Wikiversity enwikiversity https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.8 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikiversity Wikiversity talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk School School talk Portal Portal talk Topic Topic talk Collection Collection talk Draft Draft talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 4 28 2817236 2816994 2026-06-29T14:05:29Z Codename Noreste 2969951 /* MediaWiki:Protectedpagetext#Protected edit request on 11 December 2025 */ archive to [[Wikiversity:Colloquium/archives/May 2026#MediaWiki:Protectedpagetext#Protected edit request on 11 December 2025]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 2817236 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikiversity:Colloquium/Header}} <!-- MESSAGES GO BELOW --> == Proposal to rehost Wikinews here == As many of you know, and mentioned here at the Colloquium, our sister project Wikinews recently closed, with all 31 active editions made read-only. [[User:BigKrow]] has asked about the prospect of writing news stories here and I suggested that since we already have [[School:Journalism]] and some resources related to the [[:Category:Journalism|broader topic of journalism]]. I would like to propose that we have continued and indefinite space for {{w|citizen journalism}} by essentially repurposing Wikinews into a sub-project here. The only special infrastructure that Wikinews required was [[:mw:Extension:DynamicPageList]], which was deactivated and caused issues due to a lack of maintenance. I will add this proposal to the site banner, but I recognize that that may be a conflict of interest, so if anyone requests that I remove it, I will. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:30, 14 May 2026 (UTC) :I would like to see this conversation go for at least 30 days to establish a consensus. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:35, 14 May 2026 (UTC) ::A few days shy of 30, it seems obvious that this is not going to pass. So I '''withdraw''' as presumptively '''failed'''. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 07:14, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ===Votes=== *{{support}} as proposer (with BK's inspiration). I think that an ongoing experiment in citizen journalism is a fit and appropriate use of this site. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:35, 14 May 2026 (UTC) *{{support}}, hope to seeing ideas about this, and thank you @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 11:08, 14 May 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} Other than perhaps inflating the total number of pages reported, I see the idea of "practicing journalism" a worthy and relevant activity within the domain of Wikiversity. [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 21:41, 14 May 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} Conditional on development of (a) community guidelines that ensure alignment with Wikiversity's purpose, and (b) clear, nested page-naming structures for projects. More detail below. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:48, 15 May 2026 (UTC) *{{contra}} This proposal doesn't seem interested in expanding educational materials in journalism, but rather in providing space and protection for Wikinews contributors. But this is contrary to the goals of Wikiversity, and I'm not sure it's a good idea, even with regard to WMF. If WMF decides to close a project and another community lets it run on its domain, that's a bit of an undermining of WMF's and the community's decisions. Given that Wikiversity has had several conflicts with other communities and WMF in its history, I'm against it.--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:59, 15 May 2026 (UTC) *{{contra}} This seems like a proposal to continue the mission of WikiNews, but not a proposal specifically to improve Wikiversity. I concur with Juandev's comments. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 20:29, 30 May 2026 (UTC) * {{oppose}} per above. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:05, 1 June 2026 (UTC) *{{oppose}} Wikiversity isn’t Wikinews and it also isn’t a dumping ground for anything not covered by other projects. It was already suggested, rather bafflingly, that Wikinews parasitize Wikipedia as a host. If it were allowed to freeload off of Wikiversity it would simply promote a view I and likely many others have— that Wikiversity (as it currently exists) has no standards and mostly just exists to host subpar content that wouldn’t be tolerated on any other Wikimedia site. Wikinews needs a new, non-Wikimedia host, and Wikiversity needs to get its act together by enforcing a minimum scope and standard for what it allows. --[[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 01:16, 4 June 2026 (UTC) * {{oppose}} per above. Wikiversity<math>\not=</math> Wikinews - not a good idea to mix the scope of projects. --[[User:Bert Niehaus|Bert Niehaus]] ([[User talk:Bert Niehaus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bert Niehaus|contribs]]) 12:03, 8 June 2026 (UTC) * {{abstain}} I will abstain since I'm not an active Wikiversity contributor. But I just feel like Wikinews had a very clear and specific goal of providing news, and Wikiversity is just a different project with different goals. For me, it would be odd to rehost Wikinews here. But please do not count my vote, this is only a comment. --[[User:Antimundo|Antimundo]] ([[User talk:Antimundo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Antimundo|contribs]]) 13:19, 6 June 2026 (UTC) * {{oppose}} Although I think it's a pity that Wikinews is closed. --[[User:Dick Bos|Dick Bos]] ([[User talk:Dick Bos|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dick Bos|contribs]]) 19:06, 8 June 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} In 2018 I initiated [[:Category:Videoconferences on media and democracy]] as a platform for disseminating public affairs events. In 2021 I officially initiated a podcast series on "Media & Democracy" syndicated for the [[w:List of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates|Pacifica radio network]]. In 2024 I converted it from irregular to fortnightly. I think this is all educational and supports the Wikiversity education mission, and I think that "rehost Wikinews here" would be appropriate. (I had some experience with Wikinews a few years ago. I felt it was too tightly controlled: Article submissions went stale, because I could not get official permission to publish and I could not get the information needed to understand what I was supposed to do to obtain the official permission. I would be opposed to rehosting Wikinews here if the policy similarly made it unreasonably difficult for volunteer contributor to get the information needed to meet the journalistic standards imposed by the overworked editors.) {{unsigned|DavidMCEddy}} ===Comments and questions=== :Definitely worthy of discussion, so I have no problem with the proposal in the sitenotice. :Initial questions: :* Does this proposal include importing English Wikinews content e.g., to [[Wikinews]] subpages? :* What are "active editions"? :* How can Wikiversity navigate the concerns that lead to the closure of Wikinews? :* Are any changes to the scope of Wikinews proposed? :* How does [[Wikinews]] fit with the [[Wikiversity:Mission]]? What aligns well? Where might there be tension? :** e.g., I'm not sure that a page like [[User:BigKrow/Manchester City moves two points behind Arsenal]] in and of itself will serve as an educational resource. :-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 05:52, 14 May 2026 (UTC) :* Does this proposal include importing English Wikinews content e.g., to [[Wikinews]] subpages? ::*No, not at this time. :* What are "active editions"? ::*There were 30 other active editions of Wikinews in addition to English (e.g. [[:n:es:]]) at the time of universal closure (2026-05-04). :* How can Wikiversity navigate the concerns that lead to the closure of Wikinews? ::*One of the biggest issues was the problems with DPL, which is now irrelevant. Another was the lack of activity, which can be ameliorated by having it be part of an existing project instead of its own domain (e.g. some editions of Wikipedia host their own Wikinews already and those projects were not impacted by the closure). :* Are any changes to the scope of Wikinews proposed? ::*Not at this juncture. I would also propose as far as implemention goes that we would request a new namespace and that the material be more-or-less sequestered into its own ongoing project, like Wikijournal is or like the Cookbook and Wikijunior are at our sister [[:b:]]. :* How does [[Wikinews]] fit with the [[Wikiversity:Mission]]? What aligns well? Where might there be tension? :** e.g., I'm not sure that a page like [[Story/Manchester City moves two points behind Arsenal]] in and of itself will serve as an educational resource. ::*The process of citizen journalists practicing their craft in real-time and collaborating with others to do so is itself an education activity. We would essentially be hosting a real-time experiment in citizen journalism, online communities, and collaborative learning in addition to the prospect of spreading educational information from someone actually reading the news. I would propose that we could also make a more deliberate attempt to engage with learning <em>about</em> what does and doesn't work with collaborative news writing by experimentation (e.g. audio news, syndicating to other sites, incorporating freely-licensed news from other sources, writing hyper-local news, writing briefs versus longer-term reportage) and also seeing if the problems noted in the Task Force report that recommended closure can be overcome. Note that we have already done some local investigation about and learning about wiki-based journalism on Wikinews here at [[Journalism studies and Wikinews]]. We could continue that learning and refine the process, including incorporating journalism students from universities. As for tensions, Wikinews is the only sister project that must be done with a quick turn-around: if you take a long time to [[:s:|transcribe a book]], that's just how long it takes, but if you take a long time to write news, it ceases to be news entirely. Wikiversity has been a very slow-growing project that has definitely had some successes but has generally come together over a long period with most learning resources being individual passion projects (or sometimes, frankly, crankery) which would not work with collaborative news that requires more than just a single editor writing whatever he feels like. ::Please let me know any other questions/concerns and any other editors feel free to give your own perspective. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 06:13, 14 May 2026 (UTC) :::Thanks, Justin — it is food for thought. :::In attempting to understand how we've arrived here, I've summarised some of the background on this page: [[Wikinews]]. :::Perhaps it could be helpful to flesh out more of the vision / ideas / possibilities / challenges on that page? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:49, 14 May 2026 (UTC) :::*Having given it some thought, in principle, I support hosting [[citizen journalism]] on Wikiversity where it is clearly connected to a learning project and/or constitutes original research, both of which align strongly with [[Wikiversity:Mission|Wikiversity’s educational mission]]. :::*My chief concern is the potential for news content that is not clearly linked to the purpose of Wikiversity. To avoid this, some community-agreed guidelines would be prudent. These need not be overly restrictive; they should support boldness and experimentation while helping ensure alignment with Wikiversity's purpose. :::*Given the reported low and declining activity on Wikinews, it seems unlikely that English Wikiversity would be overwhelmed by an influx of news-related editing. My impression is that English Wikinews was the most active edition, but even so, many contributors are likely to disperse to other projects or cease editing altogether. A modest migration of interested editors to Wikiversity seems manageable. :::*At this stage, I do not think a dedicated namespace is necessary. Subpages under [[Wikinews]] or nested pages under relevant learning or research projects, or user-space draft pages should be suitable. I agree that [[Wikijournal]] offers a useful model, as do several existing course structures on Wikiversity. :::*I support [[User:Koavf]]’s suggestions about framing Wikinews activity explicitly around learning. This would create a distinctive space for experimenting with collaborative news production in ways that are pedagogically meaningful. I agree that the [[journalism studies and Wikinews]] project developed by David and Leigh Blackall through the University of Wollongong is an excellent example of the intersection between Wikiversity and Wikinews. The [[Wikinews]] page could evolve into a hub for such projects. :::*I've tidied the [[:Category:Wikinews|Wikinews category]] and merged some content into the [[Wikinews]] page. As part of a reinvigoration effort, please review these and related resources such as [[:Category:Journalism]] and [[School:Journalism]]. :::*A further argument in favour of this initiative is that Wikipedia explicitly excludes both news reporting and original research. So, there is value in maintaining spaces within the Wikimedia ecosystem where these forms of knowledge production can be openly developed and curated. Such work can, in turn, generate valuable evidence and source material that may later inform Wikipedia articles. :::*The closure of WMF-hosted Wikinews does not imply that open wiki-based news curation lacks value. Indeed, the closure documentation appears supportive of experimentation with alternative news models across Wikimedia projects, including through Wikipedia and Wikidata. In that context, Wikiversity seems a natural home for a Wikinews experiment, provided it is clearly grounded in learning and/or research. :::-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:39, 15 May 2026 (UTC) My understanding towards Wikinews' failure is that everything takes too long to be approved for the publish status, which means that any breaking news would have already become days-old stale news. Wikinews has a brand recognition (for right or wrong reasons) than Wikiversity and I wonder how effective Wikiversity can attract the "Wikinews refugees" to edit here. And just a quick note on the governance. Since each Wikiversity language operates independently, each language has to vote & adopt this proposal independently. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 13:47, 15 May 2026 (UTC) :Your assessment about Wikinews is partially correct. I referenced it earlier, but to be explicit, there is a [[:m:Proposal for Closing Wikinews|report by a task force on sister projects]] that outlines their concerns. There are a few, one of which was the nature of the staleness of news. Thanks also for clarifying that this proposal is only relevant to en.wv and is not binding or even proposed for other editions of Wikiversity. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:54, 15 May 2026 (UTC) *Note: I am not a regular here, and just visit Wikiversity for the WikiJournal project. Challenges of Wikinews included that it required timely reporting and fact-checking processes which differed greatly from the well-established ones in Wikipedia. Here in Wikiversity, there is the WikiJournal project, and that can take some some forms of journalism, just not breaking news reporting. I am in favor of salvaging parts of Wikinews if helpful. Could it, would it be feasible to adapt Wikijournal to accept some forms of news journalism, but just not the timed news reporting? For example, WikiJournal already is doing conference proceedings, and could likely do related event reports even months after the event ended. It could probably accept long-form investigative reporting, which is a sort of news that is not breaking news. I am not sure what the possibilities are, but I would prefer to build up systems that already work rather than import systems which had problems elsewhere. Thanks. [[User:Bluerasberry|<span style="background:#cedff2;color:#11e">''' Blue Rasberry '''</span>]][[User talk:Bluerasberry|<span style="cursor:help"><span style="background:#cedff2;color:#11e">(talk)</span></span>]] 19:17, 22 May 2026 (UTC) *:I agree that there are certain kinds of journalism that are perfectly valid and not time-bound like breaking news reporting, so that won't suffer from the issues noted before. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 21:15, 22 May 2026 (UTC) *::@[[User:Bluerasberry|Bluerasberry]] WikiJournal is not interested in taking on news journalism. WikiJournal is publishing conference proceedings at the request of some Wikimedian educators, and conference proceedings is what a "regular" journal publishes. News journalism is quite different from this, and if WikiJournal starts to deviate towards publishing news journalism, it will create barrier towards future initiatives like being indexed in Medline or Web of Science, and may risk being delisted from Scopus. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 22:43, 5 June 2026 (UTC) *:::Thats a good point. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:09, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == Create an autopatrolled user group? == {{tracked|T428269|resolved}} I would like to propose creating the user group <code>autopatrolled</code> (autopatrolled user), in which for non-curators and non-custodians, their page creations and file uploads would be automatically marked as patrolled by the MediaWiki software. Custodians may grant the user group, at their discretion, to users who create good quality pages that do not need frequent patrolling. On a side note, the term {{tq|autopatroller}} would be used, but because we don't have non-curator/custodian patrollers (as we rely on curators and custodians to patrol), I suggest on using the term {{tq|autopatrolled user}}. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:31, 29 May 2026 (UTC) :'''Support''' re: the name, I don't really understand the reasoning, so I am '''neutral''' on that. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:45, 29 May 2026 (UTC) :: Regarding the name, this is because as we don't have the patroller user group, we rely on curators and custodians to patrol new pages and file uploads. Does that make sense? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:39, 29 May 2026 (UTC) :::Not really, but I don't think it's the most important thing. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:42, 29 May 2026 (UTC) :::: We'll decide on the name later. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:48, 30 May 2026 (UTC) :::::Oh, please don't let me stand in the way. I'm just not very smart, so don't hold up a matter on my account. I didn't want to derail the proposal, which is a fine and sensible one. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 04:16, 30 May 2026 (UTC) : '''Support''' - sounds like a good idea :* Suggest adding a draft section about this group to [[Wikiversity:Patrolling]]. There is a statement in the Introduction of the page that I'm not sure if its correct and at least could be improved: "Wikiversity also uses an autopatrol right, meaning trusted users' contributions are automatically marked as checked so patrollers can focus on reviewing newer or anonymous editors." :* Regarding autopatroller vs autropatrolled user, what terms are used on similar WMF wiki projects? : -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:28, 30 May 2026 (UTC) ::# I would create a starting page about the user groups, with experienced editors expanding the page. A summarized part of that page would also be added to [[Wikiversity:Patrolling]]. ::# For a similar example, English Wikipedia uses the term {{tq|Autopatrolled}}, just that term only. :: [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:22, 30 May 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] and @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]: the autopatroller user group has been implemented here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:14, 8 June 2026 (UTC) ::Thanks. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 07:13, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == How much of Wikiversity’s content is LLM slop? == Because it seems like a non-trivial amount, along with AI slop images as well. Is there some kind of AI cleanup project established yet? [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 01:20, 4 June 2026 (UTC) :We have discussed AI but I don't know of any explicit initiative to find and delete AI-generated noise. Individual modules have been deleted for having been made by AI. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 08:50, 4 June 2026 (UTC) :Recently agreed [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|policy]] welcome users to tag AI generated pages. Me personally I am not against the use of AI. What is the difference in abstract schematic image created by a human and the same by an AI. If the users does not have finances to pay digital artest and you dont want to let them use AI, would you pay the artest for them? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:07, 8 June 2026 (UTC) ::Wikimedia has a lot of ''volunteer'' artists who can illustrate if asked. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 08:11, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :::Interesting! That's good to know. Where can we find the volunteer artists for illustrating? [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 20:11, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::::Wikimedia commons has [[commons:Commons:Graphic Lab/Illustration workshop]] [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 02:18, 10 June 2026 (UTC) == Draft inactivity policy == I created [[Wikiversity:Inactivity policy]] as a start. Any experienced Wikiversity user may feel free to expand it. This is also one-to-two step(s) towards opting out of the [[m:Admin activity review|AAR process]]. However, I made a bold change to reduce the response timeframe from one month to two weeks. In addition, should we reduce the inactivity timeframe to one year? For the latter, most projects use that timeframe and I suggested this for consistency. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:57, 4 June 2026 (UTC) :I support those suggestions. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:55, 4 June 2026 (UTC) : Juandev has posted some comments on the [[Wikiversity talk:Inactivity policy|talk page]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:30, 12 June 2026 (UTC) == Proposed user group and/or possible policy changes == {{tracked|T430416}} I want to discuss about user group and possible policy changes. # First, interface administrators. I don't think we should allow interface administrators to remove their permission from their own account, since we have multiple active bureaucrats and we can ask them to remove the permission when done, or for them to add a temporary grant. This is according to the [[Wikiversity:IA|current IA policy]]. I also left [[Wikiversity talk:Interface administrators#My thoughts about this user group|my thoughts on the relevant talk page]]. # Second, curators. Given that curators have some sensitive custodian rights (such as <code>delete</code> [but not <code>undelete</code> or similar rights that allow viewing deleted content, unless the curatorship process is RFA-like] and <code>protect</code>), it would probably make more sense only for bureaucrats to grant and remove it, on par with them granting (but not removing) custodian permissions. # Third, about probationary custodians. [[Wikiversity:Probationary custodians]] is currently marked as historical, and the process might still exist on [[Wikiversity:Custodianship]]. Therefore, to maintain consistency with [[Wikiversity:Curatorship#How does one become a curator?]], I propose that we repeal the probationary custodianship process and change it more or less to align with the curatorship process, effectively making probationary custodians permanent ones. However, custodian mentors would still be retained. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:55, 5 June 2026 (UTC) :#Yes, I agree. :#Thats a good point, but I dont know. At least I dont think its a good idea that both groups i.e. crats and custodiants can do that, it may create chaos. :#Another good point. It seems to me that the current situation is somewhat unclear and should be clarified. I understand the original status of [[Wikiversity:Probationary custodians|Probationary custodians]] as a historicall and invalid, but at the same time I consider myself a probationary custodian, because on the Wikiversity:Custodianship page in the ''[[Wikiversity:Custodianship#How does one become a custodian?|How does one become a custodian?]]'' section it says, I quote, ''"II ...then you will be approved as a probationary custodian for a period of at least four weeks"''. :::Mentors should definitely be kept, but for certain applicants the probation and mentorship should be abolished. For example, if someone was an active custodian for 5 years, then loses their rights or gives them up for a year and then wants to resume their custodial activities, there is no reason for them to undergo a training period. It burdens both the mentors and the community with double voting. The only exception could be a situation where policies or tools for custodians change significantly during that year, or the candidate wants to. :[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 06:08, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == New user what do I do here == I love wikipedia and the wikiversity project seems super interesting. However I know very little about wikiversity and would like to know how i can best contribute to the project. Also if there are forums or discord or reddit that would be very helpful. (One last thing is it normal that my userboxes don't work here) {{unsigned|AUBSTRAWBS}} :Hey {{ping|AUBSTRAWBS}} Welcome to Wikiversity! I've left a welcome message on your talk page so that should provide you a plethora of useful links for you to look at so you can familiarize yourself with the project. Also, feel free to create the userboxes you need. Wikiversity doesn't have as many userboxes as Wikipedia. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 21:45, 8 June 2026 (UTC) :Thank you very much :) hope to contribute a lot. [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 21:50, 8 June 2026 (UTC) == Towards an Ethics policy == In connection with the [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Removal of Wikidebates|discussion of Wikidebates]], I said that it would be good to establish a policy on ethics, or rather a boundary between ethical and unethical content, so that we don't have to discuss individual cases. In addition, today we also have some global policies that prohibit, for example, attacks on members of the Wikimedia movement or undermining other projects. However, at the very beginning, I would start by collecting your opinions. What content or what research should not be allowed on Wikiversity? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 05:52, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :One ethical issue that I think should be non-controversial is related to good faith in the learning modules. So, learning materials should not be hoaxes or encourage behavior or methods that don't work or that misrepresent the facts or the likelihood of something occurring, etc. and authors should also not plagiarize or misrepresent authorship, etc. That was quite a run-on, but I hope that others can tease out what I mean here. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 07:39, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::I look at it from a practical perspective. We can give that to the policy, but I see the problem in that we are not able to check it except plagiarism. ::Plagiarism can be partially detected during patrolling. I see a new text, I put part of it in Google and I check if it is copied from the web. It is a problem with copying from books or other offline sources, but sometimes it happens that someone finds out that something is copied from somewhere and it can be deleted. ::The biggest issue we have here is that we are missing Wikipedia's control mechanism: references. Only some types of resources on Wikiversity require references. In-line references are not often used in courses, exercises, lectures, etc. We are thus deprived of one of the excellent control mechanisms and the only option is for the increase in the number of members with various qualifications to check it for their colleagues. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:59, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :::Having a policy and enforcing that policy are indeed two different things. If we are only concerned with issues that we can definitively enforce, then that will definitely change this conversation. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 08:06, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::::ok [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 15:55, 13 June 2026 (UTC) :AI generated content should not be allowed as it is inherently plagiarism. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 08:14, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::And if the user mention it was generated by an AI? Note that there is something called as public domain, that is the author wave its rights. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:53, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :::Plagiarism isn’t copyright violation. Crediting the AI is not crediting the authors the AI stole from without credit. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 10:18, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::::I see, now I understand your point. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 15:56, 13 June 2026 (UTC) == Deployment of Legal and Safety Contacts Link in the Footer of Your Wiki == Hello community, The Wikimedia Foundation has provided [[foundation:Legal:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contact Information|a single legal and safety contact page]], to be linked in the footer of your wiki, to ensure access to accurate legal information. This is a regulatory requirement. We have already rolled out links to English, German, Italian, Spanish Wikipedias and other wikis and we will deploy to your wiki soon. Please [[m:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contacts FAQ|read more on the project page]] and leave any comments in this thread or on [[m:Talk:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contacts FAQ|the talk page]]. –– [[User:STei (WMF)|STei (WMF)]] ([[User talk:STei (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/STei (WMF)|contribs]]) 18:12, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :Thanks for the notice. In case anyone is not clear, we cannot locally change the text at the footer, as it [[:mw:Manual:Footer|requires access to the server settings]]. If we locally needed to change it, we would have to file a ticket at [[:phab:]]. Since the above was sent by someone from the WMF, I think they are on it and it will be updated without any action from anyone here. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:24, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == Image not displaying == Can anyone work out why this image isn't displaying?<br> [[Educational Media Awareness Campaign/Physics/POTD 10]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:45, 11 June 2026 (UTC) :Not sure, but it was an issue with the file itself and either way, it should be (and I have since done this) replaced with the SVG [[:File:Telescope-schematic.svg]]. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 13:59, 11 June 2026 (UTC) == New nomination template(s) == I created {{tlx|Nomination}} when someone requests curator or custodian permissions, which often at least require mentorship. On the other hand, I might create {{tlx|Nomination 2}}, in which the latter does not have a section about mentorship (often used for bureaucrat or interface administrator nominations). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:29, 12 June 2026 (UTC) == June 2026 Wikimedia Café meetups regarding the English Wikipedia Editor Reflections project == <div class="border-box" style="background-color: var(--background-color-warning-subtle, #f8eaba); max-width: 875px; padding: 5px; border: 1px solid black; margin: 5px; color: var(--clr-dark)"> <div class="box" style="float:left; padding-top: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-bottom: 10px;">[[File:Wikimedia Café logo in plain SVG format.svg|60px|alt=The logo for the Wikimedia Café]]</div> Hello! There will be two '''[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Wikimedia Café]''' discussion opportunities during the last weekend of June. Both sessions will focus on the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Editor_reflections English Wikipedia Editor Reflections project]. The featured guest in the Café will be [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Clovermoss User:Clovermoss]. Participants may attend either or both sessions. #'''27 June 2026 15:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1782572400 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to the Americas, Africa, and Europe #'''28 June 2026 03:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1782615600 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific Please see the Café page for more information, including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#How_to_attend_the_session how to register]! <br /> [[File:Buntstifte Eberhard Faber crop 64h.jpg|860px|alt=cropped image of colored pencils]]</div> <span style="white-space:nowrap;">[[User:Pine|<span style="color:#01796f; text-shadow:#00BFFF 0 0 1.0em">↠Pine</span>]] [[User talk:Pine|<span style="color:DeepSkyBlue">(<b style="color:#FFDF00;text-shadow:#FFDF00 0 0 1.0em">✉</b>)</span>]]</span> 04:00, 15 June 2026 (UTC) == Mobile friendly main page == Hello, I have recently been using wikiversity on mobile and unlike wikipedia some images and boxes stick out instead of all having a set width which means you can scroll a little side to side, which makes the site feel a bit unfinished. Its just a suggestion but I think it will wake the user experience much better {{unsigned|AUBSTRAWBS}} :{{Ping|AUBSTRAWBS}} I don't use a smartphone. Can you give me more details or even take some screenshots? You can upload them at [[:c:Category:English Wikiversity screenshots]]. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 13:30, 18 June 2026 (UTC) ::Hi i uploaded an image of the problem. Since some of the images are larger than the screen and not adjusted to fit they stick out and makes the page larger which lets you scroll right and have a big white rectangle on the side [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 14:03, 18 June 2026 (UTC) :::Thanks. I agree that this is an issue, but it's a pretty minor-to-moderate one to me and I don't think I will be able to dedicate time to fix it myself. Showing it to others here is useful in case someone else wants to tinker with the CSS to resolve it. Thanks for bringing it to the community's attention. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:42, 18 June 2026 (UTC) ::::I do know CSS as I like to maintain a blog online so I could try and fix it but I don't know if I have the access to do that, would i need to be a curator/ custodian. Alternatively i could edit a sandbox version of the main page and then send it to someone. [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 20:00, 18 June 2026 (UTC) :::::Oh great. There are a lot of draft versions of the main page like [[Wikiversity:Main Page/Draft version 0.2]], so you can make [[Wikiversity:Main Page/Sandbox]] if you want and edit there. If you can tinker it to your liking, I can edit the main page. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:14, 18 June 2026 (UTC) ::::::thank you, i'll check it out [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 22:16, 18 June 2026 (UTC) == Main page titles == Currently, the title says "Wikiversity:Main Page", but in my opinion, it's too basic. I would like to propose changing it with the following options (you may only pick one): # Option 1: Set both [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title]] and [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title-loggedin]] to blank, giving the main page a portal-like design (as with English Wikipedia, English Wikibooks, etc.) # Option 2: Modify [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title]] to <code>Welcome to Wikiversity</code> (for unregistered users), and [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title-loggedin]] to <code><nowiki>Welcome to Wikiversity, $1!</nowiki></code>; the latter would display to me as <code>Welcome to Wikiversity, Codename Noreste!</code> Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:34, 18 June 2026 (UTC) : Pinging @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] and @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] for input above. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:03, 24 June 2026 (UTC) :I'm afraid that I don't have strong feelings on this. Changing to either or staying with the status quo are all fine to me. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:10, 24 June 2026 (UTC) : I like the option of being consistent with Wikipedia and Wikibooks -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:04, 25 June 2026 (UTC) == Wiki x AI preconference day @ Wikimania == There will be a preconference day at Wikimania about [[meta:Artificial_intelligence/2026_Wiki_AI | Wiki AI]]. It will be mostly offline, but there will be at least one hybrid session for demos of community-developed AI tools and workflows. * If you've built something cool, that is a chance to show it off, list it on the gallery of tools in progress, and get feedback. * If you could ask the people shaping AI on the wikis (WMF, tool builders, model trainers, GLAM and policy folks) a question, what would it be? Cheers, <span style="padding:0 2px 0 2px;background-color:white;color:#bbb;">&ndash;[[User:Sj|SJ]][[User Talk:Sj|<span style="color:#ff9900;">+</span>]]</span> 23:12, 20 June 2026 (UTC) and Alaexis<br>{{comment|1=Copied from https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FAssessment%2FUsing_generative_AI&diff=2816357&oldid=2807052}} == RFC about AI-generated content in Wikimedia Commons == You are invited to participate in a [[c:Commons:Requests for comment/Policy update for AI content|request for comment on Wikimedia Commons about a policy update for AI content]]. This may affect files that are uploaded to Wikimedia Commons for use on this project. Thank you. [[m:User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[m:User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]]) 17:12, 23 June 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Codename Noreste@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=30513860 --> == Deployment of Legal and Safety Contacts Link in the Footer of Your Wiki == <section begin="Message"/> '''Legal & Safety Contacts''' Hello community, the Wikimedia Foundation has provided a [[wmf:Special:MyLanguage/Legal:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contact Information|single legal and safety contact page]], to be linked in the footer of your wiki, to ensure access to accurate legal information. This is a regulatory requirement. We have already rolled out links to English, German, Italian, Spanish and other wikis and we will deploy to your wiki soon. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_Legal_and_Safety_Contacts_FAQ|Please read more on the project page]] and leave any comments in this thread or on the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Talk:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contacts FAQ|talk page]]. <section end="Message"/> -- [[User:Sannita (WMF)|User:Sannita (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Sannita (WMF)|talk]]) 13:31, 25 June 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Sannita (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Sannita_(WMF)/Mass_sending_test&oldid=30731267 --> a2xvsnfx40cr1tvuvyuv4s1j5b2fnc1 2817239 2817236 2026-06-29T15:03:49Z VadymTS1 3069057 /* Proposed user group and/or possible policy changes */ 2817239 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikiversity:Colloquium/Header}} <!-- MESSAGES GO BELOW --> == Proposal to rehost Wikinews here == As many of you know, and mentioned here at the Colloquium, our sister project Wikinews recently closed, with all 31 active editions made read-only. [[User:BigKrow]] has asked about the prospect of writing news stories here and I suggested that since we already have [[School:Journalism]] and some resources related to the [[:Category:Journalism|broader topic of journalism]]. I would like to propose that we have continued and indefinite space for {{w|citizen journalism}} by essentially repurposing Wikinews into a sub-project here. The only special infrastructure that Wikinews required was [[:mw:Extension:DynamicPageList]], which was deactivated and caused issues due to a lack of maintenance. I will add this proposal to the site banner, but I recognize that that may be a conflict of interest, so if anyone requests that I remove it, I will. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:30, 14 May 2026 (UTC) :I would like to see this conversation go for at least 30 days to establish a consensus. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:35, 14 May 2026 (UTC) ::A few days shy of 30, it seems obvious that this is not going to pass. So I '''withdraw''' as presumptively '''failed'''. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 07:14, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ===Votes=== *{{support}} as proposer (with BK's inspiration). I think that an ongoing experiment in citizen journalism is a fit and appropriate use of this site. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:35, 14 May 2026 (UTC) *{{support}}, hope to seeing ideas about this, and thank you @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 11:08, 14 May 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} Other than perhaps inflating the total number of pages reported, I see the idea of "practicing journalism" a worthy and relevant activity within the domain of Wikiversity. [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 21:41, 14 May 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} Conditional on development of (a) community guidelines that ensure alignment with Wikiversity's purpose, and (b) clear, nested page-naming structures for projects. More detail below. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:48, 15 May 2026 (UTC) *{{contra}} This proposal doesn't seem interested in expanding educational materials in journalism, but rather in providing space and protection for Wikinews contributors. But this is contrary to the goals of Wikiversity, and I'm not sure it's a good idea, even with regard to WMF. If WMF decides to close a project and another community lets it run on its domain, that's a bit of an undermining of WMF's and the community's decisions. Given that Wikiversity has had several conflicts with other communities and WMF in its history, I'm against it.--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:59, 15 May 2026 (UTC) *{{contra}} This seems like a proposal to continue the mission of WikiNews, but not a proposal specifically to improve Wikiversity. I concur with Juandev's comments. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 20:29, 30 May 2026 (UTC) * {{oppose}} per above. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:05, 1 June 2026 (UTC) *{{oppose}} Wikiversity isn’t Wikinews and it also isn’t a dumping ground for anything not covered by other projects. It was already suggested, rather bafflingly, that Wikinews parasitize Wikipedia as a host. If it were allowed to freeload off of Wikiversity it would simply promote a view I and likely many others have— that Wikiversity (as it currently exists) has no standards and mostly just exists to host subpar content that wouldn’t be tolerated on any other Wikimedia site. Wikinews needs a new, non-Wikimedia host, and Wikiversity needs to get its act together by enforcing a minimum scope and standard for what it allows. --[[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 01:16, 4 June 2026 (UTC) * {{oppose}} per above. Wikiversity<math>\not=</math> Wikinews - not a good idea to mix the scope of projects. --[[User:Bert Niehaus|Bert Niehaus]] ([[User talk:Bert Niehaus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bert Niehaus|contribs]]) 12:03, 8 June 2026 (UTC) * {{abstain}} I will abstain since I'm not an active Wikiversity contributor. But I just feel like Wikinews had a very clear and specific goal of providing news, and Wikiversity is just a different project with different goals. For me, it would be odd to rehost Wikinews here. But please do not count my vote, this is only a comment. --[[User:Antimundo|Antimundo]] ([[User talk:Antimundo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Antimundo|contribs]]) 13:19, 6 June 2026 (UTC) * {{oppose}} Although I think it's a pity that Wikinews is closed. --[[User:Dick Bos|Dick Bos]] ([[User talk:Dick Bos|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dick Bos|contribs]]) 19:06, 8 June 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} In 2018 I initiated [[:Category:Videoconferences on media and democracy]] as a platform for disseminating public affairs events. In 2021 I officially initiated a podcast series on "Media & Democracy" syndicated for the [[w:List of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates|Pacifica radio network]]. In 2024 I converted it from irregular to fortnightly. I think this is all educational and supports the Wikiversity education mission, and I think that "rehost Wikinews here" would be appropriate. (I had some experience with Wikinews a few years ago. I felt it was too tightly controlled: Article submissions went stale, because I could not get official permission to publish and I could not get the information needed to understand what I was supposed to do to obtain the official permission. I would be opposed to rehosting Wikinews here if the policy similarly made it unreasonably difficult for volunteer contributor to get the information needed to meet the journalistic standards imposed by the overworked editors.) {{unsigned|DavidMCEddy}} ===Comments and questions=== :Definitely worthy of discussion, so I have no problem with the proposal in the sitenotice. :Initial questions: :* Does this proposal include importing English Wikinews content e.g., to [[Wikinews]] subpages? :* What are "active editions"? :* How can Wikiversity navigate the concerns that lead to the closure of Wikinews? :* Are any changes to the scope of Wikinews proposed? :* How does [[Wikinews]] fit with the [[Wikiversity:Mission]]? What aligns well? Where might there be tension? :** e.g., I'm not sure that a page like [[User:BigKrow/Manchester City moves two points behind Arsenal]] in and of itself will serve as an educational resource. :-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 05:52, 14 May 2026 (UTC) :* Does this proposal include importing English Wikinews content e.g., to [[Wikinews]] subpages? ::*No, not at this time. :* What are "active editions"? ::*There were 30 other active editions of Wikinews in addition to English (e.g. [[:n:es:]]) at the time of universal closure (2026-05-04). :* How can Wikiversity navigate the concerns that lead to the closure of Wikinews? ::*One of the biggest issues was the problems with DPL, which is now irrelevant. Another was the lack of activity, which can be ameliorated by having it be part of an existing project instead of its own domain (e.g. some editions of Wikipedia host their own Wikinews already and those projects were not impacted by the closure). :* Are any changes to the scope of Wikinews proposed? ::*Not at this juncture. I would also propose as far as implemention goes that we would request a new namespace and that the material be more-or-less sequestered into its own ongoing project, like Wikijournal is or like the Cookbook and Wikijunior are at our sister [[:b:]]. :* How does [[Wikinews]] fit with the [[Wikiversity:Mission]]? What aligns well? Where might there be tension? :** e.g., I'm not sure that a page like [[Story/Manchester City moves two points behind Arsenal]] in and of itself will serve as an educational resource. ::*The process of citizen journalists practicing their craft in real-time and collaborating with others to do so is itself an education activity. We would essentially be hosting a real-time experiment in citizen journalism, online communities, and collaborative learning in addition to the prospect of spreading educational information from someone actually reading the news. I would propose that we could also make a more deliberate attempt to engage with learning <em>about</em> what does and doesn't work with collaborative news writing by experimentation (e.g. audio news, syndicating to other sites, incorporating freely-licensed news from other sources, writing hyper-local news, writing briefs versus longer-term reportage) and also seeing if the problems noted in the Task Force report that recommended closure can be overcome. Note that we have already done some local investigation about and learning about wiki-based journalism on Wikinews here at [[Journalism studies and Wikinews]]. We could continue that learning and refine the process, including incorporating journalism students from universities. As for tensions, Wikinews is the only sister project that must be done with a quick turn-around: if you take a long time to [[:s:|transcribe a book]], that's just how long it takes, but if you take a long time to write news, it ceases to be news entirely. Wikiversity has been a very slow-growing project that has definitely had some successes but has generally come together over a long period with most learning resources being individual passion projects (or sometimes, frankly, crankery) which would not work with collaborative news that requires more than just a single editor writing whatever he feels like. ::Please let me know any other questions/concerns and any other editors feel free to give your own perspective. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 06:13, 14 May 2026 (UTC) :::Thanks, Justin — it is food for thought. :::In attempting to understand how we've arrived here, I've summarised some of the background on this page: [[Wikinews]]. :::Perhaps it could be helpful to flesh out more of the vision / ideas / possibilities / challenges on that page? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:49, 14 May 2026 (UTC) :::*Having given it some thought, in principle, I support hosting [[citizen journalism]] on Wikiversity where it is clearly connected to a learning project and/or constitutes original research, both of which align strongly with [[Wikiversity:Mission|Wikiversity’s educational mission]]. :::*My chief concern is the potential for news content that is not clearly linked to the purpose of Wikiversity. To avoid this, some community-agreed guidelines would be prudent. These need not be overly restrictive; they should support boldness and experimentation while helping ensure alignment with Wikiversity's purpose. :::*Given the reported low and declining activity on Wikinews, it seems unlikely that English Wikiversity would be overwhelmed by an influx of news-related editing. My impression is that English Wikinews was the most active edition, but even so, many contributors are likely to disperse to other projects or cease editing altogether. A modest migration of interested editors to Wikiversity seems manageable. :::*At this stage, I do not think a dedicated namespace is necessary. Subpages under [[Wikinews]] or nested pages under relevant learning or research projects, or user-space draft pages should be suitable. I agree that [[Wikijournal]] offers a useful model, as do several existing course structures on Wikiversity. :::*I support [[User:Koavf]]’s suggestions about framing Wikinews activity explicitly around learning. This would create a distinctive space for experimenting with collaborative news production in ways that are pedagogically meaningful. I agree that the [[journalism studies and Wikinews]] project developed by David and Leigh Blackall through the University of Wollongong is an excellent example of the intersection between Wikiversity and Wikinews. The [[Wikinews]] page could evolve into a hub for such projects. :::*I've tidied the [[:Category:Wikinews|Wikinews category]] and merged some content into the [[Wikinews]] page. As part of a reinvigoration effort, please review these and related resources such as [[:Category:Journalism]] and [[School:Journalism]]. :::*A further argument in favour of this initiative is that Wikipedia explicitly excludes both news reporting and original research. So, there is value in maintaining spaces within the Wikimedia ecosystem where these forms of knowledge production can be openly developed and curated. Such work can, in turn, generate valuable evidence and source material that may later inform Wikipedia articles. :::*The closure of WMF-hosted Wikinews does not imply that open wiki-based news curation lacks value. Indeed, the closure documentation appears supportive of experimentation with alternative news models across Wikimedia projects, including through Wikipedia and Wikidata. In that context, Wikiversity seems a natural home for a Wikinews experiment, provided it is clearly grounded in learning and/or research. :::-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:39, 15 May 2026 (UTC) My understanding towards Wikinews' failure is that everything takes too long to be approved for the publish status, which means that any breaking news would have already become days-old stale news. Wikinews has a brand recognition (for right or wrong reasons) than Wikiversity and I wonder how effective Wikiversity can attract the "Wikinews refugees" to edit here. And just a quick note on the governance. Since each Wikiversity language operates independently, each language has to vote & adopt this proposal independently. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 13:47, 15 May 2026 (UTC) :Your assessment about Wikinews is partially correct. I referenced it earlier, but to be explicit, there is a [[:m:Proposal for Closing Wikinews|report by a task force on sister projects]] that outlines their concerns. There are a few, one of which was the nature of the staleness of news. Thanks also for clarifying that this proposal is only relevant to en.wv and is not binding or even proposed for other editions of Wikiversity. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:54, 15 May 2026 (UTC) *Note: I am not a regular here, and just visit Wikiversity for the WikiJournal project. Challenges of Wikinews included that it required timely reporting and fact-checking processes which differed greatly from the well-established ones in Wikipedia. Here in Wikiversity, there is the WikiJournal project, and that can take some some forms of journalism, just not breaking news reporting. I am in favor of salvaging parts of Wikinews if helpful. Could it, would it be feasible to adapt Wikijournal to accept some forms of news journalism, but just not the timed news reporting? For example, WikiJournal already is doing conference proceedings, and could likely do related event reports even months after the event ended. It could probably accept long-form investigative reporting, which is a sort of news that is not breaking news. I am not sure what the possibilities are, but I would prefer to build up systems that already work rather than import systems which had problems elsewhere. Thanks. [[User:Bluerasberry|<span style="background:#cedff2;color:#11e">''' Blue Rasberry '''</span>]][[User talk:Bluerasberry|<span style="cursor:help"><span style="background:#cedff2;color:#11e">(talk)</span></span>]] 19:17, 22 May 2026 (UTC) *:I agree that there are certain kinds of journalism that are perfectly valid and not time-bound like breaking news reporting, so that won't suffer from the issues noted before. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 21:15, 22 May 2026 (UTC) *::@[[User:Bluerasberry|Bluerasberry]] WikiJournal is not interested in taking on news journalism. WikiJournal is publishing conference proceedings at the request of some Wikimedian educators, and conference proceedings is what a "regular" journal publishes. News journalism is quite different from this, and if WikiJournal starts to deviate towards publishing news journalism, it will create barrier towards future initiatives like being indexed in Medline or Web of Science, and may risk being delisted from Scopus. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 22:43, 5 June 2026 (UTC) *:::Thats a good point. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:09, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == Create an autopatrolled user group? == {{tracked|T428269|resolved}} I would like to propose creating the user group <code>autopatrolled</code> (autopatrolled user), in which for non-curators and non-custodians, their page creations and file uploads would be automatically marked as patrolled by the MediaWiki software. Custodians may grant the user group, at their discretion, to users who create good quality pages that do not need frequent patrolling. On a side note, the term {{tq|autopatroller}} would be used, but because we don't have non-curator/custodian patrollers (as we rely on curators and custodians to patrol), I suggest on using the term {{tq|autopatrolled user}}. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:31, 29 May 2026 (UTC) :'''Support''' re: the name, I don't really understand the reasoning, so I am '''neutral''' on that. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:45, 29 May 2026 (UTC) :: Regarding the name, this is because as we don't have the patroller user group, we rely on curators and custodians to patrol new pages and file uploads. Does that make sense? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:39, 29 May 2026 (UTC) :::Not really, but I don't think it's the most important thing. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:42, 29 May 2026 (UTC) :::: We'll decide on the name later. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:48, 30 May 2026 (UTC) :::::Oh, please don't let me stand in the way. I'm just not very smart, so don't hold up a matter on my account. I didn't want to derail the proposal, which is a fine and sensible one. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 04:16, 30 May 2026 (UTC) : '''Support''' - sounds like a good idea :* Suggest adding a draft section about this group to [[Wikiversity:Patrolling]]. There is a statement in the Introduction of the page that I'm not sure if its correct and at least could be improved: "Wikiversity also uses an autopatrol right, meaning trusted users' contributions are automatically marked as checked so patrollers can focus on reviewing newer or anonymous editors." :* Regarding autopatroller vs autropatrolled user, what terms are used on similar WMF wiki projects? : -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:28, 30 May 2026 (UTC) ::# I would create a starting page about the user groups, with experienced editors expanding the page. A summarized part of that page would also be added to [[Wikiversity:Patrolling]]. ::# For a similar example, English Wikipedia uses the term {{tq|Autopatrolled}}, just that term only. :: [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:22, 30 May 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] and @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]: the autopatroller user group has been implemented here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:14, 8 June 2026 (UTC) ::Thanks. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 07:13, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == How much of Wikiversity’s content is LLM slop? == Because it seems like a non-trivial amount, along with AI slop images as well. Is there some kind of AI cleanup project established yet? [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 01:20, 4 June 2026 (UTC) :We have discussed AI but I don't know of any explicit initiative to find and delete AI-generated noise. Individual modules have been deleted for having been made by AI. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 08:50, 4 June 2026 (UTC) :Recently agreed [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|policy]] welcome users to tag AI generated pages. Me personally I am not against the use of AI. What is the difference in abstract schematic image created by a human and the same by an AI. If the users does not have finances to pay digital artest and you dont want to let them use AI, would you pay the artest for them? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:07, 8 June 2026 (UTC) ::Wikimedia has a lot of ''volunteer'' artists who can illustrate if asked. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 08:11, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :::Interesting! That's good to know. Where can we find the volunteer artists for illustrating? [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 20:11, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::::Wikimedia commons has [[commons:Commons:Graphic Lab/Illustration workshop]] [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 02:18, 10 June 2026 (UTC) == Draft inactivity policy == I created [[Wikiversity:Inactivity policy]] as a start. Any experienced Wikiversity user may feel free to expand it. This is also one-to-two step(s) towards opting out of the [[m:Admin activity review|AAR process]]. However, I made a bold change to reduce the response timeframe from one month to two weeks. In addition, should we reduce the inactivity timeframe to one year? For the latter, most projects use that timeframe and I suggested this for consistency. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:57, 4 June 2026 (UTC) :I support those suggestions. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:55, 4 June 2026 (UTC) : Juandev has posted some comments on the [[Wikiversity talk:Inactivity policy|talk page]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:30, 12 June 2026 (UTC) == Proposed user group and/or possible policy changes == {{tracked|T430416|fixed}} I want to discuss about user group and possible policy changes. # First, interface administrators. I don't think we should allow interface administrators to remove their permission from their own account, since we have multiple active bureaucrats and we can ask them to remove the permission when done, or for them to add a temporary grant. This is according to the [[Wikiversity:IA|current IA policy]]. I also left [[Wikiversity talk:Interface administrators#My thoughts about this user group|my thoughts on the relevant talk page]]. # Second, curators. Given that curators have some sensitive custodian rights (such as <code>delete</code> [but not <code>undelete</code> or similar rights that allow viewing deleted content, unless the curatorship process is RFA-like] and <code>protect</code>), it would probably make more sense only for bureaucrats to grant and remove it, on par with them granting (but not removing) custodian permissions. # Third, about probationary custodians. [[Wikiversity:Probationary custodians]] is currently marked as historical, and the process might still exist on [[Wikiversity:Custodianship]]. Therefore, to maintain consistency with [[Wikiversity:Curatorship#How does one become a curator?]], I propose that we repeal the probationary custodianship process and change it more or less to align with the curatorship process, effectively making probationary custodians permanent ones. However, custodian mentors would still be retained. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:55, 5 June 2026 (UTC) :#Yes, I agree. :#Thats a good point, but I dont know. At least I dont think its a good idea that both groups i.e. crats and custodiants can do that, it may create chaos. :#Another good point. It seems to me that the current situation is somewhat unclear and should be clarified. I understand the original status of [[Wikiversity:Probationary custodians|Probationary custodians]] as a historicall and invalid, but at the same time I consider myself a probationary custodian, because on the Wikiversity:Custodianship page in the ''[[Wikiversity:Custodianship#How does one become a custodian?|How does one become a custodian?]]'' section it says, I quote, ''"II ...then you will be approved as a probationary custodian for a period of at least four weeks"''. :::Mentors should definitely be kept, but for certain applicants the probation and mentorship should be abolished. For example, if someone was an active custodian for 5 years, then loses their rights or gives them up for a year and then wants to resume their custodial activities, there is no reason for them to undergo a training period. It burdens both the mentors and the community with double voting. The only exception could be a situation where policies or tools for custodians change significantly during that year, or the candidate wants to. :[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 06:08, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == New user what do I do here == I love wikipedia and the wikiversity project seems super interesting. However I know very little about wikiversity and would like to know how i can best contribute to the project. Also if there are forums or discord or reddit that would be very helpful. (One last thing is it normal that my userboxes don't work here) {{unsigned|AUBSTRAWBS}} :Hey {{ping|AUBSTRAWBS}} Welcome to Wikiversity! I've left a welcome message on your talk page so that should provide you a plethora of useful links for you to look at so you can familiarize yourself with the project. Also, feel free to create the userboxes you need. Wikiversity doesn't have as many userboxes as Wikipedia. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 21:45, 8 June 2026 (UTC) :Thank you very much :) hope to contribute a lot. [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 21:50, 8 June 2026 (UTC) == Towards an Ethics policy == In connection with the [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Removal of Wikidebates|discussion of Wikidebates]], I said that it would be good to establish a policy on ethics, or rather a boundary between ethical and unethical content, so that we don't have to discuss individual cases. In addition, today we also have some global policies that prohibit, for example, attacks on members of the Wikimedia movement or undermining other projects. However, at the very beginning, I would start by collecting your opinions. What content or what research should not be allowed on Wikiversity? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 05:52, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :One ethical issue that I think should be non-controversial is related to good faith in the learning modules. So, learning materials should not be hoaxes or encourage behavior or methods that don't work or that misrepresent the facts or the likelihood of something occurring, etc. and authors should also not plagiarize or misrepresent authorship, etc. That was quite a run-on, but I hope that others can tease out what I mean here. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 07:39, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::I look at it from a practical perspective. We can give that to the policy, but I see the problem in that we are not able to check it except plagiarism. ::Plagiarism can be partially detected during patrolling. I see a new text, I put part of it in Google and I check if it is copied from the web. It is a problem with copying from books or other offline sources, but sometimes it happens that someone finds out that something is copied from somewhere and it can be deleted. ::The biggest issue we have here is that we are missing Wikipedia's control mechanism: references. Only some types of resources on Wikiversity require references. In-line references are not often used in courses, exercises, lectures, etc. We are thus deprived of one of the excellent control mechanisms and the only option is for the increase in the number of members with various qualifications to check it for their colleagues. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:59, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :::Having a policy and enforcing that policy are indeed two different things. If we are only concerned with issues that we can definitively enforce, then that will definitely change this conversation. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 08:06, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::::ok [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 15:55, 13 June 2026 (UTC) :AI generated content should not be allowed as it is inherently plagiarism. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 08:14, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::And if the user mention it was generated by an AI? Note that there is something called as public domain, that is the author wave its rights. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:53, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :::Plagiarism isn’t copyright violation. Crediting the AI is not crediting the authors the AI stole from without credit. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 10:18, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::::I see, now I understand your point. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 15:56, 13 June 2026 (UTC) == Deployment of Legal and Safety Contacts Link in the Footer of Your Wiki == Hello community, The Wikimedia Foundation has provided [[foundation:Legal:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contact Information|a single legal and safety contact page]], to be linked in the footer of your wiki, to ensure access to accurate legal information. This is a regulatory requirement. We have already rolled out links to English, German, Italian, Spanish Wikipedias and other wikis and we will deploy to your wiki soon. Please [[m:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contacts FAQ|read more on the project page]] and leave any comments in this thread or on [[m:Talk:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contacts FAQ|the talk page]]. –– [[User:STei (WMF)|STei (WMF)]] ([[User talk:STei (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/STei (WMF)|contribs]]) 18:12, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :Thanks for the notice. In case anyone is not clear, we cannot locally change the text at the footer, as it [[:mw:Manual:Footer|requires access to the server settings]]. If we locally needed to change it, we would have to file a ticket at [[:phab:]]. Since the above was sent by someone from the WMF, I think they are on it and it will be updated without any action from anyone here. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:24, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == Image not displaying == Can anyone work out why this image isn't displaying?<br> [[Educational Media Awareness Campaign/Physics/POTD 10]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:45, 11 June 2026 (UTC) :Not sure, but it was an issue with the file itself and either way, it should be (and I have since done this) replaced with the SVG [[:File:Telescope-schematic.svg]]. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 13:59, 11 June 2026 (UTC) == New nomination template(s) == I created {{tlx|Nomination}} when someone requests curator or custodian permissions, which often at least require mentorship. On the other hand, I might create {{tlx|Nomination 2}}, in which the latter does not have a section about mentorship (often used for bureaucrat or interface administrator nominations). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:29, 12 June 2026 (UTC) == June 2026 Wikimedia Café meetups regarding the English Wikipedia Editor Reflections project == <div class="border-box" style="background-color: var(--background-color-warning-subtle, #f8eaba); max-width: 875px; padding: 5px; border: 1px solid black; margin: 5px; color: var(--clr-dark)"> <div class="box" style="float:left; padding-top: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-bottom: 10px;">[[File:Wikimedia Café logo in plain SVG format.svg|60px|alt=The logo for the Wikimedia Café]]</div> Hello! There will be two '''[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Wikimedia Café]''' discussion opportunities during the last weekend of June. Both sessions will focus on the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Editor_reflections English Wikipedia Editor Reflections project]. The featured guest in the Café will be [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Clovermoss User:Clovermoss]. Participants may attend either or both sessions. #'''27 June 2026 15:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1782572400 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to the Americas, Africa, and Europe #'''28 June 2026 03:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1782615600 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific Please see the Café page for more information, including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#How_to_attend_the_session how to register]! <br /> [[File:Buntstifte Eberhard Faber crop 64h.jpg|860px|alt=cropped image of colored pencils]]</div> <span style="white-space:nowrap;">[[User:Pine|<span style="color:#01796f; text-shadow:#00BFFF 0 0 1.0em">↠Pine</span>]] [[User talk:Pine|<span style="color:DeepSkyBlue">(<b style="color:#FFDF00;text-shadow:#FFDF00 0 0 1.0em">✉</b>)</span>]]</span> 04:00, 15 June 2026 (UTC) == Mobile friendly main page == Hello, I have recently been using wikiversity on mobile and unlike wikipedia some images and boxes stick out instead of all having a set width which means you can scroll a little side to side, which makes the site feel a bit unfinished. Its just a suggestion but I think it will wake the user experience much better {{unsigned|AUBSTRAWBS}} :{{Ping|AUBSTRAWBS}} I don't use a smartphone. Can you give me more details or even take some screenshots? You can upload them at [[:c:Category:English Wikiversity screenshots]]. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 13:30, 18 June 2026 (UTC) ::Hi i uploaded an image of the problem. Since some of the images are larger than the screen and not adjusted to fit they stick out and makes the page larger which lets you scroll right and have a big white rectangle on the side [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 14:03, 18 June 2026 (UTC) :::Thanks. I agree that this is an issue, but it's a pretty minor-to-moderate one to me and I don't think I will be able to dedicate time to fix it myself. Showing it to others here is useful in case someone else wants to tinker with the CSS to resolve it. Thanks for bringing it to the community's attention. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:42, 18 June 2026 (UTC) ::::I do know CSS as I like to maintain a blog online so I could try and fix it but I don't know if I have the access to do that, would i need to be a curator/ custodian. Alternatively i could edit a sandbox version of the main page and then send it to someone. [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 20:00, 18 June 2026 (UTC) :::::Oh great. There are a lot of draft versions of the main page like [[Wikiversity:Main Page/Draft version 0.2]], so you can make [[Wikiversity:Main Page/Sandbox]] if you want and edit there. If you can tinker it to your liking, I can edit the main page. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:14, 18 June 2026 (UTC) ::::::thank you, i'll check it out [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 22:16, 18 June 2026 (UTC) == Main page titles == Currently, the title says "Wikiversity:Main Page", but in my opinion, it's too basic. I would like to propose changing it with the following options (you may only pick one): # Option 1: Set both [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title]] and [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title-loggedin]] to blank, giving the main page a portal-like design (as with English Wikipedia, English Wikibooks, etc.) # Option 2: Modify [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title]] to <code>Welcome to Wikiversity</code> (for unregistered users), and [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title-loggedin]] to <code><nowiki>Welcome to Wikiversity, $1!</nowiki></code>; the latter would display to me as <code>Welcome to Wikiversity, Codename Noreste!</code> Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:34, 18 June 2026 (UTC) : Pinging @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] and @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] for input above. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:03, 24 June 2026 (UTC) :I'm afraid that I don't have strong feelings on this. Changing to either or staying with the status quo are all fine to me. