*Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Idioms
*Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ]
*Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC]

Grammar
*Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ]
*Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ]
*Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Linguistics
*[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]].
*Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 
*Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ]

Periodicals, Linguistics
*Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ]
*Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ]

Syntax and semantics
*Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ]

Semantics and pragmatics
*Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR4#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Morphology and phonology
*Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Syntax
*Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ]

Sociolinguistics
*Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ]

Translation
*Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

[[Category:Languages]]</text>
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      <text bytes="26500" sha1="lx5o8bd931syfiv6xu26ybxgr1dazrz" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages.

World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Origin
*Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ]
*Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1933#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ]
*Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Classification
*April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ]

Extinct
*Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ]
*K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Dead
*Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Indo-European
*Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993.
*Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ]

Anatolian
*Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26.

Hittite
*Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ]
*Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936.

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Asian
*Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

South Asian
*Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

East Asian
*Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC]
*Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ]
*Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese, Japanese and Korean
*Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese and Japanese
*Teruhiro Ishiguro and Kang Kwong Luke. Grammar in Cross-Linguistic Perspective: The Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics of Japanese and Chinese. (Linguistic insights, vol 57). Peter Lang. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p1OqlAEACAAJ]

Japan and Korea; Japanese and Korean
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hajime Hoji (ed). Japanese/Korean Linguistics. 1990. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Suwm4WrQB6IC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ainu
*Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ]
*Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up].
*Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C]

==Japanese==
Bibliography
*Oskar Nachod. &quot;Linguistics&quot;. Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754.
*Wenckstern. &quot;Philology: The Japanese Language&quot;. A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA74#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89.

General
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ]
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Study
*Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Courses
*Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ]
*Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ]
*Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

For scientists and engineers
*Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

*Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Idioms
*Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ]
*Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC]

Grammar
*Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ]
*Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ]
*Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Linguistics ([[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]])
*[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]].
*Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 
*Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ]

Periodicals, Linguistics
*Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ]
*Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ]

Syntax and semantics
*Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ]

Semantics and pragmatics
*Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR4#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Morphology and phonology
*Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Syntax
*Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ]

Sociolinguistics
*Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ]

Translation
*Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

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      <text bytes="26524" sha1="5pf5fgrvzs9eeoc9apotxh13w64k086" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages.

World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Origin
*Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ]
*Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1933#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ]
*Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Classification
*April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ]

Extinct
*Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ]
*K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Dead
*Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Indo-European
*Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993.
*Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ]

Anatolian
*Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26.

Hittite
*Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ]
*Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936.

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Asian
*Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

South Asian
*Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

East Asian
*Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC]
*Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ]
*Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese, Japanese and Korean
*Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese and Japanese
*Teruhiro Ishiguro and Kang Kwong Luke. Grammar in Cross-Linguistic Perspective: The Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics of Japanese and Chinese. (Linguistic insights, vol 57). Peter Lang. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p1OqlAEACAAJ]

Japan and Korea; Japanese and Korean
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hajime Hoji (ed). Japanese/Korean Linguistics. 1990. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Suwm4WrQB6IC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ainu
*Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ]
*Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up].
*Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C]

==Japanese==
Bibliography
*Oskar Nachod. &quot;Linguistics&quot;. Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754.
*Wenckstern. &quot;Philology: The Japanese Language&quot;. A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA74#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89.

General
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ]
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Study
*Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Courses
*Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ]
*Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ]
*Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

For scientists and engineers
*Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

*Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Idioms
*Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ]
*Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC]

Grammar
*Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ]
*Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ]
*Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Linguistics [Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]])]
*[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]].
*Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 
*Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ]

Periodicals, Linguistics
*Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ]
*Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ]

Syntax and semantics
*Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ]

Semantics and pragmatics
*Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR4#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Morphology and phonology
*Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Syntax
*Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ]

Sociolinguistics
*Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ]

Translation
*Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

[[Category:Languages]]</text>
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      <text bytes="26583" sha1="d7r4hzkked5sbt4evvdsxx1d43f52n2" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages.

World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Origin
*Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ]
*Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1933#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ]
*Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Classification
*April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ]

Extinct
*Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ]
*K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Dead
*Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Indo-European
*Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993.
*Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ]

Anatolian
*Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26.

Hittite
*Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ]
*Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936.

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Asian
*Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

South Asian
*Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

East Asian
*Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC]
*Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ]
*Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese, Japanese and Korean
*Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese and Japanese
*Teruhiro Ishiguro and Kang Kwong Luke. Grammar in Cross-Linguistic Perspective: The Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics of Japanese and Chinese. (Linguistic insights, vol 57). Peter Lang. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p1OqlAEACAAJ]

Japan and Korea; Japanese and Korean
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hajime Hoji (ed). Japanese/Korean Linguistics. 1990. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Suwm4WrQB6IC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ainu
*Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ]
*Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up].
*Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C]

==Japanese==
Bibliography
*Oskar Nachod. &quot;Linguistics&quot;. Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754.
*Wenckstern. &quot;Philology: The Japanese Language&quot;. A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA74#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89.

General
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ]
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Study
*Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Courses
*Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ]
*Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ]
*Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

For scientists and engineers
*Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

*Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Idioms
*Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ]
*Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC]

Grammar
*Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ]
*Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ]
*Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Linguistics [Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies)]
*[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]].
*Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 
*Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ]

Periodicals, Linguistics
*Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ]
*Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ]

Syntax and semantics
*Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ]

Semantics and pragmatics
*Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR4#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Morphology and phonology
*Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Syntax
*Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ]

Sociolinguistics
*Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ]

Translation
*Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

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      <text bytes="26582" sha1="go03gg6p0ch8gi8lttq4epwryp35ap6" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages.

World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Origin
*Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ]
*Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1933#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ]
*Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Classification
*April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ]

Extinct
*Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ]
*K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Dead
*Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Indo-European
*Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993.
*Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ]

Anatolian
*Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26.

Hittite
*Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ]
*Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936.

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Asian
*Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

South Asian
*Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

East Asian
*Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC]
*Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ]
*Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese, Japanese and Korean
*Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese and Japanese
*Teruhiro Ishiguro and Kang Kwong Luke. Grammar in Cross-Linguistic Perspective: The Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics of Japanese and Chinese. (Linguistic insights, vol 57). Peter Lang. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p1OqlAEACAAJ]

Japan and Korea; Japanese and Korean
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hajime Hoji (ed). Japanese/Korean Linguistics. 1990. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Suwm4WrQB6IC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ainu
*Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ]
*Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up].
*Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C]

==Japanese==
Bibliography
*Oskar Nachod. &quot;Linguistics&quot;. Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754.
*Wenckstern. &quot;Philology: The Japanese Language&quot;. A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA74#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89.

General
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ]
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Study
*Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Courses
*Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ]
*Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ]
*Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

For scientists and engineers
*Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

*Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Idioms
*Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ]
*Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC]

Grammar
*Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ]
*Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ]
*Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Linguistics
*Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 
*Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ]

Periodicals, Linguistics
*Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ]
*Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ]

Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies)
*[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]].

Syntax and semantics
*Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ]

Semantics and pragmatics
*Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR4#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Morphology and phonology
*Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Syntax
*Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ]

Sociolinguistics
*Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ]

Translation
*Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

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      <text bytes="26616" sha1="4wx7eia71bhrs2pfeybct7wqxx5qioo" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages.

World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Origin
*Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ]
*Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1933#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ]
*Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Classification
*April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ]

Extinct
*Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ]
*K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Dead
*Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Indo-European
*Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993.
*Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ]

Anatolian
*Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26.

Hittite
*Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ]
*Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936.

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Asian
*Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

South Asian
*Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

East Asian
*Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC]
*Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ]
*Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese, Japanese and Korean
*Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese and Japanese
*Teruhiro Ishiguro and Kang Kwong Luke. Grammar in Cross-Linguistic Perspective: The Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics of Japanese and Chinese. (Linguistic insights, vol 57). Peter Lang. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p1OqlAEACAAJ]

Japan and Korea; Japanese and Korean
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hajime Hoji (ed). Japanese/Korean Linguistics. 1990. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Suwm4WrQB6IC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ainu
*Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ]
*Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up].
*Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C]

==Japanese==
Bibliography
*Oskar Nachod. &quot;Linguistics&quot;. Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754.
*Wenckstern. &quot;Philology: The Japanese Language&quot;. A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA74#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89.

General
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ]
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Study
*Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Courses
*Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ]
*Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ]
*Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

For scientists and engineers
*Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

*Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Idioms
*Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ]
*Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC]

Grammar
*Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ]
*Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ]
*Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Linguistics
*Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 
*Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ]

Periodicals, Linguistics
*Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ]
*Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ]

Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies)
*[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]].

Kokugogaku (Japanese: 国語学)

Syntax and semantics
*Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ]

Semantics and pragmatics
*Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR4#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Morphology and phonology
*Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Syntax
*Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ]

Sociolinguistics
*Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ]

Translation
*Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

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      <text bytes="26594" sha1="a5en055pqskv4ibl33eszuytubnbbx0" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages.

World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Origin
*Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ]
*Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1933#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ]
*Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Classification
*April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ]

Extinct
*Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ]
*K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Dead
*Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Indo-European
*Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993.
*Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ]

Anatolian
*Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26.

Hittite
*Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ]
*Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936.

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Asian
*Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

South Asian
*Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

East Asian
*Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC]
*Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ]
*Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese, Japanese and Korean
*Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Chinese and Japanese
*Teruhiro Ishiguro and Kang Kwong Luke. Grammar in Cross-Linguistic Perspective: The Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics of Japanese and Chinese. (Linguistic insights, vol 57). Peter Lang. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p1OqlAEACAAJ]

Japan and Korea; Japanese and Korean
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hajime Hoji (ed). Japanese/Korean Linguistics. 1990. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Suwm4WrQB6IC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ainu
*Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ]
*Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up].
*Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C]

==Japanese==
Bibliography
*Oskar Nachod. &quot;Linguistics&quot;. Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754.
*Wenckstern. &quot;Philology: The Japanese Language&quot;. A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA74#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89.

General
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ]
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Study
*Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Courses
*Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ]
*Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ]
*Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

For scientists and engineers
*Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

*Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Idioms
*Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ]
*Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC]

Grammar
*Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ]
*Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ]
*Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Linguistics
*Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 
*Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ]

Periodicals, Linguistics
*Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ]
*Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ]

Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies)
*[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]].

Kokugogaku

Syntax and semantics
*Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ]

Semantics and pragmatics
*Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR4#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Morphology and phonology
*Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Syntax
*Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ]

Sociolinguistics
*Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ]

Translation
*Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

[[Category:Languages]]</text>
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    <title>Janbazar Raj</title>
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[[File:Rani Rashmoni's Palace.jpg|thumb|Janbazar Raj Palace]]
The Janbazar Raj or the Marh family is a distinguished Bengali dynasty of Zamindars and merchants from Kolkata, West Bengal, regarded as key influencers during the Bengali Renaissance. The family rose from humble beginnings as bamboo traders to become prominent social and religious reformers. The most notable figures include Babu Preetoram Marh, Raja Rajchandra Das, and the celebrated philanthropist Rani Rashmoni.