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:10, 24 June 2026 (UTC) : I like the option of being consistent with Wikipedia and Wikibooks -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:04, 25 June 2026 (UTC) == Wiki x AI preconference day @ Wikimania == There will be a preconference day at Wikimania about [[meta:Artificial_intelligence/2026_Wiki_AI | Wiki AI]]. It will be mostly offline, but there will be at least one hybrid session for demos of community-developed AI tools and workflows. * If you've built something cool, that is a chance to show it off, list it on the gallery of tools in progress, and get feedback. * If you could ask the people shaping AI on the wikis (WMF, tool builders, model trainers, GLAM and policy folks) a question, what would it be? Cheers, <span style="padding:0 2px 0 2px;background-color:white;color:#bbb;">&ndash;[[User:Sj|SJ]][[User Talk:Sj|<span style="color:#ff9900;">+</span>]]</span> 23:12, 20 June 2026 (UTC) and Alaexis<br>{{comment|1=Copied from https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FAssessment%2FUsing_generative_AI&diff=2816357&oldid=2807052}} == RFC about AI-generated content in Wikimedia Commons == You are invited to participate in a [[c:Commons:Requests for comment/Policy update for AI content|request for comment on Wikimedia Commons about a policy update for AI content]]. This may affect files that are uploaded to Wikimedia Commons for use on this project. Thank you. [[m:User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[m:User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]]) 17:12, 23 June 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Codename Noreste@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=30513860 --> == Deployment of Legal and Safety Contacts Link in the Footer of Your Wiki == <section begin="Message"/> '''Legal & Safety Contacts''' Hello community, the Wikimedia Foundation has provided a [[wmf:Special:MyLanguage/Legal:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contact Information|single legal and safety contact page]], to be linked in the footer of your wiki, to ensure access to accurate legal information. This is a regulatory requirement. We have already rolled out links to English, German, Italian, Spanish and other wikis and we will deploy to your wiki soon. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_Legal_and_Safety_Contacts_FAQ|Please read more on the project page]] and leave any comments in this thread or on the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Talk:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contacts FAQ|talk page]]. <section end="Message"/> -- [[User:Sannita (WMF)|User:Sannita (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Sannita (WMF)|talk]]) 13:31, 25 June 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Sannita (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Sannita_(WMF)/Mass_sending_test&oldid=30731267 --> j4dz10gp9zm7mowuc2oi2g5nq1m1ieq 0 23334 2817354 2465562 2026-06-30T02:41:40Z Ypp22 3097956 Minor changes. Added link to Wikibooks and link to russianlessons.net which is a very helpful site in learning Russian if you do not believe me there is a subreddit for learning Russian which I will link here https://www.reddit.com/r/russian/ which recommends using this incredible website to learn Russian 2817354 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Ruština_ve_světě.svg|frameless|upright=1.5|right]] Russian refers to anything related to Russia, including people, language, and culture.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Russian]]</ref> ==Resources== {{Subpages/List}} ==Recommended Reading== * Schaum's Outline of Russian Grammar * Barron's 501 Russian Verbs * The New Penguin Russian Course ==See Also== * [[Wikipedia: Russian]] * [[Wikibooks: Russian]] * https://www.russianlessons.net == References == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Russian]] [[Category:Language learning portals]] tnplcamkrciawnrlikh294kpr0xrc7o 0 60198 2817227 2816292 2026-06-29T12:40:51Z Jumma123 3076625 /* Multimedia */ 2817227 wikitext text/x-wiki {{:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/Sidebar}} '''Typing''' is the process of entering or inputting text by pressing keys on a typewriter, computer keyboard, mobile phone, or calculator.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Typing]]</ref> Learners should practice typing for fifteen minutes each day until their typing speed is at least 30 words per minute. == Multimedia == * [https://www.typing.com/student/lessons Typing.com: Learn to Type] * [https://monkeytype.com/ Monkeytype] * [https://rapidfinger.com RapidFinger Typing Test] == Activities == * Complete the [https://www.typing.com/student/lessons Typing.com lessons.] * Use [https://monkeytype.com/ Monkeytype.com] , and practice typing daily until you can reach 30 words per minute consistently. == See Also == * [[Elementary Typing]] * [[Introduction_to_Computers/Input_Devices |Input Devices]] * [[Wikipedia: Typing]] == References == {{reflist}} {{subpage navbar}} {{CourseCat}} [[Category:Computer Skills]] [[Category:Typing]] [[Category:Completed resources]] gaqjr6hrifvluzfh3427a8kfrxlwrz6 5 62711 2817357 2688613 2026-06-30T04:54:31Z Amz.bizistech 3097971 /* How Wikiversity Supports Free Online Learning for Everyone */ new section 2817357 wikitext text/x-wiki Added a frame and a caption to the screenshot for better usability, as I noticed that it was not obviously an image when the article is browsed quickly. I got confused at first, until I read the text above it. Couldn't get the image width to work for some reason, needs to be fixed. ==remark: explain that it's global right at begin== was logged out and got presented: "Why create a Wikiversity account? Not logged in. Please log in to view or edit items on your watchlist." I was wondering why restrict this account to WV only? when there is right there told it is a global account, it could be more activating. Anyways, later... ----[[User:Erkan_Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] <small>uses the [[Wikiversity:Chat]] + [[Identi.ca]]</small> 01:31, 9 May 2011 (UTC) 大FAS == Wikiversity == Wikiversity is a Wikimedia Foundation project that supports learning communities, their learning materials, and resulting activities. It differs from Wikipedia in that it offers tutorials and other materials for the fostering of learning, rather than an encyclopedia; like Wikipedia, it is available in many languages. [[User:Butterfly Florist|Butterfly Florist]] ([[User talk:Butterfly Florist|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Butterfly Florist|contribs]]) 06:26, 20 September 2022 (UTC) It offers tutorials [[User:Butterfly Florist|Butterfly Florist]] ([[User talk:Butterfly Florist|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Butterfly Florist|contribs]]) 07:47, 27 September 2022 (UTC) == The importance of having a wikiversity account == Nothing [[User:Butterfly Florist|Butterfly Florist]] ([[User talk:Butterfly Florist|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Butterfly Florist|contribs]]) 06:47, 27 September 2022 (UTC) == How Wikiversity Supports Free Online Learning for Everyone == Wikiversity is a free online learning platform that offers educational resources for students, teachers, and self-learners. It provides courses, study materials, and research projects across many subjects like science, technology, languages, and social studies. Unlike traditional learning websites, Wikiversity is community-driven, meaning users can create and improve content together. This makes learning more flexible and open for everyone around the world. Platforms like Wikiversity show how education is becoming more accessible online. Even websites like bizistech use similar simple and helpful content styles to improve learning and understanding for users. [[User:Amz.bizistech|Amz.bizistech]] ([[User talk:Amz.bizistech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Amz.bizistech|contribs]]) 04:54, 30 June 2026 (UTC) evziawhsz40a44xu7fcjheijubpvib5 2817385 2817357 2026-06-30T11:48:31Z Atcovi 276019 Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/Amz.bizistech|Amz.bizistech]] ([[User_talk:Amz.bizistech|talk]]) to last version by [[User:Divinations|Divinations]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]] 2688613 wikitext text/x-wiki Added a frame and a caption to the screenshot for better usability, as I noticed that it was not obviously an image when the article is browsed quickly. I got confused at first, until I read the text above it. Couldn't get the image width to work for some reason, needs to be fixed. ==remark: explain that it's global right at begin== was logged out and got presented: "Why create a Wikiversity account? Not logged in. Please log in to view or edit items on your watchlist." I was wondering why restrict this account to WV only? when there is right there told it is a global account, it could be more activating. Anyways, later... ----[[User:Erkan_Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] <small>uses the [[Wikiversity:Chat]] + [[Identi.ca]]</small> 01:31, 9 May 2011 (UTC) 大FAS == Wikiversity == Wikiversity is a Wikimedia Foundation project that supports learning communities, their learning materials, and resulting activities. It differs from Wikipedia in that it offers tutorials and other materials for the fostering of learning, rather than an encyclopedia; like Wikipedia, it is available in many languages. [[User:Butterfly Florist|Butterfly Florist]] ([[User talk:Butterfly Florist|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Butterfly Florist|contribs]]) 06:26, 20 September 2022 (UTC) It offers tutorials [[User:Butterfly Florist|Butterfly Florist]] ([[User talk:Butterfly Florist|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Butterfly Florist|contribs]]) 07:47, 27 September 2022 (UTC) == The importance of having a wikiversity account == Nothing [[User:Butterfly Florist|Butterfly Florist]] ([[User talk:Butterfly Florist|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Butterfly Florist|contribs]]) 06:47, 27 September 2022 (UTC) 7uiuyaaluiur117wwf5xwovq1b0tmxs 0 85559 2817328 1603996 2026-06-29T19:52:45Z ~2026-37233-31 3097908 2817328 wikitext text/x-wiki This area of Wikiversity is for learning, teaching, and research related to '''euthanasia'''. ==Discussions== [http://www2.norwich.edu/jorlando/Personal/Web_Pages/NYT_Katrina_Memorial_Medical_Center_Article.doc NYT Katrina Memorial Medical Center]--[[User:JohnOrlando|JohnOrlando]] 18:30, 4 September 2009 (UTC) As the floodwaters were rising in New Orleans, a doctor and some nurses at a medical center in New Orleans killed 17 patients. Can the AMA justify calling them "heroes" for participating in non-voluntary euthanasia while at the same time condemning voluntary euthanasia? Take a look at the article about the incident in the New York Times. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090912081354/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2009826571_webdeaths09m.html Washington State Death with Dignity Law Update]--[[User:JohnOrlando|JohnOrlando]] 12:13, 9 September 2009 (UTC) Initiative 1000 went into effect in March, 2009. As of August, 2009, the state reports that 16 people were issued drugs for death who eventually died. One organization said that 5 of those people died of natural causes, meaning that 11 people used the law in six months. [http://www2.norwich.edu/jorlando/Personal/Web_Pages/Suicide_Death.pdf Suicide Death] Sean Paz sent me this very interesting article from England about a group of doctors that allowed a woman to die at her request. This in itself is not interesting; it's widely accepted that a competent patient should be allowed to refuse even life-saving medical treatment. What makes this case interesting is the reason for her death; the woman drank an overdose in order to kill herself, and left a note asking doctors not to save her. This is the first time I know of where an otherwise '''healthy''' patient has been allowed to die from suicide. The question is: Is this situation akin to a DNR order on an elderly patient, which we think is morally '''permissible'''? In other words, is there a morally '''relevant''' difference between this case and morally '''permissible''' cases of allowing a patient to die? ==See also== * [[Suicide]] ==External links== *[http://www2.norwich.edu/jorlando/Personal/Web_Pages/Withholding_Treatment_Outline_Fall_2009.doc Withholding Treatment Outline Fall 2009] [Dead Link] *[http://www2.norwich.edu/jorlando/Personal/Web_Pages/Withholding_Treatment_Cases_Fall_2009.docx Withholding Treatment Cases Outline Fall 2009] [Dead Link] *[http://www2.norwich.edu/jorlando/Personal/Web_Pages/Euthanasia.m4v Euthanasia Lecture Fall 2009] [Dead Link] *[http://www2.norwich.edu/jorlando/Personal/Web_Pages/Terminal_Sedation_NYT.docx Terminal Sedation] [Dead Link] Interesting article on the ethics of terminal sedation *[http://www2.norwich.edu/jorlando/Personal/Web_Pages/End_of_life_Comfort.docx End of Life Comfort] [Dead Link] A NYT article on Palliative Care. [[Category:Euthanasia]] chgmpd1vpxr5e9noz7fz43csl4jhoa6 0 91973 2817248 2792541 2026-06-29T15:56:54Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Credits */ 2817248 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting Activity: Multilingual school reality == Imagine you are a teacher in a school, in which there are students from diverse backgrounds. For example, Sofia speaks Spanish with her family and she sometimes uses Spanish in class while the language of schooling is different. Another student, Omar, speaks Arabic at home but never uses Arabic at school. You also suspect that there may be more students in your class with -other than the language of schooling- languages that you might not be aware of.  You are interested in finding out more about your students’ language repertoires and cultural backgrounds and embrace them. * What challenges do you think Sofia and Omar might face regarding their languages? * What can you, as a teacher, do to explore and promote your students’ languages and support them in maintaining and developing them? * How can you create a classroom environment where students feel proud of their languages? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you should be able to: * recognise what heritage languages are, as well as other related terms * develop awareness of the importance of heritage languages * develop awareness of different forms and structures of heritage language education == Keywords == Heritage language, language identity, minority language, heritage language education, language revitalization == Introduction == In today’s increasingly multilingual societies, individuals grow up with and use multiple languages. Languages spoken at home can differ from the dominant languages of the wider society These languages often carry deep personal, cultural, and familial meanings, and their role in classrooms and communities raises important questions about identity and inclusion. The development and promotion of heritage languages can be significantly influenced by the ways educational systems recognize and support students' multilingual backgrounds. == Definition == Heritage language speakers and learners have diverse profiles and there are many different contexts in which they use their language resources. Therefore the concept of Heritage Language (HL) is not easy to define. Generally, a HL is understood as a non-majority language spoken by individuals who have been exposed to it at home or in their community and have varying levels of proficiency in it (Valdés, 2001). The term 'heritage language' is used to identify any languages other than the dominant language(s) in a given social context <ref>http://www.cal.org/heritage/index.html</ref> Other researchers defined the term heritage language as the language associated with one's cultural background and it may or may not be spoken in the home <ref>Cho, G., Cho, K.-S., & Tse, L. (1997). Why ethnic minorities need to develop their heritage language: The case of Korean Americans. Language, Culture, and Curriculum, 10, 106-112.</ref>. Valdés (2001) provided three main criteria to identify heritage language learners, classifying as individuals who: * are raised in homes where a non-English language is spoken * speak or merely understand the heritage language * are to some degree bilingual in English and the heritage language The degree of heritage language fluency, proficiency, cultural background, connection or knowledge are widely varied among students. HL speakers often have a personal, cultural, or historical connection to the language, regardless of their actual linguistic competence (Gounari, 2014). The range of definitions for “HL speaker/user” can therefore be large and can vary from a very narrow to very broad meaning. It has been suggested that the term 'heritage language' cannot be identified in a static, definitive sense; rather, it is more a metaphor in relation to the structuring of attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions that enable or constrain linguistic practices (Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003)<ref name="VDS">Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003) Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 2 (3), 211-230</ref>. Two examples could be: * Kim was born in the U.S. to Korean immigrant parents. She was exposed to Korean at home but often responded in English. She can understand conversational Korean fairly well but finds it difficult to speak it and cannot read or write in the language. Nevertheless, she  identifies with Korean culture and traditions * Luc was born in Austria to French-speaking parents from Belgium. His family spoke mostly French at home. He attended the Lycée Français in Vienna. Also they often visited relatives in Brussels. Luc uses French fluently in everyday life and often switches between French and German. Both examples illustrate how the term "HL speaker/user" can be understood in different ways. The term HL is therefore sensitive to a variety of interpretations within social, political, regional, and national contexts. Critical views on the use of the term heritage language have challenged the label 'heritage language' itself some of them regarding it as extremely negative -even offensive- and others as counterproductive (Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003) <ref name="VDS" />. It is also criticised for pointing more to the past and less to the future, to traditions rather to the contemporary risking to become associated with ancient cultures, past traditions and more "primitive times" and so may fail to give the impression of a modern language that is of value in a technological society (Baker & Jones, 1998)<ref>Baker, C. & Jones, S.P. (1998). Encyclopedial of bilingualism and bilingual education. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.</ref>. Despite the term heritage language, heritage language speaker, and heritage language learner are gaining currency <ref>Wiley, T. (2001). On defining heritage languages and their speakers. In Kreeft Payton, D. Ranard, & S. McGinnis (Eds.). Heritage languages in America. Preserving a national resource (pp. 29-36). Washington DC: Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems.</ref>, the concept remains sensitive to a variety of interpretations within a social, political, regional, and national contexts <ref name="VDS">Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003) Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 2 (3), 211-230</ref>. == History of the Concept == The term heritage language was first introduced in the late 1970s in Canada, where it was used to denote the languages of indigenous and migrant communities (Cummins, 2005). It was later spread to other parts of the world, such as Australia and the US. In Europe, the term only gradually began to enter scientific discourse in the 2000s, particularly in research on multilingualism and migration. In the German context, the term 'Herkunftssprache' is often used as the equivalent of the English term 'heritage language' (Brehmer & Mehlhorn, 2018). According to Fishman (2001), three types of HL can be distinguished: * immigrant HL * indigenous HL, * and colonial HL. Europe is home to a significant number of minority/migrant/minoritised communities, leading to the presence of various heritage languages spoken by children and adults in schools and society. In fact, a HL in Europe can include any regional, minority and/or migrant language. Alternative terms for heritage language proposed by researchers and used or preferred in different countries and contexts are: *native language *minority language *ancestral language *immigrant minority language *allochthonous language *home language *language of origin *community language Though some of these terms are equally problematic as heritage language. For example, native language is also problematic because we cannot assume that the language does not necessarily students' native language. Those students may have a limited knowledge of the language or simply may not speak it at all. Ancestral language also conveys a negative connotation that it belongs to the distant past or a previous generation which does not have a present or future affiliation. {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Spotlight: The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages''' |- |The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, adopted by the Council of Europe in 1992 and subsequently reviewed in 2010, 2021, 2023, and 2024, is a treaty designed to protect and promote Europe’s historical regional and minority languages. It encourages the use of these languages in education, media, culture, and public administration, with the goal of enabling their speakers to fully participate in society. Member States choose whether to ratify the Charter, which languages it applies to, and which specific measures they commit to. Once ratified, these commitments become legally binding under international law. Here are some points mentioned in Article 8 about education. Member states should: * allow, encourage or provide teaching in or of the regional or minority language at all the appropriate stages of education * make arrangements to ensure the teaching of the history and the culture which is reflected by the regional or minority language * provide the basic and further training of the teachers required to implement the chosen measures You can find the full text here: <nowiki>https://rm.coe.int/collected-texts-charter-4th-edition-en/1680b26fa0</nowiki> |} == Heritage language education == Heritage Language education refers to language instruction addressed to and designed  for students exposed to the target language at home or within their communities (Gkaintartzi & Wagner, 2025). It generally represents a form of minority language education that exists on the periphery of mainstream schooling which is mostly conducted in the national language(s) (Leeman, 2015). The organisation of these programmes and offerings is also largely dependent on the status and promotion of HL education in the respective education system. Provision can be made by the state (and thus integrated into the regular education programme); there may also be bilateral agreements between the country of origin and the country of immigration. In some cases, the responsibility for instruction in the HL is considered to lie with the migrant communities themselves (Mehlhorn, 2020). HL education can take place within formal public school settings—such as in language support classes and bilingual or dual-language programmes—as well as in after-school initiatives, community-based or supplementary schools, and other non-formal educational settings. Community or complementary schools are often established by migrant or minority communities, cultural or religious organizations, or local governments. These schools typically operate at  weekends or after regular school hours, offering a few hours of instruction each week. Additionally, HL courses are available in higher education institutions worldwide. Examples include Spanish for HL speakers in U.S. universities, Catalan, Basque, and Galician in Spanish universities, and languages like Arabic, Mandarin, Urdu, and Turkish in various European universities (Kagan et al., 2017).  HL education is vital for maintaining cultural identity and supporting linguistic diversity by enabling learners to sustain and enhance their heritage language competences. However, HL education often faces challenges universally, which include  language attrition and shift, limited institutional support, teacher training and resources, wider sociopolitical barriers, identity and motivation issues (Woerfel et al., 2020). == Practical examples == HL speakers and learners can be found everywhere from elementary school up to adult education. Effective Heritage Language instruction (HLI) requires a supportive and appreciative approach that values the linguistic skills HL speakers already possess, and the HL varieties that may speak.  Simply applying traditional second-language (L2) or foreign language teaching methods is often ineffective in HL classrooms, as HL learners need teaching strategies that are tailored to their unique linguistic backgrounds (Leeman, 2015). {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Activity: Heritage Languages in education''' |- |In this video we get a quick introduction into the work of Olga Kagan, a researcher. She talks about the potential of multilingual education and the challenges HL speakers may face. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5hpE941rT2Q UCLA Spotlight Profile: Olga Kagan] * Who is Olga Kagan and what are her specialties? * What does Olga Kagan say is important for schools and teachers to consider? * What is your opinion on her suggestions? |} The following examples provide an insight into programmes and initiatives for promoting heritage languages. They include programmes organised within formal education, programmes organised by various communities, and selected informal opportunities for communities/individuals. === '''Community-Based Language Schools''' === ===== '''Example:''' '''Greek Afternoon Schools''' in the United States, Canada and Europe ===== These are supplementary education programmes where Greek-American and Greek-Canadian children (of Diaspora) attend classes after regular school hours or on weekends, to learn the Greek language, culture, history, and traditions. Programmes within the state school system ===== '''Example: Austrian “Erstsprachenunterricht”''' ===== In Austria first language instruction is an additional educational offer embedded within the school system that gives students the opportunity to maintain and further develop their heritage language. It exists since 1992 and follows a common curriculum. The lessons are free and typically held in the school building but outside of regular class hours. They are voluntary, and usually take place once or twice a week. Instruction is provided in languages for which there is sufficient demand , mostly 10 students, and where qualified teachers are available. In total there are 25 languages but the most commonly offered languages include Turkish, Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian (BCS), Arabic, Romanian, Polish, Pashto, Dari, Farsi, as well as Hungarian and Albanian. The organization and implementation of lessons lies with the regional education authorities in each federal province. Further information under: <nowiki>https://www.schule-mehrsprachig.at/</nowiki> === '''Dual-Language Immersion Programmes''' === ==== '''Examples:''' ==== In some regions of France and Germany, there are bilingual schools that equally divide instruction between two languages, including local dialects. In Belgium, certain international schools offer trilingual education where students learn three languages simultaneously (Garcia et al., 2016). Intensive support is available for non-native speakers to ensure language proficiency. In Switzerland, bilingual programmes integrate two major languages in the curriculum, with additional languages introduced as elective options starting in the primary grades. Austria features bilingual high schools that adopt a "flexible monolingualism" approach, where students first intensively learn one language before transitioning to dual-language instruction (German-English). These schools also offer multiple language options for broader linguistic exposure, French, Spanish, or Russian. === '''Technology-Based Learning''' === '''Example:''' '''TalkAbroad''' and '''Italki''', platforms that connect language learners with native speakers around the world for conversation practice. === '''Language Nests (Te Kōhanga Reo)''' === '''Example:''' '''Te Kōhanga Reo''' in New Zealand, where Māori children are immersed in the Māori language from a young age in preschool settings. === '''Family Language Policy''' === '''Example:''' A Chinese-American family may designate '''“Mandarin-only dinners”''' three times a week to encourage their children to practice speaking Mandarin. === '''Summer Language Camps''' === '''Examples:''' In the United Kingdom, Ukrainian community organizations run summer camps that teach the Ukrainian language alongside traditional dance, cooking, and cultural activities. In Spain and Latin America, Spanish heritage camps immerse participants in Spanish through homestays, community projects, and workshops, helping maintain language skills and cultural ties === '''Intergenerational Language Transmission''' === '''Example:''' The '''Yiddish Book Center's Yiddish School''' brings together older native Yiddish speakers and young learners for mutual learning. == '''Take-home messages''' == * Heritage language (HL) speakers are not defined by their linguistic proficiency, but rather on a continuum of factors, including language use, personal identification, and cultural connection to the HL. * HL learners can have diverse linguistic profiles—they may have varying degrees of language skills, cultural knowledge, and may speak different varieties of the same heritage language. * HL speakers and learners may experience marginalization due to language policies, societal attitudes, and prejudices surrounding heritage/minority languages. * Teaching HLs in schools requires specifically tailored pedagogical approaches. Traditional L2 (second language) methods are not enough to address the unique needs of HL learners. == Self-assessment == === Activity: Self development === Go back to your notes you took at the very beginning. Has your view on Sofia and Omar changed? Do you have any new ideas on how you could talk about and integrate HL into your classroom? === Multiple-Choice-Test === 1. Which of the following best defines a heritage language (HL)? * A. A language spoken by the majority population of a country * B. A language taught in school as a second foreign language * C. A non-majority language often spoken at home or in the community * D. A language that has no standard form. 2. What distinguishes heritage language learners from typical L2 learners? * A. HL learners always have higher proficiency than L2 learners * B. HL learners often have prior exposure to the language at home or in the community * C. HL learners never learn languages in formal classroom settings * D. HL learners are only interested in learning for personal reasons 3. According to Fishman (2001), which of the following is not a category of heritage language? * A. Immigrant HL * B. Indigenous HL * C. Colonial HL * D. Institutional HL 4. Why might traditional second language (L2) teaching methods be insufficient for HL learners? * A. HL learners are less motivated to learn * B. HL learners often lack exposure to the language * C. HL learners have different prior knowledge and language identities. * D. HL learners prefer to learn in informal settings. Correct answers: 1C; 2B; 3D; 4C === Activities/Open Ended Questions === 1. Why is it important not to define HL speakers solely based on proficiency? (considering cultural, emotional, and identity-related aspects of language use) 2. What challenges  HL education programs face in general/in your country? (aspects like policy, funding, curriculum integration, and teacher trainin) 3. Can you think of an example of a heritage language initiative in your region or community? (research on impact on identity, inclusion, or language maintenance) == Further resources == * [https://www.heritagelanguagestory.org/videostories Heritage Language Story Project] The “Heritage Language Story Project” aims to raise awareness about the importance of maintaining heritage languages by collecting stories which depict the lived experiences of heritage language speakers. These very personal stories show the huge variety in heritage language speakers and their different connections to the heritage language. Click through the videos and written stories to get some insight into what speaking and learning a HL can mean. * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s5fJ3z0WQ_8 Video of an HL speaker and her personal experiences] * [https://www.coe.int/en/web/european-charter-regional-or-minority-languages European Charter of regional or minority languages for some European Context] == Bibliography == Baker, C. & Jones, S.P. (1998). ''Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education.'' Multilingual Matters. Brehmer, B., & Mehlhorn, G. (2018). ''Herkunftssprachen''. Narr Francke Attempto. Cummins, J. (2005). A proposal for action: Strategies for recognizing heritage language competence as a learning resource within the mainstream classroom. ''The Modern Language Journal, 89''(4), 585–592. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/3588628</nowiki> García, O. (2005). Positioning heritage languages in the United States. ''Modern Language Journal, 89''(4), 601–605. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/3588631</nowiki> Garcia, O., Lin, A., May, S. (eds) (2016). ''Bilingual and Multilingual Education. Encyclopedia of Language and Education.'' Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02324-3_25-1 Fishman, J. A. (2001). ''The sociology of language: An interdisciplinary social science approach''. Blackwell. Gounari, P. (2014). Rethinking heritage language in a critical pedagogy framework. In P. Trifonas & T. Aravossitas (Eds.), ''Rethinking heritage language education'' (pp. 254–269). Cambridge University Press. Kagan, O. E., Carreira, M. M., & Chik, C. H. (Eds.). (2017). ''The Routledge handbook of heritage language education: From innovation to program building''. Routledge. Leeman, J. (2015). Heritage language education and identity in the United States. ''Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 35'', 100–119. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190514000245 Mehlhorn, G. (2020). Herkunftssprachen und ihre Sprecher/innen. In I. Gogolin, A. Hansen, S. McMonagle, & D. Rauch (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit und Bildung'' (pp. 23–29). Springer Fachmedien. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-20285-9_3 Polinsky, M. (2015). Heritage languages and their speakers: State of the field, challenges, perspectives for future work, and methodologies. ''Zeitschrift für Fremdsprachenforschung, 26''(1), 7–27. Valdés, G. (2005). Bilingualism, heritage language learners, and SLA research: Opportunities lost or seized? ''Modern Language Journal, 89''(3), 410–426. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2005.00314.x Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003). Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. J''ournal of Language, Identity, and Education'' ''2''(3), 211-230 Woerfel, T., Küppers, A., & Schroeder, C. (2020). Herkunftssprachlicher Unterricht. In I.Gogolin, A. Hansen, S. McMonagle, & D. Rauch (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit und Bildung'' (pp. 207–212). Springer Fachmedien. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-20285-9_30 == References == <references/> ==Credits== This resource has been co-created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, cofinanced by the European Commission) : * Anastasia Gkaintartzi (University of Thessaly) * Paulina Wagner (Universität Wien). [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] mg1ropy906ptfi0nzkzqtzkf9x6p6er 2817283 2817248 2026-06-29T16:32:25Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Multiple-Choice-Test */ 2817283 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting Activity: Multilingual school reality == Imagine you are a teacher in a school, in which there are students from diverse backgrounds. For example, Sofia speaks Spanish with her family and she sometimes uses Spanish in class while the language of schooling is different. Another student, Omar, speaks Arabic at home but never uses Arabic at school. You also suspect that there may be more students in your class with -other than the language of schooling- languages that you might not be aware of.  You are interested in finding out more about your students’ language repertoires and cultural backgrounds and embrace them. * What challenges do you think Sofia and Omar might face regarding their languages? * What can you, as a teacher, do to explore and promote your students’ languages and support them in maintaining and developing them? * How can you create a classroom environment where students feel proud of their languages? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you should be able to: * recognise what heritage languages are, as well as other related terms * develop awareness of the importance of heritage languages * develop awareness of different forms and structures of heritage language education == Keywords == Heritage language, language identity, minority language, heritage language education, language revitalization == Introduction == In today’s increasingly multilingual societies, individuals grow up with and use multiple languages. Languages spoken at home can differ from the dominant languages of the wider society These languages often carry deep personal, cultural, and familial meanings, and their role in classrooms and communities raises important questions about identity and inclusion. The development and promotion of heritage languages can be significantly influenced by the ways educational systems recognize and support students' multilingual backgrounds. == Definition == Heritage language speakers and learners have diverse profiles and there are many different contexts in which they use their language resources. Therefore the concept of Heritage Language (HL) is not easy to define. Generally, a HL is understood as a non-majority language spoken by individuals who have been exposed to it at home or in their community and have varying levels of proficiency in it (Valdés, 2001). The term 'heritage language' is used to identify any languages other than the dominant language(s) in a given social context <ref>http://www.cal.org/heritage/index.html</ref> Other researchers defined the term heritage language as the language associated with one's cultural background and it may or may not be spoken in the home <ref>Cho, G., Cho, K.-S., & Tse, L. (1997). Why ethnic minorities need to develop their heritage language: The case of Korean Americans. Language, Culture, and Curriculum, 10, 106-112.</ref>. Valdés (2001) provided three main criteria to identify heritage language learners, classifying as individuals who: * are raised in homes where a non-English language is spoken * speak or merely understand the heritage language * are to some degree bilingual in English and the heritage language The degree of heritage language fluency, proficiency, cultural background, connection or knowledge are widely varied among students. HL speakers often have a personal, cultural, or historical connection to the language, regardless of their actual linguistic competence (Gounari, 2014). The range of definitions for “HL speaker/user” can therefore be large and can vary from a very narrow to very broad meaning. It has been suggested that the term 'heritage language' cannot be identified in a static, definitive sense; rather, it is more a metaphor in relation to the structuring of attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions that enable or constrain linguistic practices (Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003)<ref name="VDS">Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003) Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 2 (3), 211-230</ref>. Two examples could be: * Kim was born in the U.S. to Korean immigrant parents. She was exposed to Korean at home but often responded in English. She can understand conversational Korean fairly well but finds it difficult to speak it and cannot read or write in the language. Nevertheless, she  identifies with Korean culture and traditions * Luc was born in Austria to French-speaking parents from Belgium. His family spoke mostly French at home. He attended the Lycée Français in Vienna. Also they often visited relatives in Brussels. Luc uses French fluently in everyday life and often switches between French and German. Both examples illustrate how the term "HL speaker/user" can be understood in different ways. The term HL is therefore sensitive to a variety of interpretations within social, political, regional, and national contexts. Critical views on the use of the term heritage language have challenged the label 'heritage language' itself some of them regarding it as extremely negative -even offensive- and others as counterproductive (Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003) <ref name="VDS" />. It is also criticised for pointing more to the past and less to the future, to traditions rather to the contemporary risking to become associated with ancient cultures, past traditions and more "primitive times" and so may fail to give the impression of a modern language that is of value in a technological society (Baker & Jones, 1998)<ref>Baker, C. & Jones, S.P. (1998). Encyclopedial of bilingualism and bilingual education. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.</ref>. Despite the term heritage language, heritage language speaker, and heritage language learner are gaining currency <ref>Wiley, T. (2001). On defining heritage languages and their speakers. In Kreeft Payton, D. Ranard, & S. McGinnis (Eds.). Heritage languages in America. Preserving a national resource (pp. 29-36). Washington DC: Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems.</ref>, the concept remains sensitive to a variety of interpretations within a social, political, regional, and national contexts <ref name="VDS">Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003) Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 2 (3), 211-230</ref>. == History of the Concept == The term heritage language was first introduced in the late 1970s in Canada, where it was used to denote the languages of indigenous and migrant communities (Cummins, 2005). It was later spread to other parts of the world, such as Australia and the US. In Europe, the term only gradually began to enter scientific discourse in the 2000s, particularly in research on multilingualism and migration. In the German context, the term 'Herkunftssprache' is often used as the equivalent of the English term 'heritage language' (Brehmer & Mehlhorn, 2018). According to Fishman (2001), three types of HL can be distinguished: * immigrant HL * indigenous HL, * and colonial HL. Europe is home to a significant number of minority/migrant/minoritised communities, leading to the presence of various heritage languages spoken by children and adults in schools and society. In fact, a HL in Europe can include any regional, minority and/or migrant language. Alternative terms for heritage language proposed by researchers and used or preferred in different countries and contexts are: *native language *minority language *ancestral language *immigrant minority language *allochthonous language *home language *language of origin *community language Though some of these terms are equally problematic as heritage language. For example, native language is also problematic because we cannot assume that the language does not necessarily students' native language. Those students may have a limited knowledge of the language or simply may not speak it at all. Ancestral language also conveys a negative connotation that it belongs to the distant past or a previous generation which does not have a present or future affiliation. {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Spotlight: The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages''' |- |The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, adopted by the Council of Europe in 1992 and subsequently reviewed in 2010, 2021, 2023, and 2024, is a treaty designed to protect and promote Europe’s historical regional and minority languages. It encourages the use of these languages in education, media, culture, and public administration, with the goal of enabling their speakers to fully participate in society. Member States choose whether to ratify the Charter, which languages it applies to, and which specific measures they commit to. Once ratified, these commitments become legally binding under international law. Here are some points mentioned in Article 8 about education. Member states should: * allow, encourage or provide teaching in or of the regional or minority language at all the appropriate stages of education * make arrangements to ensure the teaching of the history and the culture which is reflected by the regional or minority language * provide the basic and further training of the teachers required to implement the chosen measures You can find the full text here: <nowiki>https://rm.coe.int/collected-texts-charter-4th-edition-en/1680b26fa0</nowiki> |} == Heritage language education == Heritage Language education refers to language instruction addressed to and designed  for students exposed to the target language at home or within their communities (Gkaintartzi & Wagner, 2025). It generally represents a form of minority language education that exists on the periphery of mainstream schooling which is mostly conducted in the national language(s) (Leeman, 2015). The organisation of these programmes and offerings is also largely dependent on the status and promotion of HL education in the respective education system. Provision can be made by the state (and thus integrated into the regular education programme); there may also be bilateral agreements between the country of origin and the country of immigration. In some cases, the responsibility for instruction in the HL is considered to lie with the migrant communities themselves (Mehlhorn, 2020). HL education can take place within formal public school settings—such as in language support classes and bilingual or dual-language programmes—as well as in after-school initiatives, community-based or supplementary schools, and other non-formal educational settings. Community or complementary schools are often established by migrant or minority communities, cultural or religious organizations, or local governments. These schools typically operate at  weekends or after regular school hours, offering a few hours of instruction each week. Additionally, HL courses are available in higher education institutions worldwide. Examples include Spanish for HL speakers in U.S. universities, Catalan, Basque, and Galician in Spanish universities, and languages like Arabic, Mandarin, Urdu, and Turkish in various European universities (Kagan et al., 2017).  HL education is vital for maintaining cultural identity and supporting linguistic diversity by enabling learners to sustain and enhance their heritage language competences. However, HL education often faces challenges universally, which include  language attrition and shift, limited institutional support, teacher training and resources, wider sociopolitical barriers, identity and motivation issues (Woerfel et al., 2020). == Practical examples == HL speakers and learners can be found everywhere from elementary school up to adult education. Effective Heritage Language instruction (HLI) requires a supportive and appreciative approach that values the linguistic skills HL speakers already possess, and the HL varieties that may speak.  Simply applying traditional second-language (L2) or foreign language teaching methods is often ineffective in HL classrooms, as HL learners need teaching strategies that are tailored to their unique linguistic backgrounds (Leeman, 2015). {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Activity: Heritage Languages in education''' |- |In this video we get a quick introduction into the work of Olga Kagan, a researcher. She talks about the potential of multilingual education and the challenges HL speakers may face. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5hpE941rT2Q UCLA Spotlight Profile: Olga Kagan] * Who is Olga Kagan and what are her specialties? * What does Olga Kagan say is important for schools and teachers to consider? * What is your opinion on her suggestions? |} The following examples provide an insight into programmes and initiatives for promoting heritage languages. They include programmes organised within formal education, programmes organised by various communities, and selected informal opportunities for communities/individuals. === '''Community-Based Language Schools''' === ===== '''Example:''' '''Greek Afternoon Schools''' in the United States, Canada and Europe ===== These are supplementary education programmes where Greek-American and Greek-Canadian children (of Diaspora) attend classes after regular school hours or on weekends, to learn the Greek language, culture, history, and traditions. Programmes within the state school system ===== '''Example: Austrian “Erstsprachenunterricht”''' ===== In Austria first language instruction is an additional educational offer embedded within the school system that gives students the opportunity to maintain and further develop their heritage language. It exists since 1992 and follows a common curriculum. The lessons are free and typically held in the school building but outside of regular class hours. They are voluntary, and usually take place once or twice a week. Instruction is provided in languages for which there is sufficient demand , mostly 10 students, and where qualified teachers are available. In total there are 25 languages but the most commonly offered languages include Turkish, Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian (BCS), Arabic, Romanian, Polish, Pashto, Dari, Farsi, as well as Hungarian and Albanian. The organization and implementation of lessons lies with the regional education authorities in each federal province. Further information under: <nowiki>https://www.schule-mehrsprachig.at/</nowiki> === '''Dual-Language Immersion Programmes''' === ==== '''Examples:''' ==== In some regions of France and Germany, there are bilingual schools that equally divide instruction between two languages, including local dialects. In Belgium, certain international schools offer trilingual education where students learn three languages simultaneously (Garcia et al., 2016). Intensive support is available for non-native speakers to ensure language proficiency. In Switzerland, bilingual programmes integrate two major languages in the curriculum, with additional languages introduced as elective options starting in the primary grades. Austria features bilingual high schools that adopt a "flexible monolingualism" approach, where students first intensively learn one language before transitioning to dual-language instruction (German-English). These schools also offer multiple language options for broader linguistic exposure, French, Spanish, or Russian. === '''Technology-Based Learning''' === '''Example:''' '''TalkAbroad''' and '''Italki''', platforms that connect language learners with native speakers around the world for conversation practice. === '''Language Nests (Te Kōhanga Reo)''' === '''Example:''' '''Te Kōhanga Reo''' in New Zealand, where Māori children are immersed in the Māori language from a young age in preschool settings. === '''Family Language Policy''' === '''Example:''' A Chinese-American family may designate '''“Mandarin-only dinners”''' three times a week to encourage their children to practice speaking Mandarin. === '''Summer Language Camps''' === '''Examples:''' In the United Kingdom, Ukrainian community organizations run summer camps that teach the Ukrainian language alongside traditional dance, cooking, and cultural activities. In Spain and Latin America, Spanish heritage camps immerse participants in Spanish through homestays, community projects, and workshops, helping maintain language skills and cultural ties === '''Intergenerational Language Transmission''' === '''Example:''' The '''Yiddish Book Center's Yiddish School''' brings together older native Yiddish speakers and young learners for mutual learning. == '''Take-home messages''' == * Heritage language (HL) speakers are not defined by their linguistic proficiency, but rather on a continuum of factors, including language use, personal identification, and cultural connection to the HL. * HL learners can have diverse linguistic profiles—they may have varying degrees of language skills, cultural knowledge, and may speak different varieties of the same heritage language. * HL speakers and learners may experience marginalization due to language policies, societal attitudes, and prejudices surrounding heritage/minority languages. * Teaching HLs in schools requires specifically tailored pedagogical approaches. Traditional L2 (second language) methods are not enough to address the unique needs of HL learners. == Self-assessment == === Activity: Self development === Go back to your notes you took at the very beginning. Has your view on Sofia and Omar changed? Do you have any new ideas on how you could talk about and integrate HL into your classroom? === Multiple-Choice-Test === <quiz display="simple"> {Which of the following best defines a heritage language (HL)?} -A language spoken by the majority population of a country -A language taught in school as a second foreign language +A non-majority language often spoken at home or in the community -A language that has no standard form. {What distinguishes heritage language learners from typical L2 learners?} -HL learners always have higher proficiency than L2 learners +HL learners often have prior exposure to the language at home or in the community -HL learners never learn languages in formal classroom settings -HL learners are only interested in learning for personal reasons {According to Fishman (2001), which of the following is not a category of heritage language?} -Immigrant HL -Indigenous HL -Colonial HL +Institutional HL {Why might traditional second language (L2) teaching methods be insufficient for HL learners?} -HL learners are less motivated to learn -HL learners often lack exposure to the language +HL learners have different prior knowledge and language identities. -HL learners prefer to learn in informal settings. </quiz> === Activities/Open Ended Questions === 1. Why is it important not to define HL speakers solely based on proficiency? (considering cultural, emotional, and identity-related aspects of language use) 2. What challenges  HL education programs face in general/in your country? (aspects like policy, funding, curriculum integration, and teacher trainin) 3. Can you think of an example of a heritage language initiative in your region or community? (research on impact on identity, inclusion, or language maintenance) == Further resources == * [https://www.heritagelanguagestory.org/videostories Heritage Language Story Project] The “Heritage Language Story Project” aims to raise awareness about the importance of maintaining heritage languages by collecting stories which depict the lived experiences of heritage language speakers. These very personal stories show the huge variety in heritage language speakers and their different connections to the heritage language. Click through the videos and written stories to get some insight into what speaking and learning a HL can mean. * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s5fJ3z0WQ_8 Video of an HL speaker and her personal experiences] * [https://www.coe.int/en/web/european-charter-regional-or-minority-languages European Charter of regional or minority languages for some European Context] == Bibliography == Baker, C. & Jones, S.P. (1998). ''Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education.'' Multilingual Matters. Brehmer, B., & Mehlhorn, G. (2018). ''Herkunftssprachen''. Narr Francke Attempto. Cummins, J. (2005). A proposal for action: Strategies for recognizing heritage language competence as a learning resource within the mainstream classroom. ''The Modern Language Journal, 89''(4), 585–592. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/3588628</nowiki> García, O. (2005). Positioning heritage languages in the United States. ''Modern Language Journal, 89''(4), 601–605. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/3588631</nowiki> Garcia, O., Lin, A., May, S. (eds) (2016). ''Bilingual and Multilingual Education. Encyclopedia of Language and Education.'' Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02324-3_25-1 Fishman, J. A. (2001). ''The sociology of language: An interdisciplinary social science approach''. Blackwell. Gounari, P. (2014). Rethinking heritage language in a critical pedagogy framework. In P. Trifonas & T. Aravossitas (Eds.), ''Rethinking heritage language education'' (pp. 254–269). Cambridge University Press. Kagan, O. E., Carreira, M. M., & Chik, C. H. (Eds.). (2017). ''The Routledge handbook of heritage language education: From innovation to program building''. Routledge. Leeman, J. (2015). Heritage language education and identity in the United States. ''Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 35'', 100–119. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190514000245 Mehlhorn, G. (2020). Herkunftssprachen und ihre Sprecher/innen. In I. Gogolin, A. Hansen, S. McMonagle, & D. Rauch (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit und Bildung'' (pp. 23–29). Springer Fachmedien. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-20285-9_3 Polinsky, M. (2015). Heritage languages and their speakers: State of the field, challenges, perspectives for future work, and methodologies. ''Zeitschrift für Fremdsprachenforschung, 26''(1), 7–27. Valdés, G. (2005). Bilingualism, heritage language learners, and SLA research: Opportunities lost or seized? ''Modern Language Journal, 89''(3), 410–426. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2005.00314.x Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003). Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. J''ournal of Language, Identity, and Education'' ''2''(3), 211-230 Woerfel, T., Küppers, A., & Schroeder, C. (2020). Herkunftssprachlicher Unterricht. In I.Gogolin, A. Hansen, S. McMonagle, & D. Rauch (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit und Bildung'' (pp. 207–212). Springer Fachmedien. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-20285-9_30 == References == <references/> ==Credits== This resource has been co-created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, cofinanced by the European Commission) : * Anastasia Gkaintartzi (University of Thessaly) * Paulina Wagner (Universität Wien). [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] 0323xizfrqec6g2i7cpa43j4vu2j83v 0 107933 2817225 2584951 2026-06-29T12:19:14Z ~2026-37194-48 3097843 edited for punctuation and spelling 2817225 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Description== Down Syndrome was first described in 1866 by Langdon Down. By the early 1930’s it was recognized at a chromosomal abnormality and was one of the first conditions to be examined chromosomally using detailed analysis of human chromosomes. 98% of all people with Down syndrome have Trisomy 21, resulting from a meiotic nondisjuncture of the chromosome on the 21st pair. The risk of having a child with Trisomy 21 increase with maternal age. Robertsonian Translocation accounts for approximately 4% of people with Down syndrome. This occurs when part of chromosome 21 attaches to another chromosome (Martin et al., 2009). In this case the child would have 46 chromosomes, which is the number typically developing children have, unlike Trisomy 21, where the child would have 47. Maternal age does not increase the risk of Robertsonian Traslocation; however, it has a seemingly high rate of recurrence when a parent is a carrier of the translocation. Lastly, there is Mosaic Down Syndrome, which occurs when some cells include an extra copy of chromosome 21 (Martin et al., 2009). Mosaicism only accounts for 2% of Down syndrome. In Mosaic Down Syndrome, the phenotype is similar to Trisomy 21, but is typically milder and patients with this represent the more clinically severe cases. All combined, Down syndrome occurs in about 1 in 800 live births and can happen in any race (Thomson & Thompson, 2007). Patterson and Lott (2008) suggest that maternal age has been shown to increase the risk of Down syndrome, with exception to the 4% with Robertsonian Translocation, and can be tested for prenatally using amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling. Thompson & Thompson (2007) state that one defining feature of Down syndrome is mental retardation, along with dysmorphic features. ==Physical Attributes and Cognitive Abilities== The expression of the extra chromosome on the 21st pair is evident on specific physical characteristics, especially of the face. An individual with Down syndrome typically has, a round face, a flattened skull, and extra fold of skin over the eyelids, which causes a significant slant and a protruding or oversized tongue (macroglossia) (Santrock, 2010). Also, they usually have shorter limbs and only two joints in their baby finger along with a single transverse palmar crease in their palm. The feet show a wide gap in the first and second toes with a furrow extending proximally on the plantar surface. Also, the neck is typically short with loose skin over the nape and there are Brushfield spots around the iris. (Thompson & Thompson, 2007) Children with Down Syndrome have poor muscle tone and often health consequences. Gardiner et al., (2010) suggest that people with Down Syndrome have reduced brain volume, specifically in the frontal, temporal lobes and cerebellum. However it seems the parahippocamal gyrus, which play a role in the ability to learn new representations of environmental information, is larger (Kolb and Whishaw, 2009). Thompson (2007) states that the developmental delay in Down syndrome is not usually evident till after the first year, where when they are tested, their IQ is 30 to 60. LOOK AT DEVELOPMENT TEXTBOOK. FIND PICTURE ==Language Development in children with Down's Syndrome compared to typically developing children== The main difference between typically-developing children and children with Down Syndrome in terms of language development is the rate at which language develops. For example, what would normally take a typically-developing child 30 months to learn would take 12 years for a child with Down syndrome. Compared to typically-developing children where first words occur around 12 months, children with Down syndrome do not begin to speak until around 24 months. Gleason and Ratner (2009) state that on average a child with Down syndrome is 20 months behind typically-developing children by age three and more than 24 months behind by age 4. The areas of language development in which children with Down syndrome lag behind are expressive syntactic development, grammatical comprehension, verbal working memory, and unsupported narrative tasks (Gleason and Ratner, 2009). Although children with Down syndrome may be behind typically-developing children, they still do develop language and because of more life experience, compared to other children or adolescents with the same mental age, they do end up showing a strong receptive vocabulary (Gleason and Ratner, 2009). Cleland et al. (2009) notes that individuals with Down syndrome have differences in their anatomy that make it difficult for them to produce the correct phonemes. Such differences include a smaller than average oral cavity, hypotonia of the muscles around the mouth, fusion of the lip muscles and extra lip musculature. This leads to a problem with articulation, especially with fricatives. ==Language Characteristics of Down's Syndrome== Estigarribia B., Klusek J., Martin G., Roberts J., (2009) Language characteristics of individuals with down syndrome. Top lang Disorders. Vol. 29 No. 2 pp. 112-132.Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins -poor expressive language,especially phonology and syntax - categorical, medical model of language development -cognitive–behavioralphenotype -2/3 of children with DS also have hearing loss -otitis media, more susceptible 96% Patterson and Lott (2008) hearing loss could hinder language development, especially comprehension of grammatical morphemes - ==Interventions== Articulation Disorders in Down’s Syndrome; Visual Leaning with Electropalatography Cleland, Timmins, Wood, Hardcastle & Wishart (2009) ==References== Estigarribia B., Klusek J., Martin G., Roberts J., (2009) Language characteristics of individuals with down syndrome. Top lang Disorders. Vol. 29 No. 2 pp. 112-132.Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Cleland J., Timmins C.,Wood S., Hardcastle J., & Wishart J. (2009). Electropalatpgraphic therapy for children and young people with Down’s syndrome. Clinica Linguistics & Phonetics , 23(12): 926-939 Gardiner, K., Herault, Y., Lott, I. T., Antonarakis, S. E., Reeves, R. H., & Dierssen, M. (2010). Down syndrome: From understanding the neurobiology to therapy. The Journal of Neuroscience, 30(45), 14943-14945. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3728-10.2010 Gleason J. B., & Ratner N. B. (2009) The Development of Language—7th ed. Pearson: New York Kolb B. & Whishaw I. (2009) Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology - 6th ed. Worth Publishers: New York Santrock J. (2010) Children (11th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill [[Category:Psycholinguistics|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]] nxe09ewcu2jp3ivbfg2exq8mtzuip9q 0 139384 2817228 2816962 2026-06-29T13:19:51Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2817228 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260629.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20260629.pdf|B]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] 7otnqxo2ptm5f0a9ocr4to335aqaaut 0 142861 2817327 2812351 2026-06-29T19:44:07Z ~2026-37233-31 3097908 2817327 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Edouard_Manet_-_Le_Suicidé.jpg|thumb|[[wikipedia:Edouard_Manet|Edouard Manet]] - ''Le Suicidé'']] '''Suicidology''' is the scientific study of suicide and the components of suicide, including suicidal ideation, suicidal behavior, suicide epidemiology, and suicide prevention. It also encompasses the study of non-suicidal self-injury and other forms of self-destructive behavior (including [[Eating Disorders|eating disorders]], which have been reported to be significantly associated with suicide attempts).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pisetsky|first=Emily M.|last2=Thornton|first2=Laura M.|last3=Lichtenstein|first3=Paul|last4=Pedersen|first4=Nancy L.|last5=Bulik|first5=Cynthia M.|date=2013-11|title=Suicide attempts in women with eating disorders|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8023043/|journal=Journal of Abnormal Psychology|volume=122|issue=4|pages=1042–1056|doi=10.1037/a0034902|issn=1939-1846|pmc=8023043|pmid=24364606}}</ref> According to the [[wikipedia:World_Health_Organization|WHO]], more than 720,000 people die by suicide every year.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/suicide|title=Suicide|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2025-11-20}}</ref> The United States has assumed $93.5 billion in total costs of suicidal behavior.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=The neuroscience of suicidal behavior|last=Heeringen|first=Kees van|date=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-14894-9|series=Cambridge fundamentals of neuroscience in psychology|location=Cambridge ; New York, NY}}</ref> __NOTOC__ ==Discussion questions== * What are the reasons that individuals engage in suicide? How can these reasons be reduced or mitigated so as to lower rates of suicide? * Why does a person in a particular situation want to take his or her own life, while another person in the same situation would react in a different way and perhaps seek help?<ref name=":0" /> * How can rates of suicide be lowered? * Does psychiatric coercion worsen problems of suicide? * How do most people who possess certain variables that are highly associated with suicide, such as hopelessness, burdensomeness, and emotional pain, ''not'' commit suicide? What differentiates them from those who possess these variables and end up attempting/committing suicide?<ref>{{Cite book|title=Why People Die by Suicide|last=Joiner|first=Thomas|date=2009|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-02549-3|location=Cambridge}}</ref> {{Col}} == Learning resources == ;Subpages * [[/Suicidogenesis/]] * [[/Stress-diathesis model/]] * [[/Stress-response systems/]] ;Others * [[Draft Homicide Bill]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Suicidality and motivation|What motives underlie suicidality?]] == Suggested readings == * ''Suicide Prohibition: The Shame of Medicine'' by psychiatrist Thomas Szasz. * ''Fatal Freedom: The Ethics and Politics of Suicide'' by Thomas Szasz. * ''The Neuroscience of Suicidal Behavior (Cambridge Fundamentals of Neuroscience in Psychology)'' by Kees van Heeringen. ===Wikipedia=== * [[Wikipedia: Suicide|Suicide]] * [[Wikipedia: Suicide prevention|Suicide prevention]] {{ColBreak}} ==See also== * [[Szaszian studies]] * [[Psychiatry]] * [[Psychology]] * [[Euthanasia]] * [[Anti-psychiatry]] ==External links== * [https://suicidepreventionlifeline.org/ Suicide Prevention Lifeline] * [https://suicidology.org/what-is-suicidology/ What Is Suicidology?] {{Col/end}} == References == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Suicide| ]] [[Category:Suicidology]] oedopmx15rwplh24yzi2jcac131nj2r 0 171005 2817233 2816967 2026-06-29T13:41:07Z Young1lim 21186 /* Geometric Series Examples */ 2817233 wikitext text/x-wiki Many of the functions that arise naturally in mathematics and real world applications can be extended to and regarded as complex functions, meaning the input, as well as the output, can be complex numbers <math>x+iy</math>, where <math>i=\sqrt{-1}</math>, in such a way that it is a more natural object to study. '''Complex analysis''', which used to be known as '''function theory''' or '''theory of functions of a single complex variable''', is a sub-field of analysis that studies such functions (more specifically, '''holomorphic''' functions) on the complex plane, or part (domain) or extension (Riemann surface) thereof. It notably has great importance in number theory, e.g. the [[Riemann zeta function]] (for the distribution of primes) and other <math>L</math>-functions, modular forms, elliptic functions, etc. <blockquote>The shortest path between two truths in the real domain passes through the complex domain. — [[wikipedia:Jacques_Hadamard|Jacques Hadamard]]</blockquote>In a certain sense, the essence of complex functions is captured by the principle of [[analytic continuation]].{{mathematics}} ==''' Complex Functions '''== * Complex Functions ([[Media:CAnal.1.A.CFunction.20140222.Basic.pdf|1.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.B.CFunction.20140111.Octave.pdf|1.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.C.CFunction.20140111.Extend.pdf|1.C.pdf]]) * Complex Exponential and Logarithm ([[Media:CAnal.5.A.CLog.20131017.pdf|5.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.5.A.Octave.pdf|5.B.pdf]]) * Complex Trigonometric and Hyperbolic ([[Media:CAnal.7.A.CTrigHyper..pdf|7.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.7.A.Octave..pdf|7.B.pdf]]) '''Complex Function Note''' : 1. Exp and Log Function Note ([[Media:ComplexExp.29160721.pdf|H1.pdf]]) : 2. Trig and TrigH Function Note ([[Media:CAnal.Trig-H.29160901.pdf|H1.pdf]]) : 3. Inverse Trig and TrigH Functions Note ([[Media:CAnal.Hyper.29160829.pdf|H1.pdf]]) ==''' Complex Integrals '''== * Complex Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.2.A.CIntegral.20140224.Basic.pdf|2.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.B.CIntegral.20140117.Octave.pdf|2.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.C.CIntegral.20140117.Extend.pdf|2.C.pdf]]) ==''' Complex Series '''== * Complex Series ([[Media:CPX.Series.20150226.2.Basic.pdf|3.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.B.CSeries.20140121.Octave.pdf|3.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.C.CSeries.20140303.Extend.pdf|3.C.pdf]]) ==''' Residue Integrals '''== * Residue Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.4.A.Residue.20140227.Basic.pdf|4.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.B.pdf|4.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.C.Residue.20140423.Extend.pdf|4.C.pdf]]) ==='''Residue Integrals Note'''=== * Laurent Series with the Residue Theorem Note ([[Media:Laurent.1.Residue.20170713.pdf|H1.pdf]]) * Laurent Series with Applications Note ([[Media:Laurent.2.Applications.20170327.pdf|H1.pdf]]) * Laurent Series and the z-Transform Note ([[Media:Laurent.3.z-Trans.20170831.pdf|H1.pdf]]) * Laurent Series as a Geometric Series Note ([[Media:Laurent.4.GSeries.20170802.pdf|H1.pdf]]) === Laurent Series and the z-Transform Example Note === * Overview ([[Media:Laurent.4.z-Example.20170926.pdf|H1.pdf]]) ====Geometric Series Examples==== * Causality ([[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.A.20191026n.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.B.20191026.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Time Shift ([[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.A.20191028.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.B.20191029.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Reciprocity ([[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3A.20191030.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3B.20191031.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Combinations ([[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4A.20200702.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4B.20201002.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5A.20220105.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5B.20220126.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Permutations ([[Media:Laurent.6.Permutation.6A.20230711.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6B.20251225.pdf|B.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6C.20260629.pdf|C.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6C.20240528.pdf|D.pdf]]) * Applications ([[Media:Laurent.5.Application.6B.20220723.pdf|A.pdf]]) * Double Pole Case :- Examples ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7A.20220722.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7B.20220720.pdf|B.pdf]]) :- Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5A.20190226.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5B.20190228.pdf|B.pdf]]) ====The Case Examples==== * Example Overview : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.0.A.20171208.pdf|0A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.6.CaseExample.0.B.20180205.pdf|0B.pdf]]) * Example Case 1 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.A.20171107.pdf|1A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.B.20171227.pdf|1B.pdf]]) * Example Case 2 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.A.20171107.pdf|2A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.B.20171227.pdf|2B.pdf]]) * Example Case 3 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.A.20171017.pdf|3A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.B.20171226.pdf|3B.pdf]]) * Example Case 4 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.A.20171017.pdf|4A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.B.20171228.pdf|4B.pdf]]) * Example Summary : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.A.20171212.pdf|5A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.B.20171230.pdf|5B.pdf]]) ==''' Conformal Mapping '''== * Conformal Mapping ([[Media:CAnal.6.A.Conformal.20131224.pdf|6.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.6.A.Octave..pdf|6.B.pdf]]) go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Complex analysis]] ipgbctphz5cdh9ds7obj7yamd7y2k27 0 223880 2817363 2792011 2026-06-30T08:23:48Z Alexander-Barth 3097879 reference to exercises page 2817363 wikitext text/x-wiki {{merge|Quadratic equation}} {{merge|Quadratic Equation}} ==Quadratic equation== General form :<math>x^2 + \frac{b}{a} x + \frac{c}{a}=0.</math> ==Derivation of the formula== The quadratic formula can be derived with a simple application of technique of [[completing the square]].Divide the quadratic equation by {{math|''a''}}, which is allowed because {{math|''a''}} is non-zero: :<math>x^2 + \frac{b}{a} x + \frac{c}{a}=0.</math> Subtract {{math|{{sfrac|''c''|''a''}}}} from both sides of the equation, yielding: :<math>x^2 + \frac{b}{a} x= -\frac{c}{a}.</math> The quadratic equation is now in a form to which the method of [[completing the square]] can be applied. Thus, add a constant to both sides of the equation such that the left hand side becomes a complete square: :<math>x^2+\frac{b}{a}x+\left( \frac{b}{2a} \right)^2 =-\frac{c}{a}+\left( \frac{b}{2a} \right)^2,</math> which produces: :<math>\left(x+\frac{b}{2a}\right)^2=-\frac{c}{a}+\frac{b^2}{4a^2}.</math> Accordingly, after rearranging the terms on the right hand side to have a common denominator, we obtain: :<math>\left(x+\frac{b}{2a}\right)^2=\frac{b^2-4ac}{4a^2}.</math> The square has thus been completed. Taking the [[W:square root|square root]] of both sides yields the following equation: :<math>x+\frac{b}{2a}=\pm\frac{\sqrt{b^2-4ac\ }}{2a}.</math> Isolating {{math|''x''}} gives the quadratic formula: :<math>x=\frac{-b\pm\sqrt{b^2-4ac\ }}{2a}.</math> The [[W:plus-minus sign|plus-minus symbol "±"]] indicates that both :<math> x=\frac{-b + \sqrt {b^2-4ac}}{2a}\quad\text{and}\quad x=\frac{-b - \sqrt {b^2-4ac}}{2a}</math> are solutions of the quadratic equation.<ref>{{Citation|last=Sterling|first=Mary Jane|title=Algebra I For Dummies|year=2010|publisher=Wiley Publishing|isbn=978-0-470-55964-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2toggaqJMzEC&pg=PA219&dq=quadratic+formula#v=onepage&q=quadratic%20formula&f=false|page=219}}</ref> There are many alternatives of this derivation with minor differences, mostly concerning the manipulation of {{math|''a''}}. Some sources, particularly older ones, use alternative parameterizations of the quadratic equation such as {{math|1=''ax''² − 2''bx'' + ''c'' = 0}}<ref name="kahan">{{Citation |first=Willian |last=Kahan |title=On the Cost of Floating-Point Computation Without Extra-Precise Arithmetic |url=http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~wkahan/Qdrtcs.pdf |date=November 20, 2004 |accessdate=2012-12-25}}</ref> or {{math|1=''ax''² + 2''bx'' + ''c'' = 0}},<ref>{{cite web |url=https://proofwiki.org/wiki/Solution_to_Quadratic_Equation |title=Solution to Quadratic Equation |website=ProofWiki |access-date=2026-02-15}}</ref> where {{math|''b''}} has a magnitude one half of the more common one. These result in slightly different forms for the solution, but are otherwise equivalent. A lesser known quadratic formula, as used in [[W:Muller's method|Muller's method]], and which can be found from [[W:Vieta's formulas|Vieta's formulas]], provides the same roots via the equation: :<math>x=\frac{2c}{-b\mp\sqrt{b^2-4ac}}.</math> ==Exercises== For exercises see [[Quadratic equation (exercise)]]. ==References== {{reflist}} ofeg6q408vz7jjo4w2zkbaz5r3ndhhw 2817364 2817363 2026-06-30T08:25:56Z Alexander-Barth 3097879 /* Quadratic equation */ 2817364 wikitext text/x-wiki {{merge|Quadratic equation}} {{merge|Quadratic Equation}} ==Quadratic equation== General form of the quadratic equation is :<math>a x^2 + b x + c = 0.</math> where <math>a</math> is different from zero (otherwise the equation would be linear). ==Derivation of the formula== The quadratic formula can be derived with a simple application of technique of [[completing the square]].Divide the quadratic equation by {{math|''a''}}, which is allowed because {{math|''a''}} is non-zero: :<math>x^2 + \frac{b}{a} x + \frac{c}{a}=0.</math> Subtract {{math|{{sfrac|''c''|''a''}}}} from both sides of the equation, yielding: :<math>x^2 + \frac{b}{a} x= -\frac{c}{a}.</math> The quadratic equation is now in a form to which the method of [[completing the square]] can be applied. Thus, add a constant to both sides of the equation such that the left hand side becomes a complete square: :<math>x^2+\frac{b}{a}x+\left( \frac{b}{2a} \right)^2 =-\frac{c}{a}+\left( \frac{b}{2a} \right)^2,</math> which produces: :<math>\left(x+\frac{b}{2a}\right)^2=-\frac{c}{a}+\frac{b^2}{4a^2}.</math> Accordingly, after rearranging the terms on the right hand side to have a common denominator, we obtain: :<math>\left(x+\frac{b}{2a}\right)^2=\frac{b^2-4ac}{4a^2}.</math> The square has thus been completed. Taking the [[W:square root|square root]] of both sides yields the following equation: :<math>x+\frac{b}{2a}=\pm\frac{\sqrt{b^2-4ac\ }}{2a}.</math> Isolating {{math|''x''}} gives the quadratic formula: :<math>x=\frac{-b\pm\sqrt{b^2-4ac\ }}{2a}.</math> The [[W:plus-minus sign|plus-minus symbol "±"]] indicates that both :<math> x=\frac{-b + \sqrt {b^2-4ac}}{2a}\quad\text{and}\quad x=\frac{-b - \sqrt {b^2-4ac}}{2a}</math> are solutions of the quadratic equation.<ref>{{Citation|last=Sterling|first=Mary Jane|title=Algebra I For Dummies|year=2010|publisher=Wiley Publishing|isbn=978-0-470-55964-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2toggaqJMzEC&pg=PA219&dq=quadratic+formula#v=onepage&q=quadratic%20formula&f=false|page=219}}</ref> There are many alternatives of this derivation with minor differences, mostly concerning the manipulation of {{math|''a''}}. Some sources, particularly older ones, use alternative parameterizations of the quadratic equation such as {{math|1=''ax''² − 2''bx'' + ''c'' = 0}}<ref name="kahan">{{Citation |first=Willian |last=Kahan |title=On the Cost of Floating-Point Computation Without Extra-Precise Arithmetic |url=http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~wkahan/Qdrtcs.pdf |date=November 20, 2004 |accessdate=2012-12-25}}</ref> or {{math|1=''ax''² + 2''bx'' + ''c'' = 0}},<ref>{{cite web |url=https://proofwiki.org/wiki/Solution_to_Quadratic_Equation |title=Solution to Quadratic Equation |website=ProofWiki |access-date=2026-02-15}}</ref> where {{math|''b''}} has a magnitude one half of the more common one. These result in slightly different forms for the solution, but are otherwise equivalent. A lesser known quadratic formula, as used in [[W:Muller's method|Muller's method]], and which can be found from [[W:Vieta's formulas|Vieta's formulas]], provides the same roots via the equation: :<math>x=\frac{2c}{-b\mp\sqrt{b^2-4ac}}.</math> ==Exercises== For exercises see [[Quadratic equation (exercise)]]. ==References== {{reflist}} mu83jz8m5qmsjz7bib4nfvvbqiqzbqd 2817365 2817364 2026-06-30T08:30:59Z Alexander-Barth 3097879 fix punctuation 2817365 wikitext text/x-wiki {{merge|Quadratic equation}} {{merge|Quadratic Equation}} ==Quadratic equation== General form of the quadratic equation is :<math>a x^2 + b x + c = 0,</math> where <math>a</math> is different from zero (otherwise the equation would be linear). ==Derivation of the formula== The quadratic formula can be derived with a simple application of technique of [[completing the square]].Divide the quadratic equation by {{math|''a''}}, which is allowed because {{math|''a''}} is non-zero: :<math>x^2 + \frac{b}{a} x + \frac{c}{a}=0.</math> Subtract {{math|{{sfrac|''c''|''a''}}}} from both sides of the equation, yielding: :<math>x^2 + \frac{b}{a} x= -\frac{c}{a}.</math> The quadratic equation is now in a form to which the method of [[completing the square]] can be applied. Thus, add a constant to both sides of the equation such that the left hand side becomes a complete square: :<math>x^2+\frac{b}{a}x+\left( \frac{b}{2a} \right)^2 =-\frac{c}{a}+\left( \frac{b}{2a} \right)^2,</math> which produces: :<math>\left(x+\frac{b}{2a}\right)^2=-\frac{c}{a}+\frac{b^2}{4a^2}.</math> Accordingly, after rearranging the terms on the right hand side to have a common denominator, we obtain: :<math>\left(x+\frac{b}{2a}\right)^2=\frac{b^2-4ac}{4a^2}.</math> The square has thus been completed. Taking the [[W:square root|square root]] of both sides yields the following equation: :<math>x+\frac{b}{2a}=\pm\frac{\sqrt{b^2-4ac\ }}{2a}.</math> Isolating {{math|''x''}} gives the quadratic formula: :<math>x=\frac{-b\pm\sqrt{b^2-4ac\ }}{2a}.</math> The [[W:plus-minus sign|plus-minus symbol "±"]] indicates that both :<math> x=\frac{-b + \sqrt {b^2-4ac}}{2a}\quad\text{and}\quad x=\frac{-b - \sqrt {b^2-4ac}}{2a}</math> are solutions of the quadratic equation.<ref>{{Citation|last=Sterling|first=Mary Jane|title=Algebra I For Dummies|year=2010|publisher=Wiley Publishing|isbn=978-0-470-55964-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2toggaqJMzEC&pg=PA219&dq=quadratic+formula#v=onepage&q=quadratic%20formula&f=false|page=219}}</ref> There are many alternatives of this derivation with minor differences, mostly concerning the manipulation of {{math|''a''}}. Some sources, particularly older ones, use alternative parameterizations of the quadratic equation such as {{math|1=''ax''² − 2''bx'' + ''c'' = 0}}<ref name="kahan">{{Citation |first=Willian |last=Kahan |title=On the Cost of Floating-Point Computation Without Extra-Precise Arithmetic |url=http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~wkahan/Qdrtcs.pdf |date=November 20, 2004 |accessdate=2012-12-25}}</ref> or {{math|1=''ax''² + 2''bx'' + ''c'' = 0}},<ref>{{cite web |url=https://proofwiki.org/wiki/Solution_to_Quadratic_Equation |title=Solution to Quadratic Equation |website=ProofWiki |access-date=2026-02-15}}</ref> where {{math|''b''}} has a magnitude one half of the more common one. These result in slightly different forms for the solution, but are otherwise equivalent. A lesser known quadratic formula, as used in [[W:Muller's method|Muller's method]], and which can be found from [[W:Vieta's formulas|Vieta's formulas]], provides the same roots via the equation: :<math>x=\frac{2c}{-b\mp\sqrt{b^2-4ac}}.</math> ==Exercises== For exercises see [[Quadratic equation (exercise)]]. ==References== {{reflist}} lg76v6m63vkhbdgufz5f3xtojtyuecs 0 269370 2817306 2816689 2026-06-29T16:59:33Z James500 297601 /* Japan */ Add 2817306 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} See also [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]. See [[w:Category:Bibliographies of countries or regions]] and [[w:Category:Works about countries]]. This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of countries (including former countries). ==Countries== *Bateman and Egan (eds). The Encyclopedia of World Geography: A Country by Country Guide. 1993. Revised 1997. *Peter Stalker. Handbook of the World. 2000. A Guide to Countries of the World. (Oxford Guide to Countries of the World. 2nd Ed: 2004, 2nd Revised Ed: 2007 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GtztAAAAMAAJ], 3rd Ed: 2010 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gvKvfxkbZ1AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Countries of the World and Their Leaders Yearbook. Gale. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5etKAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p41OAAAAIAAJ] *Hutchinson Guide to Countries of the World [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgpjUe4kN_IC] *The World Guide: Global Reference, Country by Country. 11th Ed: 2007 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EoWoLgAACAAJ] *Spence. The World Today: A Nation-by-Nation Guide. Cassell. 1994. 1999. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ub8qOQAACAAJ] *Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I0oYAQAAMAAJ] *Kurian. Encyclopedia of the World's Nations. Facts on File. Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Y1EnAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lz0RAQAAMAAJ] *Michael O'Mara. Facts about the World's Nations. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mygYAAAAIAAJ] *Status of the World's Nations. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sftEyRbAXMUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kw2U_Cg2gKYC&pg=PP3#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *[[s:Author:John Alexander Hammerton|Hammerton, John Alexander]] (ed). Countries of the World. Published at the Fleetway House. 6 vols. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e6IaAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K5oaAQAAMAAJ] *[[s:Author:Robert Brown (1842-1895)|Brown, Robert]]. The Countries of the World. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nO0DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP13#v=onepage&q&f=false] *A Morely Dell. The Countries of the World. (Harrap's New Geographical Series). 1932. (School certificate). Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oSS9PB_Jf7AC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BicVAAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5qBOAAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbwcAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sc1AAAAAIAAJ] General series: *National Geographic Countries of the World [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IT2wfzVIPykC] *Countries of the World. Evans Brothers. (GCSE) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=a3sZvWc7E1EC&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *One Europe. Longman. [https://search.worldcat.org/en/title/west-germany-adapted-by-lj-russon-from-the-original-german-by-sylvia-lof-ingrid-mallberg-dietrich-rosenthal/oclc/561591761] *Collier's Nations of the World. The Nations of the World: An Historical Series. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VJY-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PP8#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Collier's History of Nations. The History of Nations. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fmSUfTY5E80C] *The Story of the Nations. T Fisher Unwin. *The World and Its Peoples. (The Illustrated Library of the World and Its Peoples). Greystone Press, New York. *World and Its Peoples. Marshall Cavendish. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oms5xjI7ba0C&pg=PA141#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==England== ===Counties=== See [[s:Portal:Counties]] * Harrison, "County Bibliography" (1886) 3 Library Chronicle [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wz9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA49#v=onepage&q&f=false 49] General series *Victoria County History *Oxford County Histories *Pinnock's County Histories *Shire County Guides. Shire Publications. *Cambridge County Geographies *Pike's New Century Series *[[s:Page:County Churches of Cornwall.djvu/6|County Churches]]. G Allen. Avon *Moore. Avon Local History Handbook. Phillimore. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h0kjAAAAMAAJ] Bibliography, p 102 Bedfordshire *Conisbee, Lewis Ralph. A Bedfordshire Bibliography. Bedfordshire Historical Record Society. Bedford. 1962. Supplements 1967, 1971, 1978. Third supplement by Threadgill. Review: 6 Archives 52 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oOMZAAAAYAAJ]. See also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MjspAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PejgAAAAMAAJ] *Godber. History of Bedfordshire. 1969. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jdvwPQAACAAJ] *Pinnock. The History and Topography of Bedfordshire [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9bJYAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Parry. Select Illustrations, Historical and Topographical, of Bedfordshire [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UTUJAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Blyth. The History of Bedford and Visitor's Guide. 1873 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IuIGAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Cambridge County Geographies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kTc8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Buckinghamshire *Reed. A History of Buckinghamshire. 1993 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BtkWAQAAIAAJ] Cambridgeshire *Carter. History of the County of Cambridge [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jXpbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Babington. Ancient Cambridgeshire [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DPrCAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Devon *Ravenhill and Rowe. Devon Maps and Map-makers [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tjf2yAEACAAJ] *Wright. A Plea for a Devonshire Bibliography. 1885 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8ZUDAAAAQAAJ] Derbyshire *Woore. A Catalogue of Local Maps of Derbyshire, C.1528-1800. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oWmCMwEACAAJ] *O'Neal. A Bibliography of Derbyshire Lead Mining. 1961 Essex *Cunnington. Catalogue of Books, Maps and Manuscripts, relating to or connected with the County of Essex. 1902 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oIcqpibGE4MC] *"The Bibliography of Essex" (1882) 1 Antiquarian Magazine & Bibliographer [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dEkEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA72#v=onepage&q&f=false 72]. See also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dEkEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA283#v=onepage&q&f=false p 283]. *"The Bibliography of Essex" (1891) 5 The Essex Naturalist 30 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iIo1AQAAMAAJ] *Moon. Essex Literature. 1900. Review: 61 Literary World 438 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2T0ZAAAAYAAJ] See also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Y4UAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C_pEAAAAMAAJ] *Fenn and Lowery, "An Essex Bibliography", Journal of the South West Essex Technical College, vols 2 & 3 *Victoria County History bibliography. 1959 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2EJAQAAIAAJ] *O'Leary, John Gerard. A Supplement to the Essex Bibliography. Dagenham. 1962. *A Bibliography of Essex Archaeology & History *Essex and Dagenham: A Catalogue of Books, Pamphlets and Maps. Dagenham. 1961 *Essex Archaeology and History: The Transactions of the Essex Society for Archaeological and History [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CtFAAAAAYAAJ] *Essex Naturalist: Being the Journal of the Essex Field Club *Wright. The History and Topography of the County of Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SgQVAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP9#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ogborne, The History of Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IeVSAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Suckling. Memorials of the Antiquities and Architecture, Family History and Heraldry of the County of Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bcw_AAAAcAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hunter, The Essex Landscape: A Study of Its Form and History [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=w9kWAQAAIAAJ] *Cambridge County Geography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GPHa_X_0qo0C&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Sokoll. Essex  Pauper Letters, 1731-1837 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rCLia7XlqtMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Morant. The History and Antiquities of Colchester in the County of Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DDgtAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP9#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Wallen. The History and Antiquities of the Round Church at Little Maplestead, Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FPYVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kent *Smith. Bibliotheca Cantiana. 1837. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1dJDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP11#v=onepage&q&f=false] Leicestershire *Kirkby, C V (compiler). Catalogue of the books, pamphlets, &c., relating to Leicestershire in the Central Reference Library. Leicester Free Public Libraries. 1893. Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3boqAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA84#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UcHnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA728#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Leicestershire and Rutland Bibliography, 1963-65 (1966) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-OhVAAAAYAAJ 40] Leicestershire Archaeological and Historical Society: Transactions (1964/5) 92. Available as pdf from University of Leicester. *Leicestershire and Rutland Bibliography, 1961-63. Available as pdf from University of Leicester. *Leicestershire and Rutland Bibliography, 1960-61. Available as pdf from University of Leicester. *A Bibliography of the Small Towns in Leicestershire and Rutland, 1600–1850. (Dissertation). [https://repository.lboro.ac.uk/articles/educational_resource/A_bibliography_of_the_small_towns_in_Leicestershire_and_Rutland_1600_1850/9414200] *Loughborough's Heritage: A Bibliography of the Holdings of Leicestershire Libraries and Information Service and Record Office. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Bwx2zgEACAAJ] *Keith Ambrose and Frank Williams, "Bibliography of the Geology of Leicestershire and Rutland: Part 2: 1971-2003" (2004) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U-tQAQAAIAAJ 16] The Mercian Geologist 5. Available as pdf from East Midlands Geological Society. *Parsons and Brandwood. A Bibliography of Leicestershire Churches. 1978. *Education in Leicestershire: A Bibliography. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X6EfzQEACAAJ] Sussex *Brent, Fletcher and McCann. Sussex in the 16th and 17th Centuries: A Bibliography. 2nd Ed [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I7UtAAAAYAAJ] *Farrant. Sussex in the 18th and 19th Centuries: A Bibliography. 1st Ed: 1973, 2nd Ed: 1977 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MLUtAAAAYAAJ], 3rd Ed: 1979 ==France== Bibliography: *Bibliographie de la France. Commentary: Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science, vol 37, supplement 2, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=10rgjNvOV8oC&pg=PA145#v=onepage&q&f=false p 145]; The Bookseller, 6 January 1881, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4dsiAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA10#v=onepage&q&f=false p 10]; Stein, Manuel de bibliographie générale, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lJYPyKjV1qYC&pg=PA23#v=onepage&q&f=false p 23]. *Girault de Saint-Fargeau. Bibliographie historique et topographique de la France. 1845 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kClB9CQNZoMC&pg=PP9#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Catalogue d'une collection d'ouvrages sur l'histoire des provinces de la France. 1842 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qQBX5WZouzAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Landscape: *Beaujeu-Garnier. France. (The World's Landscapes). 1975. [https://books.google.com/books?id=nwxDAQAAIAAJ] Agenais: *Andrieu. Bibliographie générale de l’Agenais et des parties du Condomois et du Bazadais. 1886 to 1891. Reprinted 1969. Alsace: *Ristelhuber. Bibliographie alsacienne. 1869 to 1873 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mhLAQAAMAAJ&pg=PP13#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Bibliographie alsacienne: Revue critique des publications concernant l'Alsace. 1918 to 1936 *Ritter. Répertoire bibliographique des livres imprimés en Alsace aux XVe et XVIe siècles [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DewaAQAAMAAJ] Angoumois: *Castaigne. Essai d'une bibliothèque historique de l'Angoumois, ou Catalogue raisonné des principaux ouvrages qui traitent des différentes branches de l'histoire de cette province. 1847 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R-UanmmlvAEC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] Anjou: *Braguier and Braguier. Archéologie en Anjou: bibliographie. 1984 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LvsmAQAAIAAJ] Auvergne: *Gonot. Catalogue des ouvrages imprimés et manuscrits concernant l'Auvergne, extrait du catalogue général de la Bibliotlèque de Clermont-Fd (Puy-de-Dome). 1849. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yCFtbObRCbUC&pg=PP13#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Catalogue des livres et estampes concernant l'ancienne Province d'Auvergne (Puy-de-Dôme, Cantal, Haute-Loire) réunis par feu M. G. Desbouis. 1865. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ui4S8_D0N74C&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] Béarn *"Bibliographie Béarnaise", Revue de Pau et du Béarn [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FuZnAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FQYqvPo9D9IC&pg=PA158#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RL9VAAAAYAAJ] Brittany *Sacher. Bibliographie de la Bretagne, ou Catalogue général des ouvrages historiques, littéraires et scientifiques parus sur la Bretagne, avec la liste des revues publiées en cette province, les prix approximatifs des volumes rares, etc. 1881 [https://archive.org/details/bibliographiede00sach] Burgundy: *Milsand. Bibliographie bourguignonne; ou, Catalogue méthodique d'ouvrages relatifs à la Bourgogne: Sciences - Arts - Histoire. 1885 [https://archive.org/details/bibliographiebo00milsgoog] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographiebo00sciegoog] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CxIIAAAAQAAJ] *Catalogue des manuscrits de la Bibliothèque royale des ducs de Bourgogne. 1842 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX5MAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *The Companion Guide to Burgundy [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NraRP0AkDT0C&pg=PP3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lecat. The Golden Book of Burgundy. (The Golden Book) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FyzR9qU1Zl4C&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gwynn. Burgundy: With Chapters on the Jura and Savoy. (Kitbag Travel Books). 1935 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ny1LAAAAMAAJ] *Bazin. Wonderful Burgundy. 1988. 1997 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Yt1CRdICWCUC] *Bailey. Burgundy. (Insight Guides). 1993 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q69a1dMW2NQC] *Dunlop. Burgundy. Hamilton.1990 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S_1OAAAAMAAJ] Champagne: *Lhermitte. Ouvrages sur la Champagne: contribution à la bibliographie champenoise. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jbPfAAAAMAAJ] Dauphiné: *Mélanges biographiques et bibliographiques relatifs à l'histoire littéraire du Dauphiné par Colomb de Batines et Ollivier Jules. 1837 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2F5MAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Lorraine: *Bibliographie lorraine. Académie nationale de Metz [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n-DfAAAAMAAJ] Maine: *Desportes. Bibliographie du Maine, précédée de la description topographique et hydrographique du diocése du Mans, Sarthe et Mayenne. 1844. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hSk-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Normandy: *Frère. Manuel du bibliographe Normand ou dictionnaire bibliographique et historique. 1858 to 1860. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dp6geJClg1YC&pg=PP13#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1] ==Japan== Bibliography *Jozef Rogala. A Collector's Guide to Books on Japan in English: An Annotated List of Over 2500 Titles with Subject Index. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7KI9ao-w2FEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ria Koopmans-de Bruijn. Area Bibliography of Japan. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies). Scarecrow Press. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hlx2OMjgUi0C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Frank Joseph Shulman. Japan. (World Bibliographical Series, vol 103). Clio Press. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LsoUAQAAIAAJ] *Eibun Nihon Kankei Tosho Mokuroku, 1945-1981. (Japanese: 英文日本関係図書目録, 1945-1981). (English: Catalogue of Books in English on Japan, 1945-1981). Japan Foundation. Tokyo. 1986. *Japan: analytical bibliography: with supplementary research aids: and selected data on Okinawa . . . Department of the Army. Washington. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h4d4nYxrxtMC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Books on Japan in Western Languages. The International Christian University Library. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2bQAAAAMAAJ] *Books on Japan: A List of Acquisitions, 1955-1970. International House of Japan Library. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8sWAQAAIAAJ] *Fukuda. Union Catalog of Books on Japan in Western Languages. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HKYyAQAAIAAJ] *A Classified List of Books in Western Languages Relating to Japan. University of Tokyo Press. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U8MUAQAAIAAJ] *Katsuji Yabuki (ed). Japan Bibliographic Annual. Published by the Hokuseido Press for the Japan Writers Society. 1956 and 1957. **Japan Bibliographic Annual 1956. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9XLQAAAAMAAJ] **Japan Bibliographic Annual 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vesSAAAAIAAJ]. Reviews: (1957) 13 Monumenta Nipponica 166 (April-July) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8S1yb-iwrOwC] (1957) 25 The Oriental Economist 212 (April) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QELoAAAAMAAJ] *Haring. Books on Japan: A Reference List. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RbDoAAAAMAAJ] *Borton. A Selected List of Books and Articles on Japan in English, French, and German. 1940: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YYIsAAAAYAAJ]. Revised and enlarged. Harvard University Press. 1954: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8O2VwJUPUkC]. **A Selected List of Books on Japan in Western Languages (1945-1960). (Studies on Asia Abroad, vol 1). The Information Centre of Asian Studies, The Toyo Bunko. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i1_QAAAAMAAJ] *Oskar Nachod. Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0001oska/page/n8/mode/1up vol 1]. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/n6/mode/1up vol 2]. *Fr. von Wenckstern. A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire: being a Classified List of All Books, Essays and Maps in European Languages relating to Dai Nihon (Great Japan) published in Europe, America and in the East from 1859-93 . . . 1895. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v7lO4ddqDywC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Volume 2, from 1894 to the middle of 1906. 1907. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/n6/mode/1up] *Hyman Kublin. What Shall I Read on Japan? An Introductory Guide. Japan Society, New York. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yRRUAAAAYAAJ] Japanese studies *An Introductory Bibliography for Japanese Studies. The Japan Foundation. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=53O6AAAAIAAJ] *Richard Perren. Japanese Studies from Pre-History to 1990: A Bibliographical Guide. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CN9RAQAAIAAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. "Bibliographies" at pp 1 to 3. *K.B.S. Bibliography of Standard Reference Books for Japanese Studies, with Descriptive Notes. University of Tokyo Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=95wbAAAAMAAJ] *[[w:en:Japan Forum]]. British Association for Japanese Studies. [https://www.tandfonline.com/journals/rjfo20] History and culture *John W Dower. Japanese History & Culture from Ancient to Modern Times: Seven Basic Bibliographies. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NX67AAAAIAAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. "Bibliographies & Research Guides" at chapter 6. Research guides *Mindy L Kotler. Information Gathering on Japan: A Primer. Search Associates. 1988. ISBN 9780962546006. Catalogue: [https://search.worldcat.org/zh-cn/title/Information-gathering-on-Japan-Joho-:-a-primer/oclc/20530148]. Review: (1989) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NZLiAAAAMAAJ 27] Choice 82 Encyclopedias See also [[w:ja:Japanese encyclopedias]] *Louis-Frédéric. Japan Encyclopedia. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Japan: An Illustrated Encyclopedia. Kodansha. 1993. **Japan: Profile of a Nation. Kodansha. 1995. Revised Edition. 1999. *[[w:Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan|Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan]]. 1983. Supplement. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WvApAQAAMAAJ] *Dorothy Perkins. Encyclopedia of Japan: Japanese History and Culture, from Abacus to Zori. Facts on File. A Roundtable Press Book. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JLKGAAAAIAAJ] *Pictorial Encyclopedia of Modern Japan. Gakken. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0FgKAQAAIAAJ] *Boye Layfayette De Mente. Japan Encyclopedia. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=f9c7AAAAMAAJ] **Boye De Mente. Everything Japanese. [The Authoritave Reference on Japan Today]. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Duku89bARgoC] Media *[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-15217593 Japan media guide]. News. BBC. 20 March 2023. *Masaaki Kasagi. Mass Media in Japan. (Orientation seminars on Japan, number 14). 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=odkgAAAAIAAJ] *Routledge Handbook of Japanese Media [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zilKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Publishers *[https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/international/international-book-news/article/99729-get-to-know-these-japanese-publishing-companies.html Get to Know These Japanese Publishing Companies]. Publishers Weekly. 20 February 2026. Press and journalism *[https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/digital-news-report/2025/japan Japan]. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. 17 June 2025. *Marjane Aalam and Philippe Régnier. The Japanese Press and Information System. The Graduate Institute of International Studies. Geneva. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RTcbAQAAIAAJ] *The Japanese Press: Past and Present. Japan Newspaper Publishers' and Editors' Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5tcQAAAAIAAJ 1949]. *Anthony Rausch. Japanese Journalism and the Japanese Newspaper: A Supplemental Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mZrToQEACAAJ] *Frank L Martin. The Journalism of Japan. 1918. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ruYzAQAAMAAJ] *William De Lange. A History of Japanese Journalism. Japan Library. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Rd5tb0cuz8QC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kanesada Hanazono. The Development of Japanese Journalism. Osaka. 1924. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z99ZAAAAMAAJ] *Kanesada Hanazono. Journalism in Japan and Its Early Pioneers. 1926. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IGTFfLc4bq0C] *César Castellvi. A Sociology of Journalism in Japan: The Last Empire of the Press. 2024. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=a2z8EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] *"Japan". Christopher H Sterling (ed). Encyclopedia of Journalism. A Sage Reference Publication. 2009. ISBN 9780761929574. vol 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZQhDq8fPj2IC&pg=PA809#v=onepage&q&f=false 809] to 815. Press annuals *The Japanese Press. (Nihon Shinbun Kyokai). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AfvyAAAAMAAJ 1979] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Au3yAAAAMAAJ 1998] Summaries of the press *Daily Summary of Japanese Press Foreign correspondents *Foreign Correspondents in Japan: Reporting a Half Century of Upheavals, from 1945 to the Present. Tuttle. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YI3TAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Periodicals *Nunn (comp). Japanese Periodicals and Newspapers in Western Languages: An International Union List. Mansell. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEROAQAAIAAJ] *Japan Periodicals. Keizai Koho Center. 3rd Ed [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ATm0AAAAIAAJ]. Japan Periodicals, 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PkMyAAAAMAAJ] *Japanese Periodicals Index **Humanities and Social Sciences [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nXX_RpPGf3AC] **Natural Sciences [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FCJIAAAAYAAJ] *Current Japanese Periodicals [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FjO5AAAAIAAJ] *Check-list of Japanese Periodicals Held in British University and Research Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VZgsAAAAYAAJ] *Union List of Current Japanese Periodicals in the East Asian Libraries of Columbia, Harvard, Princeton, and Yale Universities. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yw7kAAAAMAAJ] *List of Japanese Periodicals in the Library of the School of Oriental & African Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RREjAQAAIAAJ] *Gianni Simone. [https://www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2011/04/26/issues/english-mags-approach-milestone-crossroads/ English mags approach milestone, crossroads]. The Japan Times. 26 April 2011. *Japan Report (1955 onwards) (Consulate General of Japan, Japan Information Center). Vol 39 published in 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MX4BN_frv4IC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] editions:jYuMSMIQC-AC **Japan Information *Japan Now [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nul7DRQaexMC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Japan Quarterly. (Asahi Shimbun). 1954 to 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nZMMAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_RwVAAAAMAAJ] 189 issues. *Japan Illustrated: The Japan Times Quarterly [Pictorial] Magazine (October 1963 to Summer 1977) 15 vols [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=D7UThOmE8T4C] *[[w:Japan Spotlight|Japan Spotlight]]. Economy, Culture & History: Japan Spotlight: Bimonthly. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i7C0AAAAIAAJ] *Focus Japan. (Japan External Trade Organization, JETRO). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2fG2hsEZpRkC] *The Japan Journal [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2V3hAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CJwoAQAAMAAJ] *Japan Magazine. Muromachi Publicity Corporation. (vols 1 to 5: 1957 to 1963). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Swd18PnVeUgC] *The Japan Magazine: A Representative Monthly of Things Japanese [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ubGKo-p6O_0C] [https://archive.org/details/jm-1914-v4.9-5.2/mode/1up] *Transactions and Proceedings of the Japan Society, London [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B75nnph5qHgC&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Bulletin. [Bulletin of the Japan Society, London.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pd9KvyhnpjMC] **The Japan Society of London Bulletin [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XxlxAAAAMAAJ] *About Japan. Japan Society, New York. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nf5OAQAAIAAJ] **News Bulletin [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_QcA3AQAAIAAJ/page/n2/mode/1up] *[[w:en:Metropolis (free magazine)|Metropolis]] (metropolisjapan.com) *[[w:en:Tokyo Weekender|Tokyo Weekender]] (トーキョー・ウィークエンダー) [https://www.tokyoweekender.com/japan-life/news-and-opinion/nhk-world-features-the-tokyo-weekender-magazine/] *The Japan Gazette [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WSopAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *The Tokio Times [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UDfiFBu0vB4C&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *[[w:en:Look Japan|Look Japan]]. (Look Japan Ltd). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QnO6AAAAIAAJ]. Commentary: Gale Directory of Publications and Broadcast Media [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ve4dAQAAMAAJ] *[[w:en:Japan Echo|Japan Echo]]. 1974 to 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Cmq6AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fpmEPpl-85UC] *PHP Intersect. (Where Japan Meets Asia and the World). PHP Institute. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i74TAQAAMAAJ] **Intersect Japan [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sL8TAQAAMAAJ] *Speaking of Japan [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U7S0AAAAIAAJ]. [Speeches.] *The Hansei Zasshi: A Monthly Magazine [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6qBhfHZo7Q0C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false][https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dyIsvnYjpwEC&pg=PP6#v=onepage&q&f=false] **The Orient. 1899 onwards [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nS1omYYnnd4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Today's Japan. Orient/West Incorporated. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g2ASAAAAMAAJ] *Japan Review: Bulletin of the International Research Center for Japanese Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GggOAQAAMAAJ] Newspapers See also [[w:List of newspapers in Japan]] *Tanner. English Language Newspapers in Bakumatsu Japan. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=a2z8EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *[https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2009/03/03/reference/newspapers-here-soldiering-on/ Newspapers here soldiering on]. The Japan Times. 3 March 2009. *[[w:The Japan Times|The Japan Times]] **The Japan Times: Weekly Edition [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KoQ-AQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yYQ-AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Japan Daily Mail *Japan Weekly Mail *The Japan Chronicle **Weekly Edition [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vXdRAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *The Japan News. (The Japan News by The Yomiuri Shimbun) **Yomiuri Japan News (from 1955) **The Yomiuri (from 1958) **The Daily Yomiuri (from 1970) *The Asahi Shimbun: Asia & Japan Watch. [https://www.asahi.com/sp/ajw/] **Asahi Evening News (from 1954) ***Tokyo Evening News (1952 to 1954) [https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/books/R100000002-I000000145073] *The Mainichi. [https://mainichi.jp/english/] **Mainichi Daily News (1922 to 2001) [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/02/27/business/worldbusiness/IHT-tech-briefstop-the-presses.html] [https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/books/R100000002-I000000144910] Sports newspapers; sports dailies *Louise do Rosario, "News-stand stars" in "Japan" (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T_GzAAAAIAAJ 155] [[w:en:Far Eastern Economic Review|Far Eastern Economic Review]], 24 to 31 December 1992, p 21 *[[w:ja:岡崎満義|Mitsuyoshi Okazaki]], "Unsportsmanlike Journalism: Japan's sports dailies may be popular, but are they sporting?" in "Sport", [[w:en:Look Japan|Look Japan]], [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lD3tAAAAMAAJ January 1995], p 39 News *[[w:en:Japan Today|Japan Today]] (ジャパントゥデイ). GPlusMedia. Gakken Holdings. Annuals and year books *This is Japan. Asahi Shimbun. 1954 to 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2X9DAQAAIAAJ]. Commentary: A Victorian Sailor's Grave in the Seto Inland Sea, p 244 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OegkAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA244#v=onepage&q&f=false] *The Japan Year Book. The Japan Year Book Office. 1905 onwards. [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_arFPAAAAMAAJ/page/n10/mode/1up 1906]. [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.553496/page/n27/mode/1up 1915]. *The "Japan Gazette" Japan Year Book. The Japan Gazette. [https://archive.org/details/japan-year-book-1913-1914/page/n15/mode/1up 1913-14] *The Japan Times Year Book Almanacs *Asahi Shimbun Japan Almanac. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SEEEAQAAIAAJ 1995]. *Japan Almanac. (The Mainichi Newspapers). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ufAIAQAAIAAJ 1972]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X4eXWRkbtFsC 1973]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7rMrAAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=krMrAAAAIAAJ] *[[w:Boyé Lafayette De Mente|Boye De Mente]]. Passport's Japan Almanac. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=741wAAAAMAAJ] General *Japan: A Country Study. (Area Handbook series). 4th Ed: 1983: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HkM5N3JNc5IC]. 5th Ed: 1992: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ze-wupXxpvEC] *Area Handbook for Japan. 2nd Ed: 1964: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WucdAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 3rd Ed: 1974: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LG2aoq1U_eoC&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] (DA Pam 550-30). *Colin Simpson. Picture of Japan. **Japan: An Intimate View. A S Barnes. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3hkeAAAAMAAJ] **This is Japan. Angus & Robertson. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HJEJAQAAIAAJ] *Japan. (The World and Its Peoples). Greystone Press, New York. 1964. Volume 1: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yysUAQAAMAAJ]. Volume 2 "Japan Korea", including Korea: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQAUAQAAMAAJ]. See pp 1 to 375 for Japan, and pp 376 to 379 for Ryukyu and Bonin Islands. *Japan. (World and its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia, volume 8). Marshall Cavendish. 2008. ISBN 9780761476412. *Edward Seidensticker. This Country, Japan. Kodansha International. 1979. ISBN 9780870112294. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=88wwAQAAIAAJ] *Hall and Beardsley. Twelve Doors to Japan. McGraw-Hill. New York. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0KpxAAAAMAAJ] Handbooks *Heenan (ed). The Japan Handbook. (Regional Handbooks of Economic Development). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IMG2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introduction *Introducing Japan Through Books: A Selected Bibliography. Public Information Bureau, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvsyAQAAIAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vj0XAQAAMAAJ]. *Donald Ritchie. Introducing Japan. 1st Ed: 1978. Revised Ed: 1986. 6th printing: 1989: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FE-nxxoKayQC]. 2nd Revised Ed: 1990. 2nd printing: 1991: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hz4UAQAAIAAJ]. 1994: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FMvT6m4SgIQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Webb. An Introduction to Japan. 2nd Ed: 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YQ8MAQAAIAAJ]. *Introducing Modern Japan. A publication of the Japan Information and Culture Center, Embassy of Japan. Today and yesterday *Ray Downs. Japan Yesterday and Today. Praeger Publishers. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PwKxAAAAIAAJ] Today *Buckley. Japan Today. 3rd Ed [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=thyqBtJp2DcC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Contemporary *Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Japan. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yfH3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2011#v=onepage&q&f=false] *McCargo. Contemporary Japan. 3rd Ed: 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8I5KEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kingston. Contemporary Japan: History, Politics, and Social Change since the 1980s. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=enJQZA3R4FMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Modern *Cortazzi. Modern Japan: A Concise Survey. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Cf--DAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] The Japanese *Tasker. The Japanese: Portrait of a Nation. 1989 [https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1N8ld78wwQC] **The Japanese: A Major Exploration of Modern Japan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CW-6AAAAIAAJ] **Inside Japan: Wealth, Work and Power in the New Japanese Empire. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2OJuAAAAMAAJ] Travel books *DK Eyewitness Travel: Japan. Reprinted with revisions. 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g2NaBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vg15DQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Dodd and Richmond. The Rough Guide to Japan. 2nd Ed: 2001: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pRGq95ytWZoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Frommer's Japan. 5th Ed: 2000: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-QC8mVyvPa8C]. *Fodor's Japan YYYY. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aH2Ow27HUQ0C 1986]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gTTf6nbv20C 1987]. 1988. **Fodor's YY Japan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9QMHllzldlYC 91]. 92. 93. **Fodor's Japan. 13th Ed: 1996: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cZxZAAAAYAAJ] *The New Official Guide: Japan. Japan Travel Bureau. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HoxxAAAAMAAJ] *Here is Japan. Asahi Broadcasting Corporation. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8QXRCTMNG7MC] *Japan. (Nagel Travel Guide Series, vol 32). 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QsbXAAAAMAAJ] *Clark. All the Best in Japan: with Manila, Hong Kong, and Macao. ("All the Best" series). 1959. Reprinted 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yUq4YaaryrwC]. Reviews: [https://archive.dartmouthalumnimagazine.com/article/1958/6/1/all-the-best-in-japan] (1958) 110 Travel 51 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UVwXAQAAMAAJ] 3 Bulletin of the Japan Society, London, No 11: June 1960, p 25 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oy74hRRXk4C] **All the Best in Japan and the Orient. 1967. Languages See [[Universal Bibliography/Languages#Japanese|Japanese]] Music See [[Universal Bibliography/Music#Japanese and Japan|Music of Japan]] ==Korea== *Korea Journal [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O6XfBexsp6gC] [[Category:Countries]] a6m2nadc98v8lsj2ehie291bol9ztet 0 285380 2817231 2816965 2026-06-29T13:29:45Z Young1lim 21186 /* Applications */ 2817231 wikitext text/x-wiki === Introduction === * Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling a Big Work === * Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Series of Data === ==== Background ==== * Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Basics ==== * Pointers ([[Media:C04.S1.Pointer.1A.20240524.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Arrays ([[Media:C04.S2.Array.1A.20240514.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.S3.ArrayPointer.1A.20240208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20221130.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.1111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]]) ==== Examples ==== * Spreadsheet Example Programs :: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Applications ==== * Address-of and de-reference operators ([[Media:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20260629.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA1.AppPointer.1A.20241121.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.SA2.AppArray.1A.20240715.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA3.AppArrayPointer.1A.20240210.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]]) === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Low Level Operations === * Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Declarations === * Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]]) * Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]]) * Scope === Class Notes === * TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]]) * Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library * Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements * Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers * Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts * Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops * Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control * Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions * Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope * Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion * Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions * Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications * Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions * Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications * Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) * Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2) * Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO * Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions * Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications * Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum * Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List * Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing * Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/ == '''Old Materials '''== until 201201 * Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) <br> until 201107 * Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]]) * Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]]) * Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ] [[Category:C programming language]] </br> bhwww5ii0ws527e0adsblysv2b93hxn 0 305659 2817339 2817049 2026-06-29T23:29:19Z CanonicalMormon 2646631 /* Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift */ Explain color code. 2817339 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value, denoted by {{math|''z''}}, represents the fractional change in wavelength, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly dictates the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z || {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || {{nowrap|Planck Collaboration}} <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. Each timestamp increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of Figure 3). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown. A peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown. Figure 4 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 5 maps them against lookback time. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Galactic Calendar == A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 6). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 6:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "Bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years. * ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 43 * ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 44 * ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 45 * ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 46 ==== Bully Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 7, Bully Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Ecliptic and Galactic Plane. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 8) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 8: Bully Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 9''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 9''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 9: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 9''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 10''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 10: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 10''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 10''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] ejbgt6desyx0l7ofc4xh93haml4dx4h 2817340 2817339 2026-06-29T23:33:04Z CanonicalMormon 2646631 /* Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift */ 2817340 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value, denoted by {{math|''z''}}, represents the fractional change in wavelength, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly dictates the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z || {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || {{nowrap|Planck Collaboration}} <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. Each timestamp increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of Figure 4). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown. A peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown. Figure 4 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 5 maps them against lookback time. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Galactic Calendar == A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 6). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 6:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "Bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years. * ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 43 * ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 44 * ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 45 * ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 46 ==== Bully Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 7, Bully Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Ecliptic and Galactic Plane. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 8) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 8: Bully Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 9''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 9''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 9: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 9''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 10''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 10: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 10''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 10''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] suwxzzk63p4c53xhlqbo6o1ovcwfm5z 2817341 2817340 2026-06-29T23:43:36Z CanonicalMormon 2646631 2817341 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value, denoted by {{math|''z''}}, represents the fractional change in wavelength, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly dictates the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z || {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || {{nowrap|Planck Collaboration}} <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. Each timestamp increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of Figure 4). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. Figure 5 plots the same data as Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed. As shown in both Figure 4 and in Figure 5, an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets (ie timestamp ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' occurs earlier in time than timestamp ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Galactic Calendar == A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 6). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 6:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "Bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years. * ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 43 * ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 44 * ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 45 * ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 46 ==== Bully Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 7, Bully Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Ecliptic and Galactic Plane. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 8) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 8: Bully Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 9''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 9''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 9: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 9''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 10''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 10: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 10''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 10''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] n7g2xmgccpo6l15buls5pgs2nnv9mpf 2817342 2817341 2026-06-29T23:46:57Z CanonicalMormon 2646631 /* Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift */ Editing 2817342 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly dictates the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z || {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || {{nowrap|Planck Collaboration}} <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. Each timestamp increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of Figure 4). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. Figure 5 plots the same data as Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed. As shown in both Figure 4 and in Figure 5, an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets (ie timestamp ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' occurs earlier in time than timestamp ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Galactic Calendar == A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 6). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 6:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "Bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years. * ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 43 * ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 44 * ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 45 * ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 46 ==== Bully Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 7, Bully Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Ecliptic and Galactic Plane. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 8) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 8: Bully Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 9''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 9''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 9: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 9''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 10''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 10: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 10''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 10''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] e5o54kao8hj3o1vkt31ly1oabeb0r66 2817343 2817342 2026-06-29T23:48:13Z CanonicalMormon 2646631 2817343 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z || {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || {{nowrap|Planck Collaboration}} <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. Each timestamp increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of Figure 4). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. Figure 5 plots the same data as Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed. As shown in both Figure 4 and in Figure 5, an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets (ie timestamp ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' occurs earlier in time than timestamp ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Galactic Calendar == A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 6). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 6:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "Bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years. * ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 43 * ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 44 * ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 45 * ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 46 ==== Bully Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 7, Bully Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Ecliptic and Galactic Plane. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 8) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 8: Bully Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 9''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 9''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 9: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 9''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 10''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 10: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 10''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 10''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] ksvn8awuoqrsyqug36zfqkdfw86jsxx 2817344 2817343 2026-06-29T23:51:33Z CanonicalMormon 2646631 /* Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift */ 2817344 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z || {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || {{nowrap|Planck Collaboration}} <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of Figure 4). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. Figure 5 plots the same data as Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed. As shown in both Figure 4 and in Figure 5, an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets (ie timestamp ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' occurs earlier in time than timestamp ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Galactic Calendar == A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 6). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 6:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "Bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years. * ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 43 * ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 44 * ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 45 * ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 46 ==== Bully Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 7, Bully Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Ecliptic and Galactic Plane. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 8) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 8: Bully Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 9''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 9''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 9: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 9''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 10''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 10: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 10''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 10''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 0qghqvf7pgud6rih86kl2ujyl7jtcul 2817345 2817344 2026-06-29T23:56:13Z CanonicalMormon 2646631 2817345 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z || {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || {{nowrap|Planck Collaboration}} <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of Figure 4). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Galactic Calendar == A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 6). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 6:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "Bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years. * ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 43 * ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 44 * ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 45 * ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 46 ==== Bully Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 7, Bully Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Ecliptic and Galactic Plane. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 8) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 8: Bully Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 9''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 9''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 9: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 9''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 10''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 10: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 10''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 10''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] f5cfr4c2tfayjgrchz4eksvb36i4zop 2817346 2817345 2026-06-30T01:20:36Z Unitfreak 695864 Update figure numbers 2817346 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z || {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || {{nowrap|Planck Collaboration}} <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of Figure 4). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Galactic Calendar == A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 7). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "Bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years. * ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 43 * ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 44 * ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 45 * ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 46 ==== Bully Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 8, Bully Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Ecliptic and Galactic Plane. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 8:]] === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 9) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 9: Bully Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] rerezv7koyqg3tllcjka9wd62kmwir6 2817351 2817346 2026-06-30T02:18:52Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift */ 2817351 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z || {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || {{nowrap|Planck Collaboration}} <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of Figure 4). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp || {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || {{nowrap|Planck Collaboration}} <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Galactic Calendar == A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 7). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "Bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years. * ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 43 * ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 44 * ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 45 * ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 46 ==== Bully Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 8, Bully Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Ecliptic and Galactic Plane. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 8:]] === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 9) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 9: Bully Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] m9nklpdezy8khgvp5rek1nnicq4uufi 2817352 2817351 2026-06-30T02:25:31Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift */ 2817352 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z || {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || {{nowrap|Planck Collaboration}} <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of Figure 4). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp || {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || {{nowrap|Planck Collaboration}} <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 2.0 || z = 2.0 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 2.0 || z = 2.0 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Galactic Calendar == A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 7). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "Bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years. * ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 43 * ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 44 * ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 45 * ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 46 ==== Bully Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 8, Bully Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Ecliptic and Galactic Plane. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 8:]] === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 9) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 9: Bully Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 802m3abgo0d15rb8t1s1agw5yc5vtod 2817353 2817352 2026-06-30T02:29:06Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift */ 2817353 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z || {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || {{nowrap|Planck Collaboration}} <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of Figure 4). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp || {{nowrap|SHOES Team}} <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || {{nowrap|Planck Collaboration}} <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Galactic Calendar == A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 7). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "Bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years. * ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 43 * ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 44 * ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 45 * ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 46 ==== Bully Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 8, Bully Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Ecliptic and Galactic Plane. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 8:]] === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 9) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 9: Bully Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] fnmgofddenyd8txhbgqqtd6bm8hpl2c 0 319383 2817329 2811561 2026-06-29T20:01:51Z ~2026-37474-85 3097909 /* Catholic Church Sex Abuse Cover-up (Institutional Conspiracy) */ 2817329 wikitext text/x-wiki {{notice|This is a user essay. It contains the advice or opinions of one or more Wikiversity contributors. It has not been reviewed by the Wikiversity community and does not necessarily reflect the views of the community.}} Not all so-called “[[w:Conspiracy_theory|conspiracy theories]]” (“minority viewpoints”) are baseless.<ref>[[w:ChatGPT|ChatGPT]] (in deep research mode) generated this text responding to the prompt: “Provide a list of claims that were originally dismissed as conspiracy theories but were later proved true”. </ref> In some cases, claims that were widely dismissed ended up being validated by evidence years later. Below are several notable examples from government, corporate, medical, and other spheres, along with brief explanations and the evidence that confirmed them: == Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment (Government Medical Cover-up) == For decades, rumors circulated that the U.S. government was secretly [[w:Tuskegee_Syphilis_Study|experimenting on African American men with syphilis]] under the guise of treatment – a notion many found too horrific to believe. It turned out to be true. From 1932 to 1972, the U.S. Public Health Service conducted a study in Tuskegee, Alabama, where about 400 Black men with syphilis were lied to and left untreated so doctors could observe the disease’s progression.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://history.howstuffworks.com/history-vs-myth/11-unbelievable-conspiracy-theories-that-were-actually-true.htm#:~:text=In%201932,%20the%20U,and%20shut%20the%20program%20down|title=11 Unbelievable Conspiracy Theories That Were Actually True|date=2015-06-08|website=HowStuffWorks|language=en-us|access-date=2025-03-09}}</ref> Even after penicillin became a known cure, researchers withheld treatment and information from the participants, some of whom died as a result.​<ref name=":0" /> The experiment’s existence was [[w:Tuskegee_Syphilis_Study#Study_termination|exposed by the press]] in 1972, sparking public outrage and official condemnation of the study as “ethically irresponsible”.​<ref name=":0" /> This once-dismissed “rumor” of a government medical conspiracy was conclusively proven by internal documents and later acknowledged with a public apology in 1997. == CIA’s Project MKUltra (Mind Control Experiments) == In the 1950s and 1960s, whispers of U.S. government “mind control” experiments using drugs and torture sounded like science fiction. Yet declassified records in the 1970s showed [[w:MKUltra|Project MKUltra]] was real. The CIA ran a secret program from 1953–1973 to test drugs (like LSD) and other methods for mind control and interrogation on unwitting citizens​. CIA Director [[w:Richard_Helms|Richard Helms]] attempted to destroy all MKUltra files in 1973 to keep it secret​. Despite this, investigations by the [[w:Church_Committee|Church Committee]] in 1975 uncovered the program, confirming that the CIA had indeed conducted illegal experiments on humans without consent What sounded like a wild conspiracy theory of government brainwashing was proven true by the CIA’s own documents and congressional hearings​. == FBI COINTELPRO (Domestic Spying and Sabotage) == Activists in the 1960s often suspected the FBI was spying on and disrupting civil rights and anti-war groups – claims dismissed by authorities at the time. In 1971, those suspicions were vindicated when activists stole files from an FBI office, exposing [[w:COINTELPRO|COINTELPRO]] (Counterintelligence Program) COINTELPRO was a secret FBI operation (1956–1971) that illegally spied on, infiltrated, and sought to “disrupt, discredit, and neutralize” dissident political organizations in the U.S.​ [[w:COINTELPRO#Range_of_targets|Targets included]] civil rights leaders (like Martin Luther King Jr.), anti–Vietnam War protesters, feminist and minority rights groups, among others​. The FBI’s role was [[w:COINTELPRO#Program_revealed|confirmed]] through the recovered documents and later Senate hearings, revealing a systematic violation of citizens’ rights. What had been dismissed as paranoia about government surveillance turned out to be a documented conspiracy against American activists​. == Big Tobacco’s Cover-up of Smoking Dangers (Corporate Conspiracy) == For decades, tobacco companies insisted smoking didn’t cause cancer or addiction, and those who accused them of a cover-up were often brushed off as alarmists. However, internal industry documents released in the 1990s proved that [[w:Tobacco_industry_playbook|Big Tobacco knew the truth all along]]. As early as the 1950s, cigarette makers’ own research showed links to cancer and the addictiveness of nicotine, yet they collectively conspired to hide those facts and publicly deny them.​<ref>https://www.tobaccotactics.org/article/addiction-manipulation/</ref> In 1994, the CEOs of major tobacco firms even testified before Congress under oath that they believed nicotine was ''“not addictive,”'' despite evidence their companies had manipulated nicotine levels to hook consumers​.