== Family History ==
The family belongs to the Mahishya caste and originally hailed from the Rarh region of Bengal before moving to Howrah. The family's title, &quot;Marh,&quot; was earned by Rajchandra's great-grandfather, Kantoram, who was a bamboo trader. Preetoram Marh, Kantoram's grandson, became the Dewan of the Natore Raj and amassed significant wealth, which he used to purchase various Zamindaris and establish an export business. In 1777, Preetoram married Jogmaya Debi, receiving a dowry that included houses in Janbazar and 16 bighas of land, establishing the family's ancestral seat.

== Zamindari Estates ==
The family established several major estates across Bengal:
* Navadwip Zamindari: Acquired by the Marh family after previous owners failed to pay taxes; it later became Rani Rashmoni's &quot;Kachari Bari&quot;.
* Gopalganj Zamindari: Originally the Makimpur Zamindari, it was renamed Gopalganj to honor Nabo Gopal, a great-grandson of Rani Rashmoni.
* 24 Parganas Zamindari: Acquired through a mortgage from Prince Dwarkanath Tagore; Rani Rashmoni famously converted this marshy land into productive fisheries for local communities.

== The Janbazar Palace ==
[[File:Kolkata House of Rani Rashmoni.jpg|thumb|Janbazar Palace]]
The ancestral mansion, located at the crossing of Rani Rashmoni Road and Surendranath Banerjee Road, was started by Preetoram Marh in 1805 and completed by Rajchandra Das in 1813. 
* The palace consists of 300 rooms and six courtyards, built at a cost of twenty-five lakh Mohurs.
* It includes a Thakurdalan (altar), Natmandir, an armory, and a lake.
* The property is currently divided among the descendants of Rani Rashmoni’s three surviving daughters: Padmamani, Kumari, and Jagadamba.

== Contributions to Society ==
The Marh family was known for its public spirit and philanthropy:
[[File:Sculpture of Rani Rashmoni at her palace.jpg|left|thumb|Sculpture of the Queen at Janbazar Palace]]
* Babughat: Built by Rajchandra Das with thirty-six pillars and separate bathing arrangements for men and women.
* Ahiritala Ghat: Another major bathing ghat and pucca house for medical care built by Rajchandra.
* Eden Gardens: Originally called Marh Bagan, the land was gifted by Rajchandra Das to Lord Auckland and his sister Emily Eden in gratitude for medical help given to his daughter.
* Jadu Babur Bazar: A market in Bhowanipore named after Rani Rashmoni’s grandson, Jadunath Chowdhury, on land she purchased and gifted to him.

== Religious Reforms and Temples ==
The family actively supported social reformers like Raja Rammohan Roy and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar in their fights against ''sati'', child marriage, and polygamy.
* Dakshineswar Kali Temple: Founded by Rani Rashmoni, this temple became a center for the Bengal Renaissance and famously broke orthodox Brahminical traditions.
* Annapurna Temple, Titagarh: Established in 1875 by Rani Rashmoni's daughter Jagadamba Devi and her husband Mathurmohan Biswas.
* [[File:Dakshineshwar - Flickr - Kamala L.jpg|thumb|Dakshnieshwar Kali Temple]]Giribala Thakurbari: Founded in 1911 by Giribala Devi, a granddaughter-in-law of Rani Rashmoni.

== Conflicts with the British ==
Rani Rashmoni was famous for her courageous resistance against British authorities:
* The Fishing Tax: To protect poor fishermen from a new tax, she leased the Hooghly river for 10,000 rupees and blocked traffic with massive iron chains, forcing the British to revoke the tax.
* Durga Puja Dispute: When the British tried to stop a religious procession and fine her, she barricaded the public road (which was her private property), forcing the government to refund the fine and request the road's reopening.

== Durga Puja ==
[[File:Ramakrishna.jpg|left|thumb|Image of Sri. Ramakrishna Paramahansa]]
The family's Durga Puja was initiated by Preetoram Marh in 1790 . During Rani Rashmoni's lifetime, the rituals were often conducted by Ramakrishna Paramahansa  The tradition is maintained today by four separate branches of the family  

== Family Lineage ==
* Preetoram Marh (m. Jogmaya Debi)
** Raja Rajchandra Das (m. Rani Rashmoni)
*** Padmamoni Debi (m. Ramchandra Ata)
*** Kumari Debi (m. Pyari Mohan Chowdhury)
*** Karunamayee Debi (m. Mathurmohan Biswas)
*** Jagadamba Debi (m. Mathurmohan Biswas) 

[[Category:Bengali zamindars]]
[[Category:Bengal Renaissance]]
[[Category:Business families of India]]
[[Category:Palaces in Kolkata]]</text>
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      <text bytes="4886" sha1="d2c5y5ns69ydsw2ofevkllpb0t86wom" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Rani Rashmoni's Palace.jpg|thumb|Janbazar Raj Palace]]
The Janbazar Raj or the Marh family is a distinguished Bengali dynasty of Zamindars and merchants from Kolkata, West Bengal, regarded as key influencers during the Bengali Renaissance. The family rose from humble beginnings as bamboo traders to become prominent social and religious reformers. The most notable figures include Babu Preetoram Marh, Raja Rajchandra Das, and the celebrated philanthropist Rani Rashmoni.

== Family History ==
The family belongs to the Mahishya caste and originally hailed from the Rarh region of Bengal before moving to Howrah. The family's title, &quot;Marh,&quot; was earned by Rajchandra's great-grandfather, Kantoram, who was a bamboo trader. Preetoram Marh, Kantoram's grandson, became the Dewan of the Natore Raj and amassed significant wealth, which he used to purchase various Zamindaris and establish an export business. In 1777, Preetoram married Jogmaya Debi, receiving a dowry that included houses in Janbazar and 16 bighas of land, establishing the family's ancestral seat.

== Zamindari Estates ==
The family established several major estates across Bengal:
* Navadwip Zamindari: Acquired by the Marh family after previous owners failed to pay taxes; it later became Rani Rashmoni's &quot;Kachari Bari&quot;.
* Gopalganj Zamindari: Originally the Makimpur Zamindari, it was renamed Gopalganj to honor Nabo Gopal, a great-grandson of Rani Rashmoni.
* 24 Parganas Zamindari: Acquired through a mortgage from Prince Dwarkanath Tagore; Rani Rashmoni famously converted this marshy land into productive fisheries for local communities.

== The Janbazar Palace ==
[[File:Kolkata House of Rani Rashmoni.jpg|thumb|Janbazar Palace]]
The ancestral mansion, located at the crossing of Rani Rashmoni Road and Surendranath Banerjee Road, was started by Preetoram Marh in 1805 and completed by Rajchandra Das in 1813. 
* The palace consists of 300 rooms and six courtyards, built at a cost of twenty-five lakh Mohurs.
* It includes a Thakurdalan (altar), Natmandir, an armory, and a lake.
* The property is currently divided among the descendants of Rani Rashmoni’s three surviving daughters: Padmamani, Kumari, and Jagadamba.

== Contributions to Society ==
The Marh family was known for its public spirit and philanthropy:
[[File:Sculpture of Rani Rashmoni at her palace.jpg|left|thumb|Sculpture of the Queen at Janbazar Palace]]
* Babughat: Built by Rajchandra Das with thirty-six pillars and separate bathing arrangements for men and women.
* Ahiritala Ghat: Another major bathing ghat and pucca house for medical care built by Rajchandra.
* Eden Gardens: Originally called Marh Bagan, the land was gifted by Rajchandra Das to Lord Auckland and his sister Emily Eden in gratitude for medical help given to his daughter.
* Jadu Babur Bazar: A market in Bhowanipore named after Rani Rashmoni’s grandson, Jadunath Chowdhury, on land she purchased and gifted to him.

== Religious Reforms and Temples ==
The family actively supported social reformers like Raja Rammohan Roy and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar in their fights against ''sati'', child marriage, and polygamy.
* Dakshineswar Kali Temple: Founded by Rani Rashmoni, this temple became a center for the Bengal Renaissance and famously broke orthodox Brahminical traditions.
* Annapurna Temple, Titagarh: Established in 1875 by Rani Rashmoni's daughter Jagadamba Devi and her husband Mathurmohan Biswas.
* [[File:Dakshineshwar - Flickr - Kamala L.jpg|thumb|Dakshnieshwar Kali Temple]]Giribala Thakurbari: Founded in 1911 by Giribala Devi, a granddaughter-in-law of Rani Rashmoni.

== Conflicts with the British ==
Rani Rashmoni was famous for her courageous resistance against British authorities:
* The Fishing Tax: To protect poor fishermen from a new tax, she leased the Hooghly river for 10,000 rupees and blocked traffic with massive iron chains, forcing the British to revoke the tax.
* Durga Puja Dispute: When the British tried to stop a religious procession and fine her, she barricaded the public road (which was her private property), forcing the government to refund the fine and request the road's reopening.