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.tobaccotactics.org/article/addiction-manipulation/|title=Addiction Manipulation|website=Tobacco Tactics|language=en|access-date=2025-03-09}}</ref> Subsequent lawsuits uncovered millions of pages of internal memos showing the industry understood the health risks but ran disinformation campaigns to cast doubt on the science. This corporate conspiracy to deceive the public – once deemed a fringe theory – was confirmed by the tobacco companies’ own files and legal admissions in the late 90s​.<ref name=":1" /> In 1994, seven CEOs of major tobacco companies raised their right hands before Congress and swore that nicotine is not addictive – a claim proven false by their own internal documents released later​.<ref name=":1" /> In addition, tobacco invested hundreds of millions into acquiring junk food companies. It is hidden by shell companies and multiple acquisitions to hide the true owner of these big corporations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oshf.ca/snackvictim-food-sponsored-by-corporations/|title=SNACKVICTIM Food List Sponsored by Corporations!|last=admin|date=2025-10-20|language=en-US|access-date=2025-11-01}}</ref> == Operation Northwoods (Military False-Flag Plot) == In the early 1960s, it would have seemed outrageous to suggest U.S. military leaders would plan attacks on Americans as a pretext for war. Yet in 1997, declassified records revealed [[w:Operation_Northwoods|Operation Northwoods]], a 1962 Pentagon proposal to do exactly that. The plan, developed by the Joint Chiefs of Staff, outlined a series of false-flag attacks – including staging terrorist incidents on U.S. soil, hijacking planes, and even orchestrating violent crimes – and blaming them on Cuba to justify an invasion​.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://history.howstuffworks.com/history-vs-myth/11-unbelievable-conspiracy-theories-that-were-actually-true.htm|title=11 Unbelievable Conspiracy Theories That Were Actually True|date=2015-06-08|website=HowStuffWorks|language=en-us|access-date=2025-03-09}}</ref> Top generals formally presented this plan (titled ''“Justification for US Military Intervention in Cuba”'') to the Secretary of Defense in 1962. President Kennedy ultimately rejected Operation Northwoods, so it was never executed​.<ref name=":2" /> However, the very existence of this plan – kept secret for decades – confirmed that a conspiracy within the military to deceive the public had been real. Once a wildly implausible idea, it became a documented historical fact when the files were declassified.<ref name=":2" /> [[File:NorthwoodsMemorandum.jpg|thumb| Photo of the Northwoods Memorandum for the U.S. Secretary of Defense (March 13, 1962) titled: "Justification for U.S. Military Intervention in Cuba (TS)".]] This top-secret memorandum to the U.S. Secretary of Defense proposed staging fake attacks on Americans as a pretext to invade Cuba​.<ref name=":2" /> The plan was kept secret for decades, dismissing early suspicions as absurd until documents surfaced proving it was true. == NSA Mass Surveillance (Warrantless Spying Program) == The notion that U.S. intelligence agencies were vacuuming up data on millions of Americans was long relegated to tinfoil-hat territory – until 2013. That year, NSA contractor [[w:Edward_Snowden|Edward Snowden]] leaked classified documents revealing a vast [[w:NSA_warrantless_surveillance_(2001–2007)|NSA mass surveillance]] operation. The leaks proved that the government (often in partnership with telecom and tech companies) had been secretly collecting phone records, emails, and internet communications on an unprecedented scale​.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/world/us-court-mass-surveillance-program-exposed-by-snowden-was-illegal-idUSKBN25T3CJ/#:~:text=%28Reuters%29%20,were%20not%20telling%20the%20truth https://www.reuters.com/article/world/us-court-mass-surveillance-program-exposed-by-snowden-was-illegal-idUSKBN25T3CJ/]</ref>^,<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2013/09/conspiracy_theo_1.html|title=Conspiracy Theories and the NSA|date=2013-09-06|website=Schneier on Security|language=en-US|access-date=2025-03-09}}</ref> Prior to this, officials had publicly denied such dragnet spying. In fact, intelligence chief [[w:James_Clapper|James Clapper]] had told Congress that the NSA was ''“not wittingly”'' collecting data on Americans – a statement proven false by Snowden’s evidence​.<ref name=":4">https://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2013/09/conspiracy_theo_1.html</ref> Programs like [[w:PRISM|PRISM]] and the bulk telephone metadata collection, once dismissed as paranoid fantasies, were confirmed by internal NSA files and subsequently ruled illegal by courts​.<ref>https://www.reuters.com/article/world/us-court-mass-surveillance-program-exposed-by-snowden-was-illegal-idUSKBN25T3CJ/</ref> As security expert [[w:Bruce_Schneier|Bruce Schneier]] noted after the revelations, ''“every time there is an allegation against the NSA, no matter how outlandish, it turns out to be true.”''​<ref name=":4" /> What sounded like a conspiracy theory of government spying on its own citizens was undeniably validated by hard evidence​.<ref name=":3" /> == Exxon Knew About Climate Change (Corporate Science Cover-up) == Within the climate science community, it was rumored that oil companies had data about global warming long before it became public, suggesting they willfully ignored or suppressed it. Investigations in recent years have confirmed that [[w:ExxonMobil_climate_change_denial|ExxonMobil]] (and other fossil fuel companies) knew about the climate impact of carbon emissions as far back as the 1970s. Internal Exxon research and memos from the late 1970s and 1980s predicted global warming trends with uncanny accuracy and acknowledged the potential dangers of burning fossil fuels​.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://www.business-humanrights.org/es/%C3%BAltimas-noticias/new-research-shows-that-exxons-scientists-accurately-predicted-climate-change-from-the-1970s-onwards-incl-companys-reaction/|title=New research shows Exxon's scientists accurately predicted climate change from the 1970s onwards, incl. company's reaction|website=Business & Human Rights Resource Centre|language=es|access-date=2025-03-09}}</ref> Despite this knowledge, Exxon and others spent subsequent decades publicly [[w:Climate_change_denial|casting doubt on climate science]] and downplaying the risk. In 2015, journalists and researchers uncovered a trove of company documents and papers showing what Exxon scientists had told executives: that continued carbon dioxide emissions would raise global temperatures and pose severe risks​.<ref name=":5" /> This evidence demonstrated a corporate conspiracy to mislead the public and investors about climate change. What many had called a conspiracy theory – “Exxon knew, and lied about it” – is now supported by the company’s own documents and peer-reviewed studies​.<ref name=":5" /> == Catholic Church Sex Abuse Cover-up (Institutional Conspiracy) == For decades, isolated allegations suggested that Catholic Church leaders were quietly shuffling accused priests between parishes to hide [[w:Catholic_Church_sexual_abuse_cases|widespread child sexual abuse]]. These claims were often met with denial or seen as anti-Catholic smears. However, extensive investigations have proven there was indeed a systematic cover-up. From the mid-20th century through the 2000s, Church hierarchy – all the way up to the Vatican – routinely suppressed abuse reports, protected predator priests, and silenced victims to avoid scandal. A Pennsylvania Grand Jury in 2018, for example, documented over 1,000 cases of child abuse by 300+ priests and concluded that ''“senior church officials…knew about the abuse… but routinely covered it up,”'' in a conspiracy that spanned decades​.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.attorneygeneral.gov/taking-action/attorney-general-shapiro-details-findings-of-2-year-grand-jury-investigation-into-child-sex-abuse-by-catholic-priests-in-six-pennsylvania-dioceses/#:~:text=,sexual%20predators%20in%20their%20midst|title=Attorney General Shapiro Details Findings of 2-Year Grand Jury Investigation into Child Sex Abuse by Catholic Priests in Six Pennsylvania Dioceses|website=Pennsylvania Office of Attorney General|language=en|access-date=2025-03-09}}</ref> Similar investigations around the world (Ireland, Australia, Boston in the U.S., etc.) uncovered secret archives and correspondence proving that Church leaders reassigned abusive clergy and kept crimes hidden from law enforcement. What many victims and whistleblowers long claimed – and many others refused to believe – was undeniably validated by these reports: the Church engaged in a long-term conspiracy to conceal abuse cases​.<ref name=":6" /> == The Nayirah Testimony (Gulf War Propaganda) == In October 1990, as the U.S. debated going to war with Iraq, a 15-year-old Kuwaiti girl known as “Nayirah” [[w:Nayirah_testimony|gave gripping testimony]] to Congress. She claimed Iraqi soldiers had ripped babies from hospital incubators and left them to die – a story that shocked the world and helped rally support for the Gulf War. Some skeptics at the time whispered that the tale seemed suspiciously effective war propaganda, but such doubts were dismissed as cynicism or conspiracy thinking. It turned out the skeptics were right: [[w:Nayirah_testimony#Investigations|Nayirah’s story was a fabricated hoax]] orchestrated as part of a public relations campaign. In 1992, it was revealed that “Nayirah” was actually the daughter of the [[w:Saud_Nasser_Al-Saud_Al-Sabah|Kuwaiti ambassador]] to the U.S., not a volunteer nurse, and her testimony had been arranged by a PR firm ([[w:Hill_&_Knowlton#Controversies|Hill & Knowlton]]) hired by Kuwait’s government-in-exile​. She had never witnessed the alleged atrocities. The entire incubator babies narrative was invented to influence public opinion. This revelation – confirmed by journalists and human rights investigations – proved that what was sold as eyewitness testimony was in fact a conspiracy to deceive the public. The incident has since become a classic example of wartime disinformation, validating those who initially doubted the story​. Each of the above cases shows how a claim widely dismissed as a “conspiracy theory” can later be proven true. The confirming evidence often comes from internal documents, whistleblowers, or official investigations that finally bring the truth to light. These examples remind us that healthy skepticism can sometimes be [[Understanding Misbelief/Facts Are Stubborn|vindicated by facts]]. [[es:Entendiendo las Creencias Erróneas/Teorías de Conspiración que Resultaron ser Ciertas]] {{CourseCat}} jzhlbvlfnxulk0fa2p5j6rprzxq0rod 0 321771 2817333 2816686 2026-06-29T22:40:16Z Atcovi 276019 /* Historical Development of Mental Health Services */ 2817333 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine <!-- WikiJournal of Medicine, Science, or Humanities --> | last1 = Azeez | orcid1 = 0009-0007-9202-4614 | first1 = Aaqib | last2 = | first2 = | last3 = | first3 = | last4 = | first4 = <!-- up to 9 authors can be added in this above format --> | et_al = <!-- if there are >9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --> | affiliation1 = Old Dominion University | correspondence1 = yonikmalik@gmail.com | affiliations = institutes / affiliations | correspondence = email@address.com | keywords = <!-- up to 6 keywords --> | license = <!-- default is CC-BY --> | abstract = This is a narrative review. }} TBD == Introduction == Mental health continues to be a critically relevant topic as the island nation has experienced decades of [[w:Black_July|violent ethnic conflict]], terrorist attacks, war crimes, and economic disruptions. Sri Lanka continues to recover from a [[w:Sri_Lankan_economic_crisis_(2019–2024)|severe economic crisis (2019 - 2024)]], a [[w:Sri_Lankan_civil_war|nearly 30-year civil war ending in 2009]], a [[w:2019_Sri_Lanka_Easter_bombings|2019 terrorist attack]], and continues to face the ripple effects of the [[w:2004_Boxing_Day_tsunami|2004 Boxing Day tsunami]]. The exact effect these major events have had on mental health in the country is "unknown", but the statistics remain alarming despite a declining trend. Suicide rates in the country during the mid-1990s were the second-highest in the world with ingesting toxic products being the main suicide method. Despite the decline in suicide numbers since then—possibly attributed to Sri Lanka's ban on toxic products—evidence from a 2023 study reports an upward trend in suicide through hanging from 2016 to 2021—independent of the [[w:COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sri_Lanka|COVID-19 pandemic]]. Several risk factors for suicide, such as poverty and economic instability, are still prevalent and even increasing in the country<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakse|first=Thilini|last2=Silva|first2=Tharuka|last3=Hettiarachchi|first3=Nirosha Madhuwanthi|last4=Gunnell|first4=David|last5=Metcalfe|first5=Chris|last6=Spittal|first6=Matthew J.|last7=Knipe|first7=Duleeka|date=2023-01-19|title=The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic and Lockdowns on Self-Poisoning and Suicide in Sri Lanka: An Interrupted Time Series Analysis|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914278/|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=20|issue=3|pages=1833|doi=10.3390/ijerph20031833|issn=1660-4601|pmc=9914278|pmid=36767200}}</ref>. == Methods == [source selection process] ==Historical Development of Mental Health Services== Records attest to the care of the mentally ill through established hospitals in the island since the 4th century.<ref name=":17" /> Prior to the incarceration of the mentally ill by the European colonizing forces, the mentally ill were regarded as ''Pissowetitch'', or people who had "the spirit of the Gods within him" and "whatsoever he pronounceth, is looked upon as spoken by God himself, and the people will speak to him, as if it were the very person of God"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/14346/14346-h/14346-h.htm|title=An Historical Relation Of the Island Ceylon, in the East-Indies: Together, With an Account of the Detaining in Captivity the Author and divers other Englishmen now Living there, and of the Author’s Miraculous Escape.|last=Knox|first=Robert|website=www.gutenberg.org|language=en-us|access-date=2026-06-29}}</ref>. With this religious understanding, Lucien de Alwis reasoned that the mentally ill in Sri Lanka were "placed... at a higher social status than the mentally ill in the Western world", with this notion correlating with the unsurprising absence of evidence in there being a "large scale segregation of mentally ill from society"<ref name=":17" />. In the 1800s, established care for mental health began shifting primarily from indigenous practices, mainly derived from [[w:Ayurveda|Ayurveda medicine]], [[w:Siddha_medicine|Siddha medicine]], and [[w:Unani_medicine|Unani medicine]], to a Western mode by the British<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":0">Gambheera, H. (2011). [https://www.saarcpsychiatry.com/viewText?chapter=c6 The evolution of psychiatric services in Sri Lanka]. South Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 2(1), 25–27.</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|title=Social Psychiatry in Sri Lanka|last=Baminiwatta|first=Anuradha|last2=Williams|first2=Shehan|date=2025|publisher=Springer Nature|isbn=978-981-96-8078-8|editor-last=Arafat|editor-first=S. M. Yasir|location=Singapore|pages=141–158|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|editor-last2=Singh|editor-first2=Amit|editor-last3=Kar|editor-first3=Sujita Kumar}}</ref>. === Adoption of a Western-based mental healthcare model and issuances of ordinances === In 1839, [[w:James_Alexander_Stewart-Mackenzie|James Alexander Stewart-Mackenzie]], the 7th Governor of British Ceylon, released the Lunacy Ordinance, authorizing municipal authorities to create lunatic asylums for the mentally ill in the country<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=6&Itemid=125&lang=en|title=History - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-10}}</ref>. The ordinance was concerned with the legal frameworks of detaining individuals considered dangerous to others or individuals falsely presenting themselves as mentally ill, and not on medical treatments to alleviate the conditions of detained individuals. UK psychiatrist [[w:Edward_Mapother|Edward Mapother]] critiqued the ordinance during his 1937 inspection of British Ceylon's mental health institutions in a series of reports titled ''A Disgrace to a Civilised Community'', remarking that the ordinance "[did] not seem to have contemplated treatment as a contingency to be considered"<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Permeable walls: historical perspectives on hospital and asylum visiting|date=2009|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-2599-8|editor-last=Mooney|editor-first=Graham|series=Clio medica|location=Amsterdam New York, NY|editor-last2=Reinarz|editor-first2=Jonathan}}</ref>. In 1840, the 1839 Ordinance was repealed and replaced by the 1840 Ordinance. The 1839 Ordinance was almost identical to the 1840 Ordinance, except the removal of two previous requirements: the requirement for official medical diagnoses of the mentally insane and the mandate to maintain adequate staff-to-patient ratios within lunatic asylums<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. de|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. L.|last3=Mendis|first3=T. S. S.|last4=Abhayanayaka|first4=C.|date=2024-12-31|title=The development of laws related to the disposal of forensic patients in Sri Lanka: A historical review|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=15|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. In 1873, a third Ordinance was released. It included linguistic changes, where the term, "insane", was replaced with "of unsound mind". The Ordinance also gave more power to medical professionals in determining insanity diagnoses, and more power to detainees in appealing their commitment to the mental asylum. Despite this Ordinance being the most comprehensive outlook on mental healthcare in the country at the time, the legal frameworks behind the detainment of the criminally insane were left identical to previous ordinances<ref name=":3" />. === Development of mental asylums === At the time the 1839 ordinance was released, mentally ill patients were placed either in prisons throughout the country or leprosy hospitals, such as the [[w:Hendala_Leprosy_Hospital|Hendala Leprosy Hospital]] in the Gampaha district<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" />. After the creation of the first mental asylum in Borella in 1846, patients from the Hendala Leprosy Hospital were transferred to the institute in Borella. Overcrowding soon became an issue and patients were sent to prisons across the country. [[File:Edward Mapother.jpg|thumb|A portrait taken of Edward Mapother during his time working at [[w:Maudsley_Hospital|Maudsley Hospital]] in London. ]] As medical institutions were being made to house the mentally insane, another mental asylum was created in the [[w:Cinnamon_Gardens|Cinnamon Gardens]] area of Colombo in 1884, though this mental asylum faced overcrowding in just one year<ref name=":0" />. Treatment in these asylums was limited to occupational and protection therapy, failing to provide treatment for the root causes of the mental disorders. In 1926, the Angoda Mental Hospital was established, scantily alleviating the severe overcrowding issues that were plaguing the preceding mental asylums. Despite the addition of 1,700 beds to the facility, treatment was still vastly limited and the patients were left in significantly poor conditions. === Edward Mapother's 1937 inspection of British Ceylon === Edward Mapother was born in Dublin, Ireland, on July 12, 1881 and moved to London when he was 7 years old<ref>{{Cite book|title=Madness to mental illness: a history of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|last=Bewley|first=Thomas|date=2008|publisher=RCPsych Publications ; Distributed in North America by Balogh International|isbn=978-1-904671-35-0|location=London : [S.l.]}}</ref>. Mapother attained his M.D. in 1908. While Mapother was the Medical Superintendent of Maudsley Hospital in London, England, he was invited to inspect British Ceylon's mental health institutions by Dr S. T. Gunasekara, the first Medical Director of British Ceylon<ref name=":1" />. In Mapother's visit, he commented that the Angoda Mental Hospital had the atmosphere of "a prison that is neglected and dilapidated"<ref name=":1" />. Overcrowding was still a major issue, with the institute hosting 3,000 patients—more than double the intended capacity. Patients were sleeping on mats and were clearly out of reach of adequate treatment. Mapother also noted that only 4% of public health expenditure in the country was being set for hospitals, drawing a stark comparison to London's 25%<ref name=":1" />. Mapother offered a vivid and grim account of the hospital in his reports: <blockquote> The floor, roof and walls of each cell consist alike of drab cement without any attempt at colouring or decoration. High up in one wall is a small window with stout iron bars. In the floor is a large hole into which the patient may pass his motion and urine. These cells are incompletely divided from one another by a partition which does not reach the roof so that the noise and stink from any one cell may reach at least all the others of the same row. Into these empty cells I was informed that the most noisy and troublesome patients in the hospital; were turned at night completely naked. The doors of the cell contain no observation window, and considering the violent character of many of these patients there is every ground for believing that the doors are rarely opened in the night by the solitary attendant on duty. It needs little imagination to picture the suffering of any patient in an early stage of bodily illness passing a night under such conditions, a situation which must frequently arise. I am told that the noise proceeding from this building is like that on a bad night in a menagerie<ref name=":0" />.</blockquote>Mapother proposed a series of reinforcements to the legal, institutional, and medical frameworks of mental health care in British Ceylon. This included the decentralization of the psychiatric services, a reworking of the Lunacy Ordinance to incorporate treatment into the legal framework, and the establishment of a separate service of medical professionals dedicated to psychiatry. Mapother's recommendations led to several of the best local medical professionals to be sent to London for extensive training in psychiatry, while nurses from England were sent to British Ceylon to supervise hospital operations and train local staff<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />. On August 25, 1938, the Executive Committee of Health approved the strategies proposed by Mapother, though the Government was unable to fully implement all of Mapother's interventions due to the 'heavy cost'. In fact, the Government decided to forego one of his proposals, which was the suggestion of a "Visiting Committee". This committee was tasked to "meet at the hospital, carry out inspections, and make recommendations" to the Executive Committee of Health<ref name=":1" />. The Government realized that deficiencies in their mental healthcare system could prove to be "costly" for their reputation. Mapother was reportedly enraged when he found out. Mapother intended to contact the Secretary of State regarding the "distortion" of his plans, but was interrupted by events preluding to [[w:World_War_II|World War II]]<ref name=":1" />. Mapother passed away on March 20, 1940, without materializing his follow-up plans. === Post-Mapother developments and further innovations === [[File:Sri Lanka districts Colombo.svg|thumb|A map of Sri Lanka highlighting the Colombo District, where the capital is located. |right|250px]]Mapother's insights on the mental healthcare structure in British Ceylon proved to be the catalyst of massive renovations. In 1939, the first outpatient clinic was established in the [[w:National_Hospital_of_Sri_Lanka|National Hospital of Sri Lanka]] in Colombo. The first trained Ceylonese psychiatrists began practice in the 1940s, leading to the establishment of the first neuropsychiatric clinic in Colombo in 1943. Treatments for the mentally ill improved dramatically, as protectional therapy expanded to [[w:insulin_shock_therapy|insulin shock therapy]] and [[w:Electroconvulsive_therapy|cardiazol convulsive therapy]]<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Kathriarachchi|first=Samudra T.|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. Lakmi|last3=Amarakoon|first3=Luckshika|date=2019-06|title=Development of Mental Health Care in Sri Lanka: Lessons Learned|url=https://journals.lww.com/tpsy/fulltext/2019/33020/development_of_mental_health_care_in_sri_lanka_.1.aspx|journal=Taiwanese Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=33|issue=2|pages=55|doi=10.4103/TPSY.TPSY_15_19|issn=1028-3684}}</ref>. Mapother's advocation for the decentralization of services were further honored through the 1947 establishment of a first child guidance clinic in Colombo General Hospital<ref name=":0" />. In 1948, British Ceylon was granted independence from the British after the [[w:Sri_Lankan_independence_movement|Sri Lankan independence movement]]. Changes in the mental healthcare structure were not immediate following independence, but rapid expansions of mental healthcare services were still ongoing. The following decades saw positive institutional developments, such as the creation of a second hospital in [[w:Mulleriyawa|Mulleriyawa]] in 1957, and the creation of a psychiatric inpatient unit in Colombo General Hospital in 1967—effectively granting the city of Colombo the luxury of hosting the top psychiatric care in the country<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|title=Mental Health System Development in Sri Lanka|last=Minas|first=Harry|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Hall|first3=Teresa|date=2017|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4899-7997-1|editor-last=Minas|editor-first=Harry|location=Boston, MA|pages=59–77|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|editor-last2=Lewis|editor-first2=Milton}}</ref>. The 1950s was also the start of psychopharmacological innovations, with the introduction of [[w:Lithium_(medication)|lithium]] and long-acting injectable antipsychotics ([[w:Depot_injection|depot]] [[w:Antipsychotic|neuroleptics]]) in the succeeding years<ref name=":4" />. Additionally, the number of public psychiatrist positions increased by 400% from 1953 to 1967<ref name=":5" />. After 1960, mental health services were being established beyond the capital to other cities in the country<ref name=":2" />. In 1980, the [[w:Postgraduate_Institute_of_Medicine|Postgraduate Institute of Medicine]] began a program where students would enroll in a 5-year medical course and attain an MD in psychiatry, curbing the need for Sri Lankan medical students to be sent abroad to complete their training. Many of the medical students sent abroad for training never returned to Sri Lanka to practice, resulting in a "1:500,000 to 1000,000" ratio of psychiatrists to patients on "most occasions"<ref name=":0" />. === Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956 === In 1956, the 1873 Ordinance was revised a second time and renamed the "Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956"<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Hapangama|first=Aruni|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Kuruppuarachchi|first3=K. a. L. A.|date=2023-02|title=Why are we still living in the past? Sri Lanka needs urgent and timely reforms of its archaic mental health laws|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-international/article/why-are-we-still-living-in-the-past-sri-lanka-needs-urgent-and-timely-reforms-of-its-archaic-mental-health-laws/B18B03DC962CC6F09BC6D7877E390EE4|journal=BJPsych International|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=4–6|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.26|issn=2056-4740|pmc=9909436|pmid=36812028}}</ref>. Another linguistic development is seen with the new revision as "lunacy" was replaced with "mental disease"<ref name=":6" />. The Ordinance paved the way for community-based services to be delivered to patients closer to their residences rather than solely allocating services to just hospitals. This led to the creation of a [[w:WHO|WHO]]-backed community clinic near the [[w:University_of_Colombo|University of Colombo]] in the 1970s, where the focus was to eventually ease patients in the Angoda Mental Hospital back into the general population<ref name=":5" />. === Developments from the 1990s === The 1990s and onwards saw further positive developments in framing the mental healthcare system, including the establishment of the [https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=featured&Itemid=101&lang=en Directorate of Mental Health] in 1998. The Directorate of Mental Health is a part of the [[w:Ministry_of_Health_(Sri_Lanka)|Ministry of Health]] who is responsible for the monitoring and implementation of mental health programs across the country<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?lang=en|title=Home - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}</ref>. As of 2025, the current director of the Directorate of Mental Health is Dr. Chithramalee de Silva<ref name=":2" />. On November 11, 2005, the Mental Health Policy was approved by the Government of Sri Lanka, advocating for establishments of more de-centralized, community-based mental health services across the country beyond the capital (Colombo). The policy aimed to concisely define the rigorous standards needed to be completed for each respected medical professional, including psychiatrists and clinical psychologists<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakshe|first=Onali Bimalka Wickramaseckara|last2=Mohan|first2=Mohapradeep|last3=Singh|first3=Swaran Preet|date=2023-05|title=Development of adolescent mental health services in Sri Lanka|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10895478/|journal=BJPsych international|volume=20|issue=2|pages=41–43|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.32|issn=2056-4740|pmc=10895478|pmid=38414998}}</ref>. The policy also included a new position, the "Medical Officer of Mental Health", who oversees and assists in the implementation of community-based mental health services<ref name=":0" />. This same year, the Sri Lankan government began implementing psychological services in state institutions, such as the military<ref name=":8" />. In 2007, the National Mental Health Advisory Council (NMHAC) was created to serve as an 'advisory' board for the Ministry of Health on what actions should be executed by the Directorate of Mental Health<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=9&Itemid=220&lang=en|title=Introduction - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}</ref>. In 2008, the Angoda Mental Hospital was restructured as the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)<ref name=":7" />. === Modern-day Sri Lanka === [[File:Feeding Children in Sri Lanka.jpg|left|thumb|Despite the noteworthy improvements in mental healthcare services in recent decades, mental health remains a significant issue due to rising poverty. ]] As of 2025, the Mental Health Act (mental health legislation) has been undergoing development since 2005 and is currently awaiting to be considered for the final stage of approval. This is expected to replace the 1956 Mental Health Ordinance<ref name=":7" />. Currently, there are 7 tertiary care hospitals, 61 adult patient units, 3 child inpatient units, and 1 forensic unit. The [[w:Lady_Ridgeway_Hospital_for_Children|Lady Ridgeway Hospital]] in Colombo and the Sirimavo Bandaranayke Specialized Children Hospital in Kandy are tailored towards alleviating children with [[w:Learning_disability|SLD]], [[w:ADHD|ADHD]], [[w:Autism_Spectrum_Disorder|ASD]] and family support for diagnosed children. As of 2017, 22 rehabilitation centers exist through the country, including 7 alcohol rehab centers<ref name=":7" />. [expand more on SL Gov't efforts here...] Despite the impressive advancements in mental healthcare in the last couple of decades, Sri Lanka still suffers significant mental health issues due to increasing poverty levels in the country. The [[w:World_Bank|World Bank]] reported that [https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2024/04/08/eesc-a08.html the poverty levels in Sri Lanka increased from 11% in 2019 to 26% in 2024], with 60% of Sri Lankan households facing "decreased incomes"<ref>Lakhtakia, Shruti, Atapattu Mudiyanselage, Udahiruni Shashadari Atapat, Walker, Richard Ancrum. ''Sri Lanka Development Update - Bridge to Recovery (English).'' Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. <nowiki>http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/099634104012434919</nowiki></ref>. This was churned by Sri Lanka's excessive foreign debt, economic troubles stemming from [[w:Gotabaya_Rajapaksa|Gotabaya Rajapaksa]]'s presidential term, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the [[w:Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine|ongoing invasion of Ukraine by Russia (2022)]]. According to [[w:NYU|New York University]] graduate student [https://gc-cuny.academia.edu/NadiaAugustyniak Nadia Augustyniak] in her 2025 overview of Sri Lanka's public mental healthcare system, poverty-induced financial precarity remains a major obstacle to receiving access to mental healthcare services. Even though trauma from adverse weather and conflict is deleterious to mental health, issues originating from every-day struggles, especially struggles related to poverty, could arguably play a more significant role<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. == Impact of Conflicts, Terrorism, Political Instability & Natural Disasters == === Sri Lankan Civil War === The '''Sri Lankan Civil War''' was a domestic conflict that took place between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (abbreviated as the ''LTTE),'' a militant group formed in the 1970s as a result of rising tensions between the majority Sinhalese and minority Tamil population. The group is considered a terrorist organization<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.start.umd.edu/baad/database/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-ltte-1998.html|title=BAAD - Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) - 1998 {{!}} START.umd.edu|website=www.start.umd.edu|access-date=2025-06-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-aka-tamil-tigers-sri-lanka-separatists|title=Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (aka Tamil Tigers) (Sri Lanka, separatists) {{!}} Council on Foreign Relations|last=Bhattacharji|first=Preeti|website=www.cfr.org|language=en|access-date=2025-06-09}}</ref>. Through brutal massacres, assassinations, and suicide bombings, the LTTE waged decades of terror which led to civilian displacement, infrastructure collapse, and the reduction of mental health services available in the northern region.[[File:DFID-funded, UNHCR emergency shelter tents, in the IDP camp at Menik Farm, Sri Lanka (3694081492).jpg|thumb|350x350px|An IDP camp in Menik Farm, Sri Lanka in 2009 ([https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-19703826 now closed]). Suicide rates in IDP camps were three times the general population.]]The civil war mainly affected the northeastern portion of the country, including the [[w:Vanni_(Sri_Lanka)|Vanni region]]. The conflict caused mass destruction to local mental healthcare facilities. Local residents described the conflict with the phrase ''varthayal varnicca mudiyathavai'', roughly translating into English as 'beyond description by words'<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}</ref>. In 2003, only two psychiatrists were found in the region, operating on extremely limited resources and further deepening long-term trauma and mental health deterioration in the population<ref name=":5" />. In 2002, the humanitarian organization [https://www.msf.org/ Médecins Sans Frontières] (MSF) performed an investigation of mental health needs in the [[w:Vavuniya|Vavuniya]] area, the site of intense conflict during the civil war (including the [[w:1985_Vavuniya_massacre|1985 Vavuniya massacre]]), and found that many of the residents suffered from high suicide rates, alcohol abuse, domestic violence, grief, and a "sense of ‘learnt helplessness’"<ref name=":5" />. A team from the University of Konstanz in Germany found that 92% of grade school children in the region were exposed to "combat, shelling, and witnessing the death of loved ones"<ref name=":9" />. [[File:Tractors. Jan 2009 displacement in the Vanni.jpg|left|thumb|350x350px|Displaced civilians originating from the Kilinochchi and Mullaitivu Districts due to military campaigns by the Sri Lankan military (January 2009). Displaced civilians had to avoid both the atrocities committed by the LTTE and the Sri Lankan government.]] Accusation of war crimes towards [[w:War_crimes_during_the_final_stages_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war|the Sri Lankan government]] have been documented by various external organizations, despite the government's attempts at removing any [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e_p1TfTguW0 mentions] or [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vtm54Y9USEg investigations] of it<ref>See also [[w:Sexual violence in the Sri Lankan civil war]].</ref>. A 2009 HRW report stated that the Sri Lankan government assumed native Tamil population residing in war zones to be "siding with the LTTE and [therefore, were] treated as combatants", leading to indiscriminate shillings and massacres of civilians<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2009-02-19|title=War on the Displaced|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/02/19/war-displaced/sri-lankan-army-and-ltte-abuses-against-civilians-vanni|journal=Human Rights Watch|language=en}}</ref>. Alongside the oppression by the Sri Lankan military, the Vanni population also endured the brutal theatrics of the LTTE, which recruited men, women, and even children with minimal training, effectively rendering them cannon fodder. Over 200,000 Tamil civilians were moved into [[w:Internally_displaced_persons_in_Sri_Lanka|designated displacement camps during the war]], where conditions were abysmal<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000}}</ref>. The suicide rate in these displacement camps were three times the community-level (2002), with a ratio of 103.5 per 10,000 compared to the Sri Lankan general population's rate of 37.5 per 10,000. Almost all suicide attempts involved poisonous substances. Other forms of violence included domestic violence and child abuse. Local health officials in Vavuniya admitted that mental health concerns were a major problem, but were unable to address these concerns due to a lack of resources and support from the government. During the [[wikipedia:Sri_Lankan_civil_war#2002_peace_process_(2002%E2%80%932006)|brief 2002 ceasefire]], the MSF implemented a "community-based programme" which included "increasing awareness, community strengthening, reinforcing coping-strategies for long-term war-affected communities, and counselling". The MSF also advocated for restrictions of poisonous substances due to the suicide attempts, and stressed that "much more [than resettlement]" would need to be done to help alleviate the psychological pain the northern population had faced<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Jong|first=Kaz|last2=Mulhern|first2=Maureen|last3=Ford|first3=Nathan|last4=Simpson|first4=Isabel|last5=Swan|first5=Alison|last6=van der Kam|first6=Saskia|date=2002-04|title=Psychological trauma of the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673602084209|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=359|issue=9316|pages=1517–1518|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08420-9}}</ref>. The ceasefire ended in 2006 and led to the [[w:Eelam_War_IV|final phase of the civil war]], eventually ending in 2009 with the [[w:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velupillai_Prabhakaran#Sri_Lankan_Army_Northern_offensive_and_death|death of the LTTE's leader]]. '''Post-war''' [[File:Puttalam district.svg|left|thumb|Puttalam District, unlike its northern counterparts, was largely spared from the intense conflict, possibly explaining the lower rates of common mental disorders (CMDs).]] The first district-wide cross-sectional multistage cluster sample survey was conducted in the [[w:Jaffna_District|Jaffna District]] shortly after the war ended. The study's sample included 1517 households and 2 internally displaced peoples camps. With a response rate of 92%, the study found that symptoms for PTSD were found in 7% of participants, symptoms of anxiety were found in 32.6% of participants, and symptoms of depression were found in 22.2% of participants. 2% of respondents were currently placed in internally displaced peoples camps at the time of the study, 29.5% were freshly resettled from the internally displaced peoples camps, and the rest of the participants (68.5%) were never placed into camps. In comparison to residents who were never placed into camps, participants that were actively held in camps tend to report more symptoms of PTSD, anxiety, and depression. The researchers also found that women were especially vulnerable to deteriorating mental health conditions. This was explained by two factors: women having to assume the roles of both the father and the mother in the family setting after the, either voluntary or forced, departure of the husband to war, and sexist violence<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Husain|first=Farah|last2=Anderson|first2=Mark|last3=Lopes Cardozo|first3=Barbara|last4=Becknell|first4=Kristin|last5=Blanton|first5=Curtis|last6=Araki|first6=Diane|last7=Kottegoda Vithana|first7=Eeshara|date=2011-08-03|title=Prevalence of War-Related Mental Health Conditions and Association With Displacement Status in Postwar Jaffna District, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1052|journal=JAMA|volume=306|issue=5|pages=522–531|doi=10.1001/jama.2011.1052|issn=0098-7484}}</ref>. A 2013 study on adult patients in [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232631/ primary care settings] (divisional hospitals, primary medical care units) found major depression to be significantly higher in females (5.1%) than males (3.6%), bolstering the observation seen in the 2009 study<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senarath|first=Upul|last2=Wickramage|first2=Kolitha|last3=Peiris|first3=Sharika Lasanthi|date=2014-03-24|title=Prevalence of depression and its associated factors among patients attending primary care settings in the post-conflict Northern Province in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|journal=BMC Psychiatry|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=85|doi=10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|issn=1471-244X|pmc=3987835|pmid=24661436}}</ref>. Muslims in Northern Sri Lanka during the conflict also faced violence and discrimination, most notably [[w:Expulsion_of_Muslims_from_the_Northern_Province_of_Sri_Lanka|the October 1990 expulsion of Muslims from the North to the Puttalam District or Jaffna]] and the [[w:Kattankudy_mosque_massacre|1990 Kattankudy mosque massacre]]. The only study testing the displaced Muslim population post-civil war was completed in 2011, where a cross-sectional survey of 450 internally displaced people or people born into displacement (ages 18 - 65) revealed 18.8% of the sample suffering from common mental health disorders (CMD), including [[w:Somatoform_disorder|somatoform disorder]] (14%), "other depressive syndromes" (7.3%), major depression (5.1%), and anxiety disorder (2.8%). The percentages found in this study for somatoform disorder and major depression were "considerably higher" than the national percentages, though the researchers noted that the prevalence of CMD was lower in comparison to other countries marred with conflict, including Palestine (40.3%) and Ethiopia (27.8%). The researchers explained that the lower rate of CMD may be attributed to the [[w:Puttalam_District|serenity of the post-settlement destination]], as conflict was mainly centered in the North and East. In contrast to earlier findings, this study did not observe a higher prevalence of CMDs among women, although increased rates of somatoform disorders were noted (though the researchers did not show the data behind this)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siriwardhana|first=Chesmal|last2=Adikari|first2=Anushka|last3=Pannala|first3=Gayani|last4=Siribaddana|first4=Sisira|last5=Abas|first5=Melanie|last6=Sumathipala|first6=Athula|last7=Stewart|first7=Robert|date=2013-05-22|title=Prolonged Internal Displacement and Common Mental Disorders in Sri Lanka: The COMRAID Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|pages=e64742|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3661540|pmid=23717656}}</ref>. Research on the mental state of combatants has been limited, but a post-war 2009 study done between soldiers of the [[w:Sri_Lanka_Army_Special_Forces_Regiment|Special Forces]] and regular soldiers showed higher levels of exposure to traumatic events for units of the Special Forces, yet the former exhibited significantly less symptoms of CMDs compared to the latter. The authors of this study, [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=cVKEBdwAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao Raveen Hanwella] and [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=ZRj74qMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra Varuni de Silva], offers the camaraderie of the unit as an explanation for the discrepancy<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|date=2012-08|title=Mental health of Special Forces personnel deployed in battle|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22038567|journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology|volume=47|issue=8|pages=1343–1351|doi=10.1007/s00127-011-0442-0|issn=1433-9285|pmid=22038567}}</ref>. A follow-up study was completed by the pair (with the addition of former Director-General of the Health Services of the Sri Lanka Navy [[w:Nicholas_Jayasekera|Nicholas Jayasekera]]), where the findings were similar, though the statistically significant bridge between the two cohorts in the previous study evaporated in the follow-up study. This may be due to the significant decline in mental health problems observed in the regular unit forces, potentially reflecting resilience in the aftermath of jarring conflict<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=Jayasekera|first2=Nicholas E. L. W.|last3=Silva|first3=Varuni A. de|date=2014-09-25|title=Mental Health Status of Sri Lanka Navy Personnel Three Years after End of Combat Operations: A Follow Up Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=9|issue=9|pages=e108113|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4177866|pmid=25254557}}</ref>. Amputees or soldiers with spinal injuries exhibited drastically different numbers, with approximately 40% of nearly 100 male-veterans in a post-war 2009 study displaying PTSD-like symptoms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abeyasinghe|first=N. L.|last2=de Zoysa|first2=P.|last3=Bandara|first3=K.M.K.C.|last4=Bartholameuz|first4=N. A.|last5=Bandara|first5=J. M.U.J.|date=2012-05-01|title=The prevalence of symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder among soldiers with amputation of a limb or spinal injury: A report from a rehabilitation centre in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|journal=Psychology, Health & Medicine|volume=17|issue=3|pages=376–381|doi=10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|issn=1354-8506|pmid=21942815}}</ref>. About a decade after the conflict ceased, a few notable studies have emerged to help guide understanding on the longer-term mental health effects on victims of the civil war. From July 2019 to October 2020, a study was conducted on 585 local adolescents (ages 12-19) in the Vavuniya district revealed that despite 15.6% of the statistic having faced one or more war-related events, only 3.9% of the participants had moderate - severe depression. In addition to considerably low depression rates, only 5.7% of participants age 17+ were found to have moderate - severe hopelessness<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000|pmc=10472617|pmid=37653394}}</ref>. The authors referenced a 2010 observation by psychiatrist [https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/author/daya-somasundaram Daya Somasundaram], who noted that many Tamil IDPs exhibited "remarkable resilience and post-traumatic growth" after the civil war—an outcome he attributed to the close-knit, family-centered nature of Tamil communities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}</ref>. Findings originating from a 2019 study undertook by several faculty members from the University of Kelaniya, the University of Jaffna, the [[w:Gampaha_Wickramarachchi_University_of_Indigenous_Medicine|Gampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous Medicine]], and the [https://onur.gov.lk/ Office for National Unity and Reconciliation (ONUR)] in Jaffna, found contrasting statistics. Out of 336 participants from districts that faced significant ramifications of the conflict (Jaffna, Kilinochchi, Mullaithivu, Vavuniya, and Mannar districts), 50.5% had extreme anxiety symptoms and 36.5% exhibited "extremely severe" symptoms of depression. 92.5% of families in the sample experienced suicidal ideation, with an observed negative correlation between trauma exposure and life satisfaction with families. Drug abuse (86.2%) and alcohol abuse (84.5%) were the two highest problematic behaviors recorded on a community-level, suggesting that the negative consequences of the civil war still persist, possibly on a substantial scale than previously recognized, in Tamil communities in the North<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thamotharampillai|first=Umaharan|last2=Perera|first2=Ruwanthi|last3=Wickremasinghe|first3=Rajitha|last4=Williams|first4=Shehan|last5=Vijayasangar|first5=Thedsanamoorthy|last6=Sivatharsan|first6=Balasubramaniam|last7=Hilbert|first7=Vanceline|last8=Somasundaram|first8=Daya|date=2025-05-06|title=Collective Trauma- Psychosocial consequences of war in northern Sri Lanka 10 years on, a mixed methods study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000696|journal=SSM - Mental Health|pages=100457|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100457|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Further research should be conducted in this field. In 2019, [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/R-M-M-Monaragala-2087692299 Dr. R. M. M. Monaragala] conducted a study on 1,845 soldiers with combat experience, finding that 3.9% of the sample suffered from PTSD. Dr. Monaragala noted that "probable depression, fatigue, aggression, and family history of mental disorder" were correlative of PTSD presence. He suggested that "screening and psychosocial intervention" were recommended avenues to alleviate CMDs of former combatants<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Monaragala|first=R. M. M.|date=2024-04-19|title=Exploring the effects of the past civil war in terms of the prevalence and associating factors of PTSD|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=14|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. === 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami === The '''2004 Boxing Day Tsunami''' was a natural disaster where a tsunami spawned off a 9.2–9.3 magnitude earthquake off the coast of Aceh in Indonesia on December 26. The tsunami greatly affected the coastlines of the country, with the death toll reaching to about 35,000 deaths. In addition, 90,000 houses were destroyed and 516,000 people were forced to migrate due to severe infrastructural damage<ref name=":5" />. It stands as the [http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/tsunami_relief/119821.htm worst natural disaster to have ever hit Sri Lanka]. [[File:Tsunami relief 2004 02.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Volunteers from [[w:Royal_College,_Colombo|Royal College in Colombo]] assisting in tsunami relief efforts (Sarvodaya Headquaters, Moratuwa).]] A survey conducted on schoolchildren (ages 8-14) in Manadkadu (Tamil-majority village in the northern coast), [[w:Kosgoda|Kosgoda]] (western coast), and [[w:Galle|Galle]] (southern coast), just a few weeks after the tsunami hit Sri Lanka, revealed that 33.8%, 13.9%, and 38.8% of children interviewed exhibited signs of PTSD (according to the DSM-IV's criteria), respectively (minus the time criteria, as the DSM-IV does not permit diagnosis of PTSD within 4 weeks of a traumatic incident). The loss of family members and exposure to previously traumatic incidents seem to highly correlate with PTSD development<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Neuner|first=Frank|last2=Schauer|first2=Elisabeth|last3=Catani|first3=Claudia|last4=Ruf|first4=Martina|last5=Elbert|first5=Thomas|date=2006|title=Post-tsunami stress: A study of posttraumatic stress disorder in children living in three severely affected regions in Sri Lanka|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jts.20121|journal=Journal of Traumatic Stress|language=en|volume=19|issue=3|pages=339–347|doi=10.1002/jts.20121|issn=1573-6598}}</ref>. Many victims in the Jaffna area suffered with "[https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/prolonged-grief-disorder pathological grief], phobias, depression and PTSD" post-tsunami. Schizophrenia in the Jaffna Tamil community, which had already suffered elevated prevalence of PTSD prior to the tsunami, had worsened—highlighting the need for specialized care in response to cumulative exposures to chronic and acute traumas. In a study published in the journal ''International Psychiatry'' (2006), Jaffna-based researchers noted that, contrary to their initial inclinations, there was not a "large[r] (than expected) rise in [the] number of people" seeking mental health support 3 months after the tsunami. However, 10 months after the disaster, the researchers anticipated that "more psychiatric disorders" would emerge due to "very little rebuilding [efforts]" and an apparent "unfairness in the aid system".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=D. J.|last2=Yoganathan|first2=S.|last3=Ganesvaran|first3=T.|date=1993-09|title=Schizophrenia in northern Sri Lanka|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7828234|journal=The Ceylon Medical Journal..|volume=38|issue=3|pages=131–135|issn=0009-0875|pmid=7828234}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Danvers|first=K.|last2=Sivayokan|first2=S.|last3=Somasundaram|first3=D. J.|last4=Sivashankar|first4=R.|date=2006-07|title=Ten months on: qualitative assessment of psychosocial issues in northern Sri Lanka following the tsunami|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6734678/|journal=International Psychiatry: Bulletin of the Board of International Affairs of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|volume=3|issue=3|pages=5–8|issn=1749-3676|pmc=6734678|pmid=31507850}}</ref> At the February 2005 ''After the Tsunami: Mental Health Challenges to the Community for Today and Tomorrow'' conference in Thailand, [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Chandanie-Hewage Dr. Chandanie Hewage] of the [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] commentated that measures taken to assist the affected were "not coordinated" due to poor "communication systems and road [conditions]." Regardless, efforts were continued by the government and health professionals to alleviate the struggles the victims were facing, including the psychological ramifications of the disaster. Several issues in the delivery of these services were highlighted by Dr. Hewage, including poor maintenance of health records, lack of awareness on drug consumption by the patients themselves, and shortages of health professionals. Dr. Hewage points out that personnel had "little" mental health training prior to the disaster, suggesting increased "research" and adequate "provision[ing] and training of staff" in the long-term<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Davidson|first=Jonathan R. T.|date=2006|title=Foreword. After the tsunami: mental health challenges to the community for today and tomorrow|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16602809|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=67 Suppl 2|pages=3–8|issn=0160-6689|pmid=16602809}}</ref>. With inadequate documentation, no systematic procedures in place, and insufficient personnel, tsunami victims with mental health concerns may not receive the services they need, further compacting neuropsychological ailments. In 2008 (about 3-4 years after the tsunami), researchers in the hard-hit village of [[w:Peraliya|Peraliya]] (Galle District) found that from a sample of approximately 90 adults, 25% suffered from moderate–severe PTSD, with women scoring "above the cut-off for anxiety" and reporting more "somatic symptoms", though researchers inferred that the PTSD rate found in the study may be influenced by war or economic hardship<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hollifield|first=Michael|last2=Hewage|first2=Chandanie|last3=Gunawardena|first3=Charlotte N.|last4=Kodituwakku|first4=Piyadasa|last5=Bopagoda|first5=Kalum|last6=Weerarathnege|first6=Krishantha|last7=Group|first7=International Post-Tsunami Study|date=2008-01|title=Symptoms and coping in Sri Lanka 20–21 months after the 2004 tsunami|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/symptoms-and-coping-in-sri-lanka-2021-months-after-the-2004-tsunami/CB33752239AF362A0BFD55B3668D60B0|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=192|issue=1|pages=39–44|doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.107.038422|issn=0007-1250}}</ref>. === 2019 Easter Bombings === The '''2019 Easter Bombings''' were a series of coordinated attacks perpetrated by the Islamic extremist group, [[w:National_Thowheeth_Jama'ath|National Thowheeth Jama'ath]], on April 21, 2019. The attack targeted three churches and three hotels in the Colombo area, killing nearly 300 people and injuring over 500. The attack was also attributed to the incompetency of the Sri Lankan government, who ignored [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48044636 multiple warnings regarding the attacks]. The attacks negatively affected the Sri Lankan Catholic community and further weakened relations between the major religious groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. In the aftermath of the attacks, professionals in the [[w:Gampaha_District|Gampaha District]] resorted to "low-cost methodological" responses to children and adolescents affected by the attack as a "severe shortage" of children and adolescent mental health experts were exposed<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chandradasa|first=Miyuru|last2=Rathnayake|first2=Layani C|last3=Rowel|first3=Madushi|last4=Fernando|first4=Lalin|date=2020-06-01|title=Early phase child and adolescent psychiatry response after mass trauma: Lessons learned from the Easter Sunday attack in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020913314|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry|language=EN|volume=66|issue=4|pages=331–334|doi=10.1177/0020764020913314|issn=0020-7640}}</ref>. In a qualitative study of 8 survivors of the attacks receiving grief counseling, [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] assistant professor [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Virasha-Godakanda Virasha Godakanda] observed that 70% of the sample size expressed "doubts" in adequate mental health interventions from the government, reducing the quality of such services. Professor Godakanda strongly endorsed for "culturally-sensitive" programs, a diversity in therapeutic approaches (including nature-based therapy), and "prolonged investigations" to track developments in mental health resources and impacts of implemented interventions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Godakanda|first=Virasha|date=2025-01-29|title=A GRIEF COUNSELING INTERVENTION AFTER THE MASS TRAUMA: LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE VICTIMS OF THE EASTER SUNDAY ATTACK IN SRI LANKA|url=https://kjmr.com.pk/kjmr/article/view/216|journal=Kashf Journal of Multidisciplinary Research|language=en|volume=2|issue=01|pages=13–32|doi=10.71146/kjmr216|issn=3007-200X}}</ref>. A few weeks following the attacks, Muslims in Sri Lanka were subjected to [[w:2019_anti-Muslim_riots_in_Sri_Lanka|violent, coordinated riots]] masterminded by Sinhalese national forces<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mujahidin|first=Muhammad Saekul|date=2023-07-03|title=Extremism and Islamophobia Against the Muslim Minority in Sri Lanka|url=https://www.ajis.org/|journal=American Journal of Islam and Society|language=en|volume=40|issue=1-2|pages=213–241|doi=10.35632/ajis.v40i1-2.3135|issn=2690-3741}}</ref>. Riots were mainly centered in the [[w:Kurunegala_District|Kurunegala]], Gampaha, and [[w:Kandy_District|Kandy]] Districts. At least [https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/5/21/in-sri-lanka-muslims-say-sinhala-neighbours-turned-against-them one confirmed death was reported]. Calls for vague ''niqab'' and ''burqa'' bans were increasingly prominent, eventually leading to the 2021 burqa ban by the Sri Lankan government. Pakistani and Afghani refugees fleeing religious persecution in Negombo were forced to be "made refugees again" after local protests were orchestrated against their settlement. Islamophobic aroma was "unleashed online, in the law, and on the street"<ref>{{Cite book|title=CARTOGRAPHIC JOURNEY OF RACE, GENDER AND POWER: global identity|date=2021|publisher=CAMBRIDGE SCHOLARS PUBLIS|isbn=978-1-5275-6965-2|location=S.l.}}</ref>. Albeit its relevancy to the attacks, no in-depth mental health studies were administered on the minority Muslim population following the Easter bombings. Further research is imperative in exploring the sustained psychological effects of Islamophobia and its effect on the Muslim minority community in the aftermath of the 2019 Easter attacks. Literature on the impact of the 2019 Easter Bombings on mental health is limited and further research should be conducted. === 2019-2024 Economic Crisis === The '''2019-2024 Economic Crisis''' refers to a 5 year period where the Sri Lankan economy experienced massive inflation and an abrupt hike in prices on basic, everyday items. It is the worse economic crisis the country has faced since the Sri Lankans were granted independence in 1948. Schools in Sri Lanka were forced to postpone examinations due to paper shortages. Gas shortages led to long lines at gas stations, some lasting for days, throughout the island. Shortages in electricity, cooking gas, and aviation were additional results of the economic crisis. Healthcare workers faced a barrage of mental health during the crisis, including a lopsided work-life balance due to unprecedented demand, increased stress and mental fatigue from a lack of resources and personnel, unhealthy coping mechanisms, job dissatisfaction, and a reduction in work quality. Such effects perpetuate a self-enforcing cycle of psychologically distressed mental healthcare workers providing subpar services, affecting patients and amplifying mental health issues experienced by both the workforce and their patients<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dilogini|first=S.|last2=Grace|first2=H. H.|last3=Thasika|first3=T.|date=2024|title=Exploring The Mental Health and Well-Being of Public Healthcare Workers (HCWs) Amid Economic Crisis in Sri Lanka|url=http://repo.lib.jfn.ac.lk/ujrr/handle/123456789/11092|language=en|publisher=Chartered Institute of Personnel Management}}</ref>. Medical students from the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Colombo reported that the economic crisis forced abrupt changes in dietary consumption, increased hopelessness in the future, increased stress and anxiety, and a decrease in interest in pursuing a "clinical post-graduate career"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Adikaranayake|first=Pesala Randika|last2=Perera|first2=Anusha Nimrod|last3=Nilaweera|first3=Akhila Imantha|last4=Fernando|first4=Desha Rajni|last5=Wijayaratne|first5=Dilushi Rowena|date=2025-07-01|title=Effects of Sri Lankan economic crisis on health, lifestyle and education of medical students in Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo – an online survey|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|journal=BMC Medical Education|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=938|doi=10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|issn=1472-6920|pmc=12211748}}</ref>. 283 government-school teachers completed a web-based cross-sectional survey in April 2024, with majority of the participants reporting a severe reduction in monthly income & 1/3 of participants exhibiting "clinical levels of psychological distress"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C. P.|last2=Senarathne|first2=D. L. P.|last3=Fernando|first3=M. S.|last4=Senevirathne|first4=S. P.|date=2025-05-28|title=Examining the economic burden and mental health distress among government school teachers in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|journal=BMC Psychology|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=572|doi=10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|issn=2050-7283}}</ref>. A study published in that same year reported that out of 261 nurses working in teaching hospitals, 91.6% were forced to allocate their finances to strictly "general needs", while more than 50% looked into international opportunism for employment. Notably, the study reported an overall near "twofold greater" rate of depression, anxiety, and stress compared to previously conducted studies on nurses<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C.P|last2=Senarathne|first2=L.|last3=Fernando|first3=M.|date=2024-04-01|title=Exploring the Association Between Behavioural Modification in Response to the Prevailing Economic Crisis and Mental Health Outcomes of Nurses from Teaching Hospitals, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/23779608241272679|journal=SAGE Open Nursing|language=EN|volume=10|pages=23779608241272679|doi=10.1177/23779608241272679|issn=2377-9608|pmc=11311183}}</ref>. The detrimental effects the crisis has had on the mental health sector reveal a concerning area of underappreciation and under compensation by the Sri Lankan government towards a critical sector for the well-being of the country. Comprehensive mental health interventions need to be prepared and ready to implement at times of national emergencies. == Present-Day Challenges == === Ethnic tension === Despite the end of the Sri Lankan civil war and the introduction of pluralist policies, such as the [https://srilankaembassy.fr/sites/default/files/files/media/pdf/NationalPolicy-English.pdf 2017 National Policy on Reconciliation and Coexistence] under the Sirisena administration, tensions amongst members of the ethnic groups still persist in the country. Evidence of these tensions was found through a 2022 study conducted in the Ratnapura district, where religious leaders expressed skepticisms, through semi-structured interviews, for "conflict transformation". A Tamil citizen of the Ratnapura community recounted that they were forced to "hide in jungles" and consume "dirty water in drainage[s]" due to scarcity of food and drinkable water as a result of the conflict. In certain personal accounts, ethnic conflicts appear to affect the social behavior and identity of the majority ethnic group. One Sinhala participant recounted his objection to the war-time retaliatory destruction of a shop run by a Tamil shopkeeper was met with interrogative questions about "whether [he was] Sinhalese or not". Both accounts convey interethnic tensions stemming from decade-long conflicts<ref>Jayathilaka, Aruna & Gamage, Sayuri. (2024). Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders in the Post-War Conflict Transformation Process: A Study Based on Rathnapura District in Srilanka. ''Retrieved from'' https://gandhimargjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Volume-46-Issue-1-April-June-2024.pdf#page=66</ref>. Beyond individual accounts and the official end of the civil war, the minority groups in the country continue to feel ostracized. The Sri Lankan Tamil population remains dissatisfied with the Sri Lankan government and their accountability of perpetrators of war crimes and information on the whereabouts of [[w:Enforced_disappearances_in_Sri_Lanka|thousands of enforced disappearances]] that took place from the 1980s. Additionally, rising anti-Muslim sentiment in recent years contribute to increased ethnic tensions, a stark contrast to the previous centuries of peaceful co-existence between the groups. [[File:Bodu Bala Sena symbol.svg|thumb|The symbol for Bodu Bala Sena, a nationalistic Sinhala Buddhist group criticized for catalyzing ethnic tensions in Sri Lanka.]] Laws passed by the Sri Lankan government, such as the [[w:Prevention_of_Terrorism_Act_(Sri_Lanka)|Prevention of Terrorism Act]] and [[wikipedia:Anti-conversion_law#Sri_Lanka|anti-conversion laws]], have forced the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom to label Sri Lanka as a nation that "[engages] or [tolerates] severe violations of religious freedom" in their 2024 report. The government has been criticized by human rights organizations for "disproportionately targeting religious minorities"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Additionally, the implementation of the three dominant languages, English, Sinhala, and Tamil, across formal education and government services have been lackadaisical, narrowing opportunities of foundational social interactions between the groups. Persistent discrimination and prejudice towards minority groups can lead to an array of complex and self-deprecating mental health issues. Effort to mitigate ethnic tensions include strategies like [[w:Community-based_participatory_research|community-based participatory research]] (CBPR), task-sharing, and securing online mental health services in order to expand mental health services. However, the implementation of evidence-based plans has been met with difficulty due to inaccessibility, high costs, and shortages of adequately-trained personnel. Movements aiming for improved intra group and inter group coexistences, such as the Jaffna People’s Forum for Coexistence developed in the wake of the 2019 Easter bombings, should be emphasized on a systematic and multi-level basis, including but not limited to education, public sectors, and within communities. Pluralistic values should be stressed across both private and public schools to foster cultural sensitivity and tolerance. Measures should be taken against threatening extremist groups promoting sectarian hostility, such as the [[w:Bodu_Bala_Sena|Bodu Bala Sena]]. === Poverty === It has been proven that poverty significantly increases the chances of developing mental illnesses. This is further amplified by possible discrimination<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knifton|first=Lee|last2=Inglis|first2=Greig|date=2020-10|title=Poverty and mental health: policy, practice and research implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7525587/|journal=BJPsych bulletin|volume=44|issue=5|pages=193–196|doi=10.1192/bjb.2020.78|issn=2056-4694|pmc=7525587|pmid=32744210}}</ref>. Poverty also affects the ability for individuals with mental health concerns to receive the treatment they need. Due to the repercussions of the economic crisis, clients in Sri Lanka could not attend further counseling sessions<ref name=":8" />. Poverty from 2021 to 2022 [https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/poverty/987B9C90-CB9F-4D93-AE8C-750588BF00QA/current/Global_POVEQ_LKA.pdf reportedly doubled], with future forecasts predicting the poverty line to "remain above 25 percent". Suicide has been empirically linked to economic hardships in previous studies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}</ref>. A 2013 study done on suicidal patients in [[w:Batticaloa_Teaching_Hospital|Batticaloa Teaching Hospital]] revealed 76% of patients who attempted suicide were from rural areas while 15% were from urban areas<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://ir.lib.seu.ac.lk/handle/123456789/1457|title=The influence of common risk factors for the patient with attempted suicide hospitalized at the teaching hospital, Batticaloa|last=Kisokanth|first=G.|last2=Najeem|first2=M. M.|last3=Karunakaran|first3=K. E.|date=2014-08-02|publisher=South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, University Park, Oluvil #32360, Sri Lanka|isbn=978-955-627-053-2|language=en-US}}</ref>. The Sri Lankan government should consider the economical impacts that poverty has on mental health and implement ways to aid poverty-stricken individuals with mental health concerns. === Stigmas === Stigma consists of the "combined effect of prejudice, ignorance and discrimination."<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|url=http://www.researchgate.net/publication/233990797_The_Stigma_of_Mental_Illness_in_Sri_Lanka_The_Perspectives_of_Community_Mental_Health_Workers|title=(PDF) The Stigma of Mental Illness in Sri Lanka: The Perspectives of Community Mental Health Workers|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2025-07-25}}</ref>. A 2012 interview consisting of nine participants (two doctors, three nurses, one occupational therapist, one development worker, and two volunteers) revealed a number of concerning societal viewpoints on individuals with mental health concerns. The interviews revealed that negative judgements were not only levied against the individual with the mental illness, but also the family. Families hid mentally ill family members from the public to avoid "shame" and possible hinderances in marriage proposals. Views that mentally ill individuals were "violent" served as the motivating factor behind socially isolating those with mental illness from their communities. Interviewees mentioned that individuals dealing with mental health challenges would have stones and "derogatory names" launched at them. A lack of community awareness regarding mental health and negative portrayals of mentally ill individuals in media exacerbates stigmatization, though the researchers commented that the media was "improving" in their depiction of mental illness. Beliefs that illnesses are caused by "spirits" can be problematic for individuals dealing with mental health issues and serves as evidence to poor mental health awareness in the country. Mental health workers themselves believed that they were being stigmatized, as mental health is reportedly not taken as seriously as physical health. Despite the intriguing perspectives provided, the small sample size and usage of snow sampling raise questionable concerns regarding the contextualization of the results<ref name=":10" />. Improving media portrayal of subjects concerning mental health and involving community members in interventions dealing with mental health issues are ways that could destigmatize mental health amongst communities in Sri Lanka. Tying collaborations between allopathic services and traditional healers instead of having these two services work individually could enhance engagement between traditional medicine and Western medicine. === Suicide Trends & Risk Factors === Suicide is defined as "the act of killing oneself deliberately, initiated and performed by the person concerned in the full knowledge or expectation of its fatal outcome"<ref name=":11">{{Cite book|title=The neuroscience of suicidal behavior|last=Heeringen|first=Kees van|date=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-60290-4|series=Cambridge fundamentals of neuroscience in psychology|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom New York, NY, USA Port Melbourne, VIC, Australia New Delhi, India Singapore}}</ref>. Although Sri Lanka has seen a significant reduction in suicide rates from the mid 1990s due to its banning of extremely toxic pesticide products, suicide and self harm remains a significant issue. The suicide rate per 100,000 people increased from 14.0 in 2019 to [https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide 15.0 in 2022] (according to WHO). On average, 27 males per 100,000 males and 5 females per 100,000 females committed suicide in 2022<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}</ref>. Hanging appears to be the most used method for suicide for both males and females, with studies revealing a steady increase in recent years<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Bandara|first=Piumee|last2=Wickrama|first2=Prabath|last3=Sivayokan|first3=Sambasivamoorthy|last4=Knipe|first4=Duleeka|last5=Rajapakse|first5=Thilini|date=2024-04-17|title=Reflections on the trends of suicide in Sri Lanka, 1997–2022: The need for continued vigilance|url=https://journals.plos.org/globalpublichealth/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|journal=PLOS Global Public Health|language=en|volume=4|issue=4|pages=e0003054|doi=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|issn=2767-3375|pmc=11023397|pmid=38630779}}</ref>. From 2023 to 2024, a group of researchers from the [[w:Eastern_University,_Sri_Lanka|Eastern University in Sri Lanka]] assessed 828 patients admitted to the Teaching Hospital in [[w:Batticaloa,_Sri_Lanka|Batticaloa, Sri Lanka]] for attempted suicide. They concluded that suicide prevention programs should be attuned to younger people (ages 15 to 35 in the study), emphasize the importance of education and reducing unemployment, and increase social support in the Tamil community. Despite the relevant insights into certain aspects of an average Sri Lankan's life that could lead to suicidal ideation (ie, poverty), the results from this study suffer in external validity as 90% of the patients were Tamil and over 50% were between 16 and 25 years. In addition, correlations between suicide and unemployment rates have been questioned, with [[w:Austerity|austerity]] being a more reliable indicator of suicide rates than unemployment rates<ref name=":11" />. Further comprehensive studies on risk factors relating to suicide should be studied to assess correlations between unemployment rates and austerity measures. The WHO suggests implementing evidence-based suicide prevention programs, such as [https://www.who.int/initiatives/live-life-initiative-for-suicide-prevention LIVE LIFE], to reduce the national suicide rate<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide|title=World Suicide Prevention day 2024 “Changing the Narrative on Suicide”|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2025-07-29}}</ref>. Media depictionss of suicidal methods, such as hanging, can lead to sensationalism and the media should be cautious of such displays in movies and TV shows<ref name=":12" />. Awareness of depression and other mental health issues can serve as a safeguard against suicidal ideation in Sri Lankan men and women. == Role of Religion == According to the last demographic report (2012), 70.2% of Sri Lankans are Buddhist, 12.6% are Hindus, 9.7% are Muslims, and 7.4% are Christians. The Theravada Buddhist community makes up the majority in several provinces throughout the country<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sri-lanka/|title=Sri Lanka|website=United States Department of State|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-07}}</ref>. Religion, especially Theravada Buddhism, has had a significant influence on not only the historical treatment of mental health in the country, but also everyday life<ref name=":15" />. The [[w:Mahāvaṃsa|''Mahāvaṃsa'']] affirms hospitals treating patients suffering from mental health issues as early as the 4th century BC. Additionally, the 1700s Nayaka king [[w:Kirti_Sri_Rajasinha|Kirthi Sri Rajasinghe]] detailed the implementation of Buddhist philosophy in psychiatry<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. De|date=2017-12-05|title=Development of civil commitment statutes (laws of involuntary detention and treatment) in Sri Lanka: a historical review|url=https://mljsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|journal=Medico-Legal Journal of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|doi=10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|issn=2012-8231}}</ref>. Modern-day empirical studies have attested to the usefulness of religion in mitigating stress and elevating mental health<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|title=Religion and Mental Health|last=Schieman|first=Scott|last2=Bierman|first2=Alex|last3=Ellison|first3=Christopher G.