== Durga Puja ==
[[File:Ramakrishna.jpg|left|thumb|Image of Sri. Ramakrishna Paramahansa]]
The family's Durga Puja was initiated by Preetoram Marh in 1790 . During Rani Rashmoni's lifetime, the rituals were often conducted by Ramakrishna Paramahansa  The tradition is maintained today by four separate branches of the family  

== Family Lineage ==
* Preetoram Marh (m. Jogmaya Debi)
** Raja Rajchandra Das (m. Rani Rashmoni)
*** Padmamoni Debi (m. Ramchandra Ata)
*** Kumari Debi (m. Pyari Mohan Chowdhury)
*** Karunamayee Debi (m. Mathurmohan Biswas)
*** Jagadamba Debi (m. Mathurmohan Biswas) 

[[Category:Bengali zamindars]]
[[Category:Bengal Renaissance]]
[[Category:Business families of India]]
[[Category:Palaces in Kolkata]]</text>
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[[File:Rani Rashmoni's Palace.jpg|thumb|Janbazar Raj Palace]]
The Janbazar Raj or the Marh family is a distinguished Bengali dynasty of Zamindars and merchants from Kolkata, West Bengal, regarded as key influencers during the Bengali Renaissance. The family rose from humble beginnings as bamboo traders to become prominent social and religious reformers. The most notable figures include Babu Preetoram Marh, Raja Rajchandra Das, and the celebrated philanthropist Rani Rashmoni.

== Family History ==
The family belongs to the Mahishya caste and originally hailed from the Rarh region of Bengal before moving to Howrah. The family's title, &quot;Marh,&quot; was earned by Rajchandra's great-grandfather, Kantoram, who was a bamboo trader. Preetoram Marh, Kantoram's grandson, became the Dewan of the Natore Raj and amassed significant wealth, which he used to purchase various Zamindaris and establish an export business. In 1777, Preetoram married Jogmaya Debi, receiving a dowry that included houses in Janbazar and 16 bighas of land, establishing the family's ancestral seat.

== Zamindari Estates ==
The family established several major estates across Bengal:
* Navadwip Zamindari: Acquired by the Marh family after previous owners failed to pay taxes; it later became Rani Rashmoni's &quot;Kachari Bari&quot;.
* Gopalganj Zamindari: Originally the Makimpur Zamindari, it was renamed Gopalganj to honor Nabo Gopal, a great-grandson of Rani Rashmoni.
* 24 Parganas Zamindari: Acquired through a mortgage from Prince Dwarkanath Tagore; Rani Rashmoni famously converted this marshy land into productive fisheries for local communities.

== The Janbazar Palace ==
[[File:Kolkata House of Rani Rashmoni.jpg|thumb|Janbazar Palace]]
The ancestral mansion, located at the crossing of Rani Rashmoni Road and Surendranath Banerjee Road, was started by Preetoram Marh in 1805 and completed by Rajchandra Das in 1813. 
* The palace consists of 300 rooms and six courtyards, built at a cost of twenty-five lakh Mohurs.
* It includes a Thakurdalan (altar), Natmandir, an armory, and a lake.
* The property is currently divided among the descendants of Rani Rashmoni’s three surviving daughters: Padmamani, Kumari, and Jagadamba.

== Contributions to Society ==
The Marh family was known for its public spirit and philanthropy:
[[File:Sculpture of Rani Rashmoni at her palace.jpg|left|thumb|Sculpture of the Queen at Janbazar Palace]]
* Babughat: Built by Rajchandra Das with thirty-six pillars and separate bathing arrangements for men and women.
* Ahiritala Ghat: Another major bathing ghat and pucca house for medical care built by Rajchandra.
* Eden Gardens: Originally called Marh Bagan, the land was gifted by Rajchandra Das to Lord Auckland and his sister Emily Eden in gratitude for medical help given to his daughter.
* Jadu Babur Bazar: A market in Bhowanipore named after Rani Rashmoni’s grandson, Jadunath Chowdhury, on land she purchased and gifted to him.

== Religious Reforms and Temples ==
The family actively supported social reformers like Raja Rammohan Roy and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar in their fights against ''sati'', child marriage, and polygamy.
* Dakshineswar Kali Temple: Founded by Rani Rashmoni, this temple became a center for the Bengal Renaissance and famously broke orthodox Brahminical traditions.
* Annapurna Temple, Titagarh: Established in 1875 by Rani Rashmoni's daughter Jagadamba Devi and her husband Mathurmohan Biswas.
* [[File:Dakshineshwar - Flickr - Kamala L.jpg|thumb|Dakshnieshwar Kali Temple]]Giribala Thakurbari: Founded in 1911 by Giribala Devi, a granddaughter-in-law of Rani Rashmoni.

== Conflicts with the British ==
Rani Rashmoni was famous for her courageous resistance against British authorities:
* The Fishing Tax: To protect poor fishermen from a new tax, she leased the Hooghly river for 10,000 rupees and blocked traffic with massive iron chains, forcing the British to revoke the tax.
* Durga Puja Dispute: When the British tried to stop a religious procession and fine her, she barricaded the public road (which was her private property), forcing the government to refund the fine and request the road's reopening.

== Durga Puja ==
[[File:Ramakrishna.jpg|left|thumb|Image of Sri. Ramakrishna Paramahansa]]
The family's Durga Puja was initiated by Preetoram Marh in 1790 . During Rani Rashmoni's lifetime, the rituals were often conducted by Ramakrishna Paramahansa  The tradition is maintained today by four separate branches of the family  

== Family Lineage ==
* Preetoram Marh (m. Jogmaya Debi)
** Raja Rajchandra Das (m. Rani Rashmoni)
*** Padmamoni Debi (m. Ramchandra Ata)
*** Kumari Debi (m. Pyari Mohan Chowdhury)
*** Karunamayee Debi (m. Mathurmohan Biswas)
*** Jagadamba Debi (m. Mathurmohan Biswas) 

[[Category:Bengali zamindars]]
[[Category:Bengal Renaissance]]
[[Category:Business families of India]]
[[Category:Palaces in Kolkata]]</text>
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|Description=Work2.1A: Libraries (20260622 - 20260618)
|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
|Date=2026-06-27
|Author=Young W. Lim
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      <text bytes="264" sha1="5mte42qjqe48tr7g3rbi8qfaos43keo" xml:space="preserve">== Summary ==
{{Information
|Description=Work2.1A: Libraries (20260622 - 20260618)
|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
|Date=2026-06-27
|Author=Young W. Lim
|Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}
}}

== Licensing ==
{{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}</text>
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      <text bytes="264" sha1="t7bf6b6rzlehfz6sbdm5t3weokw1s2v" xml:space="preserve">== Summary ==
{{Information
|Description=Work2.1A: Libraries (20260623 - 20260622)
|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
|Date=2026-06-27
|Author=Young W. Lim
|Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}
}}

== Licensing ==
{{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}</text>
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      <text bytes="264" sha1="sffu7ibvqutsh3pg1ccx0oz40e0zy7i" xml:space="preserve">== Summary ==
{{Information
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|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
|Date=2026-06-27
|Author=Young W. Lim
|Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}
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== Licensing ==
{{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}</text>
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      <text bytes="264" sha1="4kgo0qllr213r5kxvqsvles0l8s5ezr" xml:space="preserve">== Summary ==
{{Information
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|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
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|Author=Young W. Lim
|Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}
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== Licensing ==
{{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}</text>
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    <title>How to Flash a USB on Obscure Operating Systems</title>
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      <comment>nothing?</comment>
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= Flashing a USB =
For flashing a USB, particularly usually a '''.ISO or .IMG''' file (with both being completely interchangeable) on linux, we use the terminal. We use the terminal to simplify the process of downloading. However, on distros or other operating systems, using an app may be preferable due to its simplicity. Operating systems and distros such as Debian, Ubuntu, Windows, and Mac are very well supported due to their extreme standardization, ease of use, stability, or popularity. With other distros and operating systems such as Haiku, Puppy Linux, Void linux, and Arch, software starts working against you.

== How to Flash a USB on Obscure Operating Systems ==
Usually, there is some kind of standardization on almost every O.S. Subtle things such as the usage of bash, or bash-like shells help transition users coming from other operating systems, there's also a toolset called Busybox. Busybox, often referred to as the &quot;Swiss Army Knife of Embedded Linux&quot;, combines very many useful utilities and is used by almost every (especially niche) linux user. It also comes pre-installed on some machines. It provides a partly complete toolset within a limited space.

# Unplug your USB drive or Disk.
# Type &quot;lsblk&quot; into your terminal.
# Plug your USB into your computer.
# Press the up arrow on your keyboard, or type &quot;lsblk&quot;
# Compare the two outputs, there should be a sdX that appears, that wasn't there in the first command (X being the letter in your case)
# Type &quot;sudo umount /dev/sdX*&quot; with X being the actual letter from the last commands
# Type &quot;sudo dd if=/Path/to/your/file.ISO of=/dev/sdX bs=4M status=progress&quot; Remember, replace the data, please!
# Wait.

=== Works Cited ===
Busybox.
&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://busybox.com/|website=busybox.com|access-date=2026-06-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Linuxvox.

&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://linuxvox.com/blog/burn-iso-usb-linux/|title=Burning ISO to USB on Linux: A Comprehensive Guide|date=2025-11-14|website=linuxvox|language=en|access-date=2026-06-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Linuxconfig.

&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://linuxconfig.org/burning-cds-over-the-internet-with-or-without-iso-image|title=Burn ISO to USB on Linux: Write &amp; Flash CLI/GUI Guide|last=Reynolds|first=Luke|date=2025-11-05|website=LinuxConfig|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;</text>
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      <comment>fixed indentation</comment>
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= Flashing a USB =
For flashing a USB, particularly usually a '''.ISO or .IMG''' file (with both being completely interchangeable) on linux, we use the terminal. We use the terminal to simplify the process of downloading. However, on distros or other operating systems, using an app may be preferable due to its simplicity. Operating systems and distros such as Debian, Ubuntu, Windows, and Mac are very well supported due to their extreme standardization, ease of use, stability, or popularity. With other distros and operating systems such as Haiku, Puppy Linux, Void linux, and Arch, software starts working against you.

== How to Flash a USB on Obscure Operating Systems ==
Usually, there is some kind of standardization on almost every O.S. Subtle things such as the usage of bash, or bash-like shells help transition users coming from other operating systems, there's also a toolset called Busybox. Busybox, often referred to as the &quot;Swiss Army Knife of Embedded Linux&quot;, combines very many useful utilities and is used by almost every (especially niche) linux user. It also comes pre-installed on some machines. It provides a partly complete toolset within a limited space.

# Unplug your USB drive or Disk.
# Type &quot;lsblk&quot; into your terminal.
# Plug your USB into your computer.
# Press the up arrow on your keyboard, or type &quot;lsblk&quot;
# Compare the two outputs, there should be a sdX that appears, that wasn't there in the first command (X being the letter in your case)
# Type &quot;sudo umount /dev/sdX*&quot; with X being the actual letter from the last commands
# Type &quot;sudo dd if=/Path/to/your/file.ISO of=/dev/sdX bs=4M status=progress&quot; Remember, replace the data, please!
# Wait.

=== Works Cited ===
Busybox.

&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://busybox.com/|website=busybox.com|access-date=2026-06-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Linuxvox.

&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://linuxvox.com/blog/burn-iso-usb-linux/|title=Burning ISO to USB on Linux: A Comprehensive Guide|date=2025-11-14|website=linuxvox|language=en|access-date=2026-06-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Linuxconfig.

&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://linuxconfig.org/burning-cds-over-the-internet-with-or-without-iso-image|title=Burn ISO to USB on Linux: Write &amp; Flash CLI/GUI Guide|last=Reynolds|first=Luke|date=2025-11-05|website=LinuxConfig|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;</text>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
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      <comment>Remove reference which doesn't exist</comment>
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= Flashing a USB =
For flashing a USB, particularly usually a '''.ISO or .IMG''' file (with both being completely interchangeable) on linux, we use the terminal. We use the terminal to simplify the process of downloading. However, on distros or other operating systems, using an app may be preferable due to its simplicity. Operating systems and distros such as Debian, Ubuntu, Windows, and Mac are very well supported due to their extreme standardization, ease of use, stability, or popularity. With other distros and operating systems such as Haiku, Puppy Linux, Void linux, and Arch, software starts working against you.

== How to Flash a USB on Obscure Operating Systems ==
Usually, there is some kind of standardization on almost every O.S. Subtle things such as the usage of bash, or bash-like shells help transition users coming from other operating systems, there's also a toolset called Busybox. Busybox, often referred to as the &quot;Swiss Army Knife of Embedded Linux&quot;, combines very many useful utilities and is used by almost every (especially niche) linux user. It also comes pre-installed on some machines. It provides a partly complete toolset within a limited space.

# Unplug your USB drive or Disk.
# Type &quot;lsblk&quot; into your terminal.
# Plug your USB into your computer.
# Press the up arrow on your keyboard, or type &quot;lsblk&quot;
# Compare the two outputs, there should be a sdX that appears, that wasn't there in the first command (X being the letter in your case)
# Type &quot;sudo umount /dev/sdX*&quot; with X being the actual letter from the last commands
# Type &quot;sudo dd if=/Path/to/your/file.ISO of=/dev/sdX bs=4M status=progress&quot; Remember, replace the data, please!
# Wait.

=== Works Cited ===
&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://linuxvox.com/blog/burn-iso-usb-linux/|title=Burning ISO to USB on Linux: A Comprehensive Guide|date=2025-11-14|website=linuxvox|language=en|access-date=2026-06-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://linuxconfig.org/burning-cds-over-the-internet-with-or-without-iso-image|title=Burn ISO to USB on Linux: Write &amp; Flash CLI/GUI Guide|last=Reynolds|first=Luke|date=2025-11-05|website=LinuxConfig|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;</text>
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      <timestamp>2026-06-28T10:10:15Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added [[Category:Information technology]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]]</comment>
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= Flashing a USB =
For flashing a USB, particularly usually a '''.ISO or .IMG''' file (with both being completely interchangeable) on linux, we use the terminal. We use the terminal to simplify the process of downloading. However, on distros or other operating systems, using an app may be preferable due to its simplicity. Operating systems and distros such as Debian, Ubuntu, Windows, and Mac are very well supported due to their extreme standardization, ease of use, stability, or popularity. With other distros and operating systems such as Haiku, Puppy Linux, Void linux, and Arch, software starts working against you.

== How to Flash a USB on Obscure Operating Systems ==
Usually, there is some kind of standardization on almost every O.S. Subtle things such as the usage of bash, or bash-like shells help transition users coming from other operating systems, there's also a toolset called Busybox. Busybox, often referred to as the &quot;Swiss Army Knife of Embedded Linux&quot;, combines very many useful utilities and is used by almost every (especially niche) linux user. It also comes pre-installed on some machines. It provides a partly complete toolset within a limited space.

# Unplug your USB drive or Disk.
# Type &quot;lsblk&quot; into your terminal.
# Plug your USB into your computer.
# Press the up arrow on your keyboard, or type &quot;lsblk&quot;
# Compare the two outputs, there should be a sdX that appears, that wasn't there in the first command (X being the letter in your case)
# Type &quot;sudo umount /dev/sdX*&quot; with X being the actual letter from the last commands
# Type &quot;sudo dd if=/Path/to/your/file.ISO of=/dev/sdX bs=4M status=progress&quot; Remember, replace the data, please!
# Wait.

=== Works Cited ===
&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://linuxvox.com/blog/burn-iso-usb-linux/|title=Burning ISO to USB on Linux: A Comprehensive Guide|date=2025-11-14|website=linuxvox|language=en|access-date=2026-06-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://linuxconfig.org/burning-cds-over-the-internet-with-or-without-iso-image|title=Burn ISO to USB on Linux: Write &amp; Flash CLI/GUI Guide|last=Reynolds|first=Luke|date=2025-11-05|website=LinuxConfig|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Category:Information technology]]</text>
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      <comment>A.O Mapping moved page [[Meteorological Piracicaba/2025 Piracicaba Tornado]] to [[Meteorological Piracicaba/Reclassification of the Piracicaba tornado]]: There is already a new study. This page is going to be an index.</comment>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |'''Field''' |'''Information''' |- |'''Title''' |Reclassification of the Piracicaba Tornado (January 31, 2025): Retrospective Analysis of the Track Based on Meteorological, Botanical, Geological Evidence and Physical Modelling |- |'''Running head''' |RECLASSIFICATION OF THE PIRACICABA TORNADO |- |'''Author''' |Erik K. dos Santos |- |'''Submission Institution''' |St. Marys District Collegiate and Vocational Institute (SMDCVI) |- |'''Presented to:''' |...&quot;</comment>
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|'''Field'''
|'''Information'''
|-
|'''Title'''
|Reclassification of the Piracicaba Tornado (January 31, 2025): Retrospective Analysis of the Track Based on Meteorological, Botanical, Geological Evidence and Physical Modelling
|-
|'''Running head'''
|RECLASSIFICATION OF THE PIRACICABA TORNADO
|-
|'''Author'''
|Erik K. dos Santos
|-
|'''Submission Institution'''
|St. Marys District Collegiate and Vocational Institute (SMDCVI)
|-
|'''Presented to:'''
|SMDCVI Science Department
|-
|'''Responsible Publication Institution'''
|Piracicaba Meteorológica
|-
|'''Finish Date'''
|June 15, 2026
|-
|'''Submission Date'''
|June 18, 2026 (to SMDCVI)
|-
|'''Acceptance Date'''
|June 19, 2026 (by the SMDCVI Institution's Management Team)
|-
|'''Publication Date'''
|June 25, 2026 (by Piracicaba Meteorológica)
|-
|'''Language'''
|English
|-
|'''Format'''
|Scientific Article
|-
|'''Formatting Standard'''
|APA 7th Edition
|-
|'''Page Count (SMDCVI)'''
|27
|-
|'''Page Count (Piracicaba Meteorológica)'''
|30
|-
|'''Final Version Info'''
|Piracicaba Meteorológica identified conflicts and source gaps, adding 6 references and updates to the discussion, methodology, author notes, and title page, resulting in a 30-page final version.
|-
|'''Primary Field'''
|Meteorology
|-
|'''Subfields'''
|Physics, Mathematics, Tornadology, Convective Meteorology, Forensic Meteorology, Climatology, Remote Sensing, Photogrammetry, Atmospheric Modeling
|-
|'''Study Object'''
|Tornado that occurred in Piracicaba, Brazil, on January 31, 2025
|-
|'''Analyzed Event'''
|EF1 tornado associated with a marginal supercell
|-
|'''Intensity Scale Used'''
|Enhanced Fujita Scale (EF Scale)
|-
|'''Originally Assigned Scale'''
|F0 (2025 studies)
|-
|'''Proposed Final Classification'''
|EF1
|-
|'''Main Methodology'''
|Meteorological reanalysis, three-dimensional modeling, photogrammetry, synoptic and mesoscale analysis, retrospective forensic botanical investigation, remote sensing, and physical modeling
|-
|'''Data Sources'''
|Amateur footage, weather radar, satellite imagery, Google Earth Pro, Google Street View, Landsat, Pléiades Neo, Maxar Technologies, CPTEC/INPE, PRETS/WRF, CIIAGRO
|-
|'''Event Period'''
|January 31, 2025 (22:04–22:06 UTC)
|-
|'''Investigation Period'''
|September 2025 – June 2026
|-
|'''Event Location'''
|Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil
|-
|'''Final Review''' '''and Publication Location'''
|St. Marys, Ontario, Canada
|-
|'''Keywords'''
|Tornado; supercell; severe weather
|-
|'''Abstract'''
|Yes
|-
|'''Literature Review'''
|Yes
|-
|'''Detailed Methodology'''
|Yes
|-
|'''Results'''
|Yes
|-
|'''Discussion'''
|Yes
|-
|'''Conclusion'''
|Yes
|-
|'''Figures'''
|4
|-
|'''Tables'''
|2
|-
|'''Bibliographic References'''
|22
|-
|'''Correspondence'''
|Erik Kaue dos Santos
|-
|'''Emails'''
|erikkaue4256@gmail.com; erikdoss889@ed.amdsb.ca
|-
|'''Conflicts of Interest'''
|None declared
|-
|'''Acknowledgments'''
|St. Marys District Collegiate and Vocational Institute Management Team and Science Department; and technical consultants in Physics and Mathematics
|-
|'''Nature of Study'''
|Retrospective observational research with reclassification of tornado intensity
|-
|'''Main Contributions'''
|Touchdown repositioning, track reconstruction, kinematic compensation of the vertical wind profile, validation through botanical evidence, and reclassification from F0 to EF1.
|}</text>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;'''Reclassification of the Piracicaba Tornado (January 31, 2025): Retrospective Analysis of the Track Based on Meteorological, Botanical, Geological Evidence and Physical Modelling'''   Erik K. dos Santos  St. Marys District Collegiate and Vocational Institute  Presented to the Institution’s Management and Science Department Teams  June 25, 2026  === Author Note === Erik dos Santos is a supervisor at Piracicaba Meteorológica (Meteorological Piracicaba) and was tempora...&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="45686" sha1="auvgl6q7izoibtc4pbmebfky1vhdzps" xml:space="preserve">'''Reclassification of the Piracicaba Tornado (January 31, 2025): Retrospective Analysis of the Track Based on Meteorological, Botanical, Geological Evidence and Physical Modelling''' 

Erik K. dos Santos

St. Marys District Collegiate and Vocational Institute

Presented to the Institution’s Management and Science Department Teams

June 25, 2026

=== Author Note ===
Erik dos Santos is a supervisor at Piracicaba Meteorológica (Meteorological Piracicaba) and was temporarily affiliated with the St. Marys District Collegiate and Vocational Institute.