|date=2013|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-94-007-4276-5|editor-last=Aneshensel|editor-first=Carol S.|location=Dordrecht|pages=457–478|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|editor-last2=Phelan|editor-first2=Jo C.|editor-last3=Bierman|editor-first3=Alex}}</ref>. Religion has been found to be positively correlated with improved mental health, and more religious patients were concluded to have "better mental health and adapt[ed] more quickly to health problems" versus patients who weren't religious<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koenig|first=Harold G.|date=2012|title=Religion, spirituality, and health: the research and clinical implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3671693/|journal=ISRN psychiatry|volume=2012|pages=278730|doi=10.5402/2012/278730|issn=2090-7966|pmc=3671693|pmid=23762764}}</ref>. [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/T-N-Wickramarathna-2247724082 Dr. Wickramarathna] of the University Psychiatry Unit (UPU) at the National Hospital of Sri Lanka (NHSL) argues that psychiatrists must strive for a balance in their approach to patients and "make positive use of religion in [their] practice[s]"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wickramarathna|first=T. N.|date=2022-12-31|title=Psychiatrists should stand far from the shrine: why and why not we should separate religion from psychiatry|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=13|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. === Buddhism === 27 Sinhalese Buddhists from four Buddhist temples were selected for a series of 70-minute interviews and focus group discussions with the aim of learning the Sinhala Buddhist understanding and experience of spiritual well-being and psychological well-being. The interviewees held spiritual wellness to be the "center" of overall wellness, the "precondition for a successful life"<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|language=en-US|volume=44|issue=1|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=0258-9710}}</ref>. Sinhala Buddhists believe that wellness cannot be achieved without spiritual tranquility. The report states that participants emphasized that spirituality "cannot be directly intervened" and can only be seen through "[interactions] with society"<ref name=":14" />. Despite the ''athmaya'' (soul) being "unreachable", it can be "intervened", or treated, through the actions of the mind and body with society<ref name=":14" />. One being "psychologically ill" can affect one's spiritual being, as the participants reported in their interviews, and can be affected through "lifestyle stressors, environmental and socio-cultural causes, non-human related causes and bad-karma in the past lives"<ref name=":14" />. The researchers concluded that despite Sinhala Buddhists not being able to articulately decipher the discrepancies between psychological well-being and spiritual well-being, they are able to conceptualize and maintain a culturally embedded understanding between the two, serving as reputable evidence of the integration of mental health in Sinhala Buddhist practices. However, it is important to note that these results come from a very small sample size and cannot be generalized to all Sri Lankan Buddhists. In addition, a 2009 study found that a belief in karma was correlated with poor health. However, an earlier study found a positive correlation between the reliance on the [[w:Karma_in_Buddhism|Buddhist concept of karma]] and trauma, inferencing Buddhist karma being a prevalent response to trauma<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Levy|first=Becca R.|last2=Slade|first2=Martin D.|last3=Ranasinghe|first3=Padmini|date=2009-03|title=Causal thinking after a tsunami wave: karma beliefs, pessimistic explanatory style and health among Sri Lankan survivors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19229624|journal=Journal of Religion and Health|volume=48|issue=1|pages=38–45|doi=10.1007/s10943-008-9162-5|issn=1573-6571|pmid=19229624}}</ref>. Overall, the effectiveness of karma as a coping mechanism appears to be conflicted. Studies indicate that other practices of Buddhism seem to be utilized by individuals affected by the war. 40% of Sri Lankan Buddhists affected by the 2004 tsunami found the Buddhist ritual ''Bodhipuja'' to be helpful in dealing with traumatic experiences<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jmvh.org/article/mental-health-and-the-role-of-cultural-and-religious-support-in-the-assistance-of-disabled-veterans-in-sri-lanka/|title=Mental Health and the Role of Cultural and Religious Support in the Assistance of Disabled Veterans in Sri Lanka|website=JMVH|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-12}}</ref>. === Catholicism === Catholic counseling refers to "a nuanced and holistic mental health care paradigm that intricately weaves together psychological science with the moral, spiritual, and pastoral traditions of the Catholic Church"<ref name=":13">Perera, U. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera/publication/394095042_Catholic_Counselling_in_Sri_Lanka_Integrating_Faith_Psychology_and_Cultural_Healing/links/6889303af8031739e6098c79/Catholic-Counselling-in-Sri-Lanka-Integrating-Faith-Psychology-and-Cultural-Healing.pdf Catholic Counselling in Sri Lanka: Integrating Faith, Psychology, and Cultural Healing]. July 2025.</ref> and aims to assimilate Catholic theology and evidence-based psychological treatment while including Sri Lankan cultural elements. This is achieved through emphasis on community cohesion and a locally-based understanding of "personhood"<ref name=":13" />. The origins of Catholic counseling trace back to the introduction of Roman Catholicism to the island in the 1600s, with the focus of the early Sri Lankan Catholic community being on "[[w:Evangelism|evangelization]], education, and sacramental formation". Demand for counseling services in general increased due to the impacts of the Sri Lankan Civil War, where Catholic organizations (Caritas Sri Lanka, Seth Sarana, Subodhi Integral Centre (Piliyandala), etc.) established several Catholic-based trauma-informed programmes for victims of the Civil War. Programmes use group therapy, forgiveness rituals, and narrative repairs to alleviate war trauma. Examples of integration of Catholic virtues and counseling can be seen in [[w:Cognitive_Behavioral_Therapy|Cognitive Behavioral Therapy]] (CBT), where "hope" and "humility" are used as the frameworks for creating spiritual resilience<ref name=":13" />. The general Christian call of "agape love and acceptance" is echoed by the concept of [[w:Unconditional_positive_regard|unconditional positive regard]]. ''[[w:Lectio_Divina|Lectio Divina]]'' (Catholic prayer and meditation) and ''Marian devotions'' are integrated into therapeutic practices to achieve emotional regulation and mindfulness. Senior Lecturer [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera Udeshini Perera] of the University of Colombo articulates a critical role of Catholic counseling. She claims that secular counseling fails to address the "spiritual roots of distress and moral confusion". Catholic counseling fills in this gap by integrating "psychological insights with a transcendent orientation, supporting lasting transformation and integrity"<ref name=":13" />. As of 2025, no formal accreditation or standardized training exists for [[w:Pastoral_counseling|pastoral counselors]] in Sri Lanka, hampering the legitimacy of Catholic counseling. Udeshini Perera remarks that mental health stigma, lack of standardized training, research regarding Catholic counseling effectiveness, and acceptance of the combination of religion and science in a professional setting present challenges for Catholic pastoral counseling in the country. Additionally, Catholic psychiatry in Sri Lanka appears to be under-researched, and evidence of its empirical effects on followers appears sparse. Further research is needed in assessing the empirical effects of Catholic counseling in Sri Lanka. === Islam === The literature on the empirical effects of Islamic-based psychotherapy in Sri Lanka is limited. Research has revealed a 2012 case study where a 21-year-old Muslim woman was experiencing episodic possession states. The patient ceased attending psychiatric services and opted for religious rituals. The patient reported, in a follow-up visit, that the possession states had been absent for 3 months since her switch to religious rituals. The woman and her family attributed the apparent improvement of her condition to religious rituals<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|last3=Yoosuf|first3=Alam|last4=Karunaratne|first4=Sanjeewani|last5=de Silva|first5=Pushpa|date=2012|title=Religious Beliefs, Possession States, and Spirits: Three Case Studies from Sri Lanka|url=http://www.hindawi.com/journals/crips/2012/232740/|journal=Case Reports in Psychiatry|language=en|volume=2012|pages=1–3|doi=10.1155/2012/232740|issn=2090-682X|pmc=3437272|pmid=22970398}}</ref>. Future recommendations would be to employ resources to research the foundations of Islamic psychiatry in the country, and to observe the rituals employed and their effects on patients. Studies have found that Islamic prayer can be an effective means of "support and coping"<ref name=":15" />. Seven world-wide case studies using Islamic-based psychotherapy on patients, consisting of religious rituals such as scriptural reading from the [[w:Quran|Quran]], teaching of fundamental Islamic concepts (such as ''[[w:Tawakkul|tawakkul]]''), and active implementation of contemplation (''[[w:Tadabbur|tadabbur]]''), have reported positive effects in decreasing cognitive and emotional symptoms associated with "religious, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorder, grief, and substance use disorder.”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kurhade|first=Chhaya Shantaram|last2=Jagannathan|first2=Aarti|last3=Varambally|first3=Shivarama|last4=Shivanna|first4=Sushrutha|date=2022-01|title=Religion-based interventions for mental health disorders: A systematic review|url=https://journals.lww.com/10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|journal=Journal of Applied Consciousness Studies|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=20–33|doi=10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|issn=2949-6993}}</ref> Additionally, a community-based study of elderly patients in Bangalore, India receiving Islamic-based psychotherapy observed decreased exhibitions of sleep disorders, eating disorders, and emotional distress<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hafeez|first=Nimin|last2=Sanjay|first2=Thittamaranahalli Varadappa|last3=Puthussery|first3=Yannick Poulose|last4=Madhusudan|first4=Muralidhar|last5=Kariyappa|first5=Poornima Muddaiah|last6=Kulkarni|first6=Sridevi|last7=Raj|first7=Lavanya|date=2023-12-31|title=Spiritual practices among elderly, prevalence, pattern and associated factors: a community-based study from rural Bengaluru, India|url=https://jccpsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|journal=Journal of the College of Community Physicians of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=29|issue=4|doi=10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|issn=1391-3174}}</ref>. === Hinduism === Despite Hindus being 12.6% of the population of Sri Lanka, the research on Hinduism-based therapy in the country is limited. Ayurvedic medicine, a form of medicine originating from ancient India, predominated the Sri Lankan medical landscape for over 2,000 years and even had a symbiotic relationship with Sinhalese medicine, which also played a significant and influential role in the country's medical framework<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/article/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990/|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|volume=44|issue=1|pages=33|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=2478-1169}}</ref>. Despite its historical dominance, Ayurvedic medicine has been challenged against modern evidence-based medical standards<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://philarchive.org/rec/DOMAAT|title=Ayurveda: Ancient Tradition or Pseudoscientific Practice? A Philosophical Inquiry|last=Dominic|first=Shubham K.}}</ref>. === Comparative synthesis === Taking an overarching review of the role of religion in Sri Lanka, methods to improve mental well-being are practiced by adherents of Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. These methods are practiced through karma, tawakkul, hope, and humility. Additionally, these practices are implemented in traditionally-oriented mental health care, which has been reported to be preferred over psychiatric care at times. These rituals practiced across these religions indicate a common theme of psychologically integrated aspects of well-being. Interpretation of trauma is a central use in religion, with religious principles, such as karma and ''tawakkul'', serving as psychologically analogous mechanisms during times of distress. In terms of methodological comparisons to the studies described, qualitative interviews have documented Buddhist practices and principles, like Bodhipuja and the belief in karma, in response to traumatic events, while case studies found religious practices by other religious groups, such as a Muslim patient reading Islamic scripture and observing prayer to reduce emotional distress. Peer-reviewed sources have documented Catholic practices and principles, such as ''Lectio Divina'' and unconditional positive regard, in improving mindfulness and emotional regulation. The paper acknowledges limitations in the evaluation of certain findings, such as in Islam and Hinduism. These shortcomings, however, are a reflection of the existing literature and its deficiencies. Empirical findings indicate mental health practices are complex and are multifaceted in their effects. Evidently, religion serves a parallel role to psychiatric services in improving mental health. Despite its perceived benefits, the findings surrounding religions' role in mental health suffer from conflicting, and sometimes contradictory, results. Additionally, a disproportionate amount of empirical findings seem to be Buddhist-predominant, while other religions are underrepresented in the research. Regarding research barriers, the methodological approaches implemented to study the practices of religious followers vary, though much of the research was brought from qualitative or case-based studies, impeding generalizability. Another noteworthy issue is that many studies do not utilize standardized, psychiatric measures. == Future Outlook == Despite significant changes to the mental health environment in Sri Lanka, the current legal framework shaping mental health in the country has not been updated since 1956. A Cambridge University Press article detailed many limitations of the Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956, including discrepancies between the legal provisions of involuntary admissions and modern practices, potential exposure to trauma through extra-legal detentions of the mentally ill, and an absence of legal guidelines addressing the restraint of violent patients<ref name=":6" />. Participants from Sri Lanka reported in a comparative legislative questionnaire that they felt the mental health laws were "outdated" and descriptions of clinical roles remained ambiguous<ref name=":16" />. A draft mental health legislation from 2007 includes provisions for human rights, but due to "bureaucratic processes" and a "lack of consensus", the draft has not been officially approved. These limitations pose challenges to the standardization of mental healthcare admissions and may impact the rights of detained patients. Detained patients may have their human rights violated due to a lack of an up-to-date legal framework, thereby impeding the identification of such violations. Additionally, with the lack of clarity on clinical roles, clinical responsibilities may not be routinely recognized and observed, leading to role confusion and potential legal ramifications<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Dey|first=Sangeeta|last2=Mellsop|first2=Graham|last3=Diesfeld|first3=Kate|last4=Dharmawardene|first4=Vajira|last5=Mendis|first5=Susitha|last6=Chaudhuri|first6=Sreemanti|last7=Deb|first7=Aniruddha|last8=Huq|first8=Nafisa|last9=Ahmed|first9=Helal Uddin|date=2019-10-24|title=Comparing legislation for involuntary admission and treatment of mental illness in four South Asian countries|url=https://ijmhs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=13|issue=1|pages=67|doi=10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|issn=1752-4458|pmc=6813093|pmid=31666805}}</ref>. Lastly, current efforts should increase beyond just addressing poverty-centered matters, but also expand efforts to domestic violence victims and children with disabilities, as shelters and specialized services are limited<ref name=":82">{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Stagnation in policy development leaves Sri Lanka without a practical, up-to-date, and comprehensive mental health legislation, which could put both clinicians and patients at risk. Future reforms should include clarification on the treatment and detention process of involuntary admissions of patients and a clear delineation of clinical roles and their responsibilities. Without the necessary reforms to advance Sri Lankan mental health legislation, clinicians and vulnerable patients may suffer from a lack of comprehensive oversight. ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== Any people, organisations, or funding sources that you would like to thank. ===Competing interests=== No competing interests. ===Ethics statement=== An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section. ==References== {{reflist|35em}} [[Category:Mental health]] [[Category:Sri Lanka]] 1jo9c666qws4r2m2fghq3usx4navie5 2817334 2817333 2026-06-29T22:46:17Z Atcovi 276019 /* Modern-day Sri Lanka */ 2817334 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine <!-- WikiJournal of Medicine, Science, or Humanities --> | last1 = Azeez | orcid1 = 0009-0007-9202-4614 | first1 = Aaqib | last2 = | first2 = | last3 = | first3 = | last4 = | first4 = <!-- up to 9 authors can be added in this above format --> | et_al = <!-- if there are >9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --> | affiliation1 = Old Dominion University | correspondence1 = yonikmalik@gmail.com | affiliations = institutes / affiliations | correspondence = email@address.com | keywords = <!-- up to 6 keywords --> | license = <!-- default is CC-BY --> | abstract = This is a narrative review. }} TBD == Introduction == Mental health continues to be a critically relevant topic as the island nation has experienced decades of [[w:Black_July|violent ethnic conflict]], terrorist attacks, war crimes, and economic disruptions. Sri Lanka continues to recover from a [[w:Sri_Lankan_economic_crisis_(2019–2024)|severe economic crisis (2019 - 2024)]], a [[w:Sri_Lankan_civil_war|nearly 30-year civil war ending in 2009]], a [[w:2019_Sri_Lanka_Easter_bombings|2019 terrorist attack]], and continues to face the ripple effects of the [[w:2004_Boxing_Day_tsunami|2004 Boxing Day tsunami]]. The exact effect these major events have had on mental health in the country is "unknown", but the statistics remain alarming despite a declining trend. Suicide rates in the country during the mid-1990s were the second-highest in the world with ingesting toxic products being the main suicide method. Despite the decline in suicide numbers since then—possibly attributed to Sri Lanka's ban on toxic products—evidence from a 2023 study reports an upward trend in suicide through hanging from 2016 to 2021—independent of the [[w:COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sri_Lanka|COVID-19 pandemic]]. Several risk factors for suicide, such as poverty and economic instability, are still prevalent and even increasing in the country<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakse|first=Thilini|last2=Silva|first2=Tharuka|last3=Hettiarachchi|first3=Nirosha Madhuwanthi|last4=Gunnell|first4=David|last5=Metcalfe|first5=Chris|last6=Spittal|first6=Matthew J.|last7=Knipe|first7=Duleeka|date=2023-01-19|title=The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic and Lockdowns on Self-Poisoning and Suicide in Sri Lanka: An Interrupted Time Series Analysis|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914278/|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=20|issue=3|pages=1833|doi=10.3390/ijerph20031833|issn=1660-4601|pmc=9914278|pmid=36767200}}</ref>. == Methods == [source selection process] ==Historical Development of Mental Health Services== Records attest to the care of the mentally ill through established hospitals in the island since the 4th century.<ref name=":17" /> Prior to the incarceration of the mentally ill by the European colonizing forces, the mentally ill were regarded as ''Pissowetitch'', or people who had "the spirit of the Gods within him" and "whatsoever he pronounceth, is looked upon as spoken by God himself, and the people will speak to him, as if it were the very person of God"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/14346/14346-h/14346-h.htm|title=An Historical Relation Of the Island Ceylon, in the East-Indies: Together, With an Account of the Detaining in Captivity the Author and divers other Englishmen now Living there, and of the Author’s Miraculous Escape.|last=Knox|first=Robert|website=www.gutenberg.org|language=en-us|access-date=2026-06-29}}</ref>. With this religious understanding, Lucien de Alwis reasoned that the mentally ill in Sri Lanka were "placed... at a higher social status than the mentally ill in the Western world", with this notion correlating with the unsurprising absence of evidence in there being a "large scale segregation of mentally ill from society"<ref name=":17" />. In the 1800s, established care for mental health began shifting primarily from indigenous practices, mainly derived from [[w:Ayurveda|Ayurveda medicine]], [[w:Siddha_medicine|Siddha medicine]], and [[w:Unani_medicine|Unani medicine]], to a Western mode by the British<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":0">Gambheera, H. (2011). [https://www.saarcpsychiatry.com/viewText?chapter=c6 The evolution of psychiatric services in Sri Lanka]. South Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 2(1), 25–27.</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|title=Social Psychiatry in Sri Lanka|last=Baminiwatta|first=Anuradha|last2=Williams|first2=Shehan|date=2025|publisher=Springer Nature|isbn=978-981-96-8078-8|editor-last=Arafat|editor-first=S. M. Yasir|location=Singapore|pages=141–158|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|editor-last2=Singh|editor-first2=Amit|editor-last3=Kar|editor-first3=Sujita Kumar}}</ref>. === Adoption of a Western-based mental healthcare model and issuances of ordinances === In 1839, [[w:James_Alexander_Stewart-Mackenzie|James Alexander Stewart-Mackenzie]], the 7th Governor of British Ceylon, released the Lunacy Ordinance, authorizing municipal authorities to create lunatic asylums for the mentally ill in the country<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=6&Itemid=125&lang=en|title=History - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-10}}</ref>. The ordinance was concerned with the legal frameworks of detaining individuals considered dangerous to others or individuals falsely presenting themselves as mentally ill, and not on medical treatments to alleviate the conditions of detained individuals. UK psychiatrist [[w:Edward_Mapother|Edward Mapother]] critiqued the ordinance during his 1937 inspection of British Ceylon's mental health institutions in a series of reports titled ''A Disgrace to a Civilised Community'', remarking that the ordinance "[did] not seem to have contemplated treatment as a contingency to be considered"<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Permeable walls: historical perspectives on hospital and asylum visiting|date=2009|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-2599-8|editor-last=Mooney|editor-first=Graham|series=Clio medica|location=Amsterdam New York, NY|editor-last2=Reinarz|editor-first2=Jonathan}}</ref>. In 1840, the 1839 Ordinance was repealed and replaced by the 1840 Ordinance. The 1839 Ordinance was almost identical to the 1840 Ordinance, except the removal of two previous requirements: the requirement for official medical diagnoses of the mentally insane and the mandate to maintain adequate staff-to-patient ratios within lunatic asylums<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. de|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. L.|last3=Mendis|first3=T. S. S.|last4=Abhayanayaka|first4=C.|date=2024-12-31|title=The development of laws related to the disposal of forensic patients in Sri Lanka: A historical review|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=15|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. In 1873, a third Ordinance was released. It included linguistic changes, where the term, "insane", was replaced with "of unsound mind". The Ordinance also gave more power to medical professionals in determining insanity diagnoses, and more power to detainees in appealing their commitment to the mental asylum. Despite this Ordinance being the most comprehensive outlook on mental healthcare in the country at the time, the legal frameworks behind the detainment of the criminally insane were left identical to previous ordinances<ref name=":3" />. === Development of mental asylums === At the time the 1839 ordinance was released, mentally ill patients were placed either in prisons throughout the country or leprosy hospitals, such as the [[w:Hendala_Leprosy_Hospital|Hendala Leprosy Hospital]] in the Gampaha district<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" />. After the creation of the first mental asylum in Borella in 1846, patients from the Hendala Leprosy Hospital were transferred to the institute in Borella. Overcrowding soon became an issue and patients were sent to prisons across the country. [[File:Edward Mapother.jpg|thumb|A portrait taken of Edward Mapother during his time working at [[w:Maudsley_Hospital|Maudsley Hospital]] in London. ]] As medical institutions were being made to house the mentally insane, another mental asylum was created in the [[w:Cinnamon_Gardens|Cinnamon Gardens]] area of Colombo in 1884, though this mental asylum faced overcrowding in just one year<ref name=":0" />. Treatment in these asylums was limited to occupational and protection therapy, failing to provide treatment for the root causes of the mental disorders. In 1926, the Angoda Mental Hospital was established, scantily alleviating the severe overcrowding issues that were plaguing the preceding mental asylums. Despite the addition of 1,700 beds to the facility, treatment was still vastly limited and the patients were left in significantly poor conditions. === Edward Mapother's 1937 inspection of British Ceylon === Edward Mapother was born in Dublin, Ireland, on July 12, 1881 and moved to London when he was 7 years old<ref>{{Cite book|title=Madness to mental illness: a history of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|last=Bewley|first=Thomas|date=2008|publisher=RCPsych Publications ; Distributed in North America by Balogh International|isbn=978-1-904671-35-0|location=London : [S.l.]}}</ref>. Mapother attained his M.D. in 1908. While Mapother was the Medical Superintendent of Maudsley Hospital in London, England, he was invited to inspect British Ceylon's mental health institutions by Dr S. T. Gunasekara, the first Medical Director of British Ceylon<ref name=":1" />. In Mapother's visit, he commented that the Angoda Mental Hospital had the atmosphere of "a prison that is neglected and dilapidated"<ref name=":1" />. Overcrowding was still a major issue, with the institute hosting 3,000 patients—more than double the intended capacity. Patients were sleeping on mats and were clearly out of reach of adequate treatment. Mapother also noted that only 4% of public health expenditure in the country was being set for hospitals, drawing a stark comparison to London's 25%<ref name=":1" />. Mapother offered a vivid and grim account of the hospital in his reports: <blockquote> The floor, roof and walls of each cell consist alike of drab cement without any attempt at colouring or decoration. High up in one wall is a small window with stout iron bars. In the floor is a large hole into which the patient may pass his motion and urine. These cells are incompletely divided from one another by a partition which does not reach the roof so that the noise and stink from any one cell may reach at least all the others of the same row. Into these empty cells I was informed that the most noisy and troublesome patients in the hospital; were turned at night completely naked. The doors of the cell contain no observation window, and considering the violent character of many of these patients there is every ground for believing that the doors are rarely opened in the night by the solitary attendant on duty. It needs little imagination to picture the suffering of any patient in an early stage of bodily illness passing a night under such conditions, a situation which must frequently arise. I am told that the noise proceeding from this building is like that on a bad night in a menagerie<ref name=":0" />.</blockquote>Mapother proposed a series of reinforcements to the legal, institutional, and medical frameworks of mental health care in British Ceylon. This included the decentralization of the psychiatric services, a reworking of the Lunacy Ordinance to incorporate treatment into the legal framework, and the establishment of a separate service of medical professionals dedicated to psychiatry. Mapother's recommendations led to several of the best local medical professionals to be sent to London for extensive training in psychiatry, while nurses from England were sent to British Ceylon to supervise hospital operations and train local staff<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />. On August 25, 1938, the Executive Committee of Health approved the strategies proposed by Mapother, though the Government was unable to fully implement all of Mapother's interventions due to the 'heavy cost'. In fact, the Government decided to forego one of his proposals, which was the suggestion of a "Visiting Committee". This committee was tasked to "meet at the hospital, carry out inspections, and make recommendations" to the Executive Committee of Health<ref name=":1" />. The Government realized that deficiencies in their mental healthcare system could prove to be "costly" for their reputation. Mapother was reportedly enraged when he found out. Mapother intended to contact the Secretary of State regarding the "distortion" of his plans, but was interrupted by events preluding to [[w:World_War_II|World War II]]<ref name=":1" />. Mapother passed away on March 20, 1940, without materializing his follow-up plans. === Post-Mapother developments and further innovations === [[File:Sri Lanka districts Colombo.svg|thumb|A map of Sri Lanka highlighting the Colombo District, where the capital is located. |right|250px]]Mapother's insights on the mental healthcare structure in British Ceylon proved to be the catalyst of massive renovations. In 1939, the first outpatient clinic was established in the [[w:National_Hospital_of_Sri_Lanka|National Hospital of Sri Lanka]] in Colombo. The first trained Ceylonese psychiatrists began practice in the 1940s, leading to the establishment of the first neuropsychiatric clinic in Colombo in 1943. Treatments for the mentally ill improved dramatically, as protectional therapy expanded to [[w:insulin_shock_therapy|insulin shock therapy]] and [[w:Electroconvulsive_therapy|cardiazol convulsive therapy]]<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Kathriarachchi|first=Samudra T.|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. Lakmi|last3=Amarakoon|first3=Luckshika|date=2019-06|title=Development of Mental Health Care in Sri Lanka: Lessons Learned|url=https://journals.lww.com/tpsy/fulltext/2019/33020/development_of_mental_health_care_in_sri_lanka_.1.aspx|journal=Taiwanese Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=33|issue=2|pages=55|doi=10.4103/TPSY.TPSY_15_19|issn=1028-3684}}</ref>. Mapother's advocation for the decentralization of services were further honored through the 1947 establishment of a first child guidance clinic in Colombo General Hospital<ref name=":0" />. In 1948, British Ceylon was granted independence from the British after the [[w:Sri_Lankan_independence_movement|Sri Lankan independence movement]]. Changes in the mental healthcare structure were not immediate following independence, but rapid expansions of mental healthcare services were still ongoing. The following decades saw positive institutional developments, such as the creation of a second hospital in [[w:Mulleriyawa|Mulleriyawa]] in 1957, and the creation of a psychiatric inpatient unit in Colombo General Hospital in 1967—effectively granting the city of Colombo the luxury of hosting the top psychiatric care in the country<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|title=Mental Health System Development in Sri Lanka|last=Minas|first=Harry|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Hall|first3=Teresa|date=2017|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4899-7997-1|editor-last=Minas|editor-first=Harry|location=Boston, MA|pages=59–77|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|editor-last2=Lewis|editor-first2=Milton}}</ref>. The 1950s was also the start of psychopharmacological innovations, with the introduction of [[w:Lithium_(medication)|lithium]] and long-acting injectable antipsychotics ([[w:Depot_injection|depot]] [[w:Antipsychotic|neuroleptics]]) in the succeeding years<ref name=":4" />. Additionally, the number of public psychiatrist positions increased by 400% from 1953 to 1967<ref name=":5" />. After 1960, mental health services were being established beyond the capital to other cities in the country<ref name=":2" />. In 1980, the [[w:Postgraduate_Institute_of_Medicine|Postgraduate Institute of Medicine]] began a program where students would enroll in a 5-year medical course and attain an MD in psychiatry, curbing the need for Sri Lankan medical students to be sent abroad to complete their training. Many of the medical students sent abroad for training never returned to Sri Lanka to practice, resulting in a "1:500,000 to 1000,000" ratio of psychiatrists to patients on "most occasions"<ref name=":0" />. === Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956 === In 1956, the 1873 Ordinance was revised a second time and renamed the "Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956"<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Hapangama|first=Aruni|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Kuruppuarachchi|first3=K. a. L. A.|date=2023-02|title=Why are we still living in the past? Sri Lanka needs urgent and timely reforms of its archaic mental health laws|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-international/article/why-are-we-still-living-in-the-past-sri-lanka-needs-urgent-and-timely-reforms-of-its-archaic-mental-health-laws/B18B03DC962CC6F09BC6D7877E390EE4|journal=BJPsych International|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=4–6|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.26|issn=2056-4740|pmc=9909436|pmid=36812028}}</ref>. Another linguistic development is seen with the new revision as "lunacy" was replaced with "mental disease"<ref name=":6" />. The Ordinance paved the way for community-based services to be delivered to patients closer to their residences rather than solely allocating services to just hospitals. This led to the creation of a [[w:WHO|WHO]]-backed community clinic near the [[w:University_of_Colombo|University of Colombo]] in the 1970s, where the focus was to eventually ease patients in the Angoda Mental Hospital back into the general population<ref name=":5" />. === Developments from the 1990s === The 1990s and onwards saw further positive developments in framing the mental healthcare system, including the establishment of the [https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=featured&Itemid=101&lang=en Directorate of Mental Health] in 1998. The Directorate of Mental Health is a part of the [[w:Ministry_of_Health_(Sri_Lanka)|Ministry of Health]] who is responsible for the monitoring and implementation of mental health programs across the country<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?lang=en|title=Home - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}</ref>. As of 2025, the current director of the Directorate of Mental Health is Dr. Chithramalee de Silva<ref name=":2" />. On November 11, 2005, the Mental Health Policy was approved by the Government of Sri Lanka, advocating for establishments of more de-centralized, community-based mental health services across the country beyond the capital (Colombo). The policy aimed to concisely define the rigorous standards needed to be completed for each respected medical professional, including psychiatrists and clinical psychologists<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakshe|first=Onali Bimalka Wickramaseckara|last2=Mohan|first2=Mohapradeep|last3=Singh|first3=Swaran Preet|date=2023-05|title=Development of adolescent mental health services in Sri Lanka|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10895478/|journal=BJPsych international|volume=20|issue=2|pages=41–43|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.32|issn=2056-4740|pmc=10895478|pmid=38414998}}</ref>. The policy also included a new position, the "Medical Officer of Mental Health", who oversees and assists in the implementation of community-based mental health services<ref name=":0" />. This same year, the Sri Lankan government began implementing psychological services in state institutions, such as the military<ref name=":8" />. In 2007, the National Mental Health Advisory Council (NMHAC) was created to serve as an 'advisory' board for the Ministry of Health on what actions should be executed by the Directorate of Mental Health<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=9&Itemid=220&lang=en|title=Introduction - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}</ref>. In 2008, the Angoda Mental Hospital was restructured as the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)<ref name=":7" />. === Modern-day Sri Lanka === [[File:Feeding Children in Sri Lanka.jpg|left|thumb|Despite the noteworthy improvements in mental healthcare services in recent decades, mental health remains a significant issue due to rising poverty. ]] As of 2025, the Mental Health Act (mental health legislation) has been undergoing development since 2005 and is currently awaiting to be considered for the final stage of approval. This is expected to replace the 1956 Mental Health Ordinance<ref name=":7" />. Currently, there are 7 tertiary care hospitals, 61 adult patient units, 3 child inpatient units, and 1 forensic unit with over 100 psychiatrists all throughout the 22 districts<ref name=":4" />. The [[w:Lady_Ridgeway_Hospital_for_Children|Lady Ridgeway Hospital]] in Colombo and the Sirimavo Bandaranayke Specialized Children Hospital in Kandy are tailored towards alleviating children with [[w:Learning_disability|SLD]], [[w:ADHD|ADHD]], [[w:Autism_Spectrum_Disorder|ASD]] and family support for diagnosed children. As of 2017, 22 rehabilitation centers exist through the country, including 7 alcohol rehab centers<ref name=":7" />. Despite the impressive advancements in mental healthcare in the last couple of decades, Sri Lanka still suffers significant mental health issues due to increasing poverty levels in the country. The [[w:World_Bank|World Bank]] reported that [https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2024/04/08/eesc-a08.html the poverty levels in Sri Lanka increased from 11% in 2019 to 26% in 2024], with 60% of Sri Lankan households facing "decreased incomes"<ref>Lakhtakia, Shruti, Atapattu Mudiyanselage, Udahiruni Shashadari Atapat, Walker, Richard Ancrum. ''Sri Lanka Development Update - Bridge to Recovery (English).'' Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. <nowiki>http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/099634104012434919</nowiki></ref>. This was churned by Sri Lanka's excessive foreign debt, economic troubles stemming from [[w:Gotabaya_Rajapaksa|Gotabaya Rajapaksa]]'s presidential term, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the [[w:Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine|ongoing invasion of Ukraine by Russia (2022)]]. According to [[w:NYU|New York University]] graduate student [https://gc-cuny.academia.edu/NadiaAugustyniak Nadia Augustyniak] in her 2025 overview of Sri Lanka's public mental healthcare system, poverty-induced financial precarity remains a major obstacle to receiving access to mental healthcare services. Even though trauma from adverse weather and conflict is deleterious to mental health, issues originating from every-day struggles, especially struggles related to poverty, could arguably play a more significant role<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. == Impact of Conflicts, Terrorism, Political Instability & Natural Disasters == === Sri Lankan Civil War === The '''Sri Lankan Civil War''' was a domestic conflict that took place between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (abbreviated as the ''LTTE),'' a militant group formed in the 1970s as a result of rising tensions between the majority Sinhalese and minority Tamil population. The group is considered a terrorist organization<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.start.umd.edu/baad/database/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-ltte-1998.html|title=BAAD - Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) - 1998 {{!}} START.umd.edu|website=www.start.umd.edu|access-date=2025-06-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-aka-tamil-tigers-sri-lanka-separatists|title=Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (aka Tamil Tigers) (Sri Lanka, separatists) {{!}} Council on Foreign Relations|last=Bhattacharji|first=Preeti|website=www.cfr.org|language=en|access-date=2025-06-09}}</ref>. Through brutal massacres, assassinations, and suicide bombings, the LTTE waged decades of terror which led to civilian displacement, infrastructure collapse, and the reduction of mental health services available in the northern region.[[File:DFID-funded, UNHCR emergency shelter tents, in the IDP camp at Menik Farm, Sri Lanka (3694081492).jpg|thumb|350x350px|An IDP camp in Menik Farm, Sri Lanka in 2009 ([https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-19703826 now closed]). Suicide rates in IDP camps were three times the general population.]]The civil war mainly affected the northeastern portion of the country, including the [[w:Vanni_(Sri_Lanka)|Vanni region]]. The conflict caused mass destruction to local mental healthcare facilities. Local residents described the conflict with the phrase ''varthayal varnicca mudiyathavai'', roughly translating into English as 'beyond description by words'<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}</ref>. In 2003, only two psychiatrists were found in the region, operating on extremely limited resources and further deepening long-term trauma and mental health deterioration in the population<ref name=":5" />. In 2002, the humanitarian organization [https://www.msf.org/ Médecins Sans Frontières] (MSF) performed an investigation of mental health needs in the [[w:Vavuniya|Vavuniya]] area, the site of intense conflict during the civil war (including the [[w:1985_Vavuniya_massacre|1985 Vavuniya massacre]]), and found that many of the residents suffered from high suicide rates, alcohol abuse, domestic violence, grief, and a "sense of ‘learnt helplessness’"<ref name=":5" />. A team from the University of Konstanz in Germany found that 92% of grade school children in the region were exposed to "combat, shelling, and witnessing the death of loved ones"<ref name=":9" />. [[File:Tractors. Jan 2009 displacement in the Vanni.jpg|left|thumb|350x350px|Displaced civilians originating from the Kilinochchi and Mullaitivu Districts due to military campaigns by the Sri Lankan military (January 2009). Displaced civilians had to avoid both the atrocities committed by the LTTE and the Sri Lankan government.]] Accusation of war crimes towards [[w:War_crimes_during_the_final_stages_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war|the Sri Lankan government]] have been documented by various external organizations, despite the government's attempts at removing any [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e_p1TfTguW0 mentions] or [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vtm54Y9USEg investigations] of it<ref>See also [[w:Sexual violence in the Sri Lankan civil war]].</ref>. A 2009 HRW report stated that the Sri Lankan government assumed native Tamil population residing in war zones to be "siding with the LTTE and [therefore, were] treated as combatants", leading to indiscriminate shillings and massacres of civilians<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2009-02-19|title=War on the Displaced|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/02/19/war-displaced/sri-lankan-army-and-ltte-abuses-against-civilians-vanni|journal=Human Rights Watch|language=en}}</ref>. Alongside the oppression by the Sri Lankan military, the Vanni population also endured the brutal theatrics of the LTTE, which recruited men, women, and even children with minimal training, effectively rendering them cannon fodder. Over 200,000 Tamil civilians were moved into [[w:Internally_displaced_persons_in_Sri_Lanka|designated displacement camps during the war]], where conditions were abysmal<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000}}</ref>. The suicide rate in these displacement camps were three times the community-level (2002), with a ratio of 103.5 per 10,000 compared to the Sri Lankan general population's rate of 37.5 per 10,000. Almost all suicide attempts involved poisonous substances. Other forms of violence included domestic violence and child abuse. Local health officials in Vavuniya admitted that mental health concerns were a major problem, but were unable to address these concerns due to a lack of resources and support from the government. During the [[wikipedia:Sri_Lankan_civil_war#2002_peace_process_(2002%E2%80%932006)|brief 2002 ceasefire]], the MSF implemented a "community-based programme" which included "increasing awareness, community strengthening, reinforcing coping-strategies for long-term war-affected communities, and counselling". The MSF also advocated for restrictions of poisonous substances due to the suicide attempts, and stressed that "much more [than resettlement]" would need to be done to help alleviate the psychological pain the northern population had faced<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Jong|first=Kaz|last2=Mulhern|first2=Maureen|last3=Ford|first3=Nathan|last4=Simpson|first4=Isabel|last5=Swan|first5=Alison|last6=van der Kam|first6=Saskia|date=2002-04|title=Psychological trauma of the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673602084209|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=359|issue=9316|pages=1517–1518|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08420-9}}</ref>. The ceasefire ended in 2006 and led to the [[w:Eelam_War_IV|final phase of the civil war]], eventually ending in 2009 with the [[w:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velupillai_Prabhakaran#Sri_Lankan_Army_Northern_offensive_and_death|death of the LTTE's leader]]. '''Post-war''' [[File:Puttalam district.svg|left|thumb|Puttalam District, unlike its northern counterparts, was largely spared from the intense conflict, possibly explaining the lower rates of common mental disorders (CMDs).]] The first district-wide cross-sectional multistage cluster sample survey was conducted in the [[w:Jaffna_District|Jaffna District]] shortly after the war ended. The study's sample included 1517 households and 2 internally displaced peoples camps. With a response rate of 92%, the study found that symptoms for PTSD were found in 7% of participants, symptoms of anxiety were found in 32.6% of participants, and symptoms of depression were found in 22.2% of participants. 2% of respondents were currently placed in internally displaced peoples camps at the time of the study, 29.5% were freshly resettled from the internally displaced peoples camps, and the rest of the participants (68.5%) were never placed into camps. In comparison to residents who were never placed into camps, participants that were actively held in camps tend to report more symptoms of PTSD, anxiety, and depression. The researchers also found that women were especially vulnerable to deteriorating mental health conditions. This was explained by two factors: women having to assume the roles of both the father and the mother in the family setting after the, either voluntary or forced, departure of the husband to war, and sexist violence<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Husain|first=Farah|last2=Anderson|first2=Mark|last3=Lopes Cardozo|first3=Barbara|last4=Becknell|first4=Kristin|last5=Blanton|first5=Curtis|last6=Araki|first6=Diane|last7=Kottegoda Vithana|first7=Eeshara|date=2011-08-03|title=Prevalence of War-Related Mental Health Conditions and Association With Displacement Status in Postwar Jaffna District, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1052|journal=JAMA|volume=306|issue=5|pages=522–531|doi=10.1001/jama.2011.1052|issn=0098-7484}}</ref>. A 2013 study on adult patients in [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232631/ primary care settings] (divisional hospitals, primary medical care units) found major depression to be significantly higher in females (5.1%) than males (3.6%), bolstering the observation seen in the 2009 study<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senarath|first=Upul|last2=Wickramage|first2=Kolitha|last3=Peiris|first3=Sharika Lasanthi|date=2014-03-24|title=Prevalence of depression and its associated factors among patients attending primary care settings in the post-conflict Northern Province in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|journal=BMC Psychiatry|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=85|doi=10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|issn=1471-244X|pmc=3987835|pmid=24661436}}</ref>. Muslims in Northern Sri Lanka during the conflict also faced violence and discrimination, most notably [[w:Expulsion_of_Muslims_from_the_Northern_Province_of_Sri_Lanka|the October 1990 expulsion of Muslims from the North to the Puttalam District or Jaffna]] and the [[w:Kattankudy_mosque_massacre|1990 Kattankudy mosque massacre]]. The only study testing the displaced Muslim population post-civil war was completed in 2011, where a cross-sectional survey of 450 internally displaced people or people born into displacement (ages 18 - 65) revealed 18.8% of the sample suffering from common mental health disorders (CMD), including [[w:Somatoform_disorder|somatoform disorder]] (14%), "other depressive syndromes" (7.3%), major depression (5.1%), and anxiety disorder (2.8%). The percentages found in this study for somatoform disorder and major depression were "considerably higher" than the national percentages, though the researchers noted that the prevalence of CMD was lower in comparison to other countries marred with conflict, including Palestine (40.3%) and Ethiopia (27.8%). The researchers explained that the lower rate of CMD may be attributed to the [[w:Puttalam_District|serenity of the post-settlement destination]], as conflict was mainly centered in the North and East. In contrast to earlier findings, this study did not observe a higher prevalence of CMDs among women, although increased rates of somatoform disorders were noted (though the researchers did not show the data behind this)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siriwardhana|first=Chesmal|last2=Adikari|first2=Anushka|last3=Pannala|first3=Gayani|last4=Siribaddana|first4=Sisira|last5=Abas|first5=Melanie|last6=Sumathipala|first6=Athula|last7=Stewart|first7=Robert|date=2013-05-22|title=Prolonged Internal Displacement and Common Mental Disorders in Sri Lanka: The COMRAID Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|pages=e64742|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3661540|pmid=23717656}}</ref>. Research on the mental state of combatants has been limited, but a post-war 2009 study done between soldiers of the [[w:Sri_Lanka_Army_Special_Forces_Regiment|Special Forces]] and regular soldiers showed higher levels of exposure to traumatic events for units of the Special Forces, yet the former exhibited significantly less symptoms of CMDs compared to the latter. The authors of this study, [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=cVKEBdwAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao Raveen Hanwella] and [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=ZRj74qMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra Varuni de Silva], offers the camaraderie of the unit as an explanation for the discrepancy<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|date=2012-08|title=Mental health of Special Forces personnel deployed in battle|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22038567|journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology|volume=47|issue=8|pages=1343–1351|doi=10.1007/s00127-011-0442-0|issn=1433-9285|pmid=22038567}}</ref>. A follow-up study was completed by the pair (with the addition of former Director-General of the Health Services of the Sri Lanka Navy [[w:Nicholas_Jayasekera|Nicholas Jayasekera]]), where the findings were similar, though the statistically significant bridge between the two cohorts in the previous study evaporated in the follow-up study. This may be due to the significant decline in mental health problems observed in the regular unit forces, potentially reflecting resilience in the aftermath of jarring conflict<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=Jayasekera|first2=Nicholas E. L. W.|last3=Silva|first3=Varuni A. de|date=2014-09-25|title=Mental Health Status of Sri Lanka Navy Personnel Three Years after End of Combat Operations: A Follow Up Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=9|issue=9|pages=e108113|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4177866|pmid=25254557}}</ref>. Amputees or soldiers with spinal injuries exhibited drastically different numbers, with approximately 40% of nearly 100 male-veterans in a post-war 2009 study displaying PTSD-like symptoms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abeyasinghe|first=N. L.|last2=de Zoysa|first2=P.|last3=Bandara|first3=K.M.K.C.|last4=Bartholameuz|first4=N. A.|last5=Bandara|first5=J. M.U.J.|date=2012-05-01|title=The prevalence of symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder among soldiers with amputation of a limb or spinal injury: A report from a rehabilitation centre in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|journal=Psychology, Health & Medicine|volume=17|issue=3|pages=376–381|doi=10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|issn=1354-8506|pmid=21942815}}</ref>. About a decade after the conflict ceased, a few notable studies have emerged to help guide understanding on the longer-term mental health effects on victims of the civil war. From July 2019 to October 2020, a study was conducted on 585 local adolescents (ages 12-19) in the Vavuniya district revealed that despite 15.6% of the statistic having faced one or more war-related events, only 3.9% of the participants had moderate - severe depression. In addition to considerably low depression rates, only 5.7% of participants age 17+ were found to have moderate - severe hopelessness<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000|pmc=10472617|pmid=37653394}}</ref>. The authors referenced a 2010 observation by psychiatrist [https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/author/daya-somasundaram Daya Somasundaram], who noted that many Tamil IDPs exhibited "remarkable resilience and post-traumatic growth" after the civil war—an outcome he attributed to the close-knit, family-centered nature of Tamil communities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}</ref>. Findings originating from a 2019 study undertook by several faculty members from the University of Kelaniya, the University of Jaffna, the [[w:Gampaha_Wickramarachchi_University_of_Indigenous_Medicine|Gampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous Medicine]], and the [https://onur.gov.lk/ Office for National Unity and Reconciliation (ONUR)] in Jaffna, found contrasting statistics. Out of 336 participants from districts that faced significant ramifications of the conflict (Jaffna, Kilinochchi, Mullaithivu, Vavuniya, and Mannar districts), 50.5% had extreme anxiety symptoms and 36.5% exhibited "extremely severe" symptoms of depression. 92.5% of families in the sample experienced suicidal ideation, with an observed negative correlation between trauma exposure and life satisfaction with families. Drug abuse (86.2%) and alcohol abuse (84.5%) were the two highest problematic behaviors recorded on a community-level, suggesting that the negative consequences of the civil war still persist, possibly on a substantial scale than previously recognized, in Tamil communities in the North<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thamotharampillai|first=Umaharan|last2=Perera|first2=Ruwanthi|last3=Wickremasinghe|first3=Rajitha|last4=Williams|first4=Shehan|last5=Vijayasangar|first5=Thedsanamoorthy|last6=Sivatharsan|first6=Balasubramaniam|last7=Hilbert|first7=Vanceline|last8=Somasundaram|first8=Daya|date=2025-05-06|title=Collective Trauma- Psychosocial consequences of war in northern Sri Lanka 10 years on, a mixed methods study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000696|journal=SSM - Mental Health|pages=100457|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100457|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Further research should be conducted in this field. In 2019, [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/R-M-M-Monaragala-2087692299 Dr. R. M. M. Monaragala] conducted a study on 1,845 soldiers with combat experience, finding that 3.9% of the sample suffered from PTSD. Dr. Monaragala noted that "probable depression, fatigue, aggression, and family history of mental disorder" were correlative of PTSD presence. He suggested that "screening and psychosocial intervention" were recommended avenues to alleviate CMDs of former combatants<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Monaragala|first=R. M. M.|date=2024-04-19|title=Exploring the effects of the past civil war in terms of the prevalence and associating factors of PTSD|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=14|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. === 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami === The '''2004 Boxing Day Tsunami''' was a natural disaster where a tsunami spawned off a 9.2–9.3 magnitude earthquake off the coast of Aceh in Indonesia on December 26. The tsunami greatly affected the coastlines of the country, with the death toll reaching to about 35,000 deaths. In addition, 90,000 houses were destroyed and 516,000 people were forced to migrate due to severe infrastructural damage<ref name=":5" />. It stands as the [http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/tsunami_relief/119821.htm worst natural disaster to have ever hit Sri Lanka]. [[File:Tsunami relief 2004 02.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Volunteers from [[w:Royal_College,_Colombo|Royal College in Colombo]] assisting in tsunami relief efforts (Sarvodaya Headquaters, Moratuwa).]] A survey conducted on schoolchildren (ages 8-14) in Manadkadu (Tamil-majority village in the northern coast), [[w:Kosgoda|Kosgoda]] (western coast), and [[w:Galle|Galle]] (southern coast), just a few weeks after the tsunami hit Sri Lanka, revealed that 33.8%, 13.9%, and 38.8% of children interviewed exhibited signs of PTSD (according to the DSM-IV's criteria), respectively (minus the time criteria, as the DSM-IV does not permit diagnosis of PTSD within 4 weeks of a traumatic incident). The loss of family members and exposure to previously traumatic incidents seem to highly correlate with PTSD development<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Neuner|first=Frank|last2=Schauer|first2=Elisabeth|last3=Catani|first3=Claudia|last4=Ruf|first4=Martina|last5=Elbert|first5=Thomas|date=2006|title=Post-tsunami stress: A study of posttraumatic stress disorder in children living in three severely affected regions in Sri Lanka|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jts.20121|journal=Journal of Traumatic Stress|language=en|volume=19|issue=3|pages=339–347|doi=10.1002/jts.20121|issn=1573-6598}}</ref>. Many victims in the Jaffna area suffered with "[https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/prolonged-grief-disorder pathological grief], phobias, depression and PTSD" post-tsunami. Schizophrenia in the Jaffna Tamil community, which had already suffered elevated prevalence of PTSD prior to the tsunami, had worsened—highlighting the need for specialized care in response to cumulative exposures to chronic and acute traumas. In a study published in the journal ''International Psychiatry'' (2006), Jaffna-based researchers noted that, contrary to their initial inclinations, there was not a "large[r] (than expected) rise in [the] number of people" seeking mental health support 3 months after the tsunami. However, 10 months after the disaster, the researchers anticipated that "more psychiatric disorders" would emerge due to "very little rebuilding [efforts]" and an apparent "unfairness in the aid system".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=D. J.|last2=Yoganathan|first2=S.|last3=Ganesvaran|first3=T.|date=1993-09|title=Schizophrenia in northern Sri Lanka|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7828234|journal=The Ceylon Medical Journal..|volume=38|issue=3|pages=131–135|issn=0009-0875|pmid=7828234}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Danvers|first=K.|last2=Sivayokan|first2=S.|last3=Somasundaram|first3=D. J.|last4=Sivashankar|first4=R.|date=2006-07|title=Ten months on: qualitative assessment of psychosocial issues in northern Sri Lanka following the tsunami|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6734678/|journal=International Psychiatry: Bulletin of the Board of International Affairs of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|volume=3|issue=3|pages=5–8|issn=1749-3676|pmc=6734678|pmid=31507850}}</ref> At the February 2005 ''After the Tsunami: Mental Health Challenges to the Community for Today and Tomorrow'' conference in Thailand, [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Chandanie-Hewage Dr. Chandanie Hewage] of the [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] commentated that measures taken to assist the affected were "not coordinated" due to poor "communication systems and road [conditions]." Regardless, efforts were continued by the government and health professionals to alleviate the struggles the victims were facing, including the psychological ramifications of the disaster. Several issues in the delivery of these services were highlighted by Dr. Hewage, including poor maintenance of health records, lack of awareness on drug consumption by the patients themselves, and shortages of health professionals. Dr. Hewage points out that personnel had "little" mental health training prior to the disaster, suggesting increased "research" and adequate "provision[ing] and training of staff" in the long-term<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Davidson|first=Jonathan R. T.|date=2006|title=Foreword. After the tsunami: mental health challenges to the community for today and tomorrow|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16602809|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=67 Suppl 2|pages=3–8|issn=0160-6689|pmid=16602809}}</ref>. With inadequate documentation, no systematic procedures in place, and insufficient personnel, tsunami victims with mental health concerns may not receive the services they need, further compacting neuropsychological ailments. In 2008 (about 3-4 years after the tsunami), researchers in the hard-hit village of [[w:Peraliya|Peraliya]] (Galle District) found that from a sample of approximately 90 adults, 25% suffered from moderate–severe PTSD, with women scoring "above the cut-off for anxiety" and reporting more "somatic symptoms", though researchers inferred that the PTSD rate found in the study may be influenced by war or economic hardship<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hollifield|first=Michael|last2=Hewage|first2=Chandanie|last3=Gunawardena|first3=Charlotte N.|last4=Kodituwakku|first4=Piyadasa|last5=Bopagoda|first5=Kalum|last6=Weerarathnege|first6=Krishantha|last7=Group|first7=International Post-Tsunami Study|date=2008-01|title=Symptoms and coping in Sri Lanka 20–21 months after the 2004 tsunami|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/symptoms-and-coping-in-sri-lanka-2021-months-after-the-2004-tsunami/CB33752239AF362A0BFD55B3668D60B0|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=192|issue=1|pages=39–44|doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.107.038422|issn=0007-1250}}</ref>. === 2019 Easter Bombings === The '''2019 Easter Bombings''' were a series of coordinated attacks perpetrated by the Islamic extremist group, [[w:National_Thowheeth_Jama'ath|National Thowheeth Jama'ath]], on April 21, 2019. The attack targeted three churches and three hotels in the Colombo area, killing nearly 300 people and injuring over 500. The attack was also attributed to the incompetency of the Sri Lankan government, who ignored [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48044636 multiple warnings regarding the attacks]. The attacks negatively affected the Sri Lankan Catholic community and further weakened relations between the major religious groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. In the aftermath of the attacks, professionals in the [[w:Gampaha_District|Gampaha District]] resorted to "low-cost methodological" responses to children and adolescents affected by the attack as a "severe shortage" of children and adolescent mental health experts were exposed<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chandradasa|first=Miyuru|last2=Rathnayake|first2=Layani C|last3=Rowel|first3=Madushi|last4=Fernando|first4=Lalin|date=2020-06-01|title=Early phase child and adolescent psychiatry response after mass trauma: Lessons learned from the Easter Sunday attack in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020913314|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry|language=EN|volume=66|issue=4|pages=331–334|doi=10.1177/0020764020913314|issn=0020-7640}}</ref>. In a qualitative study of 8 survivors of the attacks receiving grief counseling, [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] assistant professor [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Virasha-Godakanda Virasha Godakanda] observed that 70% of the sample size expressed "doubts" in adequate mental health interventions from the government, reducing the quality of such services. Professor Godakanda strongly endorsed for "culturally-sensitive" programs, a diversity in therapeutic approaches (including nature-based therapy), and "prolonged investigations" to track developments in mental health resources and impacts of implemented interventions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Godakanda|first=Virasha|date=2025-01-29|title=A GRIEF COUNSELING INTERVENTION AFTER THE MASS TRAUMA: LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE VICTIMS OF THE EASTER SUNDAY ATTACK IN SRI LANKA|url=https://kjmr.com.pk/kjmr/article/view/216|journal=Kashf Journal of Multidisciplinary Research|language=en|volume=2|issue=01|pages=13–32|doi=10.71146/kjmr216|issn=3007-200X}}</ref>. A few weeks following the attacks, Muslims in Sri Lanka were subjected to [[w:2019_anti-Muslim_riots_in_Sri_Lanka|violent, coordinated riots]] masterminded by Sinhalese national forces<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mujahidin|first=Muhammad Saekul|date=2023-07-03|title=Extremism and Islamophobia Against the Muslim Minority in Sri Lanka|url=https://www.ajis.org/|journal=American Journal of Islam and Society|language=en|volume=40|issue=1-2|pages=213–241|doi=10.35632/ajis.v40i1-2.3135|issn=2690-3741}}</ref>. Riots were mainly centered in the [[w:Kurunegala_District|Kurunegala]], Gampaha, and [[w:Kandy_District|Kandy]] Districts. At least [https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/5/21/in-sri-lanka-muslims-say-sinhala-neighbours-turned-against-them one confirmed death was reported]. Calls for vague ''niqab'' and ''burqa'' bans were increasingly prominent, eventually leading to the 2021 burqa ban by the Sri Lankan government. Pakistani and Afghani refugees fleeing religious persecution in Negombo were forced to be "made refugees again" after local protests were orchestrated against their settlement. Islamophobic aroma was "unleashed online, in the law, and on the street"<ref>{{Cite book|title=CARTOGRAPHIC JOURNEY OF RACE, GENDER AND POWER: global identity|date=2021|publisher=CAMBRIDGE SCHOLARS PUBLIS|isbn=978-1-5275-6965-2|location=S.l.}}</ref>. Albeit its relevancy to the attacks, no in-depth mental health studies were administered on the minority Muslim population following the Easter bombings. Further research is imperative in exploring the sustained psychological effects of Islamophobia and its effect on the Muslim minority community in the aftermath of the 2019 Easter attacks. Literature on the impact of the 2019 Easter Bombings on mental health is limited and further research should be conducted. === 2019-2024 Economic Crisis === The '''2019-2024 Economic Crisis''' refers to a 5 year period where the Sri Lankan economy experienced massive inflation and an abrupt hike in prices on basic, everyday items. It is the worse economic crisis the country has faced since the Sri Lankans were granted independence in 1948. Schools in Sri Lanka were forced to postpone examinations due to paper shortages. Gas shortages led to long lines at gas stations, some lasting for days, throughout the island. Shortages in electricity, cooking gas, and aviation were additional results of the economic crisis. Healthcare workers faced a barrage of mental health during the crisis, including a lopsided work-life balance due to unprecedented demand, increased stress and mental fatigue from a lack of resources and personnel, unhealthy coping mechanisms, job dissatisfaction, and a reduction in work quality. Such effects perpetuate a self-enforcing cycle of psychologically distressed mental healthcare workers providing subpar services, affecting patients and amplifying mental health issues experienced by both the workforce and their patients<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dilogini|first=S.|last2=Grace|first2=H. H.|last3=Thasika|first3=T.|date=2024|title=Exploring The Mental Health and Well-Being of Public Healthcare Workers (HCWs) Amid Economic Crisis in Sri Lanka|url=http://repo.lib.jfn.ac.lk/ujrr/handle/123456789/11092|language=en|publisher=Chartered Institute of Personnel Management}}</ref>. Medical students from the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Colombo reported that the economic crisis forced abrupt changes in dietary consumption, increased hopelessness in the future, increased stress and anxiety, and a decrease in interest in pursuing a "clinical post-graduate career"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Adikaranayake|first=Pesala Randika|last2=Perera|first2=Anusha Nimrod|last3=Nilaweera|first3=Akhila Imantha|last4=Fernando|first4=Desha Rajni|last5=Wijayaratne|first5=Dilushi Rowena|date=2025-07-01|title=Effects of Sri Lankan economic crisis on health, lifestyle and education of medical students in Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo – an online survey|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|journal=BMC Medical Education|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=938|doi=10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|issn=1472-6920|pmc=12211748}}</ref>. 283 government-school teachers completed a web-based cross-sectional survey in April 2024, with majority of the participants reporting a severe reduction in monthly income & 1/3 of participants exhibiting "clinical levels of psychological distress"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C. P.|last2=Senarathne|first2=D. L. P.|last3=Fernando|first3=M. S.|last4=Senevirathne|first4=S. P.|date=2025-05-28|title=Examining the economic burden and mental health distress among government school teachers in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|journal=BMC Psychology|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=572|doi=10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|issn=2050-7283}}</ref>. A study published in that same year reported that out of 261 nurses working in teaching hospitals, 91.6% were forced to allocate their finances to strictly "general needs", while more than 50% looked into international opportunism for employment. Notably, the study reported an overall near "twofold greater" rate of depression, anxiety, and stress compared to previously conducted studies on nurses<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C.P|last2=Senarathne|first2=L.|last3=Fernando|first3=M.