This research was initially developed within the scope of Piracicaba Meteorológica as part of an ongoing institutional investigation regarding the tornado event of January 31, 2025. Following the relocation of the primary research infrastructure from Piracicaba, Brazil, to St. Marys, Ontario, Canada, in May 2026, the final diagnostic review and intensity classification methodology were concluded at the St. Marys District Collegiate and Vocational Institute, where the study was officially submitted to the Science Department and accepted by the Institution's Management Team. This final publication is issued and maintained by Piracicaba Meteorológica.

The author expresses gratitude to the Management Team of the St. Marys District Collegiate and Vocational Institute for officially accepting this study, coordinating its presentation, and designating it as a benchmark model of academic research for university-bound students. Special thanks are extended to the technical consultants in Physics and Mathematics who supported the literature review, comparative event analysis, and physical modeling validation. There are no conflicts of interest to disclose.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Erik Kaue dos Santos. Email: erikkaue4256@gmail.com or erikdoss889@ed.amdsb.ca

== Abstract ==
This study analyzes the tornado that occurred in Piracicaba, in southeastern Brazil, on January 31, 2025. The initial investigation integrated satellite data, weather radar, surface records, amateur footage of the phenomenon, and three-dimensional modeling of the associated storm. In an additional phase conducted between February and May 2026, a retrospective forensic analysis of the tornado's possible path was performed using remote sensing, street images, and morphological assessment of vegetation damage. This investigation identified structural rupture of large branches, permanent twisting of trunks, and extensive damage to a eucalyptus plantation along the previously estimated path of the phenomenon on the Jacob Canale Municipal Road, in the Campestre neighborhood. Based on this evidence, the event is reclassified in this study as an EF1 tornado on the Enhanced Fujita Scale.

''Keywords:'' Tornado, supercell, severe weather 


'''Reclassification of the Piracicaba Tornado (January 31, 2025): Retrospective Analysis of the Track Based on Meteorological, Botanical, Geological Evidence and Physical Modelling'''

Tornadoes constitute high-intensity meteorological phenomena, defined as violently rotating columns of air extending from the base of a convective cloud to the ground surface (Doswell &amp; Burgess, 1993). Frequently associated with severe storms and, particularly, supercells, these systems exhibit a complex vertical structure characterized by intense updrafts, vertical wind shear, and high atmospheric instability (Markowski &amp; Richardson, 2010). According to Wollmann and Iensse (2019), the occurrence of tornadoes in southern and center-southern Brazil is not considered rare and represents one of the atmospheric events with the greatest destructive potential, capable of causing significant damage to urban, agricultural, and critical infrastructure areas, in addition to substantial socioeconomic impacts (Lima &amp; Selani, 2008; Lopes &amp; Nascimento, 2025).

Within the South American context, the existence of the so-called South American Tornado Corridor stands out, extending primarily through northern Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and southern and center-southern Brazil (Lopes &amp; Nascimento, 2025; Wollmann &amp; Iensse, 2019; Zipser et al., 2006). Piracicaba, located in the interior of the state of São Paulo, is susceptible to the formation of severe storms due to its location within this corridor. The tornado recorded between 22:04 and 22:06 UTC on January 31, 2025, in Piracicaba garnered special attention from the local meteorological community, demanding an integrative analysis to consolidate the understanding of this phenomenon.  

== Literature Review ==
Among the favorable factors for the genesis of supercells and tornadoes in the Piracicaba region, the prominent elements are the convergence between air masses with distinct characteristics, the presence of troughs in the mid-levels of the troposphere, and the interaction between jet streams at different altitudes, which intensify vertical wind shear and mesocyclonic rotation (Doswell &amp; Burgess, 1993; Markowski &amp; Richardson, 2010; Wollmann &amp; Iensse, 2019). When combined, these elements create a conducive environment for the development of deep convection and the organization of mesoscale convective systems.

=== Previous Investigations: The February 2025 Study ===
The first scientific work dedicated to the tornado recorded in Piracicaba was published on February 23, 2025, by Santos (2025b). The primary objective was to examine the event using publicly accessible records, including amateur video footage, meteorological stations, and satellite data. However, the study exhibited structural and methodological weaknesses, with organizational issues and a narrative style that conveyed textual ambiguity regarding the confirmation of the tornado's occurrence. Analytically, the investigation was limited to describing the convergence of surface winds from the west and east, failing to provide a broader synoptic contextualization (such as the influence of troughs or jet streams), which weakened the initial identification of the touchdown point in the Jardim Belvedere subdivision.

=== Previous Investigations: The May 2025 Revision ===
Published on May 2, 2025, by Santos (2025a), the second study represented a georeferenced review of the initial analysis using Google Earth Pro software. By identifying fixed geographic reference points within the amateur video footage, the horizontal trajectory was estimated, and the contact point with the ground was repositioned to a vegetated area near the Ribeirão do Enxofre stream in the Jardim Santa Fé subdivision. The May study discussed and dismissed the hypotheses of multiple vortices and waterspouts. In terms of intensity, the absence of severe structural damage or significant defoliation corroborated the classification of the tornado as an F0 on the original Fujita Scale, with winds estimated below 100 km/h and a trajectory of approximately 50 to 150 meters.

== Method ==

=== Data Sources and Meteorological Reanalysis ===
The synoptic and mesoscale analysis was structured around the observation of atmospheric behavior during the period of the event. As an initial reference, the forecast report document provided by the Weather Research Forecast (WRF) model of the Brazilian Reporting Platform of Severe Weather (PRETS) (Ribeiro et al., 2022) was utilized, which delivered Convective Available Potential Energy (CAPE) estimates, as well as information on relevant synoptic and mesoscale factors. To ensure consistency, public data provided by the Center for Weather Forecasting and Climate Studies (CPTEC) of the Brazilian National Institute for Space Research (INPE) were incorporated, enabling the analysis of wind fields at different levels of the troposphere, the identification of low-level convergence patterns (interaction between westerly and easterly winds), and the evaluation of the South Atlantic Convergence Zone (SACZ) configuration.

=== Radar and Satellite Assessments ===
The characterization of the convective cells associated with the event was performed through the integration of observational and remote sensing data from CPTEC/INPE and the IPMet/UNESP meteorological radar. Satellite imagery provided estimates of the cloud-top temperature of the convective systems, a parameter used to infer cloud-top altitude based on the classic mathematical relationship:

where ''T&lt;sub&gt;ground&lt;/sub&gt;'' corresponds to the surface temperature, ''T&lt;sub&gt;top&lt;/sub&gt;'' to the cloud-top temperature, and ''T'' to the average vertical thermal gradient of the troposphere (adopting 6.5 °C/km). Additionally, radar data allowed for the tracking of the horizontal movement of the cells and the measurement of their spatial organization, complemented by surface temperature and humidity records obtained from the Integrated Center for Agrometeorological Information (CIIAGRO).

=== Three-Dimensional Modelling and Path Verification ===
Three-dimensional modeling of the tornado and its trajectory was conducted using Google Earth Pro software, spatially reconstructing the tornado funnel, the wall cloud, the precipitation region, and the base of the convective cell. The altitude of the cell base was estimated by calculating the LCL (''Lifted Condensation Level''), obtained through Espy's equation:

where ''T'' corresponds to the air temperature (°C) and ''Td'' to the dew point temperature (°C) recorded at local surface stations. This geometric modeling refined the trajectory parameters derived exclusively from the video record.

=== Kinematic Profile Compensation and Boundary-Layer Scalling ===
To resolve the non-physical stagnation identified in the lower troposphere within the raw reanalysis fields, a physically constrained kinematic profile compensation was applied to the vertical wind structure up to the mid-tropospheric steering level (500 hPa). This correction framework reconciles sub-grid scale friction damping with the observed storm translation and regional synoptic forcing through a two-tiered vertical scaling approach. Within the planetary boundary layer (PBL), the vertical distribution of horizontal wind velocity was parameterized using a standard power-law wind profile to smooth sub-grid scale surface friction and accurately project momentum transport:

where ''U(z)'' represents the estimated wind velocity at height ''z'', ''U&lt;sub&gt;ref&lt;/sub&gt;''  is the baseline velocity recorded at the reference surface station layer (''Z&lt;sub&gt;ref&lt;/sub&gt;''), and α is the dimensionless wind profile exponent (adopting 0.20) to represent the characteristic surface roughness and frictional drag of the regional mixed terrain during convective instability. Above the boundary layer (850 hPa), the transition toward the synoptic-scale circulation driven by the 500 hPa stationary trough was parameterized through a linear–logarithmic vertical momentum compensation, constrained by the maximum 15 m/s wind speed vector provided by the PRETS’ WRF regional operational model and the 27 m/s wind speed vector registered at 850 hPa by CPTEC, adjusted for localized mesoscale boundary layer currents and storm-scale gust front advection.