|date=2024-04-01|title=Exploring the Association Between Behavioural Modification in Response to the Prevailing Economic Crisis and Mental Health Outcomes of Nurses from Teaching Hospitals, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/23779608241272679|journal=SAGE Open Nursing|language=EN|volume=10|pages=23779608241272679|doi=10.1177/23779608241272679|issn=2377-9608|pmc=11311183}}</ref>. The detrimental effects the crisis has had on the mental health sector reveal a concerning area of underappreciation and under compensation by the Sri Lankan government towards a critical sector for the well-being of the country. Comprehensive mental health interventions need to be prepared and ready to implement at times of national emergencies. == Present-Day Challenges == === Ethnic tension === Despite the end of the Sri Lankan civil war and the introduction of pluralist policies, such as the [https://srilankaembassy.fr/sites/default/files/files/media/pdf/NationalPolicy-English.pdf 2017 National Policy on Reconciliation and Coexistence] under the Sirisena administration, tensions amongst members of the ethnic groups still persist in the country. Evidence of these tensions was found through a 2022 study conducted in the Ratnapura district, where religious leaders expressed skepticisms, through semi-structured interviews, for "conflict transformation". A Tamil citizen of the Ratnapura community recounted that they were forced to "hide in jungles" and consume "dirty water in drainage[s]" due to scarcity of food and drinkable water as a result of the conflict. In certain personal accounts, ethnic conflicts appear to affect the social behavior and identity of the majority ethnic group. One Sinhala participant recounted his objection to the war-time retaliatory destruction of a shop run by a Tamil shopkeeper was met with interrogative questions about "whether [he was] Sinhalese or not". Both accounts convey interethnic tensions stemming from decade-long conflicts<ref>Jayathilaka, Aruna & Gamage, Sayuri. (2024). Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders in the Post-War Conflict Transformation Process: A Study Based on Rathnapura District in Srilanka. ''Retrieved from'' https://gandhimargjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Volume-46-Issue-1-April-June-2024.pdf#page=66</ref>. Beyond individual accounts and the official end of the civil war, the minority groups in the country continue to feel ostracized. The Sri Lankan Tamil population remains dissatisfied with the Sri Lankan government and their accountability of perpetrators of war crimes and information on the whereabouts of [[w:Enforced_disappearances_in_Sri_Lanka|thousands of enforced disappearances]] that took place from the 1980s. Additionally, rising anti-Muslim sentiment in recent years contribute to increased ethnic tensions, a stark contrast to the previous centuries of peaceful co-existence between the groups. [[File:Bodu Bala Sena symbol.svg|thumb|The symbol for Bodu Bala Sena, a nationalistic Sinhala Buddhist group criticized for catalyzing ethnic tensions in Sri Lanka.]] Laws passed by the Sri Lankan government, such as the [[w:Prevention_of_Terrorism_Act_(Sri_Lanka)|Prevention of Terrorism Act]] and [[wikipedia:Anti-conversion_law#Sri_Lanka|anti-conversion laws]], have forced the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom to label Sri Lanka as a nation that "[engages] or [tolerates] severe violations of religious freedom" in their 2024 report. The government has been criticized by human rights organizations for "disproportionately targeting religious minorities"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Additionally, the implementation of the three dominant languages, English, Sinhala, and Tamil, across formal education and government services have been lackadaisical, narrowing opportunities of foundational social interactions between the groups. Persistent discrimination and prejudice towards minority groups can lead to an array of complex and self-deprecating mental health issues. Effort to mitigate ethnic tensions include strategies like [[w:Community-based_participatory_research|community-based participatory research]] (CBPR), task-sharing, and securing online mental health services in order to expand mental health services. However, the implementation of evidence-based plans has been met with difficulty due to inaccessibility, high costs, and shortages of adequately-trained personnel. Movements aiming for improved intra group and inter group coexistences, such as the Jaffna People’s Forum for Coexistence developed in the wake of the 2019 Easter bombings, should be emphasized on a systematic and multi-level basis, including but not limited to education, public sectors, and within communities. Pluralistic values should be stressed across both private and public schools to foster cultural sensitivity and tolerance. Measures should be taken against threatening extremist groups promoting sectarian hostility, such as the [[w:Bodu_Bala_Sena|Bodu Bala Sena]]. === Poverty === It has been proven that poverty significantly increases the chances of developing mental illnesses. This is further amplified by possible discrimination<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knifton|first=Lee|last2=Inglis|first2=Greig|date=2020-10|title=Poverty and mental health: policy, practice and research implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7525587/|journal=BJPsych bulletin|volume=44|issue=5|pages=193–196|doi=10.1192/bjb.2020.78|issn=2056-4694|pmc=7525587|pmid=32744210}}</ref>. Poverty also affects the ability for individuals with mental health concerns to receive the treatment they need. Due to the repercussions of the economic crisis, clients in Sri Lanka could not attend further counseling sessions<ref name=":8" />. Poverty from 2021 to 2022 [https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/poverty/987B9C90-CB9F-4D93-AE8C-750588BF00QA/current/Global_POVEQ_LKA.pdf reportedly doubled], with future forecasts predicting the poverty line to "remain above 25 percent". Suicide has been empirically linked to economic hardships in previous studies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}</ref>. A 2013 study done on suicidal patients in [[w:Batticaloa_Teaching_Hospital|Batticaloa Teaching Hospital]] revealed 76% of patients who attempted suicide were from rural areas while 15% were from urban areas<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://ir.lib.seu.ac.lk/handle/123456789/1457|title=The influence of common risk factors for the patient with attempted suicide hospitalized at the teaching hospital, Batticaloa|last=Kisokanth|first=G.|last2=Najeem|first2=M. M.|last3=Karunakaran|first3=K. E.|date=2014-08-02|publisher=South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, University Park, Oluvil #32360, Sri Lanka|isbn=978-955-627-053-2|language=en-US}}</ref>. The Sri Lankan government should consider the economical impacts that poverty has on mental health and implement ways to aid poverty-stricken individuals with mental health concerns. === Stigmas === Stigma consists of the "combined effect of prejudice, ignorance and discrimination."<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|url=http://www.researchgate.net/publication/233990797_The_Stigma_of_Mental_Illness_in_Sri_Lanka_The_Perspectives_of_Community_Mental_Health_Workers|title=(PDF) The Stigma of Mental Illness in Sri Lanka: The Perspectives of Community Mental Health Workers|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2025-07-25}}</ref>. A 2012 interview consisting of nine participants (two doctors, three nurses, one occupational therapist, one development worker, and two volunteers) revealed a number of concerning societal viewpoints on individuals with mental health concerns. The interviews revealed that negative judgements were not only levied against the individual with the mental illness, but also the family. Families hid mentally ill family members from the public to avoid "shame" and possible hinderances in marriage proposals. Views that mentally ill individuals were "violent" served as the motivating factor behind socially isolating those with mental illness from their communities. Interviewees mentioned that individuals dealing with mental health challenges would have stones and "derogatory names" launched at them. A lack of community awareness regarding mental health and negative portrayals of mentally ill individuals in media exacerbates stigmatization, though the researchers commented that the media was "improving" in their depiction of mental illness. Beliefs that illnesses are caused by "spirits" can be problematic for individuals dealing with mental health issues and serves as evidence to poor mental health awareness in the country. Mental health workers themselves believed that they were being stigmatized, as mental health is reportedly not taken as seriously as physical health. Despite the intriguing perspectives provided, the small sample size and usage of snow sampling raise questionable concerns regarding the contextualization of the results<ref name=":10" />. Improving media portrayal of subjects concerning mental health and involving community members in interventions dealing with mental health issues are ways that could destigmatize mental health amongst communities in Sri Lanka. Tying collaborations between allopathic services and traditional healers instead of having these two services work individually could enhance engagement between traditional medicine and Western medicine. === Suicide Trends & Risk Factors === Suicide is defined as "the act of killing oneself deliberately, initiated and performed by the person concerned in the full knowledge or expectation of its fatal outcome"<ref name=":11">{{Cite book|title=The neuroscience of suicidal behavior|last=Heeringen|first=Kees van|date=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-60290-4|series=Cambridge fundamentals of neuroscience in psychology|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom New York, NY, USA Port Melbourne, VIC, Australia New Delhi, India Singapore}}</ref>. Although Sri Lanka has seen a significant reduction in suicide rates from the mid 1990s due to its banning of extremely toxic pesticide products, suicide and self harm remains a significant issue. The suicide rate per 100,000 people increased from 14.0 in 2019 to [https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide 15.0 in 2022] (according to WHO). On average, 27 males per 100,000 males and 5 females per 100,000 females committed suicide in 2022<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}</ref>. Hanging appears to be the most used method for suicide for both males and females, with studies revealing a steady increase in recent years<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Bandara|first=Piumee|last2=Wickrama|first2=Prabath|last3=Sivayokan|first3=Sambasivamoorthy|last4=Knipe|first4=Duleeka|last5=Rajapakse|first5=Thilini|date=2024-04-17|title=Reflections on the trends of suicide in Sri Lanka, 1997–2022: The need for continued vigilance|url=https://journals.plos.org/globalpublichealth/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|journal=PLOS Global Public Health|language=en|volume=4|issue=4|pages=e0003054|doi=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|issn=2767-3375|pmc=11023397|pmid=38630779}}</ref>. From 2023 to 2024, a group of researchers from the [[w:Eastern_University,_Sri_Lanka|Eastern University in Sri Lanka]] assessed 828 patients admitted to the Teaching Hospital in [[w:Batticaloa,_Sri_Lanka|Batticaloa, Sri Lanka]] for attempted suicide. They concluded that suicide prevention programs should be attuned to younger people (ages 15 to 35 in the study), emphasize the importance of education and reducing unemployment, and increase social support in the Tamil community. Despite the relevant insights into certain aspects of an average Sri Lankan's life that could lead to suicidal ideation (ie, poverty), the results from this study suffer in external validity as 90% of the patients were Tamil and over 50% were between 16 and 25 years. In addition, correlations between suicide and unemployment rates have been questioned, with [[w:Austerity|austerity]] being a more reliable indicator of suicide rates than unemployment rates<ref name=":11" />. Further comprehensive studies on risk factors relating to suicide should be studied to assess correlations between unemployment rates and austerity measures. The WHO suggests implementing evidence-based suicide prevention programs, such as [https://www.who.int/initiatives/live-life-initiative-for-suicide-prevention LIVE LIFE], to reduce the national suicide rate<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide|title=World Suicide Prevention day 2024 “Changing the Narrative on Suicide”|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2025-07-29}}</ref>. Media depictionss of suicidal methods, such as hanging, can lead to sensationalism and the media should be cautious of such displays in movies and TV shows<ref name=":12" />. Awareness of depression and other mental health issues can serve as a safeguard against suicidal ideation in Sri Lankan men and women. == Role of Religion == According to the last demographic report (2012), 70.2% of Sri Lankans are Buddhist, 12.6% are Hindus, 9.7% are Muslims, and 7.4% are Christians. The Theravada Buddhist community makes up the majority in several provinces throughout the country<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sri-lanka/|title=Sri Lanka|website=United States Department of State|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-07}}</ref>. Religion, especially Theravada Buddhism, has had a significant influence on not only the historical treatment of mental health in the country, but also everyday life<ref name=":15" />. The [[w:Mahāvaṃsa|''Mahāvaṃsa'']] affirms hospitals treating patients suffering from mental health issues as early as the 4th century BC. Additionally, the 1700s Nayaka king [[w:Kirti_Sri_Rajasinha|Kirthi Sri Rajasinghe]] detailed the implementation of Buddhist philosophy in psychiatry<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. De|date=2017-12-05|title=Development of civil commitment statutes (laws of involuntary detention and treatment) in Sri Lanka: a historical review|url=https://mljsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|journal=Medico-Legal Journal of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|doi=10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|issn=2012-8231}}</ref>. Modern-day empirical studies have attested to the usefulness of religion in mitigating stress and elevating mental health<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|title=Religion and Mental Health|last=Schieman|first=Scott|last2=Bierman|first2=Alex|last3=Ellison|first3=Christopher G.|date=2013|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-94-007-4276-5|editor-last=Aneshensel|editor-first=Carol S.|location=Dordrecht|pages=457–478|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|editor-last2=Phelan|editor-first2=Jo C.|editor-last3=Bierman|editor-first3=Alex}}</ref>. Religion has been found to be positively correlated with improved mental health, and more religious patients were concluded to have "better mental health and adapt[ed] more quickly to health problems" versus patients who weren't religious<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koenig|first=Harold G.|date=2012|title=Religion, spirituality, and health: the research and clinical implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3671693/|journal=ISRN psychiatry|volume=2012|pages=278730|doi=10.5402/2012/278730|issn=2090-7966|pmc=3671693|pmid=23762764}}</ref>. [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/T-N-Wickramarathna-2247724082 Dr. Wickramarathna] of the University Psychiatry Unit (UPU) at the National Hospital of Sri Lanka (NHSL) argues that psychiatrists must strive for a balance in their approach to patients and "make positive use of religion in [their] practice[s]"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wickramarathna|first=T. N.|date=2022-12-31|title=Psychiatrists should stand far from the shrine: why and why not we should separate religion from psychiatry|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=13|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. === Buddhism === 27 Sinhalese Buddhists from four Buddhist temples were selected for a series of 70-minute interviews and focus group discussions with the aim of learning the Sinhala Buddhist understanding and experience of spiritual well-being and psychological well-being. The interviewees held spiritual wellness to be the "center" of overall wellness, the "precondition for a successful life"<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|language=en-US|volume=44|issue=1|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=0258-9710}}</ref>. Sinhala Buddhists believe that wellness cannot be achieved without spiritual tranquility. The report states that participants emphasized that spirituality "cannot be directly intervened" and can only be seen through "[interactions] with society"<ref name=":14" />. Despite the ''athmaya'' (soul) being "unreachable", it can be "intervened", or treated, through the actions of the mind and body with society<ref name=":14" />. One being "psychologically ill" can affect one's spiritual being, as the participants reported in their interviews, and can be affected through "lifestyle stressors, environmental and socio-cultural causes, non-human related causes and bad-karma in the past lives"<ref name=":14" />. The researchers concluded that despite Sinhala Buddhists not being able to articulately decipher the discrepancies between psychological well-being and spiritual well-being, they are able to conceptualize and maintain a culturally embedded understanding between the two, serving as reputable evidence of the integration of mental health in Sinhala Buddhist practices. However, it is important to note that these results come from a very small sample size and cannot be generalized to all Sri Lankan Buddhists. In addition, a 2009 study found that a belief in karma was correlated with poor health. However, an earlier study found a positive correlation between the reliance on the [[w:Karma_in_Buddhism|Buddhist concept of karma]] and trauma, inferencing Buddhist karma being a prevalent response to trauma<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Levy|first=Becca R.|last2=Slade|first2=Martin D.|last3=Ranasinghe|first3=Padmini|date=2009-03|title=Causal thinking after a tsunami wave: karma beliefs, pessimistic explanatory style and health among Sri Lankan survivors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19229624|journal=Journal of Religion and Health|volume=48|issue=1|pages=38–45|doi=10.1007/s10943-008-9162-5|issn=1573-6571|pmid=19229624}}</ref>. Overall, the effectiveness of karma as a coping mechanism appears to be conflicted. Studies indicate that other practices of Buddhism seem to be utilized by individuals affected by the war. 40% of Sri Lankan Buddhists affected by the 2004 tsunami found the Buddhist ritual ''Bodhipuja'' to be helpful in dealing with traumatic experiences<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jmvh.org/article/mental-health-and-the-role-of-cultural-and-religious-support-in-the-assistance-of-disabled-veterans-in-sri-lanka/|title=Mental Health and the Role of Cultural and Religious Support in the Assistance of Disabled Veterans in Sri Lanka|website=JMVH|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-12}}</ref>. === Catholicism === Catholic counseling refers to "a nuanced and holistic mental health care paradigm that intricately weaves together psychological science with the moral, spiritual, and pastoral traditions of the Catholic Church"<ref name=":13">Perera, U. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera/publication/394095042_Catholic_Counselling_in_Sri_Lanka_Integrating_Faith_Psychology_and_Cultural_Healing/links/6889303af8031739e6098c79/Catholic-Counselling-in-Sri-Lanka-Integrating-Faith-Psychology-and-Cultural-Healing.pdf Catholic Counselling in Sri Lanka: Integrating Faith, Psychology, and Cultural Healing]. July 2025.</ref> and aims to assimilate Catholic theology and evidence-based psychological treatment while including Sri Lankan cultural elements. This is achieved through emphasis on community cohesion and a locally-based understanding of "personhood"<ref name=":13" />. The origins of Catholic counseling trace back to the introduction of Roman Catholicism to the island in the 1600s, with the focus of the early Sri Lankan Catholic community being on "[[w:Evangelism|evangelization]], education, and sacramental formation". Demand for counseling services in general increased due to the impacts of the Sri Lankan Civil War, where Catholic organizations (Caritas Sri Lanka, Seth Sarana, Subodhi Integral Centre (Piliyandala), etc.) established several Catholic-based trauma-informed programmes for victims of the Civil War. Programmes use group therapy, forgiveness rituals, and narrative repairs to alleviate war trauma. Examples of integration of Catholic virtues and counseling can be seen in [[w:Cognitive_Behavioral_Therapy|Cognitive Behavioral Therapy]] (CBT), where "hope" and "humility" are used as the frameworks for creating spiritual resilience<ref name=":13" />. The general Christian call of "agape love and acceptance" is echoed by the concept of [[w:Unconditional_positive_regard|unconditional positive regard]]. ''[[w:Lectio_Divina|Lectio Divina]]'' (Catholic prayer and meditation) and ''Marian devotions'' are integrated into therapeutic practices to achieve emotional regulation and mindfulness. Senior Lecturer [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera Udeshini Perera] of the University of Colombo articulates a critical role of Catholic counseling. She claims that secular counseling fails to address the "spiritual roots of distress and moral confusion". Catholic counseling fills in this gap by integrating "psychological insights with a transcendent orientation, supporting lasting transformation and integrity"<ref name=":13" />. As of 2025, no formal accreditation or standardized training exists for [[w:Pastoral_counseling|pastoral counselors]] in Sri Lanka, hampering the legitimacy of Catholic counseling. Udeshini Perera remarks that mental health stigma, lack of standardized training, research regarding Catholic counseling effectiveness, and acceptance of the combination of religion and science in a professional setting present challenges for Catholic pastoral counseling in the country. Additionally, Catholic psychiatry in Sri Lanka appears to be under-researched, and evidence of its empirical effects on followers appears sparse. Further research is needed in assessing the empirical effects of Catholic counseling in Sri Lanka. === Islam === The literature on the empirical effects of Islamic-based psychotherapy in Sri Lanka is limited. Research has revealed a 2012 case study where a 21-year-old Muslim woman was experiencing episodic possession states. The patient ceased attending psychiatric services and opted for religious rituals. The patient reported, in a follow-up visit, that the possession states had been absent for 3 months since her switch to religious rituals. The woman and her family attributed the apparent improvement of her condition to religious rituals<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|last3=Yoosuf|first3=Alam|last4=Karunaratne|first4=Sanjeewani|last5=de Silva|first5=Pushpa|date=2012|title=Religious Beliefs, Possession States, and Spirits: Three Case Studies from Sri Lanka|url=http://www.hindawi.com/journals/crips/2012/232740/|journal=Case Reports in Psychiatry|language=en|volume=2012|pages=1–3|doi=10.1155/2012/232740|issn=2090-682X|pmc=3437272|pmid=22970398}}</ref>. Future recommendations would be to employ resources to research the foundations of Islamic psychiatry in the country, and to observe the rituals employed and their effects on patients. Studies have found that Islamic prayer can be an effective means of "support and coping"<ref name=":15" />. Seven world-wide case studies using Islamic-based psychotherapy on patients, consisting of religious rituals such as scriptural reading from the [[w:Quran|Quran]], teaching of fundamental Islamic concepts (such as ''[[w:Tawakkul|tawakkul]]''), and active implementation of contemplation (''[[w:Tadabbur|tadabbur]]''), have reported positive effects in decreasing cognitive and emotional symptoms associated with "religious, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorder, grief, and substance use disorder.”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kurhade|first=Chhaya Shantaram|last2=Jagannathan|first2=Aarti|last3=Varambally|first3=Shivarama|last4=Shivanna|first4=Sushrutha|date=2022-01|title=Religion-based interventions for mental health disorders: A systematic review|url=https://journals.lww.com/10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|journal=Journal of Applied Consciousness Studies|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=20–33|doi=10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|issn=2949-6993}}</ref> Additionally, a community-based study of elderly patients in Bangalore, India receiving Islamic-based psychotherapy observed decreased exhibitions of sleep disorders, eating disorders, and emotional distress<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hafeez|first=Nimin|last2=Sanjay|first2=Thittamaranahalli Varadappa|last3=Puthussery|first3=Yannick Poulose|last4=Madhusudan|first4=Muralidhar|last5=Kariyappa|first5=Poornima Muddaiah|last6=Kulkarni|first6=Sridevi|last7=Raj|first7=Lavanya|date=2023-12-31|title=Spiritual practices among elderly, prevalence, pattern and associated factors: a community-based study from rural Bengaluru, India|url=https://jccpsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|journal=Journal of the College of Community Physicians of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=29|issue=4|doi=10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|issn=1391-3174}}</ref>. === Hinduism === Despite Hindus being 12.6% of the population of Sri Lanka, the research on Hinduism-based therapy in the country is limited. Ayurvedic medicine, a form of medicine originating from ancient India, predominated the Sri Lankan medical landscape for over 2,000 years and even had a symbiotic relationship with Sinhalese medicine, which also played a significant and influential role in the country's medical framework<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/article/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990/|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|volume=44|issue=1|pages=33|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=2478-1169}}</ref>. Despite its historical dominance, Ayurvedic medicine has been challenged against modern evidence-based medical standards<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://philarchive.org/rec/DOMAAT|title=Ayurveda: Ancient Tradition or Pseudoscientific Practice? A Philosophical Inquiry|last=Dominic|first=Shubham K.}}</ref>. === Comparative synthesis === Taking an overarching review of the role of religion in Sri Lanka, methods to improve mental well-being are practiced by adherents of Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. These methods are practiced through karma, tawakkul, hope, and humility. Additionally, these practices are implemented in traditionally-oriented mental health care, which has been reported to be preferred over psychiatric care at times. These rituals practiced across these religions indicate a common theme of psychologically integrated aspects of well-being. Interpretation of trauma is a central use in religion, with religious principles, such as karma and ''tawakkul'', serving as psychologically analogous mechanisms during times of distress. In terms of methodological comparisons to the studies described, qualitative interviews have documented Buddhist practices and principles, like Bodhipuja and the belief in karma, in response to traumatic events, while case studies found religious practices by other religious groups, such as a Muslim patient reading Islamic scripture and observing prayer to reduce emotional distress. Peer-reviewed sources have documented Catholic practices and principles, such as ''Lectio Divina'' and unconditional positive regard, in improving mindfulness and emotional regulation. The paper acknowledges limitations in the evaluation of certain findings, such as in Islam and Hinduism. These shortcomings, however, are a reflection of the existing literature and its deficiencies. Empirical findings indicate mental health practices are complex and are multifaceted in their effects. Evidently, religion serves a parallel role to psychiatric services in improving mental health. Despite its perceived benefits, the findings surrounding religions' role in mental health suffer from conflicting, and sometimes contradictory, results. Additionally, a disproportionate amount of empirical findings seem to be Buddhist-predominant, while other religions are underrepresented in the research. Regarding research barriers, the methodological approaches implemented to study the practices of religious followers vary, though much of the research was brought from qualitative or case-based studies, impeding generalizability. Another noteworthy issue is that many studies do not utilize standardized, psychiatric measures. == Future Outlook == Despite significant changes to the mental health environment in Sri Lanka, the current legal framework shaping mental health in the country has not been updated since 1956. A Cambridge University Press article detailed many limitations of the Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956, including discrepancies between the legal provisions of involuntary admissions and modern practices, potential exposure to trauma through extra-legal detentions of the mentally ill, and an absence of legal guidelines addressing the restraint of violent patients<ref name=":6" />. Participants from Sri Lanka reported in a comparative legislative questionnaire that they felt the mental health laws were "outdated" and descriptions of clinical roles remained ambiguous<ref name=":16" />. A draft mental health legislation from 2007 includes provisions for human rights, but due to "bureaucratic processes" and a "lack of consensus", the draft has not been officially approved. These limitations pose challenges to the standardization of mental healthcare admissions and may impact the rights of detained patients. Detained patients may have their human rights violated due to a lack of an up-to-date legal framework, thereby impeding the identification of such violations. Additionally, with the lack of clarity on clinical roles, clinical responsibilities may not be routinely recognized and observed, leading to role confusion and potential legal ramifications<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Dey|first=Sangeeta|last2=Mellsop|first2=Graham|last3=Diesfeld|first3=Kate|last4=Dharmawardene|first4=Vajira|last5=Mendis|first5=Susitha|last6=Chaudhuri|first6=Sreemanti|last7=Deb|first7=Aniruddha|last8=Huq|first8=Nafisa|last9=Ahmed|first9=Helal Uddin|date=2019-10-24|title=Comparing legislation for involuntary admission and treatment of mental illness in four South Asian countries|url=https://ijmhs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=13|issue=1|pages=67|doi=10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|issn=1752-4458|pmc=6813093|pmid=31666805}}</ref>. Lastly, current efforts should increase beyond just addressing poverty-centered matters, but also expand efforts to domestic violence victims and children with disabilities, as shelters and specialized services are limited<ref name=":82">{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Stagnation in policy development leaves Sri Lanka without a practical, up-to-date, and comprehensive mental health legislation, which could put both clinicians and patients at risk. Future reforms should include clarification on the treatment and detention process of involuntary admissions of patients and a clear delineation of clinical roles and their responsibilities. Without the necessary reforms to advance Sri Lankan mental health legislation, clinicians and vulnerable patients may suffer from a lack of comprehensive oversight. ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== Any people, organisations, or funding sources that you would like to thank. ===Competing interests=== No competing interests. ===Ethics statement=== An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section. ==References== {{reflist|35em}} [[Category:Mental health]] [[Category:Sri Lanka]] jindegvbdivkl91clava1zcdg2hzv29 2817335 2817334 2026-06-29T22:46:48Z Atcovi 276019 2817335 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine <!-- WikiJournal of Medicine, Science, or Humanities --> | last1 = Azeez | orcid1 = 0009-0007-9202-4614 | first1 = Aaqib | last2 = | first2 = | last3 = | first3 = | last4 = | first4 = <!-- up to 9 authors can be added in this above format --> | et_al = <!-- if there are >9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --> | affiliation1 = Old Dominion University | correspondence1 = yonikmalik@gmail.com | affiliations = institutes / affiliations | correspondence = email@address.com | keywords = <!-- up to 6 keywords --> | license = <!-- default is CC-BY --> | abstract = This is a narrative review. }} [abstract will be put in after the paper has been completed] == Introduction == Mental health continues to be a critically relevant topic as the island nation has experienced decades of [[w:Black_July|violent ethnic conflict]], terrorist attacks, war crimes, and economic disruptions. Sri Lanka continues to recover from a [[w:Sri_Lankan_economic_crisis_(2019–2024)|severe economic crisis (2019 - 2024)]], a [[w:Sri_Lankan_civil_war|nearly 30-year civil war ending in 2009]], a [[w:2019_Sri_Lanka_Easter_bombings|2019 terrorist attack]], and continues to face the ripple effects of the [[w:2004_Boxing_Day_tsunami|2004 Boxing Day tsunami]]. The exact effect these major events have had on mental health in the country is "unknown", but the statistics remain alarming despite a declining trend. Suicide rates in the country during the mid-1990s were the second-highest in the world with ingesting toxic products being the main suicide method. Despite the decline in suicide numbers since then—possibly attributed to Sri Lanka's ban on toxic products—evidence from a 2023 study reports an upward trend in suicide through hanging from 2016 to 2021—independent of the [[w:COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sri_Lanka|COVID-19 pandemic]]. Several risk factors for suicide, such as poverty and economic instability, are still prevalent and even increasing in the country<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakse|first=Thilini|last2=Silva|first2=Tharuka|last3=Hettiarachchi|first3=Nirosha Madhuwanthi|last4=Gunnell|first4=David|last5=Metcalfe|first5=Chris|last6=Spittal|first6=Matthew J.|last7=Knipe|first7=Duleeka|date=2023-01-19|title=The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic and Lockdowns on Self-Poisoning and Suicide in Sri Lanka: An Interrupted Time Series Analysis|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914278/|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=20|issue=3|pages=1833|doi=10.3390/ijerph20031833|issn=1660-4601|pmc=9914278|pmid=36767200}}</ref>. == Methods == [source selection process] ==Historical Development of Mental Health Services== Records attest to the care of the mentally ill through established hospitals in the island since the 4th century.<ref name=":17" /> Prior to the incarceration of the mentally ill by the European colonizing forces, the mentally ill were regarded as ''Pissowetitch'', or people who had "the spirit of the Gods within him" and "whatsoever he pronounceth, is looked upon as spoken by God himself, and the people will speak to him, as if it were the very person of God"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/14346/14346-h/14346-h.htm|title=An Historical Relation Of the Island Ceylon, in the East-Indies: Together, With an Account of the Detaining in Captivity the Author and divers other Englishmen now Living there, and of the Author’s Miraculous Escape.|last=Knox|first=Robert|website=www.gutenberg.org|language=en-us|access-date=2026-06-29}}</ref>. With this religious understanding, Lucien de Alwis reasoned that the mentally ill in Sri Lanka were "placed... at a higher social status than the mentally ill in the Western world", with this notion correlating with the unsurprising absence of evidence in there being a "large scale segregation of mentally ill from society"<ref name=":17" />. In the 1800s, established care for mental health began shifting primarily from indigenous practices, mainly derived from [[w:Ayurveda|Ayurveda medicine]], [[w:Siddha_medicine|Siddha medicine]], and [[w:Unani_medicine|Unani medicine]], to a Western mode by the British<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":0">Gambheera, H. (2011). [https://www.saarcpsychiatry.com/viewText?chapter=c6 The evolution of psychiatric services in Sri Lanka]. South Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 2(1), 25–27.</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|title=Social Psychiatry in Sri Lanka|last=Baminiwatta|first=Anuradha|last2=Williams|first2=Shehan|date=2025|publisher=Springer Nature|isbn=978-981-96-8078-8|editor-last=Arafat|editor-first=S. M. Yasir|location=Singapore|pages=141–158|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|editor-last2=Singh|editor-first2=Amit|editor-last3=Kar|editor-first3=Sujita Kumar}}</ref>. === Adoption of a Western-based mental healthcare model and issuances of ordinances === In 1839, [[w:James_Alexander_Stewart-Mackenzie|James Alexander Stewart-Mackenzie]], the 7th Governor of British Ceylon, released the Lunacy Ordinance, authorizing municipal authorities to create lunatic asylums for the mentally ill in the country<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=6&Itemid=125&lang=en|title=History - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-10}}</ref>. The ordinance was concerned with the legal frameworks of detaining individuals considered dangerous to others or individuals falsely presenting themselves as mentally ill, and not on medical treatments to alleviate the conditions of detained individuals. UK psychiatrist [[w:Edward_Mapother|Edward Mapother]] critiqued the ordinance during his 1937 inspection of British Ceylon's mental health institutions in a series of reports titled ''A Disgrace to a Civilised Community'', remarking that the ordinance "[did] not seem to have contemplated treatment as a contingency to be considered"<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Permeable walls: historical perspectives on hospital and asylum visiting|date=2009|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-2599-8|editor-last=Mooney|editor-first=Graham|series=Clio medica|location=Amsterdam New York, NY|editor-last2=Reinarz|editor-first2=Jonathan}}</ref>. In 1840, the 1839 Ordinance was repealed and replaced by the 1840 Ordinance. The 1839 Ordinance was almost identical to the 1840 Ordinance, except the removal of two previous requirements: the requirement for official medical diagnoses of the mentally insane and the mandate to maintain adequate staff-to-patient ratios within lunatic asylums<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. de|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. L.|last3=Mendis|first3=T. S. S.|last4=Abhayanayaka|first4=C.|date=2024-12-31|title=The development of laws related to the disposal of forensic patients in Sri Lanka: A historical review|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=15|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. In 1873, a third Ordinance was released. It included linguistic changes, where the term, "insane", was replaced with "of unsound mind". The Ordinance also gave more power to medical professionals in determining insanity diagnoses, and more power to detainees in appealing their commitment to the mental asylum. Despite this Ordinance being the most comprehensive outlook on mental healthcare in the country at the time, the legal frameworks behind the detainment of the criminally insane were left identical to previous ordinances<ref name=":3" />. === Development of mental asylums === At the time the 1839 ordinance was released, mentally ill patients were placed either in prisons throughout the country or leprosy hospitals, such as the [[w:Hendala_Leprosy_Hospital|Hendala Leprosy Hospital]] in the Gampaha district<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" />. After the creation of the first mental asylum in Borella in 1846, patients from the Hendala Leprosy Hospital were transferred to the institute in Borella. Overcrowding soon became an issue and patients were sent to prisons across the country. [[File:Edward Mapother.jpg|thumb|A portrait taken of Edward Mapother during his time working at [[w:Maudsley_Hospital|Maudsley Hospital]] in London. ]] As medical institutions were being made to house the mentally insane, another mental asylum was created in the [[w:Cinnamon_Gardens|Cinnamon Gardens]] area of Colombo in 1884, though this mental asylum faced overcrowding in just one year<ref name=":0" />. Treatment in these asylums was limited to occupational and protection therapy, failing to provide treatment for the root causes of the mental disorders. In 1926, the Angoda Mental Hospital was established, scantily alleviating the severe overcrowding issues that were plaguing the preceding mental asylums. Despite the addition of 1,700 beds to the facility, treatment was still vastly limited and the patients were left in significantly poor conditions. === Edward Mapother's 1937 inspection of British Ceylon === Edward Mapother was born in Dublin, Ireland, on July 12, 1881 and moved to London when he was 7 years old<ref>{{Cite book|title=Madness to mental illness: a history of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|last=Bewley|first=Thomas|date=2008|publisher=RCPsych Publications ; Distributed in North America by Balogh International|isbn=978-1-904671-35-0|location=London : [S.l.]}}</ref>. Mapother attained his M.D. in 1908. While Mapother was the Medical Superintendent of Maudsley Hospital in London, England, he was invited to inspect British Ceylon's mental health institutions by Dr S. T. Gunasekara, the first Medical Director of British Ceylon<ref name=":1" />. In Mapother's visit, he commented that the Angoda Mental Hospital had the atmosphere of "a prison that is neglected and dilapidated"<ref name=":1" />. Overcrowding was still a major issue, with the institute hosting 3,000 patients—more than double the intended capacity. Patients were sleeping on mats and were clearly out of reach of adequate treatment. Mapother also noted that only 4% of public health expenditure in the country was being set for hospitals, drawing a stark comparison to London's 25%<ref name=":1" />. Mapother offered a vivid and grim account of the hospital in his reports: <blockquote> The floor, roof and walls of each cell consist alike of drab cement without any attempt at colouring or decoration. High up in one wall is a small window with stout iron bars. In the floor is a large hole into which the patient may pass his motion and urine. These cells are incompletely divided from one another by a partition which does not reach the roof so that the noise and stink from any one cell may reach at least all the others of the same row. Into these empty cells I was informed that the most noisy and troublesome patients in the hospital; were turned at night completely naked. The doors of the cell contain no observation window, and considering the violent character of many of these patients there is every ground for believing that the doors are rarely opened in the night by the solitary attendant on duty. It needs little imagination to picture the suffering of any patient in an early stage of bodily illness passing a night under such conditions, a situation which must frequently arise. I am told that the noise proceeding from this building is like that on a bad night in a menagerie<ref name=":0" />.</blockquote>Mapother proposed a series of reinforcements to the legal, institutional, and medical frameworks of mental health care in British Ceylon. This included the decentralization of the psychiatric services, a reworking of the Lunacy Ordinance to incorporate treatment into the legal framework, and the establishment of a separate service of medical professionals dedicated to psychiatry. Mapother's recommendations led to several of the best local medical professionals to be sent to London for extensive training in psychiatry, while nurses from England were sent to British Ceylon to supervise hospital operations and train local staff<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />. On August 25, 1938, the Executive Committee of Health approved the strategies proposed by Mapother, though the Government was unable to fully implement all of Mapother's interventions due to the 'heavy cost'. In fact, the Government decided to forego one of his proposals, which was the suggestion of a "Visiting Committee". This committee was tasked to "meet at the hospital, carry out inspections, and make recommendations" to the Executive Committee of Health<ref name=":1" />. The Government realized that deficiencies in their mental healthcare system could prove to be "costly" for their reputation. Mapother was reportedly enraged when he found out. Mapother intended to contact the Secretary of State regarding the "distortion" of his plans, but was interrupted by events preluding to [[w:World_War_II|World War II]]<ref name=":1" />. Mapother passed away on March 20, 1940, without materializing his follow-up plans. === Post-Mapother developments and further innovations === [[File:Sri Lanka districts Colombo.svg|thumb|A map of Sri Lanka highlighting the Colombo District, where the capital is located. |right|250px]]Mapother's insights on the mental healthcare structure in British Ceylon proved to be the catalyst of massive renovations. In 1939, the first outpatient clinic was established in the [[w:National_Hospital_of_Sri_Lanka|National Hospital of Sri Lanka]] in Colombo. The first trained Ceylonese psychiatrists began practice in the 1940s, leading to the establishment of the first neuropsychiatric clinic in Colombo in 1943. Treatments for the mentally ill improved dramatically, as protectional therapy expanded to [[w:insulin_shock_therapy|insulin shock therapy]] and [[w:Electroconvulsive_therapy|cardiazol convulsive therapy]]<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Kathriarachchi|first=Samudra T.|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. Lakmi|last3=Amarakoon|first3=Luckshika|date=2019-06|title=Development of Mental Health Care in Sri Lanka: Lessons Learned|url=https://journals.lww.com/tpsy/fulltext/2019/33020/development_of_mental_health_care_in_sri_lanka_.1.aspx|journal=Taiwanese Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=33|issue=2|pages=55|doi=10.4103/TPSY.TPSY_15_19|issn=1028-3684}}</ref>. Mapother's advocation for the decentralization of services were further honored through the 1947 establishment of a first child guidance clinic in Colombo General Hospital<ref name=":0" />. In 1948, British Ceylon was granted independence from the British after the [[w:Sri_Lankan_independence_movement|Sri Lankan independence movement]]. Changes in the mental healthcare structure were not immediate following independence, but rapid expansions of mental healthcare services were still ongoing. The following decades saw positive institutional developments, such as the creation of a second hospital in [[w:Mulleriyawa|Mulleriyawa]] in 1957, and the creation of a psychiatric inpatient unit in Colombo General Hospital in 1967—effectively granting the city of Colombo the luxury of hosting the top psychiatric care in the country<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|title=Mental Health System Development in Sri Lanka|last=Minas|first=Harry|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Hall|first3=Teresa|date=2017|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4899-7997-1|editor-last=Minas|editor-first=Harry|location=Boston, MA|pages=59–77|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|editor-last2=Lewis|editor-first2=Milton}}</ref>. The 1950s was also the start of psychopharmacological innovations, with the introduction of [[w:Lithium_(medication)|lithium]] and long-acting injectable antipsychotics ([[w:Depot_injection|depot]] [[w:Antipsychotic|neuroleptics]]) in the succeeding years<ref name=":4" />. Additionally, the number of public psychiatrist positions increased by 400% from 1953 to 1967<ref name=":5" />. After 1960, mental health services were being established beyond the capital to other cities in the country<ref name=":2" />. In 1980, the [[w:Postgraduate_Institute_of_Medicine|Postgraduate Institute of Medicine]] began a program where students would enroll in a 5-year medical course and attain an MD in psychiatry, curbing the need for Sri Lankan medical students to be sent abroad to complete their training. Many of the medical students sent abroad for training never returned to Sri Lanka to practice, resulting in a "1:500,000 to 1000,000" ratio of psychiatrists to patients on "most occasions"<ref name=":0" />. === Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956 === In 1956, the 1873 Ordinance was revised a second time and renamed the "Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956"<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Hapangama|first=Aruni|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Kuruppuarachchi|first3=K. a. L. A.|date=2023-02|title=Why are we still living in the past? Sri Lanka needs urgent and timely reforms of its archaic mental health laws|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-international/article/why-are-we-still-living-in-the-past-sri-lanka-needs-urgent-and-timely-reforms-of-its-archaic-mental-health-laws/B18B03DC962CC6F09BC6D7877E390EE4|journal=BJPsych International|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=4–6|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.26|issn=2056-4740|pmc=9909436|pmid=36812028}}</ref>. Another linguistic development is seen with the new revision as "lunacy" was replaced with "mental disease"<ref name=":6" />. The Ordinance paved the way for community-based services to be delivered to patients closer to their residences rather than solely allocating services to just hospitals. This led to the creation of a [[w:WHO|WHO]]-backed community clinic near the [[w:University_of_Colombo|University of Colombo]] in the 1970s, where the focus was to eventually ease patients in the Angoda Mental Hospital back into the general population<ref name=":5" />. === Developments from the 1990s === The 1990s and onwards saw further positive developments in framing the mental healthcare system, including the establishment of the [https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=featured&Itemid=101&lang=en Directorate of Mental Health] in 1998. The Directorate of Mental Health is a part of the [[w:Ministry_of_Health_(Sri_Lanka)|Ministry of Health]] who is responsible for the monitoring and implementation of mental health programs across the country<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?lang=en|title=Home - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}</ref>. As of 2025, the current director of the Directorate of Mental Health is Dr. Chithramalee de Silva<ref name=":2" />. On November 11, 2005, the Mental Health Policy was approved by the Government of Sri Lanka, advocating for establishments of more de-centralized, community-based mental health services across the country beyond the capital (Colombo). The policy aimed to concisely define the rigorous standards needed to be completed for each respected medical professional, including psychiatrists and clinical psychologists<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakshe|first=Onali Bimalka Wickramaseckara|last2=Mohan|first2=Mohapradeep|last3=Singh|first3=Swaran Preet|date=2023-05|title=Development of adolescent mental health services in Sri Lanka|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10895478/|journal=BJPsych international|volume=20|issue=2|pages=41–43|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.32|issn=2056-4740|pmc=10895478|pmid=38414998}}</ref>. The policy also included a new position, the "Medical Officer of Mental Health", who oversees and assists in the implementation of community-based mental health services<ref name=":0" />. This same year, the Sri Lankan government began implementing psychological services in state institutions, such as the military<ref name=":8" />. In 2007, the National Mental Health Advisory Council (NMHAC) was created to serve as an 'advisory' board for the Ministry of Health on what actions should be executed by the Directorate of Mental Health<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=9&Itemid=220&lang=en|title=Introduction - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}</ref>. In 2008, the Angoda Mental Hospital was restructured as the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)<ref name=":7" />. === Modern-day Sri Lanka === [[File:Feeding Children in Sri Lanka.jpg|left|thumb|Despite the noteworthy improvements in mental healthcare services in recent decades, mental health remains a significant issue due to rising poverty. ]] As of 2025, the Mental Health Act (mental health legislation) has been undergoing development since 2005 and is currently awaiting to be considered for the final stage of approval. This is expected to replace the 1956 Mental Health Ordinance<ref name=":7" />. Currently, there are 7 tertiary care hospitals, 61 adult patient units, 3 child inpatient units, and 1 forensic unit with over 100 psychiatrists all throughout the 22 districts<ref name=":4" />. The [[w:Lady_Ridgeway_Hospital_for_Children|Lady Ridgeway Hospital]] in Colombo and the Sirimavo Bandaranayke Specialized Children Hospital in Kandy are tailored towards alleviating children with [[w:Learning_disability|SLD]], [[w:ADHD|ADHD]], [[w:Autism_Spectrum_Disorder|ASD]] and family support for diagnosed children. As of 2017, 22 rehabilitation centers exist through the country, including 7 alcohol rehab centers<ref name=":7" />. Despite the impressive advancements in mental healthcare in the last couple of decades, Sri Lanka still suffers significant mental health issues due to increasing poverty levels in the country. The [[w:World_Bank|World Bank]] reported that [https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2024/04/08/eesc-a08.html the poverty levels in Sri Lanka increased from 11% in 2019 to 26% in 2024], with 60% of Sri Lankan households facing "decreased incomes"<ref>Lakhtakia, Shruti, Atapattu Mudiyanselage, Udahiruni Shashadari Atapat, Walker, Richard Ancrum. ''Sri Lanka Development Update - Bridge to Recovery (English).'' Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. <nowiki>http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/099634104012434919</nowiki></ref>. This was churned by Sri Lanka's excessive foreign debt, economic troubles stemming from [[w:Gotabaya_Rajapaksa|Gotabaya Rajapaksa]]'s presidential term, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the [[w:Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine|ongoing invasion of Ukraine by Russia (2022)]]. According to [[w:NYU|New York University]] graduate student [https://gc-cuny.academia.edu/NadiaAugustyniak Nadia Augustyniak] in her 2025 overview of Sri Lanka's public mental healthcare system, poverty-induced financial precarity remains a major obstacle to receiving access to mental healthcare services. Even though trauma from adverse weather and conflict is deleterious to mental health, issues originating from every-day struggles, especially struggles related to poverty, could arguably play a more significant role<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. == Impact of Conflicts, Terrorism, Political Instability & Natural Disasters == === Sri Lankan Civil War === The '''Sri Lankan Civil War''' was a domestic conflict that took place between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (abbreviated as the ''LTTE),'' a militant group formed in the 1970s as a result of rising tensions between the majority Sinhalese and minority Tamil population. The group is considered a terrorist organization<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.start.umd.edu/baad/database/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-ltte-1998.html|title=BAAD - Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) - 1998 {{!}} START.umd.edu|website=www.start.umd.edu|access-date=2025-06-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-aka-tamil-tigers-sri-lanka-separatists|title=Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (aka Tamil Tigers) (Sri Lanka, separatists) {{!}} Council on Foreign Relations|last=Bhattacharji|first=Preeti|website=www.cfr.org|language=en|access-date=2025-06-09}}</ref>. Through brutal massacres, assassinations, and suicide bombings, the LTTE waged decades of terror which led to civilian displacement, infrastructure collapse, and the reduction of mental health services available in the northern region.[[File:DFID-funded, UNHCR emergency shelter tents, in the IDP camp at Menik Farm, Sri Lanka (3694081492).jpg|thumb|350x350px|An IDP camp in Menik Farm, Sri Lanka in 2009 ([https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-19703826 now closed]). Suicide rates in IDP camps were three times the general population.]]The civil war mainly affected the northeastern portion of the country, including the [[w:Vanni_(Sri_Lanka)|Vanni region]]. The conflict caused mass destruction to local mental healthcare facilities. Local residents described the conflict with the phrase ''varthayal varnicca mudiyathavai'', roughly translating into English as 'beyond description by words'<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}</ref>. In 2003, only two psychiatrists were found in the region, operating on extremely limited resources and further deepening long-term trauma and mental health deterioration in the population<ref name=":5" />. In 2002, the humanitarian organization [https://www.msf.org/ Médecins Sans Frontières] (MSF) performed an investigation of mental health needs in the [[w:Vavuniya|Vavuniya]] area, the site of intense conflict during the civil war (including the [[w:1985_Vavuniya_massacre|1985 Vavuniya massacre]]), and found that many of the residents suffered from high suicide rates, alcohol abuse, domestic violence, grief, and a "sense of ‘learnt helplessness’"<ref name=":5" />. A team from the University of Konstanz in Germany found that 92% of grade school children in the region were exposed to "combat, shelling, and witnessing the death of loved ones"<ref name=":9" />. [[File:Tractors. Jan 2009 displacement in the Vanni.jpg|left|thumb|350x350px|Displaced civilians originating from the Kilinochchi and Mullaitivu Districts due to military campaigns by the Sri Lankan military (January 2009). Displaced civilians had to avoid both the atrocities committed by the LTTE and the Sri Lankan government.]] Accusation of war crimes towards [[w:War_crimes_during_the_final_stages_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war|the Sri Lankan government]] have been documented by various external organizations, despite the government's attempts at removing any [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e_p1TfTguW0 mentions] or [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vtm54Y9USEg investigations] of it<ref>See also [[w:Sexual violence in the Sri Lankan civil war]].</ref>. A 2009 HRW report stated that the Sri Lankan government assumed native Tamil population residing in war zones to be "siding with the LTTE and [therefore, were] treated as combatants", leading to indiscriminate shillings and massacres of civilians<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2009-02-19|title=War on the Displaced|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/02/19/war-displaced/sri-lankan-army-and-ltte-abuses-against-civilians-vanni|journal=Human Rights Watch|language=en}}</ref>. Alongside the oppression by the Sri Lankan military, the Vanni population also endured the brutal theatrics of the LTTE, which recruited men, women, and even children with minimal training, effectively rendering them cannon fodder. Over 200,000 Tamil civilians were moved into [[w:Internally_displaced_persons_in_Sri_Lanka|designated displacement camps during the war]], where conditions were abysmal<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000}}</ref>. The suicide rate in these displacement camps were three times the community-level (2002), with a ratio of 103.5 per 10,000 compared to the Sri Lankan general population's rate of 37.5 per 10,000. Almost all suicide attempts involved poisonous substances. Other forms of violence included domestic violence and child abuse. Local health officials in Vavuniya admitted that mental health concerns were a major problem, but were unable to address these concerns due to a lack of resources and support from the government. During the [[wikipedia:Sri_Lankan_civil_war#2002_peace_process_(2002%E2%80%932006)|brief 2002 ceasefire]], the MSF implemented a "community-based programme" which included "increasing awareness, community strengthening, reinforcing coping-strategies for long-term war-affected communities, and counselling". The MSF also advocated for restrictions of poisonous substances due to the suicide attempts, and stressed that "much more [than resettlement]" would need to be done to help alleviate the psychological pain the northern population had faced<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Jong|first=Kaz|last2=Mulhern|first2=Maureen|last3=Ford|first3=Nathan|last4=Simpson|first4=Isabel|last5=Swan|first5=Alison|last6=van der Kam|first6=Saskia|date=2002-04|title=Psychological trauma of the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673602084209|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=359|issue=9316|pages=1517–1518|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08420-9}}</ref>. The ceasefire ended in 2006 and led to the [[w:Eelam_War_IV|final phase of the civil war]], eventually ending in 2009 with the [[w:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velupillai_Prabhakaran#Sri_Lankan_Army_Northern_offensive_and_death|death of the LTTE's leader]]. '''Post-war''' [[File:Puttalam district.svg|left|thumb|Puttalam District, unlike its northern counterparts, was largely spared from the intense conflict, possibly explaining the lower rates of common mental disorders (CMDs).]] The first district-wide cross-sectional multistage cluster sample survey was conducted in the [[w:Jaffna_District|Jaffna District]] shortly after the war ended. The study's sample included 1517 households and 2 internally displaced peoples camps. With a response rate of 92%, the study found that symptoms for PTSD were found in 7% of participants, symptoms of anxiety were found in 32.6% of participants, and symptoms of depression were found in 22.2% of participants. 2% of respondents were currently placed in internally displaced peoples camps at the time of the study, 29.5% were freshly resettled from the internally displaced peoples camps, and the rest of the participants (68.5%) were never placed into camps. In comparison to residents who were never placed into camps, participants that were actively held in camps tend to report more symptoms of PTSD, anxiety, and depression. The researchers also found that women were especially vulnerable to deteriorating mental health conditions. This was explained by two factors: women having to assume the roles of both the father and the mother in the family setting after the, either voluntary or forced, departure of the husband to war, and sexist violence<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Husain|first=Farah|last2=Anderson|first2=Mark|last3=Lopes Cardozo|first3=Barbara|last4=Becknell|first4=Kristin|last5=Blanton|first5=Curtis|last6=Araki|first6=Diane|last7=Kottegoda Vithana|first7=Eeshara|date=2011-08-03|title=Prevalence of War-Related Mental Health Conditions and Association With Displacement Status in Postwar Jaffna District, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1052|journal=JAMA|volume=306|issue=5|pages=522–531|doi=10.1001/jama.2011.1052|issn=0098-7484}}</ref>. A 2013 study on adult patients in [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232631/ primary care settings] (divisional hospitals, primary medical care units) found major depression to be significantly higher in females (5.1%) than males (3.6%), bolstering the observation seen in the 2009 study<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senarath|first=Upul|last2=Wickramage|first2=Kolitha|last3=Peiris|first3=Sharika Lasanthi|date=2014-03-24|title=Prevalence of depression and its associated factors among patients attending primary care settings in the post-conflict Northern Province in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|journal=BMC Psychiatry|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=85|doi=10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|issn=1471-244X|pmc=3987835|pmid=24661436}}</ref>. Muslims in Northern Sri Lanka during the conflict also faced violence and discrimination, most notably [[w:Expulsion_of_Muslims_from_the_Northern_Province_of_Sri_Lanka|the October 1990 expulsion of Muslims from the North to the Puttalam District or Jaffna]] and the [[w:Kattankudy_mosque_massacre|1990 Kattankudy mosque massacre]]. The only study testing the displaced Muslim population post-civil war was completed in 2011, where a cross-sectional survey of 450 internally displaced people or people born into displacement (ages 18 - 65) revealed 18.8% of the sample suffering from common mental health disorders (CMD), including [[w:Somatoform_disorder|somatoform disorder]] (14%), "other depressive syndromes" (7.3%), major depression (5.1%), and anxiety disorder (2.8%). The percentages found in this study for somatoform disorder and major depression were "considerably higher" than the national percentages, though the researchers noted that the prevalence of CMD was lower in comparison to other countries marred with conflict, including Palestine (40.3%) and Ethiopia (27.8%). The researchers explained that the lower rate of CMD may be attributed to the [[w:Puttalam_District|serenity of the post-settlement destination]], as conflict was mainly centered in the North and East. In contrast to earlier findings, this study did not observe a higher prevalence of CMDs among women, although increased rates of somatoform disorders were noted (though the researchers did not show the data behind this)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siriwardhana|first=Chesmal|last2=Adikari|first2=Anushka|last3=Pannala|first3=Gayani|last4=Siribaddana|first4=Sisira|last5=Abas|first5=Melanie|last6=Sumathipala|first6=Athula|last7=Stewart|first7=Robert|date=2013-05-22|title=Prolonged Internal Displacement and Common Mental Disorders in Sri Lanka: The COMRAID Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|pages=e64742|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3661540|pmid=23717656}}</ref>. Research on the mental state of combatants has been limited, but a post-war 2009 study done between soldiers of the [[w:Sri_Lanka_Army_Special_Forces_Regiment|Special Forces]] and regular soldiers showed higher levels of exposure to traumatic events for units of the Special Forces, yet the former exhibited significantly less symptoms of CMDs compared to the latter. The authors of this study, [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=cVKEBdwAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao Raveen Hanwella] and [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=ZRj74qMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra Varuni de Silva], offers the camaraderie of the unit as an explanation for the discrepancy<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|date=2012-08|title=Mental health of Special Forces personnel deployed in battle|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22038567|journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology|volume=47|issue=8|pages=1343–1351|doi=10.1007/s00127-011-0442-0|issn=1433-9285|pmid=22038567}}</ref>. A follow-up study was completed by the pair (with the addition of former Director-General of the Health Services of the Sri Lanka Navy [[w:Nicholas_Jayasekera|Nicholas Jayasekera]]), where the findings were similar, though the statistically significant bridge between the two cohorts in the previous study evaporated in the follow-up study. This may be due to the significant decline in mental health problems observed in the regular unit forces, potentially reflecting resilience in the aftermath of jarring conflict<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=Jayasekera|first2=Nicholas E. L. W.|last3=Silva|first3=Varuni A. de|date=2014-09-25|title=Mental Health Status of Sri Lanka Navy Personnel Three Years after End of Combat Operations: A Follow Up Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=9|issue=9|pages=e108113|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4177866|pmid=25254557}}</ref>. Amputees or soldiers with spinal injuries exhibited drastically different numbers, with approximately 40% of nearly 100 male-veterans in a post-war 2009 study displaying PTSD-like symptoms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abeyasinghe|first=N. L.|last2=de Zoysa|first2=P.|last3=Bandara|first3=K.M.K.C.|last4=Bartholameuz|first4=N. A.|last5=Bandara|first5=J. M.U.J.|date=2012-05-01|title=The prevalence of symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder among soldiers with amputation of a limb or spinal injury: A report from a rehabilitation centre in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|journal=Psychology, Health & Medicine|volume=17|issue=3|pages=376–381|doi=10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|issn=1354-8506|pmid=21942815}}</ref>. About a decade after the conflict ceased, a few notable studies have emerged to help guide understanding on the longer-term mental health effects on victims of the civil war. From July 2019 to October 2020, a study was conducted on 585 local adolescents (ages 12-19) in the Vavuniya district revealed that despite 15.6% of the statistic having faced one or more war-related events, only 3.9% of the participants had moderate - severe depression. In addition to considerably low depression rates, only 5.7% of participants age 17+ were found to have moderate - severe hopelessness<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000|pmc=10472617|pmid=37653394}}</ref>. The authors referenced a 2010 observation by psychiatrist [https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/author/daya-somasundaram Daya Somasundaram], who noted that many Tamil IDPs exhibited "remarkable resilience and post-traumatic growth" after the civil war—an outcome he attributed to the close-knit, family-centered nature of Tamil communities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}</ref>. Findings originating from a 2019 study undertook by several faculty members from the University of Kelaniya, the University of Jaffna, the [[w:Gampaha_Wickramarachchi_University_of_Indigenous_Medicine|Gampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous Medicine]], and the [https://onur.gov.lk/ Office for National Unity and Reconciliation (ONUR)] in Jaffna, found contrasting statistics. Out of 336 participants from districts that faced significant ramifications of the conflict (Jaffna, Kilinochchi, Mullaithivu, Vavuniya, and Mannar districts), 50.5% had extreme anxiety symptoms and 36.5% exhibited "extremely severe" symptoms of depression. 92.5% of families in the sample experienced suicidal ideation, with an observed negative correlation between trauma exposure and life satisfaction with families. Drug abuse (86.2%) and alcohol abuse (84.5%) were the two highest problematic behaviors recorded on a community-level, suggesting that the negative consequences of the civil war still persist, possibly on a substantial scale than previously recognized, in Tamil communities in the North<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thamotharampillai|first=Umaharan|last2=Perera|first2=Ruwanthi|last3=Wickremasinghe|first3=Rajitha|last4=Williams|first4=Shehan|last5=Vijayasangar|first5=Thedsanamoorthy|last6=Sivatharsan|first6=Balasubramaniam|last7=Hilbert|first7=Vanceline|last8=Somasundaram|first8=Daya|date=2025-05-06|title=Collective Trauma- Psychosocial consequences of war in northern Sri Lanka 10 years on, a mixed methods study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000696|journal=SSM - Mental Health|pages=100457|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100457|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Further research should be conducted in this field. In 2019, [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/R-M-M-Monaragala-2087692299 Dr. R. M. M. Monaragala] conducted a study on 1,845 soldiers with combat experience, finding that 3.9% of the sample suffered from PTSD. Dr. Monaragala noted that "probable depression, fatigue, aggression, and family history of mental disorder" were correlative of PTSD presence. He suggested that "screening and psychosocial intervention" were recommended avenues to alleviate CMDs of former combatants<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Monaragala|first=R. M. M.|date=2024-04-19|title=Exploring the effects of the past civil war in terms of the prevalence and associating factors of PTSD|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=14|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. === 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami === The '''2004 Boxing Day Tsunami''' was a natural disaster where a tsunami spawned off a 9.2–9.3 magnitude earthquake off the coast of Aceh in Indonesia on December 26. The tsunami greatly affected the coastlines of the country, with the death toll reaching to about 35,000 deaths. In addition, 90,000 houses were destroyed and 516,000 people were forced to migrate due to severe infrastructural damage<ref name=":5" />. It stands as the [http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/tsunami_relief/119821.htm worst natural disaster to have ever hit Sri Lanka]. [[File:Tsunami relief 2004 02.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Volunteers from [[w:Royal_College,_Colombo|Royal College in Colombo]] assisting in tsunami relief efforts (Sarvodaya Headquaters, Moratuwa).]] A survey conducted on schoolchildren (ages 8-14) in Manadkadu (Tamil-majority village in the northern coast), [[w:Kosgoda|Kosgoda]] (western coast), and [[w:Galle|Galle]] (southern coast), just a few weeks after the tsunami hit Sri Lanka, revealed that 33.8%, 13.9%, and 38.8% of children interviewed exhibited signs of PTSD (according to the DSM-IV's criteria), respectively (minus the time criteria, as the DSM-IV does not permit diagnosis of PTSD within 4 weeks of a traumatic incident). The loss of family members and exposure to previously traumatic incidents seem to highly correlate with PTSD development<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Neuner|first=Frank|last2=Schauer|first2=Elisabeth|last3=Catani|first3=Claudia|last4=Ruf|first4=Martina|last5=Elbert|first5=Thomas|date=2006|title=Post-tsunami stress: A study of posttraumatic stress disorder in children living in three severely affected regions in Sri Lanka|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jts.20121|journal=Journal of Traumatic Stress|language=en|volume=19|issue=3|pages=339–347|doi=10.1002/jts.20121|issn=1573-6598}}</ref>. Many victims in the Jaffna area suffered with "[https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/prolonged-grief-disorder pathological grief], phobias, depression and PTSD" post-tsunami. Schizophrenia in the Jaffna Tamil community, which had already suffered elevated prevalence of PTSD prior to the tsunami, had worsened—highlighting the need for specialized care in response to cumulative exposures to chronic and acute traumas. In a study published in the journal ''International Psychiatry'' (2006), Jaffna-based researchers noted that, contrary to their initial inclinations, there was not a "large[r] (than expected) rise in [the] number of people" seeking mental health support 3 months after the tsunami. However, 10 months after the disaster, the researchers anticipated that "more psychiatric disorders" would emerge due to "very little rebuilding [efforts]" and an apparent "unfairness in the aid system".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=D. J.|last2=Yoganathan|first2=S.|last3=Ganesvaran|first3=T.|date=1993-09|title=Schizophrenia in northern Sri Lanka|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7828234|journal=The Ceylon Medical Journal..|volume=38|issue=3|pages=131–135|issn=0009-0875|pmid=7828234}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Danvers|first=K.|last2=Sivayokan|first2=S.|last3=Somasundaram|first3=D. J.|last4=Sivashankar|first4=R.|date=2006-07|title=Ten months on: qualitative assessment of psychosocial issues in northern Sri Lanka following the tsunami|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6734678/|journal=International Psychiatry: Bulletin of the Board of International Affairs of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|volume=3|issue=3|pages=5–8|issn=1749-3676|pmc=6734678|pmid=31507850}}</ref> At the February 2005 ''After the Tsunami: Mental Health Challenges to the Community for Today and Tomorrow'' conference in Thailand, [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Chandanie-Hewage Dr. Chandanie Hewage] of the [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] commentated that measures taken to assist the affected were "not coordinated" due to poor "communication systems and road [conditions]." Regardless, efforts were continued by the government and health professionals to alleviate the struggles the victims were facing, including the psychological ramifications of the disaster. Several issues in the delivery of these services were highlighted by Dr. Hewage, including poor maintenance of health records, lack of awareness on drug consumption by the patients themselves, and shortages of health professionals. Dr. Hewage points out that personnel had "little" mental health training prior to the disaster, suggesting increased "research" and adequate "provision[ing] and training of staff" in the long-term<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Davidson|first=Jonathan R. T.|date=2006|title=Foreword. After the tsunami: mental health challenges to the community for today and tomorrow|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16602809|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=67 Suppl 2|pages=3–8|issn=0160-6689|pmid=16602809}}</ref>. With inadequate documentation, no systematic procedures in place, and insufficient personnel, tsunami victims with mental health concerns may not receive the services they need, further compacting neuropsychological ailments. In 2008 (about 3-4 years after the tsunami), researchers in the hard-hit village of [[w:Peraliya|Peraliya]] (Galle District) found that from a sample of approximately 90 adults, 25% suffered from moderate–severe PTSD, with women scoring "above the cut-off for anxiety" and reporting more "somatic symptoms", though researchers inferred that the PTSD rate found in the study may be influenced by war or economic hardship<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hollifield|first=Michael|last2=Hewage|first2=Chandanie|last3=Gunawardena|first3=Charlotte N.|last4=Kodituwakku|first4=Piyadasa|last5=Bopagoda|first5=Kalum|last6=Weerarathnege|first6=Krishantha|last7=Group|first7=International Post-Tsunami Study|date=2008-01|title=Symptoms and coping in Sri Lanka 20–21 months after the 2004 tsunami|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/symptoms-and-coping-in-sri-lanka-2021-months-after-the-2004-tsunami/CB33752239AF362A0BFD55B3668D60B0|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=192|issue=1|pages=39–44|doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.107.038422|issn=0007-1250}}</ref>. === 2019 Easter Bombings === The '''2019 Easter Bombings''' were a series of coordinated attacks perpetrated by the Islamic extremist group, [[w:National_Thowheeth_Jama'ath|National Thowheeth Jama'ath]], on April 21, 2019. The attack targeted three churches and three hotels in the Colombo area, killing nearly 300 people and injuring over 500. The attack was also attributed to the incompetency of the Sri Lankan government, who ignored [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48044636 multiple warnings regarding the attacks]. The attacks negatively affected the Sri Lankan Catholic community and further weakened relations between the major religious groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. In the aftermath of the attacks, professionals in the [[w:Gampaha_District|Gampaha District]] resorted to "low-cost methodological" responses to children and adolescents affected by the attack as a "severe shortage" of children and adolescent mental health experts were exposed<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chandradasa|first=Miyuru|last2=Rathnayake|first2=Layani C|last3=Rowel|first3=Madushi|last4=Fernando|first4=Lalin|date=2020-06-01|title=Early phase child and adolescent psychiatry response after mass trauma: Lessons learned from the Easter Sunday attack in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020913314|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry|language=EN|volume=66|issue=4|pages=331–334|doi=10.1177/0020764020913314|issn=0020-7640}}</ref>. In a qualitative study of 8 survivors of the attacks receiving grief counseling, [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] assistant professor [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Virasha-Godakanda Virasha Godakanda] observed that 70% of the sample size expressed "doubts" in adequate mental health interventions from the government, reducing the quality of such services. Professor Godakanda strongly endorsed for "culturally-sensitive" programs, a diversity in therapeutic approaches (including nature-based therapy), and "prolonged investigations" to track developments in mental health resources and impacts of implemented interventions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Godakanda|first=Virasha|date=2025-01-29|title=A GRIEF COUNSELING INTERVENTION AFTER THE MASS TRAUMA: LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE VICTIMS OF THE EASTER SUNDAY ATTACK IN SRI LANKA|url=https://kjmr.com.pk/kjmr/article/view/216|journal=Kashf Journal of Multidisciplinary Research|language=en|volume=2|issue=01|pages=13–32|doi=10.71146/kjmr216|issn=3007-200X}}</ref>. A few weeks following the attacks, Muslims in Sri Lanka were subjected to [[w:2019_anti-Muslim_riots_in_Sri_Lanka|violent, coordinated riots]] masterminded by Sinhalese national forces<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mujahidin|first=Muhammad Saekul|date=2023-07-03|title=Extremism and Islamophobia Against the Muslim Minority in Sri Lanka|url=https://www.ajis.org/|journal=American Journal of Islam and Society|language=en|volume=40|issue=1-2|pages=213–241|doi=10.35632/ajis.v40i1-2.3135|issn=2690-3741}}</ref>. Riots were mainly centered in the [[w:Kurunegala_District|Kurunegala]], Gampaha, and [[w:Kandy_District|Kandy]] Districts. At least [https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/5/21/in-sri-lanka-muslims-say-sinhala-neighbours-turned-against-them one confirmed death was reported]. Calls for vague ''niqab'' and ''burqa'' bans were increasingly prominent, eventually leading to the 2021 burqa ban by the Sri Lankan government. Pakistani and Afghani refugees fleeing religious persecution in Negombo were forced to be "made refugees again" after local protests were orchestrated against their settlement. Islamophobic aroma was "unleashed online, in the law, and on the street"<ref>{{Cite book|title=CARTOGRAPHIC JOURNEY OF RACE, GENDER AND POWER: global identity|date=2021|publisher=CAMBRIDGE SCHOLARS PUBLIS|isbn=978-1-5275-6965-2|location=S.l.}}</ref>. Albeit its relevancy to the attacks, no in-depth mental health studies were administered on the minority Muslim population following the Easter bombings. Further research is imperative in exploring the sustained psychological effects of Islamophobia and its effect on the Muslim minority community in the aftermath of the 2019 Easter attacks. Literature on the impact of the 2019 Easter Bombings on mental health is limited and further research should be conducted. === 2019-2024 Economic Crisis === The '''2019-2024 Economic Crisis''' refers to a 5 year period where the Sri Lankan economy experienced massive inflation and an abrupt hike in prices on basic, everyday items. It is the worse economic crisis the country has faced since the Sri Lankans were granted independence in 1948. Schools in Sri Lanka were forced to postpone examinations due to paper shortages. Gas shortages led to long lines at gas stations, some lasting for days, throughout the island. Shortages in electricity, cooking gas, and aviation were additional results of the economic crisis. Healthcare workers faced a barrage of mental health during the crisis, including a lopsided work-life balance due to unprecedented demand, increased stress and mental fatigue from a lack of resources and personnel, unhealthy coping mechanisms, job dissatisfaction, and a reduction in work quality. Such effects perpetuate a self-enforcing cycle of psychologically distressed mental healthcare workers providing subpar services, affecting patients and amplifying mental health issues experienced by both the workforce and their patients<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dilogini|first=S.|last2=Grace|first2=H. H.|last3=Thasika|first3=T.|date=2024|title=Exploring The Mental Health and Well-Being of Public Healthcare Workers (HCWs) Amid Economic Crisis in Sri Lanka|url=http://repo.lib.jfn.ac.lk/ujrr/handle/123456789/11092|language=en|publisher=Chartered Institute of Personnel Management}}</ref>. Medical students from the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Colombo reported that the economic crisis forced abrupt changes in dietary consumption, increased hopelessness in the future, increased stress and anxiety, and a decrease in interest in pursuing a "clinical post-graduate career"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Adikaranayake|first=Pesala Randika|last2=Perera|first2=Anusha Nimrod|last3=Nilaweera|first3=Akhila Imantha|last4=Fernando|first4=Desha Rajni|last5=Wijayaratne|first5=Dilushi Rowena|date=2025-07-01|title=Effects of Sri Lankan economic crisis on health, lifestyle and education of medical students in Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo – an online survey|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|journal=BMC Medical Education|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=938|doi=10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|issn=1472-6920|pmc=12211748}}</ref>. 283 government-school teachers completed a web-based cross-sectional survey in April 2024, with majority of the participants reporting a severe reduction in monthly income & 1/3 of participants exhibiting "clinical levels of psychological distress"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C. P.|last2=Senarathne|first2=D. L. P.|last3=Fernando|first3=M. S.|last4=Senevirathne|first4=S. P.|date=2025-05-28|title=Examining the economic burden and mental health distress among government school teachers in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|journal=BMC Psychology|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=572|doi=10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|issn=2050-7283}}</ref>. A study published in that same year reported that out of 261 nurses working in teaching hospitals, 91.6% were forced to allocate their finances to strictly "general needs", while more than 50% looked into international opportunism for employment. Notably, the study reported an overall near "twofold greater" rate of depression, anxiety, and stress compared to previously conducted studies on nurses<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C.P|last2=Senarathne|first2=L.|last3=Fernando|first3=M.|date=2024-04-01|title=Exploring the Association Between Behavioural Modification in Response to the Prevailing Economic Crisis and Mental Health Outcomes of Nurses from Teaching Hospitals, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/23779608241272679|journal=SAGE Open Nursing|language=EN|volume=10|pages=23779608241272679|doi=10.1177/23779608241272679|issn=2377-9608|pmc=11311183}}</ref>. The detrimental effects the crisis has had on the mental health sector reveal a concerning area of underappreciation and under compensation by the Sri Lankan government towards a critical sector for the well-being of the country. Comprehensive mental health interventions need to be prepared and ready to implement at times of national emergencies. == Present-Day Challenges == === Ethnic tension === Despite the end of the Sri Lankan civil war and the introduction of pluralist policies, such as the [https://srilankaembassy.fr/sites/default/files/files/media/pdf/NationalPolicy-English.pdf 2017 National Policy on Reconciliation and Coexistence] under the Sirisena administration, tensions amongst members of the ethnic groups still persist in the country. Evidence of these tensions was found through a 2022 study conducted in the Ratnapura district, where religious leaders expressed skepticisms, through semi-structured interviews, for "conflict transformation". A Tamil citizen of the Ratnapura community recounted that they were forced to "hide in jungles" and consume "dirty water in drainage[s]" due to scarcity of food and drinkable water as a result of the conflict. In certain personal accounts, ethnic conflicts appear to affect the social behavior and identity of the majority ethnic group. One Sinhala participant recounted his objection to the war-time retaliatory destruction of a shop run by a Tamil shopkeeper was met with interrogative questions about "whether [he was] Sinhalese or not". Both accounts convey interethnic tensions stemming from decade-long conflicts<ref>Jayathilaka, Aruna & Gamage, Sayuri. (2024). Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders in the Post-War Conflict Transformation Process: A Study Based on Rathnapura District in Srilanka. ''Retrieved from'' https://gandhimargjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Volume-46-Issue-1-April-June-2024.pdf#page=66</ref>. Beyond individual accounts and the official end of the civil war, the minority groups in the country continue to feel ostracized. The Sri Lankan Tamil population remains dissatisfied with the Sri Lankan government and their accountability of perpetrators of war crimes and information on the whereabouts of [[w:Enforced_disappearances_in_Sri_Lanka|thousands of enforced disappearances]] that took place from the 1980s. Additionally, rising anti-Muslim sentiment in recent years contribute to increased ethnic tensions, a stark contrast to the previous centuries of peaceful co-existence between the groups. [[File:Bodu Bala Sena symbol.svg|thumb|The symbol for Bodu Bala Sena, a nationalistic Sinhala Buddhist group criticized for catalyzing ethnic tensions in Sri Lanka.]] Laws passed by the Sri Lankan government, such as the [[w:Prevention_of_Terrorism_Act_(Sri_Lanka)|Prevention of Terrorism Act]] and [[wikipedia:Anti-conversion_law#Sri_Lanka|anti-conversion laws]], have forced the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom to label Sri Lanka as a nation that "[engages] or [tolerates] severe violations of religious freedom" in their 2024 report. The government has been criticized by human rights organizations for "disproportionately targeting religious minorities"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Additionally, the implementation of the three dominant languages, English, Sinhala, and Tamil, across formal education and government services have been lackadaisical, narrowing opportunities of foundational social interactions between the groups. Persistent discrimination and prejudice towards minority groups can lead to an array of complex and self-deprecating mental health issues. Effort to mitigate ethnic tensions include strategies like [[w:Community-based_participatory_research|community-based participatory research]] (CBPR), task-sharing, and securing online mental health services in order to expand mental health services. However, the implementation of evidence-based plans has been met with difficulty due to inaccessibility, high costs, and shortages of adequately-trained personnel. Movements aiming for improved intra group and inter group coexistences, such as the Jaffna People’s Forum for Coexistence developed in the wake of the 2019 Easter bombings, should be emphasized on a systematic and multi-level basis, including but not limited to education, public sectors, and within communities. Pluralistic values should be stressed across both private and public schools to foster cultural sensitivity and tolerance. Measures should be taken against threatening extremist groups promoting sectarian hostility, such as the [[w:Bodu_Bala_Sena|Bodu Bala Sena]]. === Poverty === It has been proven that poverty significantly increases the chances of developing mental illnesses. This is further amplified by possible discrimination<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knifton|first=Lee|last2=Inglis|first2=Greig|date=2020-10|title=Poverty and mental health: policy, practice and research implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7525587/|journal=BJPsych bulletin|volume=44|issue=5|pages=193–196|doi=10.1192/bjb.2020.78|issn=2056-4694|pmc=7525587|pmid=32744210}}</ref>. Poverty also affects the ability for individuals with mental health concerns to receive the treatment they need. Due to the repercussions of the economic crisis, clients in Sri Lanka could not attend further counseling sessions<ref name=":8" />. Poverty from 2021 to 2022 [https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/poverty/987B9C90-CB9F-4D93-AE8C-750588BF00QA/current/Global_POVEQ_LKA.pdf reportedly doubled], with future forecasts predicting the poverty line to "remain above 25 percent". Suicide has been empirically linked to economic hardships in previous studies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}</ref>. A 2013 study done on suicidal patients in [[w:Batticaloa_Teaching_Hospital|Batticaloa Teaching Hospital]] revealed 76% of patients who attempted suicide were from rural areas while 15% were from urban areas<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://ir.lib.seu.ac.lk/handle/123456789/1457|title=The influence of common risk factors for the patient with attempted suicide hospitalized at the teaching hospital, Batticaloa|last=Kisokanth|first=G.|last2=Najeem|first2=M. M.|last3=Karunakaran|first3=K. E.|date=2014-08-02|publisher=South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, University Park, Oluvil #32360, Sri Lanka|isbn=978-955-627-053-2|language=en-US}}</ref>. The Sri Lankan government should consider the economical impacts that poverty has on mental health and implement ways to aid poverty-stricken individuals with mental health concerns. === Stigmas === Stigma consists of the "combined effect of prejudice, ignorance and discrimination."<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|url=http://www.researchgate.net/publication/233990797_The_Stigma_of_Mental_Illness_in_Sri_Lanka_The_Perspectives_of_Community_Mental_Health_Workers|title=(PDF) The Stigma of Mental Illness in Sri Lanka: The Perspectives of Community Mental Health Workers|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2025-07-25}}</ref>. A 2012 interview consisting of nine participants (two doctors, three nurses, one occupational therapist, one development worker, and two volunteers) revealed a number of concerning societal viewpoints on individuals with mental health concerns. The interviews revealed that negative judgements were not only levied against the individual with the mental illness, but also the family. Families hid mentally ill family members from the public to avoid "shame" and possible hinderances in marriage proposals. Views that mentally ill individuals were "violent" served as the motivating factor behind socially isolating those with mental illness from their communities. Interviewees mentioned that individuals dealing with mental health challenges would have stones and "derogatory names" launched at them. A lack of community awareness regarding mental health and negative portrayals of mentally ill individuals in media exacerbates stigmatization, though the researchers commented that the media was "improving" in their depiction of mental illness. Beliefs that illnesses are caused by "spirits" can be problematic for individuals dealing with mental health issues and serves as evidence to poor mental health awareness in the country. Mental health workers themselves believed that they were being stigmatized, as mental health is reportedly not taken as seriously as physical health. Despite the intriguing perspectives provided, the small sample size and usage of snow sampling raise questionable concerns regarding the contextualization of the results<ref name=":10" />. Improving media portrayal of subjects concerning mental health and involving community members in interventions dealing with mental health issues are ways that could destigmatize mental health amongst communities in Sri Lanka. Tying collaborations between allopathic services and traditional healers instead of having these two services work individually could enhance engagement between traditional medicine and Western medicine. === Suicide Trends & Risk Factors === Suicide is defined as "the act of killing oneself deliberately, initiated and performed by the person concerned in the full knowledge or expectation of its fatal outcome"<ref name=":11">{{Cite book|title=The neuroscience of suicidal behavior|last=Heeringen|first=Kees van|date=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-60290-4|series=Cambridge fundamentals of neuroscience in psychology|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom New York, NY, USA Port Melbourne, VIC, Australia New Delhi, India Singapore}}</ref>. Although Sri Lanka has seen a significant reduction in suicide rates from the mid 1990s due to its banning of extremely toxic pesticide products, suicide and self harm remains a significant issue. The suicide rate per 100,000 people increased from 14.0 in 2019 to [https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide 15.0 in 2022] (according to WHO). On average, 27 males per 100,000 males and 5 females per 100,000 females committed suicide in 2022<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}</ref>. Hanging appears to be the most used method for suicide for both males and females, with studies revealing a steady increase in recent years<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Bandara|first=Piumee|last2=Wickrama|first2=Prabath|last3=Sivayokan|first3=Sambasivamoorthy|last4=Knipe|first4=Duleeka|last5=Rajapakse|first5=Thilini|date=2024-04-17|title=Reflections on the trends of suicide in Sri Lanka, 1997–2022: The need for continued vigilance|url=https://journals.plos.org/globalpublichealth/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|journal=PLOS Global Public Health|language=en|volume=4|issue=4|pages=e0003054|doi=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|issn=2767-3375|pmc=11023397|pmid=38630779}}</ref>. From 2023 to 2024, a group of researchers from the [[w:Eastern_University,_Sri_Lanka|Eastern University in Sri Lanka]] assessed 828 patients admitted to the Teaching Hospital in [[w:Batticaloa,_Sri_Lanka|Batticaloa, Sri Lanka]] for attempted suicide. They concluded that suicide prevention programs should be attuned to younger people (ages 15 to 35 in the study), emphasize the importance of education and reducing unemployment, and increase social support in the Tamil community. Despite the relevant insights into certain aspects of an average Sri Lankan's life that could lead to suicidal ideation (ie, poverty), the results from this study suffer in external validity as 90% of the patients were Tamil and over 50% were between 16 and 25 years. In addition, correlations between suicide and unemployment rates have been questioned, with [[w:Austerity|austerity]] being a more reliable indicator of suicide rates than unemployment rates<ref name=":11" />. Further comprehensive studies on risk factors relating to suicide should be studied to assess correlations between unemployment rates and austerity measures. The WHO suggests implementing evidence-based suicide prevention programs, such as [https://www.who.int/initiatives/live-life-initiative-for-suicide-prevention LIVE LIFE], to reduce the national suicide rate<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide|title=World Suicide Prevention day 2024 “Changing the Narrative on Suicide”|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2025-07-29}}</ref>. Media depictionss of suicidal methods, such as hanging, can lead to sensationalism and the media should be cautious of such displays in movies and TV shows<ref name=":12" />. Awareness of depression and other mental health issues can serve as a safeguard against suicidal ideation in Sri Lankan men and women. == Role of Religion == According to the last demographic report (2012), 70.2% of Sri Lankans are Buddhist, 12.6% are Hindus, 9.7% are Muslims, and 7.4% are Christians. The Theravada Buddhist community makes up the majority in several provinces throughout the country<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sri-lanka/|title=Sri Lanka|website=United States Department of State|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-07}}</ref>. Religion, especially Theravada Buddhism, has had a significant influence on not only the historical treatment of mental health in the country, but also everyday life<ref name=":15" />. The [[w:Mahāvaṃsa|''Mahāvaṃsa'']] affirms hospitals treating patients suffering from mental health issues as early as the 4th century BC. Additionally, the 1700s Nayaka king [[w:Kirti_Sri_Rajasinha|Kirthi Sri Rajasinghe]] detailed the implementation of Buddhist philosophy in psychiatry<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. De|date=2017-12-05|title=Development of civil commitment statutes (laws of involuntary detention and treatment) in Sri Lanka: a historical review|url=https://mljsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|journal=Medico-Legal Journal of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|doi=10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|issn=2012-8231}}</ref>. Modern-day empirical studies have attested to the usefulness of religion in mitigating stress and elevating mental health<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|title=Religion and Mental Health|last=Schieman|first=Scott|last2=Bierman|first2=Alex|last3=Ellison|first3=Christopher G.|date=2013|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-94-007-4276-5|editor-last=Aneshensel|editor-first=Carol S.|location=Dordrecht|pages=457–478|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|editor-last2=Phelan|editor-first2=Jo C.|editor-last3=Bierman|editor-first3=Alex}}</ref>. Religion has been found to be positively correlated with improved mental health, and more religious patients were concluded to have "better mental health and adapt[ed] more quickly to health problems" versus patients who weren't religious<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koenig|first=Harold G.|date=2012|title=Religion, spirituality, and health: the research and clinical implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3671693/|journal=ISRN psychiatry|volume=2012|pages=278730|doi=10.5402/2012/278730|issn=2090-7966|pmc=3671693|pmid=23762764}}</ref>. [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/T-N-Wickramarathna-2247724082 Dr. Wickramarathna] of the University Psychiatry Unit (UPU) at the National Hospital of Sri Lanka (NHSL) argues that psychiatrists must strive for a balance in their approach to patients and "make positive use of religion in [their] practice[s]"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wickramarathna|first=T. N.|date=2022-12-31|title=Psychiatrists should stand far from the shrine: why and why not we should separate religion from psychiatry|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=13|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. === Buddhism === 27 Sinhalese Buddhists from four Buddhist temples were selected for a series of 70-minute interviews and focus group discussions with the aim of learning the Sinhala Buddhist understanding and experience of spiritual well-being and psychological well-being. The interviewees held spiritual wellness to be the "center" of overall wellness, the "precondition for a successful life"<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|language=en-US|volume=44|issue=1|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=0258-9710}}</ref>. Sinhala Buddhists believe that wellness cannot be achieved without spiritual tranquility. The report states that participants emphasized that spirituality "cannot be directly intervened" and can only be seen through "[interactions] with society"<ref name=":14" />. Despite the ''athmaya'' (soul) being "unreachable", it can be "intervened", or treated, through the actions of the mind and body with society<ref name=":14" />. One being "psychologically ill" can affect one's spiritual being, as the participants reported in their interviews, and can be affected through "lifestyle stressors, environmental and socio-cultural causes, non-human related causes and bad-karma in the past lives"<ref name=":14" />. The researchers concluded that despite Sinhala Buddhists not being able to articulately decipher the discrepancies between psychological well-being and spiritual well-being, they are able to conceptualize and maintain a culturally embedded understanding between the two, serving as reputable evidence of the integration of mental health in Sinhala Buddhist practices. However, it is important to note that these results come from a very small sample size and cannot be generalized to all Sri Lankan Buddhists. In addition, a 2009 study found that a belief in karma was correlated with poor health. However, an earlier study found a positive correlation between the reliance on the [[w:Karma_in_Buddhism|Buddhist concept of karma]] and trauma, inferencing Buddhist karma being a prevalent response to trauma<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Levy|first=Becca R.|last2=Slade|first2=Martin D.|last3=Ranasinghe|first3=Padmini|date=2009-03|title=Causal thinking after a tsunami wave: karma beliefs, pessimistic explanatory style and health among Sri Lankan survivors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19229624|journal=Journal of Religion and Health|volume=48|issue=1|pages=38–45|doi=10.1007/s10943-008-9162-5|issn=1573-6571|pmid=19229624}}</ref>. Overall, the effectiveness of karma as a coping mechanism appears to be conflicted. Studies indicate that other practices of Buddhism seem to be utilized by individuals affected by the war. 40% of Sri Lankan Buddhists affected by the 2004 tsunami found the Buddhist ritual ''Bodhipuja'' to be helpful in dealing with traumatic experiences<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jmvh.org/article/mental-health-and-the-role-of-cultural-and-religious-support-in-the-assistance-of-disabled-veterans-in-sri-lanka/|title=Mental Health and the Role of Cultural and Religious Support in the Assistance of Disabled Veterans in Sri Lanka|website=JMVH|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-12}}</ref>. === Catholicism === Catholic counseling refers to "a nuanced and holistic mental health care paradigm that intricately weaves together psychological science with the moral, spiritual, and pastoral traditions of the Catholic Church"<ref name=":13">Perera, U. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera/publication/394095042_Catholic_Counselling_in_Sri_Lanka_Integrating_Faith_Psychology_and_Cultural_Healing/links/6889303af8031739e6098c79/Catholic-Counselling-in-Sri-Lanka-Integrating-Faith-Psychology-and-Cultural-Healing.pdf Catholic Counselling in Sri Lanka: Integrating Faith, Psychology, and Cultural Healing]. July 2025.</ref> and aims to assimilate Catholic theology and evidence-based psychological treatment while including Sri Lankan cultural elements. This is achieved through emphasis on community cohesion and a locally-based understanding of "personhood"<ref name=":13" />. The origins of Catholic counseling trace back to the introduction of Roman Catholicism to the island in the 1600s, with the focus of the early Sri Lankan Catholic community being on "[[w:Evangelism|evangelization]], education, and sacramental formation". Demand for counseling services in general increased due to the impacts of the Sri Lankan Civil War, where Catholic organizations (Caritas Sri Lanka, Seth Sarana, Subodhi Integral Centre (Piliyandala), etc.) established several Catholic-based trauma-informed programmes for victims of the Civil War. Programmes use group therapy, forgiveness rituals, and narrative repairs to alleviate war trauma. Examples of integration of Catholic virtues and counseling can be seen in [[w:Cognitive_Behavioral_Therapy|Cognitive Behavioral Therapy]] (CBT), where "hope" and "humility" are used as the frameworks for creating spiritual resilience<ref name=":13" />. The general Christian call of "agape love and acceptance" is echoed by the concept of [[w:Unconditional_positive_regard|unconditional positive regard]]. ''[[w:Lectio_Divina|Lectio Divina]]'' (Catholic prayer and meditation) and ''Marian devotions'' are integrated into therapeutic practices to achieve emotional regulation and mindfulness. Senior Lecturer [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera Udeshini Perera] of the University of Colombo articulates a critical role of Catholic counseling. She claims that secular counseling fails to address the "spiritual roots of distress and moral confusion". Catholic counseling fills in this gap by integrating "psychological insights with a transcendent orientation, supporting lasting transformation and integrity"<ref name=":13" />. As of 2025, no formal accreditation or standardized training exists for [[w:Pastoral_counseling|pastoral counselors]] in Sri Lanka, hampering the legitimacy of Catholic counseling. Udeshini Perera remarks that mental health stigma, lack of standardized training, research regarding Catholic counseling effectiveness, and acceptance of the combination of religion and science in a professional setting present challenges for Catholic pastoral counseling in the country. Additionally, Catholic psychiatry in Sri Lanka appears to be under-researched, and evidence of its empirical effects on followers appears sparse. Further research is needed in assessing the empirical effects of Catholic counseling in Sri Lanka. === Islam === The literature on the empirical effects of Islamic-based psychotherapy in Sri Lanka is limited. Research has revealed a 2012 case study where a 21-year-old Muslim woman was experiencing episodic possession states. The patient ceased attending psychiatric services and opted for religious rituals. The patient reported, in a follow-up visit, that the possession states had been absent for 3 months since her switch to religious rituals. The woman and her family attributed the apparent improvement of her condition to religious rituals<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|last3=Yoosuf|first3=Alam|last4=Karunaratne|first4=Sanjeewani|last5=de Silva|first5=Pushpa|date=2012|title=Religious Beliefs, Possession States, and Spirits: Three Case Studies from Sri Lanka|url=http://www.hindawi.com/journals/crips/2012/232740/|journal=Case Reports in Psychiatry|language=en|volume=2012|pages=1–3|doi=10.1155/2012/232740|issn=2090-682X|pmc=3437272|pmid=22970398}}</ref>. Future recommendations would be to employ resources to research the foundations of Islamic psychiatry in the country, and to observe the rituals employed and their effects on patients. Studies have found that Islamic prayer can be an effective means of "support and coping"<ref name=":15" />. Seven world-wide case studies using Islamic-based psychotherapy on patients, consisting of religious rituals such as scriptural reading from the [[w:Quran|Quran]], teaching of fundamental Islamic concepts (such as ''[[w:Tawakkul|tawakkul]]''), and active implementation of contemplation (''[[w:Tadabbur|tadabbur]]''), have reported positive effects in decreasing cognitive and emotional symptoms associated with "religious, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorder, grief, and substance use disorder.”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kurhade|first=Chhaya Shantaram|last2=Jagannathan|first2=Aarti|last3=Varambally|first3=Shivarama|last4=Shivanna|first4=Sushrutha|date=2022-01|title=Religion-based interventions for mental health disorders: A systematic review|url=https://journals.lww.com/10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|journal=Journal of Applied Consciousness Studies|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=20–33|doi=10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|issn=2949-6993}}</ref> Additionally, a community-based study of elderly patients in Bangalore, India receiving Islamic-based psychotherapy observed decreased exhibitions of sleep disorders, eating disorders, and emotional distress<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hafeez|first=Nimin|last2=Sanjay|first2=Thittamaranahalli Varadappa|last3=Puthussery|first3=Yannick Poulose|last4=Madhusudan|first4=Muralidhar|last5=Kariyappa|first5=Poornima Muddaiah|last6=Kulkarni|first6=Sridevi|last7=Raj|first7=Lavanya|date=2023-12-31|title=Spiritual practices among elderly, prevalence, pattern and associated factors: a community-based study from rural Bengaluru, India|url=https://jccpsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|journal=Journal of the College of Community Physicians of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=29|issue=4|doi=10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|issn=1391-3174}}</ref>. === Hinduism === Despite Hindus being 12.6% of the population of Sri Lanka, the research on Hinduism-based therapy in the country is limited. Ayurvedic medicine, a form of medicine originating from ancient India, predominated the Sri Lankan medical landscape for over 2,000 years and even had a symbiotic relationship with Sinhalese medicine, which also played a significant and influential role in the country's medical framework<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/article/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990/|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|volume=44|issue=1|pages=33|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=2478-1169}}</ref>. Despite its historical dominance, Ayurvedic medicine has been challenged against modern evidence-based medical standards<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://philarchive.org/rec/DOMAAT|title=Ayurveda: Ancient Tradition or Pseudoscientific Practice? A Philosophical Inquiry|last=Dominic|first=Shubham K.}}</ref>. === Comparative synthesis === Taking an overarching review of the role of religion in Sri Lanka, methods to improve mental well-being are practiced by adherents of Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. These methods are practiced through karma, tawakkul, hope, and humility. Additionally, these practices are implemented in traditionally-oriented mental health care, which has been reported to be preferred over psychiatric care at times. These rituals practiced across these religions indicate a common theme of psychologically integrated aspects of well-being. Interpretation of trauma is a central use in religion, with religious principles, such as karma and ''tawakkul'', serving as psychologically analogous mechanisms during times of distress. In terms of methodological comparisons to the studies described, qualitative interviews have documented Buddhist practices and principles, like Bodhipuja and the belief in karma, in response to traumatic events, while case studies found religious practices by other religious groups, such as a Muslim patient reading Islamic scripture and observing prayer to reduce emotional distress. Peer-reviewed sources have documented Catholic practices and principles, such as ''Lectio Divina'' and unconditional positive regard, in improving mindfulness and emotional regulation. The paper acknowledges limitations in the evaluation of certain findings, such as in Islam and Hinduism. These shortcomings, however, are a reflection of the existing literature and its deficiencies. Empirical findings indicate mental health practices are complex and are multifaceted in their effects. Evidently, religion serves a parallel role to psychiatric services in improving mental health. Despite its perceived benefits, the findings surrounding religions' role in mental health suffer from conflicting, and sometimes contradictory, results. Additionally, a disproportionate amount of empirical findings seem to be Buddhist-predominant, while other religions are underrepresented in the research. Regarding research barriers, the methodological approaches implemented to study the practices of religious followers vary, though much of the research was brought from qualitative or case-based studies, impeding generalizability. Another noteworthy issue is that many studies do not utilize standardized, psychiatric measures. == Future Outlook == Despite significant changes to the mental health environment in Sri Lanka, the current legal framework shaping mental health in the country has not been updated since 1956. A Cambridge University Press article detailed many limitations of the Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956, including discrepancies between the legal provisions of involuntary admissions and modern practices, potential exposure to trauma through extra-legal detentions of the mentally ill, and an absence of legal guidelines addressing the restraint of violent patients<ref name=":6" />. Participants from Sri Lanka reported in a comparative legislative questionnaire that they felt the mental health laws were "outdated" and descriptions of clinical roles remained ambiguous<ref name=":16" />. A draft mental health legislation from 2007 includes provisions for human rights, but due to "bureaucratic processes" and a "lack of consensus", the draft has not been officially approved. These limitations pose challenges to the standardization of mental healthcare admissions and may impact the rights of detained patients. Detained patients may have their human rights violated due to a lack of an up-to-date legal framework, thereby impeding the identification of such violations. Additionally, with the lack of clarity on clinical roles, clinical responsibilities may not be routinely recognized and observed, leading to role confusion and potential legal ramifications<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Dey|first=Sangeeta|last2=Mellsop|first2=Graham|last3=Diesfeld|first3=Kate|last4=Dharmawardene|first4=Vajira|last5=Mendis|first5=Susitha|last6=Chaudhuri|first6=Sreemanti|last7=Deb|first7=Aniruddha|last8=Huq|first8=Nafisa|last9=Ahmed|first9=Helal Uddin|date=2019-10-24|title=Comparing legislation for involuntary admission and treatment of mental illness in four South Asian countries|url=https://ijmhs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=13|issue=1|pages=67|doi=10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|issn=1752-4458|pmc=6813093|pmid=31666805}}</ref>. Lastly, current efforts should increase beyond just addressing poverty-centered matters, but also expand efforts to domestic violence victims and children with disabilities, as shelters and specialized services are limited<ref name=":82">{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Stagnation in policy development leaves Sri Lanka without a practical, up-to-date, and comprehensive mental health legislation, which could put both clinicians and patients at risk. Future reforms should include clarification on the treatment and detention process of involuntary admissions of patients and a clear delineation of clinical roles and their responsibilities. Without the necessary reforms to advance Sri Lankan mental health legislation, clinicians and vulnerable patients may suffer from a lack of comprehensive oversight. ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== Any people, organisations, or funding sources that you would like to thank. ===Competing interests=== No competing interests. ===Ethics statement=== An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section. ==References== {{reflist|35em}} [[Category:Mental health]] [[Category:Sri Lanka]] ruuhtkxamlph4qalft4bonb0lr6rl17 2817336 2817335 2026-06-29T22:47:02Z Atcovi 276019 2817336 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine <!-- WikiJournal of Medicine, Science, or Humanities --> | last1 = Azeez | orcid1 = 0009-0007-9202-4614 | first1 = Aaqib | last2 = | first2 = | last3 = | first3 = | last4 = | first4 = <!-- up to 9 authors can be added in this above format --> | et_al = <!-- if there are >9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --> | affiliation1 = Old Dominion University | correspondence1 = aaqib.azeez@yahoo.com | affiliations = institutes / affiliations | correspondence = email@address.com | keywords = <!-- up to 6 keywords --> | license = <!-- default is CC-BY --> | abstract = This is a narrative review. }} [abstract will be put in after the paper has been completed] == Introduction == Mental health continues to be a critically relevant topic as the island nation has experienced decades of [[w:Black_July|violent ethnic conflict]], terrorist attacks, war crimes, and economic disruptions. Sri Lanka continues to recover from a [[w:Sri_Lankan_economic_crisis_(2019–2024)|severe economic crisis (2019 - 2024)]], a [[w:Sri_Lankan_civil_war|nearly 30-year civil war ending in 2009]], a [[w:2019_Sri_Lanka_Easter_bombings|2019 terrorist attack]], and continues to face the ripple effects of the [[w:2004_Boxing_Day_tsunami|2004 Boxing Day tsunami]]. The exact effect these major events have had on mental health in the country is "unknown", but the statistics remain alarming despite a declining trend. Suicide rates in the country during the mid-1990s were the second-highest in the world with ingesting toxic products being the main suicide method. Despite the decline in suicide numbers since then—possibly attributed to Sri Lanka's ban on toxic products—evidence from a 2023 study reports an upward trend in suicide through hanging from 2016 to 2021—independent of the [[w:COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sri_Lanka|COVID-19 pandemic]]. Several risk factors for suicide, such as poverty and economic instability, are still prevalent and even increasing in the country<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakse|first=Thilini|last2=Silva|first2=Tharuka|last3=Hettiarachchi|first3=Nirosha Madhuwanthi|last4=Gunnell|first4=David|last5=Metcalfe|first5=Chris|last6=Spittal|first6=Matthew J.|last7=Knipe|first7=Duleeka|date=2023-01-19|title=The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic and Lockdowns on Self-Poisoning and Suicide in Sri Lanka: An Interrupted Time Series Analysis|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914278/|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=20|issue=3|pages=1833|doi=10.3390/ijerph20031833|issn=1660-4601|pmc=9914278|pmid=36767200}}</ref>. == Methods == [source selection process] ==Historical Development of Mental Health Services== Records attest to the care of the mentally ill through established hospitals in the island since the 4th century.<ref name=":17" /> Prior to the incarceration of the mentally ill by the European colonizing forces, the mentally ill were regarded as ''Pissowetitch'', or people who had "the spirit of the Gods within him" and "whatsoever he pronounceth, is looked upon as spoken by God himself, and the people will speak to him, as if it were the very person of God"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/14346/14346-h/14346-h.htm|title=An Historical Relation Of the Island Ceylon, in the East-Indies: Together, With an Account of the Detaining in Captivity the Author and divers other Englishmen now Living there, and of the Author’s Miraculous Escape.|last=Knox|first=Robert|website=www.gutenberg.org|language=en-us|access-date=2026-06-29}}</ref>. With this religious understanding, Lucien de Alwis reasoned that the mentally ill in Sri Lanka were "placed... at a higher social status than the mentally ill in the Western world", with this notion correlating with the unsurprising absence of evidence in there being a "large scale segregation of mentally ill from society"<ref name=":17" />. In the 1800s, established care for mental health began shifting primarily from indigenous practices, mainly derived from [[w:Ayurveda|Ayurveda medicine]], [[w:Siddha_medicine|Siddha medicine]], and [[w:Unani_medicine|Unani medicine]], to a Western mode by the British<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":0">Gambheera, H. (2011). [https://www.saarcpsychiatry.com/viewText?chapter=c6 The evolution of psychiatric services in Sri Lanka]. South Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 2(1), 25–27.</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|title=Social Psychiatry in Sri Lanka|last=Baminiwatta|first=Anuradha|last2=Williams|first2=Shehan|date=2025|publisher=Springer Nature|isbn=978-981-96-8078-8|editor-last=Arafat|editor-first=S. M. Yasir|location=Singapore|pages=141–158|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|editor-last2=Singh|editor-first2=Amit|editor-last3=Kar|editor-first3=Sujita Kumar}}</ref>. === Adoption of a Western-based mental healthcare model and issuances of ordinances === In 1839, [[w:James_Alexander_Stewart-Mackenzie|James Alexander Stewart-Mackenzie]], the 7th Governor of British Ceylon, released the Lunacy Ordinance, authorizing municipal authorities to create lunatic asylums for the mentally ill in the country<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=6&Itemid=125&lang=en|title=History - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-10}}</ref>. The ordinance was concerned with the legal frameworks of detaining individuals considered dangerous to others or individuals falsely presenting themselves as mentally ill, and not on medical treatments to alleviate the conditions of detained individuals. UK psychiatrist [[w:Edward_Mapother|Edward Mapother]] critiqued the ordinance during his 1937 inspection of British Ceylon's mental health institutions in a series of reports titled ''A Disgrace to a Civilised Community'', remarking that the ordinance "[did] not seem to have contemplated treatment as a contingency to be considered"<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Permeable walls: historical perspectives on hospital and asylum visiting|date=2009|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-2599-8|editor-last=Mooney|editor-first=Graham|series=Clio medica|location=Amsterdam New York, NY|editor-last2=Reinarz|editor-first2=Jonathan}}</ref>. In 1840, the 1839 Ordinance was repealed and replaced by the 1840 Ordinance. The 1839 Ordinance was almost identical to the 1840 Ordinance, except the removal of two previous requirements: the requirement for official medical diagnoses of the mentally insane and the mandate to maintain adequate staff-to-patient ratios within lunatic asylums<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. de|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. L.|last3=Mendis|first3=T. S. S.|last4=Abhayanayaka|first4=C.|date=2024-12-31|title=The development of laws related to the disposal of forensic patients in Sri Lanka: A historical review|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=15|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. In 1873, a third Ordinance was released. It included linguistic changes, where the term, "insane", was replaced with "of unsound mind". The Ordinance also gave more power to medical professionals in determining insanity diagnoses, and more power to detainees in appealing their commitment to the mental asylum. Despite this Ordinance being the most comprehensive outlook on mental healthcare in the country at the time, the legal frameworks behind the detainment of the criminally insane were left identical to previous ordinances<ref name=":3" />. === Development of mental asylums === At the time the 1839 ordinance was released, mentally ill patients were placed either in prisons throughout the country or leprosy hospitals, such as the [[w:Hendala_Leprosy_Hospital|Hendala Leprosy Hospital]] in the Gampaha district<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" />. After the creation of the first mental asylum in Borella in 1846, patients from the Hendala Leprosy Hospital were transferred to the institute in Borella. Overcrowding soon became an issue and patients were sent to prisons across the country. [[File:Edward Mapother.jpg|thumb|A portrait taken of Edward Mapother during his time working at [[w:Maudsley_Hospital|Maudsley Hospital]] in London. ]] As medical institutions were being made to house the mentally insane, another mental asylum was created in the [[w:Cinnamon_Gardens|Cinnamon Gardens]] area of Colombo in 1884, though this mental asylum faced overcrowding in just one year<ref name=":0" />. Treatment in these asylums was limited to occupational and protection therapy, failing to provide treatment for the root causes of the mental disorders. In 1926, the Angoda Mental Hospital was established, scantily alleviating the severe overcrowding issues that were plaguing the preceding mental asylums. Despite the addition of 1,700 beds to the facility, treatment was still vastly limited and the patients were left in significantly poor conditions. === Edward Mapother's 1937 inspection of British Ceylon === Edward Mapother was born in Dublin, Ireland, on July 12, 1881 and moved to London when he was 7 years old<ref>{{Cite book|title=Madness to mental illness: a history of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|last=Bewley|first=Thomas|date=2008|publisher=RCPsych Publications ; Distributed in North America by Balogh International|isbn=978-1-904671-35-0|location=London : [S.l.]}}</ref>. Mapother attained his M.D. in 1908. While Mapother was the Medical Superintendent of Maudsley Hospital in London, England, he was invited to inspect British Ceylon's mental health institutions by Dr S. T. Gunasekara, the first Medical Director of British Ceylon<ref name=":1" />. In Mapother's visit, he commented that the Angoda Mental Hospital had the atmosphere of "a prison that is neglected and dilapidated"<ref name=":1" />. Overcrowding was still a major issue, with the institute hosting 3,000 patients—more than double the intended capacity. Patients were sleeping on mats and were clearly out of reach of adequate treatment. Mapother also noted that only 4% of public health expenditure in the country was being set for hospitals, drawing a stark comparison to London's 25%<ref name=":1" />. Mapother offered a vivid and grim account of the hospital in his reports: <blockquote> The floor, roof and walls of each cell consist alike of drab cement without any attempt at colouring or decoration. High up in one wall is a small window with stout iron bars. In the floor is a large hole into which the patient may pass his motion and urine. These cells are incompletely divided from one another by a partition which does not reach the roof so that the noise and stink from any one cell may reach at least all the others of the same row. Into these empty cells I was informed that the most noisy and troublesome patients in the hospital; were turned at night completely naked. The doors of the cell contain no observation window, and considering the violent character of many of these patients there is every ground for believing that the doors are rarely opened in the night by the solitary attendant on duty. It needs little imagination to picture the suffering of any patient in an early stage of bodily illness passing a night under such conditions, a situation which must frequently arise. I am told that the noise proceeding from this building is like that on a bad night in a menagerie<ref name=":0" />.</blockquote>Mapother proposed a series of reinforcements to the legal, institutional, and medical frameworks of mental health care in British Ceylon. This included the decentralization of the psychiatric services, a reworking of the Lunacy Ordinance to incorporate treatment into the legal framework, and the establishment of a separate service of medical professionals dedicated to psychiatry. Mapother's recommendations led to several of the best local medical professionals to be sent to London for extensive training in psychiatry, while nurses from England were sent to British Ceylon to supervise hospital operations and train local staff<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />. On August 25, 1938, the Executive Committee of Health approved the strategies proposed by Mapother, though the Government was unable to fully implement all of Mapother's interventions due to the 'heavy cost'. In fact, the Government decided to forego one of his proposals, which was the suggestion of a "Visiting Committee". This committee was tasked to "meet at the hospital, carry out inspections, and make recommendations" to the Executive Committee of Health<ref name=":1" />. The Government realized that deficiencies in their mental healthcare system could prove to be "costly" for their reputation. Mapother was reportedly enraged when he found out. Mapother intended to contact the Secretary of State regarding the "distortion" of his plans, but was interrupted by events preluding to [[w:World_War_II|World War II]]<ref name=":1" />. Mapother passed away on March 20, 1940, without materializing his follow-up plans. === Post-Mapother developments and further innovations === [[File:Sri Lanka districts Colombo.svg|thumb|A map of Sri Lanka highlighting the Colombo District, where the capital is located. |right|250px]]Mapother's insights on the mental healthcare structure in British Ceylon proved to be the catalyst of massive renovations. In 1939, the first outpatient clinic was established in the [[w:National_Hospital_of_Sri_Lanka|National Hospital of Sri Lanka]] in Colombo. The first trained Ceylonese psychiatrists began practice in the 1940s, leading to the establishment of the first neuropsychiatric clinic in Colombo in 1943. Treatments for the mentally ill improved dramatically, as protectional therapy expanded to [[w:insulin_shock_therapy|insulin shock therapy]] and [[w:Electroconvulsive_therapy|cardiazol convulsive therapy]]<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Kathriarachchi|first=Samudra T.|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. Lakmi|last3=Amarakoon|first3=Luckshika|date=2019-06|title=Development of Mental Health Care in Sri Lanka: Lessons Learned|url=https://journals.lww.com/tpsy/fulltext/2019/33020/development_of_mental_health_care_in_sri_lanka_.1.aspx|journal=Taiwanese Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=33|issue=2|pages=55|doi=10.4103/TPSY.TPSY_15_19|issn=1028-3684}}</ref>. Mapother's advocation for the decentralization of services were further honored through the 1947 establishment of a first child guidance clinic in Colombo General Hospital<ref name=":0" />. In 1948, British Ceylon was granted independence from the British after the [[w:Sri_Lankan_independence_movement|Sri Lankan independence movement]]. Changes in the mental healthcare structure were not immediate following independence, but rapid expansions of mental healthcare services were still ongoing. The following decades saw positive institutional developments, such as the creation of a second hospital in [[w:Mulleriyawa|Mulleriyawa]] in 1957, and the creation of a psychiatric inpatient unit in Colombo General Hospital in 1967—effectively granting the city of Colombo the luxury of hosting the top psychiatric care in the country<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|title=Mental Health System Development in Sri Lanka|last=Minas|first=Harry|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Hall|first3=Teresa|date=2017|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4899-7997-1|editor-last=Minas|editor-first=Harry|location=Boston, MA|pages=59–77|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|editor-last2=Lewis|editor-first2=Milton}}</ref>. The 1950s was also the start of psychopharmacological innovations, with the introduction of [[w:Lithium_(medication)|lithium]] and long-acting injectable antipsychotics ([[w:Depot_injection|depot]] [[w:Antipsychotic|neuroleptics]]) in the succeeding years<ref name=":4" />. Additionally, the number of public psychiatrist positions increased by 400% from 1953 to 1967<ref name=":5" />. After 1960, mental health services were being established beyond the capital to other cities in the country<ref name=":2" />. In 1980, the [[w:Postgraduate_Institute_of_Medicine|Postgraduate Institute of Medicine]] began a program where students would enroll in a 5-year medical course and attain an MD in psychiatry, curbing the need for Sri Lankan medical students to be sent abroad to complete their training. Many of the medical students sent abroad for training never returned to Sri Lanka to practice, resulting in a "1:500,000 to 1000,000" ratio of psychiatrists to patients on "most occasions"<ref name=":0" />. === Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956 === In 1956, the 1873 Ordinance was revised a second time and renamed the "Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956"<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Hapangama|first=Aruni|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Kuruppuarachchi|first3=K. a. L. A.|date=2023-02|title=Why are we still living in the past? Sri Lanka needs urgent and timely reforms of its archaic mental health laws|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-international/article/why-are-we-still-living-in-the-past-sri-lanka-needs-urgent-and-timely-reforms-of-its-archaic-mental-health-laws/B18B03DC962CC6F09BC6D7877E390EE4|journal=BJPsych International|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=4–6|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.26|issn=2056-4740|pmc=9909436|pmid=36812028}}</ref>. Another linguistic development is seen with the new revision as "lunacy" was replaced with "mental disease"<ref name=":6" />. The Ordinance paved the way for community-based services to be delivered to patients closer to their residences rather than solely allocating services to just hospitals. This led to the creation of a [[w:WHO|WHO]]-backed community clinic near the [[w:University_of_Colombo|University of Colombo]] in the 1970s, where the focus was to eventually ease patients in the Angoda Mental Hospital back into the general population<ref name=":5" />. === Developments from the 1990s === The 1990s and onwards saw further positive developments in framing the mental healthcare system, including the establishment of the [https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=featured&Itemid=101&lang=en Directorate of Mental Health] in 1998. The Directorate of Mental Health is a part of the [[w:Ministry_of_Health_(Sri_Lanka)|Ministry of Health]] who is responsible for the monitoring and implementation of mental health programs across the country<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?lang=en|title=Home - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}</ref>. As of 2025, the current director of the Directorate of Mental Health is Dr. Chithramalee de Silva<ref name=":2" />. On November 11, 2005, the Mental Health Policy was approved by the Government of Sri Lanka, advocating for establishments of more de-centralized, community-based mental health services across the country beyond the capital (Colombo). The policy aimed to concisely define the rigorous standards needed to be completed for each respected medical professional, including psychiatrists and clinical psychologists<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakshe|first=Onali Bimalka Wickramaseckara|last2=Mohan|first2=Mohapradeep|last3=Singh|first3=Swaran Preet|date=2023-05|title=Development of adolescent mental health services in Sri Lanka|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10895478/|journal=BJPsych international|volume=20|issue=2|pages=41–43|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.32|issn=2056-4740|pmc=10895478|pmid=38414998}}</ref>. The policy also included a new position, the "Medical Officer of Mental Health", who oversees and assists in the implementation of community-based mental health services<ref name=":0" />. This same year, the Sri Lankan government began implementing psychological services in state institutions, such as the military<ref name=":8" />. In 2007, the National Mental Health Advisory Council (NMHAC) was created to serve as an 'advisory' board for the Ministry of Health on what actions should be executed by the Directorate of Mental Health<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=9&Itemid=220&lang=en|title=Introduction - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}</ref>. In 2008, the Angoda Mental Hospital was restructured as the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)<ref name=":7" />. === Modern-day Sri Lanka === [[File:Feeding Children in Sri Lanka.jpg|left|thumb|Despite the noteworthy improvements in mental healthcare services in recent decades, mental health remains a significant issue due to rising poverty. ]] As of 2025, the Mental Health Act (mental health legislation) has been undergoing development since 2005 and is currently awaiting to be considered for the final stage of approval. This is expected to replace the 1956 Mental Health Ordinance<ref name=":7" />. Currently, there are 7 tertiary care hospitals, 61 adult patient units, 3 child inpatient units, and 1 forensic unit with over 100 psychiatrists all throughout the 22 districts<ref name=":4" />. The [[w:Lady_Ridgeway_Hospital_for_Children|Lady Ridgeway Hospital]] in Colombo and the Sirimavo Bandaranayke Specialized Children Hospital in Kandy are tailored towards alleviating children with [[w:Learning_disability|SLD]], [[w:ADHD|ADHD]], [[w:Autism_Spectrum_Disorder|ASD]] and family support for diagnosed children. As of 2017, 22 rehabilitation centers exist through the country, including 7 alcohol rehab centers<ref name=":7" />. Despite the impressive advancements in mental healthcare in the last couple of decades, Sri Lanka still suffers significant mental health issues due to increasing poverty levels in the country. The [[w:World_Bank|World Bank]] reported that [https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2024/04/08/eesc-a08.html the poverty levels in Sri Lanka increased from 11% in 2019 to 26% in 2024], with 60% of Sri Lankan households facing "decreased incomes"<ref>Lakhtakia, Shruti, Atapattu Mudiyanselage, Udahiruni Shashadari Atapat, Walker, Richard Ancrum. ''Sri Lanka Development Update - Bridge to Recovery (English).'' Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. <nowiki>http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/099634104012434919</nowiki></ref>. This was churned by Sri Lanka's excessive foreign debt, economic troubles stemming from [[w:Gotabaya_Rajapaksa|Gotabaya Rajapaksa]]'s presidential term, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the [[w:Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine|ongoing invasion of Ukraine by Russia (2022)]]. According to [[w:NYU|New York University]] graduate student [https://gc-cuny.academia.edu/NadiaAugustyniak Nadia Augustyniak] in her 2025 overview of Sri Lanka's public mental healthcare system, poverty-induced financial precarity remains a major obstacle to receiving access to mental healthcare services. Even though trauma from adverse weather and conflict is deleterious to mental health, issues originating from every-day struggles, especially struggles related to poverty, could arguably play a more significant role<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. == Impact of Conflicts, Terrorism, Political Instability & Natural Disasters == === Sri Lankan Civil War === The '''Sri Lankan Civil War''' was a domestic conflict that took place between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (abbreviated as the ''LTTE),'' a militant group formed in the 1970s as a result of rising tensions between the majority Sinhalese and minority Tamil population. The group is considered a terrorist organization<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.start.umd.edu/baad/database/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-ltte-1998.html|title=BAAD - Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) - 1998 {{!}} START.umd.edu|website=www.start.umd.edu|access-date=2025-06-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-aka-tamil-tigers-sri-lanka-separatists|title=Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (aka Tamil Tigers) (Sri Lanka, separatists) {{!}} Council on Foreign Relations|last=Bhattacharji|first=Preeti|website=www.cfr.org|language=en|access-date=2025-06-09}}</ref>. Through brutal massacres, assassinations, and suicide bombings, the LTTE waged decades of terror which led to civilian displacement, infrastructure collapse, and the reduction of mental health services available in the northern region.[[File:DFID-funded, UNHCR emergency shelter tents, in the IDP camp at Menik Farm, Sri Lanka (3694081492).jpg|thumb|350x350px|An IDP camp in Menik Farm, Sri Lanka in 2009 ([https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-19703826 now closed]). Suicide rates in IDP camps were three times the general population.]]The civil war mainly affected the northeastern portion of the country, including the [[w:Vanni_(Sri_Lanka)|Vanni region]]. The conflict caused mass destruction to local mental healthcare facilities. Local residents described the conflict with the phrase ''varthayal varnicca mudiyathavai'', roughly translating into English as 'beyond description by words'<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}</ref>. In 2003, only two psychiatrists were found in the region, operating on extremely limited resources and further deepening long-term trauma and mental health deterioration in the population<ref name=":5" />. In 2002, the humanitarian organization [https://www.msf.org/ Médecins Sans Frontières] (MSF) performed an investigation of mental health needs in the [[w:Vavuniya|Vavuniya]] area, the site of intense conflict during the civil war (including the [[w:1985_Vavuniya_massacre|1985 Vavuniya massacre]]), and found that many of the residents suffered from high suicide rates, alcohol abuse, domestic violence, grief, and a "sense of ‘learnt helplessness’"<ref name=":5" />. A team from the University of Konstanz in Germany found that 92% of grade school children in the region were exposed to "combat, shelling, and witnessing the death of loved ones"<ref name=":9" />. [[File:Tractors. Jan 2009 displacement in the Vanni.jpg|left|thumb|350x350px|Displaced civilians originating from the Kilinochchi and Mullaitivu Districts due to military campaigns by the Sri Lankan military (January 2009). Displaced civilians had to avoid both the atrocities committed by the LTTE and the Sri Lankan government.]] Accusation of war crimes towards [[w:War_crimes_during_the_final_stages_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war|the Sri Lankan government]] have been documented by various external organizations, despite the government's attempts at removing any [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e_p1TfTguW0 mentions] or [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vtm54Y9USEg investigations] of it<ref>See also [[w:Sexual violence in the Sri Lankan civil war]].</ref>. A 2009 HRW report stated that the Sri Lankan government assumed native Tamil population residing in war zones to be "siding with the LTTE and [therefore, were] treated as combatants", leading to indiscriminate shillings and massacres of civilians<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2009-02-19|title=War on the Displaced|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/02/19/war-displaced/sri-lankan-army-and-ltte-abuses-against-civilians-vanni|journal=Human Rights Watch|language=en}}</ref>. Alongside the oppression by the Sri Lankan military, the Vanni population also endured the brutal theatrics of the LTTE, which recruited men, women, and even children with minimal training, effectively rendering them cannon fodder. Over 200,000 Tamil civilians were moved into [[w:Internally_displaced_persons_in_Sri_Lanka|designated displacement camps during the war]], where conditions were abysmal<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000}}</ref>. The suicide rate in these displacement camps were three times the community-level (2002), with a ratio of 103.5 per 10,000 compared to the Sri Lankan general population's rate of 37.5 per 10,000. Almost all suicide attempts involved poisonous substances. Other forms of violence included domestic violence and child abuse. Local health officials in Vavuniya admitted that mental health concerns were a major problem, but were unable to address these concerns due to a lack of resources and support from the government. During the [[wikipedia:Sri_Lankan_civil_war#2002_peace_process_(2002%E2%80%932006)|brief 2002 ceasefire]], the MSF implemented a "community-based programme" which included "increasing awareness, community strengthening, reinforcing coping-strategies for long-term war-affected communities, and counselling". The MSF also advocated for restrictions of poisonous substances due to the suicide attempts, and stressed that "much more [than resettlement]" would need to be done to help alleviate the psychological pain the northern population had faced<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Jong|first=Kaz|last2=Mulhern|first2=Maureen|last3=Ford|first3=Nathan|last4=Simpson|first4=Isabel|last5=Swan|first5=Alison|last6=van der Kam|first6=Saskia|date=2002-04|title=Psychological trauma of the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673602084209|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=359|issue=9316|pages=1517–1518|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08420-9}}</ref>. The ceasefire ended in 2006 and led to the [[w:Eelam_War_IV|final phase of the civil war]], eventually ending in 2009 with the [[w:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velupillai_Prabhakaran#Sri_Lankan_Army_Northern_offensive_and_death|death of the LTTE's leader]]. '''Post-war''' [[File:Puttalam district.svg|left|thumb|Puttalam District, unlike its northern counterparts, was largely spared from the intense conflict, possibly explaining the lower rates of common mental disorders (CMDs).]] The first district-wide cross-sectional multistage cluster sample survey was conducted in the [[w:Jaffna_District|Jaffna District]] shortly after the war ended. The study's sample included 1517 households and 2 internally displaced peoples camps. With a response rate of 92%, the study found that symptoms for PTSD were found in 7% of participants, symptoms of anxiety were found in 32.6% of participants, and symptoms of depression were found in 22.2% of participants. 2% of respondents were currently placed in internally displaced peoples camps at the time of the study, 29.5% were freshly resettled from the internally displaced peoples camps, and the rest of the participants (68.5%) were never placed into camps. In comparison to residents who were never placed into camps, participants that were actively held in camps tend to report more symptoms of PTSD, anxiety, and depression. The researchers also found that women were especially vulnerable to deteriorating mental health conditions. This was explained by two factors: women having to assume the roles of both the father and the mother in the family setting after the, either voluntary or forced, departure of the husband to war, and sexist violence<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Husain|first=Farah|last2=Anderson|first2=Mark|last3=Lopes Cardozo|first3=Barbara|last4=Becknell|first4=Kristin|last5=Blanton|first5=Curtis|last6=Araki|first6=Diane|last7=Kottegoda Vithana|first7=Eeshara|date=2011-08-03|title=Prevalence of War-Related Mental Health Conditions and Association With Displacement Status in Postwar Jaffna District, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1052|journal=JAMA|volume=306|issue=5|pages=522–531|doi=10.1001/jama.2011.1052|issn=0098-7484}}</ref>. A 2013 study on adult patients in [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232631/ primary care settings] (divisional hospitals, primary medical care units) found major depression to be significantly higher in females (5.1%) than males (3.6%), bolstering the observation seen in the 2009 study<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senarath|first=Upul|last2=Wickramage|first2=Kolitha|last3=Peiris|first3=Sharika Lasanthi|date=2014-03-24|title=Prevalence of depression and its associated factors among patients attending primary care settings in the post-conflict Northern Province in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|journal=BMC Psychiatry|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=85|doi=10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|issn=1471-244X|pmc=3987835|pmid=24661436}}</ref>. Muslims in Northern Sri Lanka during the conflict also faced violence and discrimination, most notably [[w:Expulsion_of_Muslims_from_the_Northern_Province_of_Sri_Lanka|the October 1990 expulsion of Muslims from the North to the Puttalam District or Jaffna]] and the [[w:Kattankudy_mosque_massacre|1990 Kattankudy mosque massacre]]. The only study testing the displaced Muslim population post-civil war was completed in 2011, where a cross-sectional survey of 450 internally displaced people or people born into displacement (ages 18 - 65) revealed 18.8% of the sample suffering from common mental health disorders (CMD), including [[w:Somatoform_disorder|somatoform disorder]] (14%), "other depressive syndromes" (7.3%), major depression (5.1%), and anxiety disorder (2.8%). The percentages found in this study for somatoform disorder and major depression were "considerably higher" than the national percentages, though the researchers noted that the prevalence of CMD was lower in comparison to other countries marred with conflict, including Palestine (40.3%) and Ethiopia (27.8%). The researchers explained that the lower rate of CMD may be attributed to the [[w:Puttalam_District|serenity of the post-settlement destination]], as conflict was mainly centered in the North and East. In contrast to earlier findings, this study did not observe a higher prevalence of CMDs among women, although increased rates of somatoform disorders were noted (though the researchers did not show the data behind this)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siriwardhana|first=Chesmal|last2=Adikari|first2=Anushka|last3=Pannala|first3=Gayani|last4=Siribaddana|first4=Sisira|last5=Abas|first5=Melanie|last6=Sumathipala|first6=Athula|last7=Stewart|first7=Robert|date=2013-05-22|title=Prolonged Internal Displacement and Common Mental Disorders in Sri Lanka: The COMRAID Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|pages=e64742|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3661540|pmid=23717656}}</ref>. Research on the mental state of combatants has been limited, but a post-war 2009 study done between soldiers of the [[w:Sri_Lanka_Army_Special_Forces_Regiment|Special Forces]] and regular soldiers showed higher levels of exposure to traumatic events for units of the Special Forces, yet the former exhibited significantly less symptoms of CMDs compared to the latter. The authors of this study, [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=cVKEBdwAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao Raveen Hanwella] and [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=ZRj74qMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra Varuni de Silva], offers the camaraderie of the unit as an explanation for the discrepancy<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|date=2012-08|title=Mental health of Special Forces personnel deployed in battle|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22038567|journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology|volume=47|issue=8|pages=1343–1351|doi=10.1007/s00127-011-0442-0|issn=1433-9285|pmid=22038567}}</ref>. A follow-up study was completed by the pair (with the addition of former Director-General of the Health Services of the Sri Lanka Navy [[w:Nicholas_Jayasekera|Nicholas Jayasekera]]), where the findings were similar, though the statistically significant bridge between the two cohorts in the previous study evaporated in the follow-up study. This may be due to the significant decline in mental health problems observed in the regular unit forces, potentially reflecting resilience in the aftermath of jarring conflict<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=Jayasekera|first2=Nicholas E. L. W.