=== Retroactive Botanical Thorough Procedures ===
A second investigative phase was conducted retroactively between February and June 2026 to identify physical evidence of vegetation damage along the estimated tornado corridor.

'''Remote sensing and imagery analysis'''''.'' The investigation began with a multi-temporal analysis of high-resolution orbital imagery from the Landsat (NASA), Pléiades Neo (Airbus), and Maxar Technologies programs to detect medium-term alterations in the forest canopy and vegetative structure within the impact area.

'''Biomechanical evaluation.''' The analysis of this damage was based on the interpretation of the biomechanical characteristics of the wood and typical structural failure patterns resulting from severe wind action, distinguishing between failures caused by bending, shear, and torsion. Parameters considered included the dimensions of the fractured elements, the spatial orientation of the fallen branches and trunks, and the level of aging in the exposed wood (drying cracks and lignin photodegradation from UV radiation) to verify the precise timing of the event.

'''Intensity estimation and metric adjustment.''' To estimate wind speed, the observed damage was empirically compared with dozens of historical records of structural tree failure during severe wind events in the region between 2005 and 2025, and adjusted to the mechanical resistance of the identified species. Due to the physical relocation of the research equipment to the town of St. Marys (Ontario, Canada) in April 2026, the vegetation damage classification methodology was updated to formally integrate the current degrees of damage (DODs) of Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale from both Texas Tech University (2006) and Environment Canada (2013) methodologies.

== Results ==
The first phase of the tornado analysis was conducted between September and October 2025. The investigation utilized amateur video footage, meteorological radar data, and three-dimensional geometric reconstruction to refine previous preliminary estimates (Santos, 2025a, 2025b). Initial integration of these data sources placed the touchdown point within an agricultural zone in the rural district of Pau Queimado, Piracicaba, São Paulo. This initial assessment indicated that the vortex remained confined to sugarcane fields, contrasting with earlier hypotheses that situated the event in the unpopulated areas of the Campestre neighborhood.

Three-dimensional modeling was executed via Google Earth Pro by aligning fixed geographic references visible in the footage, including telecommunication towers, rural structures, and topographic features. The vortex core diameter was estimated at approximately 40 meters at the surface, with a visible funnel height of approximately 200 meters. The associated wall cloud diameter was measured at around 1 kilometer. The analysis of the footage further suggested that the funnel maintained intermittent surface contact, with an initial estimated horizontal extension of 175±25 meters. The apparent displacement vector of the vortex indicated a translation velocity between 7 and 8 km/h, calculated from a 200-meter displacement over a 2-minute interval between 22:04 and 22:06 UTC, moving predominantly toward the southeast. In February 2026, a multi-temporal satellite imagery analysis identified a sutil linear anomaly in a sugarcane crop near the Jacob Canale Municipal Road. Because this irregularity aligned with the estimated translation vector, a specialized forensic stage was initiated to investigate physical evidence of wind damage in the adjacent vegetation.

In February 2026, a multi-temporal satellite imagery analysis identified a subtle linear anomaly in a sugarcane crop near the Jacob Canale Municipal Road. Because this irregularity aligned with the estimated translation vector, a specialized forensic stage was initiated to investigate physical evidence of wind damage in the adjacent vegetation. Following the retroactive botanical forensic analysis of the damage track in March 2026, the spatial delimitation of the touchdown point was significantly refined. While the initial photogrammetric estimate derived exclusively from the video footage placed the initial ground contact at approximately 22°46'19&quot;S and 47°41'49&quot;W, the integration of physical evidence from the vegetative field survey allowed for the repositioning of the track start to approximately 22°45'50.5&quot;S and 47°41'19.2&quot;W, locating the initial touchdown politically within the Campestre neighborhood, along a territorial transition zone with the Pau Queimado district.

=== Empirical Reconstruction of the Tornado Track via Botanical Evidence ===
The second phase of the study, carried out between February and March 2026, sought direct biophysical evidence to validate the track parameters. Initial multi-temporal analysis of Landsat imagery confirmed a narrow, linear swath of slightly reduced vegetative vigor near the Jacob Canale Road, which prompted a high-resolution inspection of street-level imagery from June 2025.

Within a roadside tree cluster composed primarily of ''Leucaena leucocephala'', a large primary branch with a length of approximately 2.5 meters and a basal diameter of approximately 25 centimeters was found fractured and displaced at approximately 4 meters above the ground. While initial aging and exposure calculations suggested the failure occurred between November 2024 and February 2025, a subsequent diagnostic review conducted in St. Marys, Ontario, Canada, in May 2026 overturned this hypothesis. Detailed structural analysis revealed advanced internal heart rot, indicating the branch had been down for years, likely prior to the 2024–2025 rainy season or during the 2023 calendar year. Furthermore, extensive evidence of anthropogenic clearing and excavation rendered this specific specimen invalid as a tornado indicator. On the opposite side of the road, a young eucalyptus of approximately 2 meters in height exhibited a permanent trunk torsion with a 20° northward inclination, denoting lateral shear stress beyond the proportional elastic limit of the wood, while further west, a desiccated tree displayed a 30° northward tilt alongside a partial fracture of the upper canopy.

A commercial eucalyptus plantation on the southwest margin of the Jacob Canale Municipal Road displayed extensive convective wind damage (Figure 1). Street-level images from June 2025 revealed a distinct, linear West-to-East damage swath characterized by severe canopy defoliation, structural trunk deformations, lodging, and complete main stem fractures. Multi-temporal Landsat data confirmed the site had undergone replanting in 2023, suggesting a pre-existing structural vulnerability in the younger arboreal mass. Nonetheless, the coexistence of extensive aerodynamic defoliation, intense vertical axis torsion, and clean stem fractures indicates aerodynamic loads exceeding standard F0 thresholds, implying a localized wind field intensity significantly higher than initially estimated.

'''Figure 1'''

''Snapping and growth stress in eucalyptus plantation along the Jacob Canale Road (Campestre)''

''Note'': Adapted from Google Street View (Google, 2025a)

An isolated eucalyptus specimen along the central axis of the track exhibited a damage pattern distinct from the drought-stressed arboreal mass (Figure 2). The specimen lacked biological degradation, fungal rot, or root compromise, indicating full vegetative vigor at the time of impact. The damage consisted of top-out canopy removal accompanied by extensive trunk debarking, and at least four adjacent eucalyptus trees displayed identical linear debarking patterns. Trunk debarking in healthy, high-growth structural timber requires high dynamic pressure to overcome the adhesive moisture bond between the bark and the inner xylem. This specific failure mode aligns directly with the tree-damage indicators (DI 27, Degrees of Damage 3 and 4) for small-trunk hardwood or commercial timber trees under the United States Enhanced Fujita Scale framework, corresponding to the EF2 intensity threshold (Texas Tech University, 2006). Rather than reverting to regional adaptations or traditional conversion metrics, the analysis maintained adherence to the standardized operational protocols of the United States and Canada framework to evaluate the aerodynamic load required to overcome the adhesive moisture bond between the bark and the inner xylem. However, due to the spatial discontinuity of the damage path, this EF2 rating cannot be definitively generalized to the entire path length.

'''Figure 2'''

''Decapped eucalyptus tree between the newly constructed roads and the Jacob Canale Road (Campestre)Note'': Adapted from Google Street View (Google, 2025b)

Integrating the verified botanical vectors allowed for a more precise cartographic delimitation of the tornado track. According to the field survey compiled on March 20, 2026, as shown in Figure 3, the total distance between the outermost confirmed damage points reached approximately 300 meters along a West-Northwest to East-Southeast axis. This distance significantly expands the initial estimate of 175±25 meters derived from the photogrammetric analysis. The cross-sectional distribution of damaged trees indicates a maximum path width between 50 and 80 meters, slightly exceeding the visual funnel width of approximately 40 meters. Furthermore, considering this 300-meter track and the reported duration of 1 to 2 minutes, the tornado moved at an estimated translation speed ranging from 9 to 18 km/h. 

'''Figure 3'''

''Preliminary track delimited on March 20, 2026 (in Portuguese)Note'': From the Piracicaba Meteorológica archives.

On March 22, 2026, an attempt was made to expand the track limits by assessing herbaceous vegetation using enhanced-resolution Google Street View samples from June 2025, comparing them against ground conditions near a recently constructed road network to the north, where four areas of lodged, dry grass were identified and designated as A1, A2, A3, and A4. Zones A2 and A4 were immediately excluded due to clear signs of mechanical weeding, while zone A3 exhibited topographic grading with heavy anthropogenic disturbance. Zone A1, although aligned with the track axis, sat upon soil highly depleted of organic matter, and Maxar Technologies imagery from 2020 confirmed that this northern zone underwent deep excavation during road construction, exposing lithic subsoil layers and inducing severe edaphic stress, which accelerated surface erosion. Street View records from September 2022 showed ongoing excavations and brush fires, giving the surface a semi-arid, Caatinga-like appearance, even though the regional soil profile is classified as an Argisol-Latosol transition (Teramoto et al., 2001). Consequently, the herbaceous indicators lacked diagnostic reliability and were excluded from the final track definition.

Multi-temporal analysis using Airbus Pléiades Neo 3 and 4 satellite imagery identified structural changes in a livestock pen located approximately 470 meters northwest of the eucalyptus plantation. Comparison between late 2024 and early 2025 scenes revealed irregular, high-albedo linear features over the roofed area, consistent with shattered asbestos-cement tiles. Street-level verification from June 2025 confirmed scattered fragments of asbestos-cement roofing and zinc sheets within the perimeter, where a portion of the debris was concentrated in a neat pile, while the remaining fragments showed restricted dispersion with no coherent directional alignment. The perimeter fencing showed no signs of structural failure. This debris pattern contradicts the typical signatures of weak tornadic winds, which distribute low-mass materials in a highly directional, divergent pattern. Furthermore, the structure sits approximately 350 meters outside the three-dimensional georeferenced track model established by Santos (2025a), completely lacking spatial continuity with the documented botanical damage path. Therefore, alternative non-tornadic causes are highly probable, such as independent convective downbursts during the same season, progressive degradation from standard non-severe windstorms, illegal rural dumping, or a lack of structural roof maintenance. This site was excluded from the final intensity and track calculations.

=== Synoptic and Mesoscale Profile ===
Atmospheric reanalysis identified the presence of environmental ingredients favorable for marginal supercellular convection. At mid-levels, a stationary trough at 500 hPa interacted with a Mean-Layer CAPE of 1000±500 J/kg and a vertical wind shear of 12.5±2.5 m/s, sustaining a moderately unstable thermodynamic environment. The convection was further amplified by low-level moisture convergence along a boundary separating warm, dry continental air from the state's interior and cool, maritime air from the Atlantic, with the South Atlantic Convergence Zone providing steady moisture advection.

The convective cell exhibited classical supercellular features, maintaining an isolated structure during its core life cycle. The storm-top altitude reached approximately 13.1 kilometers, calculated from the thermal differential between the surface at approximately 25°C and the cloud-top infrared temperature at approximately -60°C obtained from satellite imagery. The Lifted Condensation Level, representing the cloud base, was established at approximately 500 meters using Espy's equation. The cell initiated at approximately 21:10 UTC in the central rural sector of the municipality and subsequently merged into a larger mesoscale convective complex that had been expanding since 19:00 UTC. Satellite data confirmed sustained cloud-top temperatures below -60°C until 23:20 UTC. 

Photogrammetric analysis of the available video footage further revealed that the core tornadic funnel was enveloped by multiple persistent, high-contrast scud clouds exhibiting regular contours beneath the storm base, as shown in Figure 4. Instrumental observations obtained from local networks registered only a multicell convective system without automated mesocyclone signatures. This scaling limitation is evidenced by operational satellite imagery from CPTEC, which tracked cloud-drift transits at velocities exceeding 50 km/h (13.9 m/s). This empirical observation shows a discrepancy in the raw reanalysis data, where the uncompensated profile indicates an extremely stagnant lower troposphere, with velocities dropping to 15.2 km/h at 500 hPa, that is physically incompatible with the observed storm momentum. Therefore, a physically constrained, kinematic profile compensation was required to accurately evaluate whether resolved boundary-layer processes could support the documented tornadogenesis. 

'''Figure 4'''

''Visual structure of the core tornadic funnel and peripheral cloud condensationNote'': From the Piracicaba Meteorológica archives, digitally enhanced to high definition (HD).

The low-level wind fields extracted from numerical models showed velocities under 2 m/s between the surface and 850 hPa, which probably underestimated the regional synoptic momentum transport. To resolve this, a dynamic profile compensation was applied using a standard power-law wind profile exponent (ɑ = 0.2) for the planetary boundary layer (until 850 hPa), smoothing the sub-grid scale friction and aligning the lower troposphere with the mid-level trough forcing. Above 850 hPa, wind velocities were parameterized through a linear–logarithmic vertical momentum shear scaling framework, providing a physically consistent transition between the boundary-layer regime and the free-tropospheric synoptic circulation. 

It is critical to emphasize that the adjusted data presented in Table 2 does not constitute an arbitrary empirical correction. Rather, it represents the minimum physically plausible kinematic profile required to support and sustain a deep convective structure with a 13 km cloud top, derived strictly from established mathematical equations and historical meteorological analogs of similar convective environments. These parameterized values are not intended to be exact measurements, nor do they substitute real observations, they serve an interpretive, diagnostic purpose to explain the precise mechanical impacts of these unmodeled dynamics on marginal storm formation.

The methodology was constrained by the 15 m/s wind speed indicated by the PRETS’ model at 500 hPa and included calibrated attenuation factors to minimize the risk of overestimation while preserving the realism of the resulting vertical wind profile. Based on the adjusted profile, the 0–3 km bulk shear was calculated at approximately 12 m/s, with storm-relative helicity values of 90–120 m²/s² in the 0–1 km layer and 160–210 m²/s² in the 0–3 km layer, supported by an ambient upper-level outflow of 15 m/s at 500 hPa. Vertical wind profile data capturing the atmospheric state at 22:00 UTC on January 31, 2025, are presented below, where Table 1 details the raw uncompensated data fields and Table 2 outlines the compensated operational values adjusted for localized mesoscale dynamics.

'''Table 1'''

''Vertical Wind Profile at 22:00 UTC on January 31, 2025 (Raw CPTEC Data)''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Level'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Velocity   (km/h, m/s)'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Direction (approximate °)'''
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |Surface
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |6.5 (1.8)
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |ESE (110)
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |1000 hPa
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |4.5 (1.3)
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |NNW (330)
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |850 hPa
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |2.0 (0.5)
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |Clockwise rotation, slight SW  bias
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |700 hPa
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |19.3 (5.4)
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |NW (315)
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |500 hPa
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |15.2 (4.2)
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |WSW (245)
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |250 hPa
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |54.5 (15.1)
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |NW (320)
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |10 hPa
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |96.7 (26.9)
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |E (80)
|} 

'''Table 2'''

''Vertical Wind Profile at 22:00 UTC on January 31, 2025 (Simulated Operational Values)''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Level'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Velocity (km/h, m/s)'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Direction (approximate °)'''
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |Surface
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |6.5 (1.8)
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |ESE (110)
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |1000 hPa
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |11.2 (3.1)
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |NNW (330)
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |850 hPa
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |19.3 (5.4)
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |SE (135)
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |700 hPa
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |36 (10)
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |NW (315)
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |500 hPa
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |54 (15)
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |WSW (245)
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |250 hPa
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |65 (18)
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |NW (320)
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |10 hPa
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |97 (27)
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |E (80)
|}

== Discussion ==
The localized convective environment of the January 2025 event demonstrates that tornadogenesis can occur within synoptically marginal frameworks that deviate from classical deep-convection paradigms. The regional tropospheric profile lacked the high-tier thermodynamic instability and deep vertical shear typically associated with large-scale, classic, or high-precipitation supercells (Doswell &amp; Burgess, 1993). Instead, tornadic organization relied on the non-linear interaction of mesoscale forcing mechanisms. The primary driver was the inland penetration of the sea-breeze front, which acted as a localized source of baroclinic vorticity and mass convergence upon intersecting the regional pressure trough. This interaction generated concentrated horizontal vorticity within the boundary layer, which was subsequently tilted and stretched vertically by the storm's updraft (Markowski &amp; Richardson, 2010).

Despite the constrained horizontal scale of the parent cell, the depth of its vertical development was sufficient to breach upper-tropospheric levels, indicating strong, localized updraft acceleration. This process was dynamically favored by an exceptionally low cloud base. Low lifted condensation levels (LCLs) reduce the vertical distance between a mid-level mesocyclone and the surface, lessening the detrimental effects of sub-cloud evaporation and accelerating low-level tornadic rotation through vortex stretching (Thompson et al., 2003). This mechanism explains how a horizontally compact storm can achieve sufficient internal organization to produce a surface-contacting vortex without relying on extreme macroscale synoptic setups.

The visual attributes of marginal convective supercell introduced significant ambiguity into initial observational assessments. The high-humidity environment underneath the cloud base generated numerous persistent scud clouds within the turbulent inflow region. In severe weather literature, these non-rotational condensation fragments are frequently misidentified as independent vortices or tornadoes (Markowski &amp; Richardson, 2010). In this case, the regular contours and temporal persistence of the surrounding scud cloud canopy partially obscured the core tornadic funnel, leading early peer reviews to dismiss the event as non-tornadic turbulent condensation. 

Extant literature establishes that tornado genesis stems from a localized, extreme low-pressure anomaly that perturbs cyclostrophic balance (Davies-Jones et al., 2001; Smith &amp; Leslie, 1979). In this specific event, centripetal acceleration inward cavity-directed forces drew a substantial portion of the peripheral condensation into the core, thereby inducing a characteristically wider morphology. Furthermore, the system's structural persistence and high contrast demonstrate that these formations were distinct from ordinary scud clouds, which typically exhibit a far more chaotic appearance relative to the ambient environment (Branick, 1996). Additionally, the peripheral cloud structures reflect intense inflow saturation rather than multiple independent vortices.

A critical retrospective adjustment involves the physical repositioning of the initial touchdown point. The geographical divergence between early visual models and retroactive field evidence highlights the limitations of relying solely on amateur videography for track delineation. Furthermore, the total absence of ground scars or visible paths in the initial satellite surveys caused early investigators to conclude that no tornado had occurred. However, this absence of evidence is explained by the flexible nature of the monoculture crop dominating the initial site. Flexible stalk vegetation, such as sugarcane, undergoes temporary elastic deformation under short-duration winds rather than permanent mechanical failure. Consequently, it fails to leave long-term scars detectable by medium-resolution orbital sensors, a limitation well-documented in agricultural storm forensics (Gliksman et al., 2023; Mostafiz et al., 2022). The lack of initial crop damage was a function of vegetation mechanics at the first assumed site, which was completely refuted once physical, permanent structural damage was discovered in arboreal masses at a separate location.

The reanalysis of the mesoscale environment highlights a recurring problem regarding the underestimation of low-level wind speeds by coarse numerical forecasting products. Raw operational profiles indicated surface and near-surface velocities that were thermodynamically and dynamically incompatible with an active convective system coupled to a mid-level trough. Without applying dynamic profile compensations to account for localized mesoscale boundary layer currents, such as the sea-breeze front and a fast-moving storm-scale gust front, the bulk shear and storm-relative helicity values remain insufficient to explain mesocyclonic rotation. The adjusted operational profile indicates moderate storm-relative helicity within the lowest kilometer, suggesting that localized directional wind shear was sufficient to sustain a transient rotating updraft.

This reliance on uncompensated numerical models explains the analytical gaps in early exploratory papers (Santos, 2025a, 2025b). The earliest investigation restricted its scope to surface wind convergence, overlooking mid- and upper-level synoptic forcing, which resulted in an incomplete rendering of the supercell's vertical mechanics. Subsequent revisions introduced three-dimensional georeferencing but misclassified peripheral cloud features as multiple vortices. These compounding interpretative errors highlight the necessity of an integrated forensic approach. Relying exclusively on remote sensing or visual records without combining them with high-resolution mesoscale reanalysis and direct botanical damage surveys increases the margin of error in intensity classifications.

The instrument data gaps surrounding this event underscore the limitations of regional severe weather monitoring networks. Local radar systems lacked the spatial and temporal resolution required to capture compact, low-level rotational signatures, while the surface station network was too sparse to capture the sharp pressure deficits or wind shifts associated with a narrow vortex path. Consequently, the storm appeared on instruments as an ordinary convective cell, facilitating conservative interpretations that overlooked the tornadic event.

This structural under-reporting stems from a broader systemic tendency to ignore rotating storms that develop outside classic, highly unstable synoptic environments. To address these intermediate convective profiles, Piracicaba Meteorológica (2025) utilizes an internal classification framework that establishes a clear operational distinction between mini-supercells, low-topped supercells, and marginal supercells. Under this framework, mini-supercells possess the complete, balanced structural configuration of a classic supercell, including an organized mesocyclone, but are scaled down horizontally. Low-topped supercells, by contrast, are dynamically limited by lower equilibrium levels and lower anvils, occurring under moderate instability but intense shallow shear. Both categories are differentiated from marginal supercells, which exhibit weaker internal rotation and depend almost entirely on localized baroclinic boundaries to focus vorticity. The documentation of the January 2025 event demonstrates that sub-classical systems can generate low-tier tornadoes. Relying on rigid, classic forecasting templates where radar and synoptic metrics must meet extreme criteria risks misclassifying narrow, short-lived tornadoes as straight-line winds or ordinary convective turbulence.

== Conclusion ==
The integrated analysis conducted in this study substantiates that the meteorological event recorded in Piracicaba on January 31, 2025, was a tornado generated by a marginal supercell that impacted a commercial eucalyptus plantation and the Jacob Canale Municipal Road within the Campestre neighborhood. The three-dimensional geometric reconstruction derived from amateur video footage successfully mapped the spatial orientation and physical dimensions of the tornadic funnel, while the synoptic and mesoscale reanalysis identified an atmospheric profile that was marginally supportive of localized, rotating deep convection.

The retroactive forensic field investigation executed in 2026 provided critical empirical evidence of severe wind-induced damage along the estimated convective path. The documented structural failures, including the permanent trunk torsion in juvenile trees, and widespread aerodynamic defoliation, lodging, and complete main stem splitting across the commercial eucalyptus stand, spatially align with the photogrammetrically modeled translation vector.

Based on the synthesis of this biophysical evidence, the severity of the event significantly exceeds the preliminary F0 rating proposed by exploratory assessments in 2025. The observed structural failures match the damage indicators established for the EF1 category on the Enhanced Fujita Scale, which is characterized by wind speeds capable of inducing clean mechanical fractures in healthy timber and moderate canopy destruction. Conversely, while specific localized damage patterns matched the EF2 damage indicators, structural uncertainties and a lack of broader corroborating indicators prevent a definitive upgrade to that intensity level. Furthermore, due to the relocation of the research infrastructure from Piracicaba, Brazil, to St. Marys, Canada, the intensity classification methodology was transitioned to seamlessly integrate the standardized United States Enhanced Fujita framework damage indicators alongside Canadian operational protocols regarding the volume of affected arboreal masses.

In addition to the intensity reassessment, this investigation clarifies that the visual features captured in the photographic record do not represent isolated, non-tornadic scud formations. Instead, they constitute a legitimate tornadic funnel partially enveloped by highly saturated, turbulent peripheral condensation beneath the low-topped storm base. Consequently, the Piracicaba tornado of January 31, 2025, is best classified as a short-lived, small-scale EF1 tornadic event associated with a marginal supercell.

== References ==
Branick, M. (1996). A comprehensive glossary of weather terms for storm spotters. ''NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS SR-145''.

Davies-Jones, R., Trapp, R. J., &amp; Bluestein, B. H. (2001). Tornadoes and tornadic storms. ''Meteorological Monographs'', ''50'', 167–222. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1175/0065-9401-28.50.167&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Doswell, C. A., III, &amp; Burgess, D. W. (1993). Tornadoes and tornadic storms: A review of conceptual models. In C. Church, J. Galway, R. Davies-Jones, &amp; G. Darkow (Eds.), ''The tornado: Its structure, dynamics, prediction, and hazards'' (Vol. 79, pp. 161‑172). American Geophysical Union. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1029/GM079p0161&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Environment Canada. (2013). ''Canadian Enhanced Fujita Scale (EF-Scale) Technical Documentation: Damage Indicators and Degrees of Damage''. Environment Canada.

Gliksman, D., Averbeck, P., Becker, N., Gardiner, B., Goldberg, V., Grieger, J., Handorf, D., Haustein, K., Karwat, A., Knutzen, F., Lentink, H. S., Lorenz, R., Niermann, D., Pinto, J. G., Queck, R., Ziemann, A., &amp; Franzke, C. L. E. (2023). A European perspective on wind and storm damage – from the meteorological background to index-based approaches to assess impacts. ''Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences'', ''23''(6), 2171–2201. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-2171-2023&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Google (2025). [Snapping and growth stress in eucalyptus plantation along the Jacob Canale Road]. ''Google'' ''Maps''. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.google.com/maps/@-22.7641887,-47.6871989,3a,53.6y,196.66h,93.75t/&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Google (2025). [Decapped eucalyptus tree between the newly constructed roads and the Jacob Canale Road]. ''Google'' ''Maps''. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.google.com/maps/@-22.7642417,-47.6876208,3a,37.6y,200.38h,105.87t/&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Lima, C. A. G., &amp; Selani, R. L. (2008). Tornados: uma nova realidade no Brasil? In ''Anais do Congresso de Iniciação Científica das Faculdades Integradas de Ourinhos''. Faculdades Integradas de Ourinhos. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://cic.fio.edu.br/anaisCIC/anais2008/Artigos/Geografia/011-TORNAD.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Lopes, M. M., &amp; Nascimento, E. de L. (2025). Climatologia de ocorrências tornádicas no Sul do Brasil. ''Ciência e Natura'', ''47''(esp. 3), Artigo e84051. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.5902/2179460X84051&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Markowski, Paul, &amp; Richardson, Yvette. (2010). ''Mesoscale meteorology in midlatitudes''. Wiley-Blackwell. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470682104&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Mostafiz, R. B., Rohli, R. V., Friedland, C. J., Gall, M., &amp; Bushra, N. (2022). Future crop risk estimation due to drought, extreme temperature, hail, lightning, and tornado at the census tract level in Louisiana. ''Frontiers in Environmental Science'', ''10'', Artigo 919782. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.919782&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Piracicaba Meteorológica. ''Supercell database for the Piracicaba climatic region''. Retrieved June 20, 2025. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.919782&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Ribeiro, B., Schild, G., Santos, L., Nascimento, E. L., Lopes, M., Goede, V., dos Santos, L. O., Costa, I., Ferreira, V., Oliveira, M., Telles, J., &amp; Furlan, L. (2022). ''The Brazilian severe storm reports database: methodology and a preliminary climatology'' [Poster presentation]. Severe Local Storms Conference.

Rodrigues, R. R. (1999). ''A vegetação de Piracicaba e municípios do entorno'' (Circular Técnica IPEF nº 189). Instituto de Pesquisas e Estudos Florestais. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.ipef.br/publicacoes/ctecnica/nr189.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Santos, E. K. dos. (2025a). ''Avaliação georreferenciada e modelagem da trajetória do tornado em Piracicaba no final de janeiro de 2025''. Piracicaba Meteorológica, 3.

Santos, E. K. dos. (2025b). ''Discussão sobre a ocorrência de um tornado em Piracicaba em janeiro de 2025''. Piracicaba Meteorológica, 3.

Smith, R. K., &amp; Leslie, L. M. (1979). A numerical study of tornadogenesis in a rotating thunderstorm. ''Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society'', ''105''(443), 107–127. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1256/smsqj.44307&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Teramoto, E. R., Lepsch, I. F., &amp; Vidal-Torrado, P. (2001). Relações solo, superfície geomórfica e substrato geológico na microbacia do ribeirão Marins (Piracicaba - SP). ''Scientia Agricola'', ''58''(2), 361–371. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-90162001000200021&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Texas Tech University, Wind Science and Engineering Research Center. (2006). ''Enhanced Fujita Scale (EF Scale) development'' (WERC Report). Texas Tech University.

Thompson, R. L., Edwards, R., Hart, J. A., Elmore, K. L., &amp; Markowski, P. (2003). Close proximity soundings within supercell environments obtained from the Rapid Update Cycle. ''Weather and Forecasting'', ''18''(6), 1243–1261. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0434(2003)018&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;1243:CPSWSE&gt;2.0.CO;2

Wollmann, C. A., &amp; Iensse, A. C. (2019). A gênese climática dos tornados nos estados da Região Sul do Brasil e São Paulo. ''Geo UERJ'', (34), Artigo e40941. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.12957/geouerj.2019.40941&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Zipser, E. J., Cecil, Daniel J., Liu, Chuntao, Nesbitt, Stephen W., &amp; Yorty, David P. (2006). Where are the most intense thunderstorms on Earth? ''Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society'', ''87''(8), 1057-1071. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-87-8-1057&lt;/nowiki&gt;
__INDEX__</text>
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