|last3=Silva|first3=Varuni A. de|date=2014-09-25|title=Mental Health Status of Sri Lanka Navy Personnel Three Years after End of Combat Operations: A Follow Up Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=9|issue=9|pages=e108113|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4177866|pmid=25254557}}</ref>. Amputees or soldiers with spinal injuries exhibited drastically different numbers, with approximately 40% of nearly 100 male-veterans in a post-war 2009 study displaying PTSD-like symptoms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abeyasinghe|first=N. L.|last2=de Zoysa|first2=P.|last3=Bandara|first3=K.M.K.C.|last4=Bartholameuz|first4=N. A.|last5=Bandara|first5=J. M.U.J.|date=2012-05-01|title=The prevalence of symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder among soldiers with amputation of a limb or spinal injury: A report from a rehabilitation centre in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|journal=Psychology, Health & Medicine|volume=17|issue=3|pages=376–381|doi=10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|issn=1354-8506|pmid=21942815}}</ref>. About a decade after the conflict ceased, a few notable studies have emerged to help guide understanding on the longer-term mental health effects on victims of the civil war. From July 2019 to October 2020, a study was conducted on 585 local adolescents (ages 12-19) in the Vavuniya district revealed that despite 15.6% of the statistic having faced one or more war-related events, only 3.9% of the participants had moderate - severe depression. In addition to considerably low depression rates, only 5.7% of participants age 17+ were found to have moderate - severe hopelessness<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000|pmc=10472617|pmid=37653394}}</ref>. The authors referenced a 2010 observation by psychiatrist [https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/author/daya-somasundaram Daya Somasundaram], who noted that many Tamil IDPs exhibited "remarkable resilience and post-traumatic growth" after the civil war—an outcome he attributed to the close-knit, family-centered nature of Tamil communities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}</ref>. Findings originating from a 2019 study undertook by several faculty members from the University of Kelaniya, the University of Jaffna, the [[w:Gampaha_Wickramarachchi_University_of_Indigenous_Medicine|Gampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous Medicine]], and the [https://onur.gov.lk/ Office for National Unity and Reconciliation (ONUR)] in Jaffna, found contrasting statistics. Out of 336 participants from districts that faced significant ramifications of the conflict (Jaffna, Kilinochchi, Mullaithivu, Vavuniya, and Mannar districts), 50.5% had extreme anxiety symptoms and 36.5% exhibited "extremely severe" symptoms of depression. 92.5% of families in the sample experienced suicidal ideation, with an observed negative correlation between trauma exposure and life satisfaction with families. Drug abuse (86.2%) and alcohol abuse (84.5%) were the two highest problematic behaviors recorded on a community-level, suggesting that the negative consequences of the civil war still persist, possibly on a substantial scale than previously recognized, in Tamil communities in the North<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thamotharampillai|first=Umaharan|last2=Perera|first2=Ruwanthi|last3=Wickremasinghe|first3=Rajitha|last4=Williams|first4=Shehan|last5=Vijayasangar|first5=Thedsanamoorthy|last6=Sivatharsan|first6=Balasubramaniam|last7=Hilbert|first7=Vanceline|last8=Somasundaram|first8=Daya|date=2025-05-06|title=Collective Trauma- Psychosocial consequences of war in northern Sri Lanka 10 years on, a mixed methods study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000696|journal=SSM - Mental Health|pages=100457|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100457|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Further research should be conducted in this field. In 2019, [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/R-M-M-Monaragala-2087692299 Dr. R. M. M. Monaragala] conducted a study on 1,845 soldiers with combat experience, finding that 3.9% of the sample suffered from PTSD. Dr. Monaragala noted that "probable depression, fatigue, aggression, and family history of mental disorder" were correlative of PTSD presence. He suggested that "screening and psychosocial intervention" were recommended avenues to alleviate CMDs of former combatants<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Monaragala|first=R. M. M.|date=2024-04-19|title=Exploring the effects of the past civil war in terms of the prevalence and associating factors of PTSD|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=14|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. === 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami === The '''2004 Boxing Day Tsunami''' was a natural disaster where a tsunami spawned off a 9.2–9.3 magnitude earthquake off the coast of Aceh in Indonesia on December 26. The tsunami greatly affected the coastlines of the country, with the death toll reaching to about 35,000 deaths. In addition, 90,000 houses were destroyed and 516,000 people were forced to migrate due to severe infrastructural damage<ref name=":5" />. It stands as the [http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/tsunami_relief/119821.htm worst natural disaster to have ever hit Sri Lanka]. [[File:Tsunami relief 2004 02.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Volunteers from [[w:Royal_College,_Colombo|Royal College in Colombo]] assisting in tsunami relief efforts (Sarvodaya Headquaters, Moratuwa).]] A survey conducted on schoolchildren (ages 8-14) in Manadkadu (Tamil-majority village in the northern coast), [[w:Kosgoda|Kosgoda]] (western coast), and [[w:Galle|Galle]] (southern coast), just a few weeks after the tsunami hit Sri Lanka, revealed that 33.8%, 13.9%, and 38.8% of children interviewed exhibited signs of PTSD (according to the DSM-IV's criteria), respectively (minus the time criteria, as the DSM-IV does not permit diagnosis of PTSD within 4 weeks of a traumatic incident). The loss of family members and exposure to previously traumatic incidents seem to highly correlate with PTSD development<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Neuner|first=Frank|last2=Schauer|first2=Elisabeth|last3=Catani|first3=Claudia|last4=Ruf|first4=Martina|last5=Elbert|first5=Thomas|date=2006|title=Post-tsunami stress: A study of posttraumatic stress disorder in children living in three severely affected regions in Sri Lanka|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jts.20121|journal=Journal of Traumatic Stress|language=en|volume=19|issue=3|pages=339–347|doi=10.1002/jts.20121|issn=1573-6598}}</ref>. Many victims in the Jaffna area suffered with "[https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/prolonged-grief-disorder pathological grief], phobias, depression and PTSD" post-tsunami. Schizophrenia in the Jaffna Tamil community, which had already suffered elevated prevalence of PTSD prior to the tsunami, had worsened—highlighting the need for specialized care in response to cumulative exposures to chronic and acute traumas. In a study published in the journal ''International Psychiatry'' (2006), Jaffna-based researchers noted that, contrary to their initial inclinations, there was not a "large[r] (than expected) rise in [the] number of people" seeking mental health support 3 months after the tsunami. However, 10 months after the disaster, the researchers anticipated that "more psychiatric disorders" would emerge due to "very little rebuilding [efforts]" and an apparent "unfairness in the aid system".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=D. J.|last2=Yoganathan|first2=S.|last3=Ganesvaran|first3=T.|date=1993-09|title=Schizophrenia in northern Sri Lanka|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7828234|journal=The Ceylon Medical Journal..|volume=38|issue=3|pages=131–135|issn=0009-0875|pmid=7828234}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Danvers|first=K.|last2=Sivayokan|first2=S.|last3=Somasundaram|first3=D. J.|last4=Sivashankar|first4=R.|date=2006-07|title=Ten months on: qualitative assessment of psychosocial issues in northern Sri Lanka following the tsunami|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6734678/|journal=International Psychiatry: Bulletin of the Board of International Affairs of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|volume=3|issue=3|pages=5–8|issn=1749-3676|pmc=6734678|pmid=31507850}}</ref> At the February 2005 ''After the Tsunami: Mental Health Challenges to the Community for Today and Tomorrow'' conference in Thailand, [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Chandanie-Hewage Dr. Chandanie Hewage] of the [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] commentated that measures taken to assist the affected were "not coordinated" due to poor "communication systems and road [conditions]." Regardless, efforts were continued by the government and health professionals to alleviate the struggles the victims were facing, including the psychological ramifications of the disaster. Several issues in the delivery of these services were highlighted by Dr. Hewage, including poor maintenance of health records, lack of awareness on drug consumption by the patients themselves, and shortages of health professionals. Dr. Hewage points out that personnel had "little" mental health training prior to the disaster, suggesting increased "research" and adequate "provision[ing] and training of staff" in the long-term<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Davidson|first=Jonathan R. T.|date=2006|title=Foreword. After the tsunami: mental health challenges to the community for today and tomorrow|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16602809|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=67 Suppl 2|pages=3–8|issn=0160-6689|pmid=16602809}}</ref>. With inadequate documentation, no systematic procedures in place, and insufficient personnel, tsunami victims with mental health concerns may not receive the services they need, further compacting neuropsychological ailments. In 2008 (about 3-4 years after the tsunami), researchers in the hard-hit village of [[w:Peraliya|Peraliya]] (Galle District) found that from a sample of approximately 90 adults, 25% suffered from moderate–severe PTSD, with women scoring "above the cut-off for anxiety" and reporting more "somatic symptoms", though researchers inferred that the PTSD rate found in the study may be influenced by war or economic hardship<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hollifield|first=Michael|last2=Hewage|first2=Chandanie|last3=Gunawardena|first3=Charlotte N.|last4=Kodituwakku|first4=Piyadasa|last5=Bopagoda|first5=Kalum|last6=Weerarathnege|first6=Krishantha|last7=Group|first7=International Post-Tsunami Study|date=2008-01|title=Symptoms and coping in Sri Lanka 20–21 months after the 2004 tsunami|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/symptoms-and-coping-in-sri-lanka-2021-months-after-the-2004-tsunami/CB33752239AF362A0BFD55B3668D60B0|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=192|issue=1|pages=39–44|doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.107.038422|issn=0007-1250}}</ref>. === 2019 Easter Bombings === The '''2019 Easter Bombings''' were a series of coordinated attacks perpetrated by the Islamic extremist group, [[w:National_Thowheeth_Jama'ath|National Thowheeth Jama'ath]], on April 21, 2019. The attack targeted three churches and three hotels in the Colombo area, killing nearly 300 people and injuring over 500. The attack was also attributed to the incompetency of the Sri Lankan government, who ignored [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48044636 multiple warnings regarding the attacks]. The attacks negatively affected the Sri Lankan Catholic community and further weakened relations between the major religious groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. In the aftermath of the attacks, professionals in the [[w:Gampaha_District|Gampaha District]] resorted to "low-cost methodological" responses to children and adolescents affected by the attack as a "severe shortage" of children and adolescent mental health experts were exposed<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chandradasa|first=Miyuru|last2=Rathnayake|first2=Layani C|last3=Rowel|first3=Madushi|last4=Fernando|first4=Lalin|date=2020-06-01|title=Early phase child and adolescent psychiatry response after mass trauma: Lessons learned from the Easter Sunday attack in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020913314|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry|language=EN|volume=66|issue=4|pages=331–334|doi=10.1177/0020764020913314|issn=0020-7640}}</ref>. In a qualitative study of 8 survivors of the attacks receiving grief counseling, [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] assistant professor [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Virasha-Godakanda Virasha Godakanda] observed that 70% of the sample size expressed "doubts" in adequate mental health interventions from the government, reducing the quality of such services. Professor Godakanda strongly endorsed for "culturally-sensitive" programs, a diversity in therapeutic approaches (including nature-based therapy), and "prolonged investigations" to track developments in mental health resources and impacts of implemented interventions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Godakanda|first=Virasha|date=2025-01-29|title=A GRIEF COUNSELING INTERVENTION AFTER THE MASS TRAUMA: LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE VICTIMS OF THE EASTER SUNDAY ATTACK IN SRI LANKA|url=https://kjmr.com.pk/kjmr/article/view/216|journal=Kashf Journal of Multidisciplinary Research|language=en|volume=2|issue=01|pages=13–32|doi=10.71146/kjmr216|issn=3007-200X}}</ref>. A few weeks following the attacks, Muslims in Sri Lanka were subjected to [[w:2019_anti-Muslim_riots_in_Sri_Lanka|violent, coordinated riots]] masterminded by Sinhalese national forces<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mujahidin|first=Muhammad Saekul|date=2023-07-03|title=Extremism and Islamophobia Against the Muslim Minority in Sri Lanka|url=https://www.ajis.org/|journal=American Journal of Islam and Society|language=en|volume=40|issue=1-2|pages=213–241|doi=10.35632/ajis.v40i1-2.3135|issn=2690-3741}}</ref>. Riots were mainly centered in the [[w:Kurunegala_District|Kurunegala]], Gampaha, and [[w:Kandy_District|Kandy]] Districts. At least [https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/5/21/in-sri-lanka-muslims-say-sinhala-neighbours-turned-against-them one confirmed death was reported]. Calls for vague ''niqab'' and ''burqa'' bans were increasingly prominent, eventually leading to the 2021 burqa ban by the Sri Lankan government. Pakistani and Afghani refugees fleeing religious persecution in Negombo were forced to be "made refugees again" after local protests were orchestrated against their settlement. Islamophobic aroma was "unleashed online, in the law, and on the street"<ref>{{Cite book|title=CARTOGRAPHIC JOURNEY OF RACE, GENDER AND POWER: global identity|date=2021|publisher=CAMBRIDGE SCHOLARS PUBLIS|isbn=978-1-5275-6965-2|location=S.l.}}</ref>. Albeit its relevancy to the attacks, no in-depth mental health studies were administered on the minority Muslim population following the Easter bombings. Further research is imperative in exploring the sustained psychological effects of Islamophobia and its effect on the Muslim minority community in the aftermath of the 2019 Easter attacks. Literature on the impact of the 2019 Easter Bombings on mental health is limited and further research should be conducted. === 2019-2024 Economic Crisis === The '''2019-2024 Economic Crisis''' refers to a 5 year period where the Sri Lankan economy experienced massive inflation and an abrupt hike in prices on basic, everyday items. It is the worse economic crisis the country has faced since the Sri Lankans were granted independence in 1948. Schools in Sri Lanka were forced to postpone examinations due to paper shortages. Gas shortages led to long lines at gas stations, some lasting for days, throughout the island. Shortages in electricity, cooking gas, and aviation were additional results of the economic crisis. Healthcare workers faced a barrage of mental health during the crisis, including a lopsided work-life balance due to unprecedented demand, increased stress and mental fatigue from a lack of resources and personnel, unhealthy coping mechanisms, job dissatisfaction, and a reduction in work quality. Such effects perpetuate a self-enforcing cycle of psychologically distressed mental healthcare workers providing subpar services, affecting patients and amplifying mental health issues experienced by both the workforce and their patients<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dilogini|first=S.|last2=Grace|first2=H. H.|last3=Thasika|first3=T.|date=2024|title=Exploring The Mental Health and Well-Being of Public Healthcare Workers (HCWs) Amid Economic Crisis in Sri Lanka|url=http://repo.lib.jfn.ac.lk/ujrr/handle/123456789/11092|language=en|publisher=Chartered Institute of Personnel Management}}</ref>. Medical students from the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Colombo reported that the economic crisis forced abrupt changes in dietary consumption, increased hopelessness in the future, increased stress and anxiety, and a decrease in interest in pursuing a "clinical post-graduate career"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Adikaranayake|first=Pesala Randika|last2=Perera|first2=Anusha Nimrod|last3=Nilaweera|first3=Akhila Imantha|last4=Fernando|first4=Desha Rajni|last5=Wijayaratne|first5=Dilushi Rowena|date=2025-07-01|title=Effects of Sri Lankan economic crisis on health, lifestyle and education of medical students in Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo – an online survey|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|journal=BMC Medical Education|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=938|doi=10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|issn=1472-6920|pmc=12211748}}</ref>. 283 government-school teachers completed a web-based cross-sectional survey in April 2024, with majority of the participants reporting a severe reduction in monthly income & 1/3 of participants exhibiting "clinical levels of psychological distress"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C. P.|last2=Senarathne|first2=D. L. P.|last3=Fernando|first3=M. S.|last4=Senevirathne|first4=S. P.|date=2025-05-28|title=Examining the economic burden and mental health distress among government school teachers in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|journal=BMC Psychology|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=572|doi=10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|issn=2050-7283}}</ref>. A study published in that same year reported that out of 261 nurses working in teaching hospitals, 91.6% were forced to allocate their finances to strictly "general needs", while more than 50% looked into international opportunism for employment. Notably, the study reported an overall near "twofold greater" rate of depression, anxiety, and stress compared to previously conducted studies on nurses<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C.P|last2=Senarathne|first2=L.|last3=Fernando|first3=M.|date=2024-04-01|title=Exploring the Association Between Behavioural Modification in Response to the Prevailing Economic Crisis and Mental Health Outcomes of Nurses from Teaching Hospitals, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/23779608241272679|journal=SAGE Open Nursing|language=EN|volume=10|pages=23779608241272679|doi=10.1177/23779608241272679|issn=2377-9608|pmc=11311183}}</ref>. The detrimental effects the crisis has had on the mental health sector reveal a concerning area of underappreciation and under compensation by the Sri Lankan government towards a critical sector for the well-being of the country. Comprehensive mental health interventions need to be prepared and ready to implement at times of national emergencies. == Present-Day Challenges == === Ethnic tension === Despite the end of the Sri Lankan civil war and the introduction of pluralist policies, such as the [https://srilankaembassy.fr/sites/default/files/files/media/pdf/NationalPolicy-English.pdf 2017 National Policy on Reconciliation and Coexistence] under the Sirisena administration, tensions amongst members of the ethnic groups still persist in the country. Evidence of these tensions was found through a 2022 study conducted in the Ratnapura district, where religious leaders expressed skepticisms, through semi-structured interviews, for "conflict transformation". A Tamil citizen of the Ratnapura community recounted that they were forced to "hide in jungles" and consume "dirty water in drainage[s]" due to scarcity of food and drinkable water as a result of the conflict. In certain personal accounts, ethnic conflicts appear to affect the social behavior and identity of the majority ethnic group. One Sinhala participant recounted his objection to the war-time retaliatory destruction of a shop run by a Tamil shopkeeper was met with interrogative questions about "whether [he was] Sinhalese or not". Both accounts convey interethnic tensions stemming from decade-long conflicts<ref>Jayathilaka, Aruna & Gamage, Sayuri. (2024). Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders in the Post-War Conflict Transformation Process: A Study Based on Rathnapura District in Srilanka. ''Retrieved from'' https://gandhimargjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Volume-46-Issue-1-April-June-2024.pdf#page=66</ref>. Beyond individual accounts and the official end of the civil war, the minority groups in the country continue to feel ostracized. The Sri Lankan Tamil population remains dissatisfied with the Sri Lankan government and their accountability of perpetrators of war crimes and information on the whereabouts of [[w:Enforced_disappearances_in_Sri_Lanka|thousands of enforced disappearances]] that took place from the 1980s. Additionally, rising anti-Muslim sentiment in recent years contribute to increased ethnic tensions, a stark contrast to the previous centuries of peaceful co-existence between the groups. [[File:Bodu Bala Sena symbol.svg|thumb|The symbol for Bodu Bala Sena, a nationalistic Sinhala Buddhist group criticized for catalyzing ethnic tensions in Sri Lanka.]] Laws passed by the Sri Lankan government, such as the [[w:Prevention_of_Terrorism_Act_(Sri_Lanka)|Prevention of Terrorism Act]] and [[wikipedia:Anti-conversion_law#Sri_Lanka|anti-conversion laws]], have forced the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom to label Sri Lanka as a nation that "[engages] or [tolerates] severe violations of religious freedom" in their 2024 report. The government has been criticized by human rights organizations for "disproportionately targeting religious minorities"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Additionally, the implementation of the three dominant languages, English, Sinhala, and Tamil, across formal education and government services have been lackadaisical, narrowing opportunities of foundational social interactions between the groups. Persistent discrimination and prejudice towards minority groups can lead to an array of complex and self-deprecating mental health issues. Effort to mitigate ethnic tensions include strategies like [[w:Community-based_participatory_research|community-based participatory research]] (CBPR), task-sharing, and securing online mental health services in order to expand mental health services. However, the implementation of evidence-based plans has been met with difficulty due to inaccessibility, high costs, and shortages of adequately-trained personnel. Movements aiming for improved intra group and inter group coexistences, such as the Jaffna People’s Forum for Coexistence developed in the wake of the 2019 Easter bombings, should be emphasized on a systematic and multi-level basis, including but not limited to education, public sectors, and within communities. Pluralistic values should be stressed across both private and public schools to foster cultural sensitivity and tolerance. Measures should be taken against threatening extremist groups promoting sectarian hostility, such as the [[w:Bodu_Bala_Sena|Bodu Bala Sena]]. === Poverty === It has been proven that poverty significantly increases the chances of developing mental illnesses. This is further amplified by possible discrimination<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knifton|first=Lee|last2=Inglis|first2=Greig|date=2020-10|title=Poverty and mental health: policy, practice and research implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7525587/|journal=BJPsych bulletin|volume=44|issue=5|pages=193–196|doi=10.1192/bjb.2020.78|issn=2056-4694|pmc=7525587|pmid=32744210}}</ref>. Poverty also affects the ability for individuals with mental health concerns to receive the treatment they need. Due to the repercussions of the economic crisis, clients in Sri Lanka could not attend further counseling sessions<ref name=":8" />. Poverty from 2021 to 2022 [https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/poverty/987B9C90-CB9F-4D93-AE8C-750588BF00QA/current/Global_POVEQ_LKA.pdf reportedly doubled], with future forecasts predicting the poverty line to "remain above 25 percent". Suicide has been empirically linked to economic hardships in previous studies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}</ref>. A 2013 study done on suicidal patients in [[w:Batticaloa_Teaching_Hospital|Batticaloa Teaching Hospital]] revealed 76% of patients who attempted suicide were from rural areas while 15% were from urban areas<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://ir.lib.seu.ac.lk/handle/123456789/1457|title=The influence of common risk factors for the patient with attempted suicide hospitalized at the teaching hospital, Batticaloa|last=Kisokanth|first=G.|last2=Najeem|first2=M. M.|last3=Karunakaran|first3=K. E.|date=2014-08-02|publisher=South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, University Park, Oluvil #32360, Sri Lanka|isbn=978-955-627-053-2|language=en-US}}</ref>. The Sri Lankan government should consider the economical impacts that poverty has on mental health and implement ways to aid poverty-stricken individuals with mental health concerns. === Stigmas === Stigma consists of the "combined effect of prejudice, ignorance and discrimination."<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|url=http://www.researchgate.net/publication/233990797_The_Stigma_of_Mental_Illness_in_Sri_Lanka_The_Perspectives_of_Community_Mental_Health_Workers|title=(PDF) The Stigma of Mental Illness in Sri Lanka: The Perspectives of Community Mental Health Workers|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2025-07-25}}</ref>. A 2012 interview consisting of nine participants (two doctors, three nurses, one occupational therapist, one development worker, and two volunteers) revealed a number of concerning societal viewpoints on individuals with mental health concerns. The interviews revealed that negative judgements were not only levied against the individual with the mental illness, but also the family. Families hid mentally ill family members from the public to avoid "shame" and possible hinderances in marriage proposals. Views that mentally ill individuals were "violent" served as the motivating factor behind socially isolating those with mental illness from their communities. Interviewees mentioned that individuals dealing with mental health challenges would have stones and "derogatory names" launched at them. A lack of community awareness regarding mental health and negative portrayals of mentally ill individuals in media exacerbates stigmatization, though the researchers commented that the media was "improving" in their depiction of mental illness. Beliefs that illnesses are caused by "spirits" can be problematic for individuals dealing with mental health issues and serves as evidence to poor mental health awareness in the country. Mental health workers themselves believed that they were being stigmatized, as mental health is reportedly not taken as seriously as physical health. Despite the intriguing perspectives provided, the small sample size and usage of snow sampling raise questionable concerns regarding the contextualization of the results<ref name=":10" />. Improving media portrayal of subjects concerning mental health and involving community members in interventions dealing with mental health issues are ways that could destigmatize mental health amongst communities in Sri Lanka. Tying collaborations between allopathic services and traditional healers instead of having these two services work individually could enhance engagement between traditional medicine and Western medicine. === Suicide Trends & Risk Factors === Suicide is defined as "the act of killing oneself deliberately, initiated and performed by the person concerned in the full knowledge or expectation of its fatal outcome"<ref name=":11">{{Cite book|title=The neuroscience of suicidal behavior|last=Heeringen|first=Kees van|date=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-60290-4|series=Cambridge fundamentals of neuroscience in psychology|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom New York, NY, USA Port Melbourne, VIC, Australia New Delhi, India Singapore}}</ref>. Although Sri Lanka has seen a significant reduction in suicide rates from the mid 1990s due to its banning of extremely toxic pesticide products, suicide and self harm remains a significant issue. The suicide rate per 100,000 people increased from 14.0 in 2019 to [https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide 15.0 in 2022] (according to WHO). On average, 27 males per 100,000 males and 5 females per 100,000 females committed suicide in 2022<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}</ref>. Hanging appears to be the most used method for suicide for both males and females, with studies revealing a steady increase in recent years<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Bandara|first=Piumee|last2=Wickrama|first2=Prabath|last3=Sivayokan|first3=Sambasivamoorthy|last4=Knipe|first4=Duleeka|last5=Rajapakse|first5=Thilini|date=2024-04-17|title=Reflections on the trends of suicide in Sri Lanka, 1997–2022: The need for continued vigilance|url=https://journals.plos.org/globalpublichealth/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|journal=PLOS Global Public Health|language=en|volume=4|issue=4|pages=e0003054|doi=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|issn=2767-3375|pmc=11023397|pmid=38630779}}</ref>. From 2023 to 2024, a group of researchers from the [[w:Eastern_University,_Sri_Lanka|Eastern University in Sri Lanka]] assessed 828 patients admitted to the Teaching Hospital in [[w:Batticaloa,_Sri_Lanka|Batticaloa, Sri Lanka]] for attempted suicide. They concluded that suicide prevention programs should be attuned to younger people (ages 15 to 35 in the study), emphasize the importance of education and reducing unemployment, and increase social support in the Tamil community. Despite the relevant insights into certain aspects of an average Sri Lankan's life that could lead to suicidal ideation (ie, poverty), the results from this study suffer in external validity as 90% of the patients were Tamil and over 50% were between 16 and 25 years. In addition, correlations between suicide and unemployment rates have been questioned, with [[w:Austerity|austerity]] being a more reliable indicator of suicide rates than unemployment rates<ref name=":11" />. Further comprehensive studies on risk factors relating to suicide should be studied to assess correlations between unemployment rates and austerity measures. The WHO suggests implementing evidence-based suicide prevention programs, such as [https://www.who.int/initiatives/live-life-initiative-for-suicide-prevention LIVE LIFE], to reduce the national suicide rate<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide|title=World Suicide Prevention day 2024 “Changing the Narrative on Suicide”|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2025-07-29}}</ref>. Media depictionss of suicidal methods, such as hanging, can lead to sensationalism and the media should be cautious of such displays in movies and TV shows<ref name=":12" />. Awareness of depression and other mental health issues can serve as a safeguard against suicidal ideation in Sri Lankan men and women. == Role of Religion == According to the last demographic report (2012), 70.2% of Sri Lankans are Buddhist, 12.6% are Hindus, 9.7% are Muslims, and 7.4% are Christians. The Theravada Buddhist community makes up the majority in several provinces throughout the country<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sri-lanka/|title=Sri Lanka|website=United States Department of State|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-07}}</ref>. Religion, especially Theravada Buddhism, has had a significant influence on not only the historical treatment of mental health in the country, but also everyday life<ref name=":15" />. The [[w:Mahāvaṃsa|''Mahāvaṃsa'']] affirms hospitals treating patients suffering from mental health issues as early as the 4th century BC. Additionally, the 1700s Nayaka king [[w:Kirti_Sri_Rajasinha|Kirthi Sri Rajasinghe]] detailed the implementation of Buddhist philosophy in psychiatry<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. De|date=2017-12-05|title=Development of civil commitment statutes (laws of involuntary detention and treatment) in Sri Lanka: a historical review|url=https://mljsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|journal=Medico-Legal Journal of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|doi=10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|issn=2012-8231}}</ref>. Modern-day empirical studies have attested to the usefulness of religion in mitigating stress and elevating mental health<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|title=Religion and Mental Health|last=Schieman|first=Scott|last2=Bierman|first2=Alex|last3=Ellison|first3=Christopher G.|date=2013|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-94-007-4276-5|editor-last=Aneshensel|editor-first=Carol S.|location=Dordrecht|pages=457–478|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|editor-last2=Phelan|editor-first2=Jo C.|editor-last3=Bierman|editor-first3=Alex}}</ref>. Religion has been found to be positively correlated with improved mental health, and more religious patients were concluded to have "better mental health and adapt[ed] more quickly to health problems" versus patients who weren't religious<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koenig|first=Harold G.|date=2012|title=Religion, spirituality, and health: the research and clinical implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3671693/|journal=ISRN psychiatry|volume=2012|pages=278730|doi=10.5402/2012/278730|issn=2090-7966|pmc=3671693|pmid=23762764}}</ref>. [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/T-N-Wickramarathna-2247724082 Dr. Wickramarathna] of the University Psychiatry Unit (UPU) at the National Hospital of Sri Lanka (NHSL) argues that psychiatrists must strive for a balance in their approach to patients and "make positive use of religion in [their] practice[s]"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wickramarathna|first=T. N.|date=2022-12-31|title=Psychiatrists should stand far from the shrine: why and why not we should separate religion from psychiatry|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=13|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. === Buddhism === 27 Sinhalese Buddhists from four Buddhist temples were selected for a series of 70-minute interviews and focus group discussions with the aim of learning the Sinhala Buddhist understanding and experience of spiritual well-being and psychological well-being. The interviewees held spiritual wellness to be the "center" of overall wellness, the "precondition for a successful life"<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|language=en-US|volume=44|issue=1|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=0258-9710}}</ref>. Sinhala Buddhists believe that wellness cannot be achieved without spiritual tranquility. The report states that participants emphasized that spirituality "cannot be directly intervened" and can only be seen through "[interactions] with society"<ref name=":14" />. Despite the ''athmaya'' (soul) being "unreachable", it can be "intervened", or treated, through the actions of the mind and body with society<ref name=":14" />. One being "psychologically ill" can affect one's spiritual being, as the participants reported in their interviews, and can be affected through "lifestyle stressors, environmental and socio-cultural causes, non-human related causes and bad-karma in the past lives"<ref name=":14" />. The researchers concluded that despite Sinhala Buddhists not being able to articulately decipher the discrepancies between psychological well-being and spiritual well-being, they are able to conceptualize and maintain a culturally embedded understanding between the two, serving as reputable evidence of the integration of mental health in Sinhala Buddhist practices. However, it is important to note that these results come from a very small sample size and cannot be generalized to all Sri Lankan Buddhists. In addition, a 2009 study found that a belief in karma was correlated with poor health. However, an earlier study found a positive correlation between the reliance on the [[w:Karma_in_Buddhism|Buddhist concept of karma]] and trauma, inferencing Buddhist karma being a prevalent response to trauma<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Levy|first=Becca R.|last2=Slade|first2=Martin D.|last3=Ranasinghe|first3=Padmini|date=2009-03|title=Causal thinking after a tsunami wave: karma beliefs, pessimistic explanatory style and health among Sri Lankan survivors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19229624|journal=Journal of Religion and Health|volume=48|issue=1|pages=38–45|doi=10.1007/s10943-008-9162-5|issn=1573-6571|pmid=19229624}}</ref>. Overall, the effectiveness of karma as a coping mechanism appears to be conflicted. Studies indicate that other practices of Buddhism seem to be utilized by individuals affected by the war. 40% of Sri Lankan Buddhists affected by the 2004 tsunami found the Buddhist ritual ''Bodhipuja'' to be helpful in dealing with traumatic experiences<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jmvh.org/article/mental-health-and-the-role-of-cultural-and-religious-support-in-the-assistance-of-disabled-veterans-in-sri-lanka/|title=Mental Health and the Role of Cultural and Religious Support in the Assistance of Disabled Veterans in Sri Lanka|website=JMVH|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-12}}</ref>. === Catholicism === Catholic counseling refers to "a nuanced and holistic mental health care paradigm that intricately weaves together psychological science with the moral, spiritual, and pastoral traditions of the Catholic Church"<ref name=":13">Perera, U. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera/publication/394095042_Catholic_Counselling_in_Sri_Lanka_Integrating_Faith_Psychology_and_Cultural_Healing/links/6889303af8031739e6098c79/Catholic-Counselling-in-Sri-Lanka-Integrating-Faith-Psychology-and-Cultural-Healing.pdf Catholic Counselling in Sri Lanka: Integrating Faith, Psychology, and Cultural Healing]. July 2025.</ref> and aims to assimilate Catholic theology and evidence-based psychological treatment while including Sri Lankan cultural elements. This is achieved through emphasis on community cohesion and a locally-based understanding of "personhood"<ref name=":13" />. The origins of Catholic counseling trace back to the introduction of Roman Catholicism to the island in the 1600s, with the focus of the early Sri Lankan Catholic community being on "[[w:Evangelism|evangelization]], education, and sacramental formation". Demand for counseling services in general increased due to the impacts of the Sri Lankan Civil War, where Catholic organizations (Caritas Sri Lanka, Seth Sarana, Subodhi Integral Centre (Piliyandala), etc.) established several Catholic-based trauma-informed programmes for victims of the Civil War. Programmes use group therapy, forgiveness rituals, and narrative repairs to alleviate war trauma. Examples of integration of Catholic virtues and counseling can be seen in [[w:Cognitive_Behavioral_Therapy|Cognitive Behavioral Therapy]] (CBT), where "hope" and "humility" are used as the frameworks for creating spiritual resilience<ref name=":13" />. The general Christian call of "agape love and acceptance" is echoed by the concept of [[w:Unconditional_positive_regard|unconditional positive regard]]. ''[[w:Lectio_Divina|Lectio Divina]]'' (Catholic prayer and meditation) and ''Marian devotions'' are integrated into therapeutic practices to achieve emotional regulation and mindfulness. Senior Lecturer [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera Udeshini Perera] of the University of Colombo articulates a critical role of Catholic counseling. She claims that secular counseling fails to address the "spiritual roots of distress and moral confusion". Catholic counseling fills in this gap by integrating "psychological insights with a transcendent orientation, supporting lasting transformation and integrity"<ref name=":13" />. As of 2025, no formal accreditation or standardized training exists for [[w:Pastoral_counseling|pastoral counselors]] in Sri Lanka, hampering the legitimacy of Catholic counseling. Udeshini Perera remarks that mental health stigma, lack of standardized training, research regarding Catholic counseling effectiveness, and acceptance of the combination of religion and science in a professional setting present challenges for Catholic pastoral counseling in the country. Additionally, Catholic psychiatry in Sri Lanka appears to be under-researched, and evidence of its empirical effects on followers appears sparse. Further research is needed in assessing the empirical effects of Catholic counseling in Sri Lanka. === Islam === The literature on the empirical effects of Islamic-based psychotherapy in Sri Lanka is limited. Research has revealed a 2012 case study where a 21-year-old Muslim woman was experiencing episodic possession states. The patient ceased attending psychiatric services and opted for religious rituals. The patient reported, in a follow-up visit, that the possession states had been absent for 3 months since her switch to religious rituals. The woman and her family attributed the apparent improvement of her condition to religious rituals<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|last3=Yoosuf|first3=Alam|last4=Karunaratne|first4=Sanjeewani|last5=de Silva|first5=Pushpa|date=2012|title=Religious Beliefs, Possession States, and Spirits: Three Case Studies from Sri Lanka|url=http://www.hindawi.com/journals/crips/2012/232740/|journal=Case Reports in Psychiatry|language=en|volume=2012|pages=1–3|doi=10.1155/2012/232740|issn=2090-682X|pmc=3437272|pmid=22970398}}</ref>. Future recommendations would be to employ resources to research the foundations of Islamic psychiatry in the country, and to observe the rituals employed and their effects on patients. Studies have found that Islamic prayer can be an effective means of "support and coping"<ref name=":15" />. Seven world-wide case studies using Islamic-based psychotherapy on patients, consisting of religious rituals such as scriptural reading from the [[w:Quran|Quran]], teaching of fundamental Islamic concepts (such as ''[[w:Tawakkul|tawakkul]]''), and active implementation of contemplation (''[[w:Tadabbur|tadabbur]]''), have reported positive effects in decreasing cognitive and emotional symptoms associated with "religious, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorder, grief, and substance use disorder.”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kurhade|first=Chhaya Shantaram|last2=Jagannathan|first2=Aarti|last3=Varambally|first3=Shivarama|last4=Shivanna|first4=Sushrutha|date=2022-01|title=Religion-based interventions for mental health disorders: A systematic review|url=https://journals.lww.com/10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|journal=Journal of Applied Consciousness Studies|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=20–33|doi=10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|issn=2949-6993}}</ref> Additionally, a community-based study of elderly patients in Bangalore, India receiving Islamic-based psychotherapy observed decreased exhibitions of sleep disorders, eating disorders, and emotional distress<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hafeez|first=Nimin|last2=Sanjay|first2=Thittamaranahalli Varadappa|last3=Puthussery|first3=Yannick Poulose|last4=Madhusudan|first4=Muralidhar|last5=Kariyappa|first5=Poornima Muddaiah|last6=Kulkarni|first6=Sridevi|last7=Raj|first7=Lavanya|date=2023-12-31|title=Spiritual practices among elderly, prevalence, pattern and associated factors: a community-based study from rural Bengaluru, India|url=https://jccpsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|journal=Journal of the College of Community Physicians of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=29|issue=4|doi=10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|issn=1391-3174}}</ref>. === Hinduism === Despite Hindus being 12.6% of the population of Sri Lanka, the research on Hinduism-based therapy in the country is limited. Ayurvedic medicine, a form of medicine originating from ancient India, predominated the Sri Lankan medical landscape for over 2,000 years and even had a symbiotic relationship with Sinhalese medicine, which also played a significant and influential role in the country's medical framework<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/article/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990/|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|volume=44|issue=1|pages=33|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=2478-1169}}</ref>. Despite its historical dominance, Ayurvedic medicine has been challenged against modern evidence-based medical standards<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://philarchive.org/rec/DOMAAT|title=Ayurveda: Ancient Tradition or Pseudoscientific Practice? A Philosophical Inquiry|last=Dominic|first=Shubham K.}}</ref>. === Comparative synthesis === Taking an overarching review of the role of religion in Sri Lanka, methods to improve mental well-being are practiced by adherents of Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. These methods are practiced through karma, tawakkul, hope, and humility. Additionally, these practices are implemented in traditionally-oriented mental health care, which has been reported to be preferred over psychiatric care at times. These rituals practiced across these religions indicate a common theme of psychologically integrated aspects of well-being. Interpretation of trauma is a central use in religion, with religious principles, such as karma and ''tawakkul'', serving as psychologically analogous mechanisms during times of distress. In terms of methodological comparisons to the studies described, qualitative interviews have documented Buddhist practices and principles, like Bodhipuja and the belief in karma, in response to traumatic events, while case studies found religious practices by other religious groups, such as a Muslim patient reading Islamic scripture and observing prayer to reduce emotional distress. Peer-reviewed sources have documented Catholic practices and principles, such as ''Lectio Divina'' and unconditional positive regard, in improving mindfulness and emotional regulation. The paper acknowledges limitations in the evaluation of certain findings, such as in Islam and Hinduism. These shortcomings, however, are a reflection of the existing literature and its deficiencies. Empirical findings indicate mental health practices are complex and are multifaceted in their effects. Evidently, religion serves a parallel role to psychiatric services in improving mental health. Despite its perceived benefits, the findings surrounding religions' role in mental health suffer from conflicting, and sometimes contradictory, results. Additionally, a disproportionate amount of empirical findings seem to be Buddhist-predominant, while other religions are underrepresented in the research. Regarding research barriers, the methodological approaches implemented to study the practices of religious followers vary, though much of the research was brought from qualitative or case-based studies, impeding generalizability. Another noteworthy issue is that many studies do not utilize standardized, psychiatric measures. == Future Outlook == Despite significant changes to the mental health environment in Sri Lanka, the current legal framework shaping mental health in the country has not been updated since 1956. A Cambridge University Press article detailed many limitations of the Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956, including discrepancies between the legal provisions of involuntary admissions and modern practices, potential exposure to trauma through extra-legal detentions of the mentally ill, and an absence of legal guidelines addressing the restraint of violent patients<ref name=":6" />. Participants from Sri Lanka reported in a comparative legislative questionnaire that they felt the mental health laws were "outdated" and descriptions of clinical roles remained ambiguous<ref name=":16" />. A draft mental health legislation from 2007 includes provisions for human rights, but due to "bureaucratic processes" and a "lack of consensus", the draft has not been officially approved. These limitations pose challenges to the standardization of mental healthcare admissions and may impact the rights of detained patients. Detained patients may have their human rights violated due to a lack of an up-to-date legal framework, thereby impeding the identification of such violations. Additionally, with the lack of clarity on clinical roles, clinical responsibilities may not be routinely recognized and observed, leading to role confusion and potential legal ramifications<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Dey|first=Sangeeta|last2=Mellsop|first2=Graham|last3=Diesfeld|first3=Kate|last4=Dharmawardene|first4=Vajira|last5=Mendis|first5=Susitha|last6=Chaudhuri|first6=Sreemanti|last7=Deb|first7=Aniruddha|last8=Huq|first8=Nafisa|last9=Ahmed|first9=Helal Uddin|date=2019-10-24|title=Comparing legislation for involuntary admission and treatment of mental illness in four South Asian countries|url=https://ijmhs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=13|issue=1|pages=67|doi=10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|issn=1752-4458|pmc=6813093|pmid=31666805}}</ref>. Lastly, current efforts should increase beyond just addressing poverty-centered matters, but also expand efforts to domestic violence victims and children with disabilities, as shelters and specialized services are limited<ref name=":82">{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Stagnation in policy development leaves Sri Lanka without a practical, up-to-date, and comprehensive mental health legislation, which could put both clinicians and patients at risk. Future reforms should include clarification on the treatment and detention process of involuntary admissions of patients and a clear delineation of clinical roles and their responsibilities. Without the necessary reforms to advance Sri Lankan mental health legislation, clinicians and vulnerable patients may suffer from a lack of comprehensive oversight. ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== Any people, organisations, or funding sources that you would like to thank. ===Competing interests=== No competing interests. ===Ethics statement=== An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section. ==References== {{reflist|35em}} [[Category:Mental health]] [[Category:Sri Lanka]] gguays74sucbv2mz4membnfrlhkqlcg 2817337 2817336 2026-06-29T23:04:44Z Atcovi 276019 2817337 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine <!-- WikiJournal of Medicine, Science, or Humanities --> | last1 = Azeez | orcid1 = 0009-0007-9202-4614 | first1 = Aaqib | last2 = | first2 = | last3 = | first3 = | last4 = | first4 = <!-- up to 9 authors can be added in this above format --> | et_al = <!-- if there are >9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --> | affiliation1 = Old Dominion University | correspondence1 = aaqib.azeez@yahoo.com | affiliations = institutes / affiliations | correspondence = email@address.com | keywords = <!-- up to 6 keywords --> | license = <!-- default is CC-BY --> | abstract = This is a narrative review. }} [abstract will be put in after the paper has been completed] == Introduction == Mental health continues to be a critically relevant topic as the island nation has experienced decades of [[w:Black_July|violent ethnic conflict]], terrorist attacks, war crimes, and economic disruptions. Sri Lanka continues to recover from a [[w:Sri_Lankan_economic_crisis_(2019–2024)|severe economic crisis (2019 - 2024)]], a [[w:Sri_Lankan_civil_war|nearly 30-year civil war ending in 2009]], a [[w:2019_Sri_Lanka_Easter_bombings|2019 terrorist attack]], and continues to face the ripple effects of the [[w:2004_Boxing_Day_tsunami|2004 Boxing Day tsunami]]. The exact effect these major events have had on mental health in the country is "unknown", but the statistics remain alarming despite a declining trend. Suicide rates in the country during the mid-1990s were the second-highest in the world with ingesting toxic products being the main suicide method. Despite the decline in suicide numbers since then—possibly attributed to Sri Lanka's ban on toxic products—evidence from a 2023 study reports an upward trend in suicide through hanging from 2016 to 2021—independent of the [[w:COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sri_Lanka|COVID-19 pandemic]]. Several risk factors for suicide, such as poverty and economic instability, are still prevalent and even increasing in the country<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakse|first=Thilini|last2=Silva|first2=Tharuka|last3=Hettiarachchi|first3=Nirosha Madhuwanthi|last4=Gunnell|first4=David|last5=Metcalfe|first5=Chris|last6=Spittal|first6=Matthew J.|last7=Knipe|first7=Duleeka|date=2023-01-19|title=The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic and Lockdowns on Self-Poisoning and Suicide in Sri Lanka: An Interrupted Time Series Analysis|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914278/|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=20|issue=3|pages=1833|doi=10.3390/ijerph20031833|issn=1660-4601|pmc=9914278|pmid=36767200}}</ref>. == Methods == [source selection process] ==Historical Development of Mental Health Services== Records attest to the care of the mentally ill through established hospitals in the island since the 4th century.<ref name=":17" /> Prior to the incarceration of the mentally ill by the European colonizing forces, the mentally ill were regarded as ''Pissowetitch'', or people who had "the spirit of the Gods within him" and "whatsoever he pronounceth, is looked upon as spoken by God himself, and the people will speak to him, as if it were the very person of God"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/14346/14346-h/14346-h.htm|title=An Historical Relation Of the Island Ceylon, in the East-Indies: Together, With an Account of the Detaining in Captivity the Author and divers other Englishmen now Living there, and of the Author’s Miraculous Escape.|last=Knox|first=Robert|website=www.gutenberg.org|language=en-us|access-date=2026-06-29}}</ref>. With this religious understanding, Lucien de Alwis reasoned that the mentally ill in Sri Lanka were "placed... at a higher social status than the mentally ill in the Western world", with this notion correlating with the unsurprising absence of evidence in there being a "large scale segregation of mentally ill from society"<ref name=":17" />. In the 1800s, established care for mental health began shifting primarily from indigenous practices, mainly derived from [[w:Ayurveda|Ayurveda medicine]], [[w:Siddha_medicine|Siddha medicine]], and [[w:Unani_medicine|Unani medicine]], to a Western mode by the British<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":0">Gambheera, H. (2011). [https://www.saarcpsychiatry.com/viewText?chapter=c6 The evolution of psychiatric services in Sri Lanka]. South Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 2(1), 25–27.</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|title=Social Psychiatry in Sri Lanka|last=Baminiwatta|first=Anuradha|last2=Williams|first2=Shehan|date=2025|publisher=Springer Nature|isbn=978-981-96-8078-8|editor-last=Arafat|editor-first=S. M. Yasir|location=Singapore|pages=141–158|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|editor-last2=Singh|editor-first2=Amit|editor-last3=Kar|editor-first3=Sujita Kumar}}</ref>. === Adoption of a Western-based mental healthcare model and ordances === In 1839, [[w:James_Alexander_Stewart-Mackenzie|James Alexander Stewart-Mackenzie]], the 7th Governor of British Ceylon, released the Lunacy Ordinance, authorizing municipal authorities to create lunatic asylums for the mentally ill in the country<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=6&Itemid=125&lang=en|title=History - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-10}}</ref>. The ordinance was concerned with the legal frameworks of detaining individuals considered dangerous to others or individuals falsely presenting themselves as mentally ill, and not on medical treatments to alleviate the conditions of detained individuals. UK psychiatrist [[w:Edward_Mapother|Edward Mapother]] critiqued the ordinance during his 1937 inspection of British Ceylon's mental health institutions in a series of reports titled ''A Disgrace to a Civilised Community'', remarking that the ordinance "[did] not seem to have contemplated treatment as a contingency to be considered"<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Permeable walls: historical perspectives on hospital and asylum visiting|date=2009|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-2599-8|editor-last=Mooney|editor-first=Graham|series=Clio medica|location=Amsterdam New York, NY|editor-last2=Reinarz|editor-first2=Jonathan}}</ref>. In 1840, the 1839 Ordinance was repealed and replaced by the 1840 Ordinance. The 1839 Ordinance was almost identical to the 1840 Ordinance, except the removal of two previous requirements: the requirement for official medical diagnoses of the mentally ill and the mandate to maintain adequate staff-to-patient ratios within lunatic asylums<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. de|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. L.|last3=Mendis|first3=T. S. S.|last4=Abhayanayaka|first4=C.|date=2024-12-31|title=The development of laws related to the disposal of forensic patients in Sri Lanka: A historical review|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=15|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. In 1873, a third Ordinance was released. It included linguistic changes, where the term, "insane", was replaced with "of unsound mind". The Ordinance also gave more power to medical professionals in determining insanity diagnoses, and more power to detainees in appealing their commitment to the mental asylum. Despite this Ordinance being the most comprehensive legislation on mental healthcare in the country at the time, the legal frameworks behind the detainment of the criminally insane were left identical to previous ordinances<ref name=":3" />. === Development of mental asylums === At the time the 1839 ordinance was released, mentally ill patients were placed either in prisons throughout the country or leprosy hospitals, such as the [[w:Hendala_Leprosy_Hospital|Hendala Leprosy Hospital]] in the Gampaha district<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" />. After the creation of the first mental asylum in Borella in 1846, patients from the Hendala Leprosy Hospital were transferred to the institute in Borella. Overcrowding soon became an issue and patients were sent to prisons across the country. [[File:Edward Mapother.jpg|thumb|A portrait taken of Edward Mapother during his time working at [[w:Maudsley_Hospital|Maudsley Hospital]] in London. ]] As medical institutions were being made to house the mentally insane, another mental asylum was created in the [[w:Cinnamon_Gardens|Cinnamon Gardens]] area of Colombo in 1884, though this mental asylum faced overcrowding in just one year<ref name=":0" />. Treatment in these asylums was limited to occupational and protection therapy, failing to provide treatment for the root causes of the mental disorders. In 1926, the Angoda Mental Hospital was established, marginally alleviating the severe overcrowding issues that were plaguing the preceding mental asylums. Despite the addition of 1,700 beds to the facility, treatment was still vastly limited and the patients were left in significantly poor conditions. === Edward Mapother's 1937 inspection of British Ceylon === Edward Mapother was born in Dublin, Ireland, on July 12, 1881 and moved to London when he was 7 years old<ref>{{Cite book|title=Madness to mental illness: a history of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|last=Bewley|first=Thomas|date=2008|publisher=RCPsych Publications ; Distributed in North America by Balogh International|isbn=978-1-904671-35-0|location=London : [S.l.]}}</ref>. Mapother attained his M.D. in 1908. While Mapother was the Medical Superintendent of Maudsley Hospital in London, England, he was invited to inspect British Ceylon's mental health institutions by Dr S. T. Gunasekara, the first Medical Director of British Ceylon<ref name=":1" />. In Mapother's visit, he commented that the Angoda Mental Hospital had the atmosphere of "a prison that is neglected and dilapidated"<ref name=":1" />. Overcrowding was still a major issue, with the institute hosting 3,000 patients—more than double the intended capacity. Patients were sleeping on mats and were clearly out of reach of adequate treatment. Mapother also noted that only 4% of public health expenditure in the country was being set for hospitals, drawing a stark comparison to London's 25%<ref name=":1" />. Mapother offered a vivid and grim account of the hospital in his reports: <blockquote> The floor, roof and walls of each cell consist alike of drab cement without any attempt at colouring or decoration. High up in one wall is a small window with stout iron bars. In the floor is a large hole into which the patient may pass his motion and urine. These cells are incompletely divided from one another by a partition which does not reach the roof so that the noise and stink from any one cell may reach at least all the others of the same row. Into these empty cells I was informed that the most noisy and troublesome patients in the hospital; were turned at night completely naked. The doors of the cell contain no observation window, and considering the violent character of many of these patients there is every ground for believing that the doors are rarely opened in the night by the solitary attendant on duty. It needs little imagination to picture the suffering of any patient in an early stage of bodily illness passing a night under such conditions, a situation which must frequently arise. I am told that the noise proceeding from this building is like that on a bad night in a menagerie<ref name=":0" />.</blockquote>Mapother proposed a series of reinforcements to the legal, institutional, and medical frameworks of mental health care in British Ceylon. This included the decentralization of the psychiatric services, a reworking of the Lunacy Ordinance to incorporate treatment into the legal framework, and the establishment of a separate service of medical professionals dedicated to psychiatry. Mapother's recommendations led to several of the best local medical professionals to be sent to London for extensive training in psychiatry, while nurses from England were sent to British Ceylon to supervise hospital operations and train local staff<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />. On August 25, 1938, the Executive Committee of Health approved the strategies proposed by Mapother, though the Government was unable to fully implement all of Mapother's interventions due to the 'heavy cost'. In fact, the Government decided to forego one of his proposals, which was the suggestion of a "Visiting Committee". This committee was tasked to "meet at the hospital, carry out inspections, and make recommendations" to the Executive Committee of Health<ref name=":1" />. The Government realized that deficiencies in their mental healthcare system could prove to be "costly" for their reputation. Mapother was reportedly enraged when he found out. Mapother intended to contact the Secretary of State regarding the "distortion" of his plans, but was interrupted by events preceding [[w:World_War_II|World War II]]<ref name=":1" />. Mapother passed away on March 20, 1940, without materializing his follow-up plans. === Post-Mapother developments and further innovations === [[File:Sri Lanka districts Colombo.svg|thumb|A map of Sri Lanka highlighting the Colombo District, where the capital is located. |right|250px]]Mapother's insights on the mental healthcare structure in British Ceylon proved to be the catalyst of massive renovations. In 1939, the first outpatient clinic was established in the [[w:National_Hospital_of_Sri_Lanka|National Hospital of Sri Lanka]] in Colombo. The first trained Ceylonese psychiatrists began practice in the 1940s, leading to the establishment of the first neuropsychiatric clinic in Colombo in 1943. Treatments for the mentally ill improved dramatically, as [[w:insulin_shock_therapy|insulin shock therapy]] and [[w:Electroconvulsive_therapy|cardiazol convulsive therapy]] were utilized<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Kathriarachchi|first=Samudra T.|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. Lakmi|last3=Amarakoon|first3=Luckshika|date=2019-06|title=Development of Mental Health Care in Sri Lanka: Lessons Learned|url=https://journals.lww.com/tpsy/fulltext/2019/33020/development_of_mental_health_care_in_sri_lanka_.1.aspx|journal=Taiwanese Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=33|issue=2|pages=55|doi=10.4103/TPSY.TPSY_15_19|issn=1028-3684}}</ref>. Mapother's advocation for the decentralization of services were further honored through the 1947 establishment of a first child guidance clinic in Colombo General Hospital<ref name=":0" />. In 1948, British Ceylon was granted independence from the British after the [[w:Sri_Lankan_independence_movement|Sri Lankan independence movement]]. Changes in the mental healthcare structure were not immediate following independence, but rapid expansions of mental healthcare services were still ongoing. The following decades saw positive institutional developments, such as the creation of a second hospital in [[w:Mulleriyawa|Mulleriyawa]] in 1957, and the creation of a psychiatric inpatient unit in Colombo General Hospital in 1967—effectively granting the city of Colombo the luxury of hosting the top psychiatric care in the country<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|title=Mental Health System Development in Sri Lanka|last=Minas|first=Harry|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Hall|first3=Teresa|date=2017|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4899-7997-1|editor-last=Minas|editor-first=Harry|location=Boston, MA|pages=59–77|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|editor-last2=Lewis|editor-first2=Milton}}</ref>. The 1950s was also the start of psychopharmacological innovations, with the introduction of [[w:Lithium_(medication)|lithium]] and long-acting injectable antipsychotics ([[w:Depot_injection|depot]] [[w:Antipsychotic|neuroleptics]]) in the succeeding years<ref name=":4" />. Additionally, the number of public psychiatrist positions increased by 400% from 1953 to 1967<ref name=":5" />. After 1960, mental health services were being established beyond the capital to other cities in the country<ref name=":2" />. In 1980, the [[w:Postgraduate_Institute_of_Medicine|Postgraduate Institute of Medicine]] began a program where students would enroll in a 5-year medical course and attain an MD in psychiatry, curbing the need for Sri Lankan medical students to be sent abroad to complete their training. Many of the medical students sent abroad for training never returned to Sri Lanka to practice, resulting in a "1:500,000 to 1000,000" ratio of psychiatrists to patients on "most occasions"<ref name=":0" />. === Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956 === In 1956, the 1873 Ordinance was revised a second time and renamed the "Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956"<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Hapangama|first=Aruni|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Kuruppuarachchi|first3=K. a. L. A.|date=2023-02|title=Why are we still living in the past? Sri Lanka needs urgent and timely reforms of its archaic mental health laws|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-international/article/why-are-we-still-living-in-the-past-sri-lanka-needs-urgent-and-timely-reforms-of-its-archaic-mental-health-laws/B18B03DC962CC6F09BC6D7877E390EE4|journal=BJPsych International|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=4–6|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.26|issn=2056-4740|pmc=9909436|pmid=36812028}}</ref>. Another linguistic development is seen with the new revision as "lunacy" was replaced with "mental disease"<ref name=":6" />. The Ordinance paved the way for community-based services to be delivered to patients closer to their residences rather than solely allocating services to just hospitals. This led to the creation of a [[w:WHO|WHO]]-backed community clinic near the [[w:University_of_Colombo|University of Colombo]] in the 1970s, where the focus was to eventually ease patients in the Angoda Mental Hospital back into the general population<ref name=":5" />. === Developments from the 1990s === The 1990s and onwards saw further positive developments in framing the mental healthcare system, including the establishment of the [https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=featured&Itemid=101&lang=en Directorate of Mental Health] in 1998. The Directorate of Mental Health is a part of the [[w:Ministry_of_Health_(Sri_Lanka)|Ministry of Health]] who is responsible for the monitoring and implementation of mental health programs across the country<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?lang=en|title=Home - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}</ref>. As of 2025, the current director of the Directorate of Mental Health is Dr. Chithramalee de Silva<ref name=":2" />. On November 11, 2005, the Mental Health Policy was approved by the Government of Sri Lanka, advocating for establishments of more de-centralized, community-based mental health services across the country beyond the capital (Colombo). The policy aimed to concisely define the rigorous standards needed to be completed for each respected medical professional, including psychiatrists and clinical psychologists<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakshe|first=Onali Bimalka Wickramaseckara|last2=Mohan|first2=Mohapradeep|last3=Singh|first3=Swaran Preet|date=2023-05|title=Development of adolescent mental health services in Sri Lanka|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10895478/|journal=BJPsych international|volume=20|issue=2|pages=41–43|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.32|issn=2056-4740|pmc=10895478|pmid=38414998}}</ref>. The policy also included a new position, the "Medical Officer of Mental Health", who oversees and assists in the implementation of community-based mental health services<ref name=":0" />. This same year, the Sri Lankan government began implementing psychological services in state institutions, such as the military<ref name=":8" />. In 2007, the National Mental Health Advisory Council (NMHAC) was created to serve as an 'advisory' board for the Ministry of Health on what actions should be executed by the Directorate of Mental Health<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=9&Itemid=220&lang=en|title=Introduction - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}</ref>. In 2008, the Angoda Mental Hospital was restructured as the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)<ref name=":7" />. === Modern-day Sri Lanka === [[File:Feeding Children in Sri Lanka.jpg|left|thumb|Despite the noteworthy improvements in mental healthcare services in recent decades, mental health remains a significant issue due to rising poverty. ]] As of 2025, the Mental Health Act (mental health legislation) has been undergoing development since 2005 and is currently awaiting to be considered for the final stage of approval. This is expected to replace the 1956 Mental Health Ordinance<ref name=":7" />. Currently, there are 7 tertiary care hospitals, 61 adult patient units, 3 child inpatient units, and 1 forensic unit with over 100 psychiatrists all throughout the 22 districts<ref name=":4" />. The [[w:Lady_Ridgeway_Hospital_for_Children|Lady Ridgeway Hospital]] in Colombo and the Sirimavo Bandaranayke Specialized Children Hospital in Kandy are tailored towards alleviating children with [[w:Learning_disability|SLD]], [[w:ADHD|ADHD]], [[w:Autism_Spectrum_Disorder|ASD]] and family support for diagnosed children. As of 2017, 22 rehabilitation centers exist through the country, including 7 alcohol rehab centers<ref name=":7" />. Despite the impressive advancements in mental healthcare in the last couple of decades, Sri Lanka still suffers significant mental health issues due to increasing poverty levels in the country. The [[w:World_Bank|World Bank]] reported that [https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2024/04/08/eesc-a08.html the poverty levels in Sri Lanka increased from 11% in 2019 to 26% in 2024], with 60% of Sri Lankan households facing "decreased incomes"<ref>Lakhtakia, Shruti, Atapattu Mudiyanselage, Udahiruni Shashadari Atapat, Walker, Richard Ancrum. ''Sri Lanka Development Update - Bridge to Recovery (English).'' Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. <nowiki>http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/099634104012434919</nowiki></ref>. This was churned by Sri Lanka's excessive foreign debt, economic troubles stemming from [[w:Gotabaya_Rajapaksa|Gotabaya Rajapaksa]]'s presidential term, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the [[w:Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine|ongoing invasion of Ukraine by Russia (2022)]]. According to [[w:NYU|New York University]] graduate student [https://gc-cuny.academia.edu/NadiaAugustyniak Nadia Augustyniak] in her 2025 overview of Sri Lanka's public mental healthcare system, poverty-induced financial precarity remains a major obstacle to receiving access to mental healthcare services. Even though trauma from adverse weather and conflict is deleterious to mental health, issues originating from every-day struggles, especially struggles related to poverty, could arguably play a more significant role<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. == Impact of Conflicts, Terrorism, Political Instability & Natural Disasters == === Sri Lankan Civil War === The '''Sri Lankan Civil War''' was a domestic conflict that took place between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (abbreviated as the ''LTTE),'' a militant group formed in the 1970s as a result of rising tensions between the majority Sinhalese and minority Tamil population. The group is considered a terrorist organization<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.start.umd.edu/baad/database/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-ltte-1998.html|title=BAAD - Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) - 1998 {{!}} START.umd.edu|website=www.start.umd.edu|access-date=2025-06-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-aka-tamil-tigers-sri-lanka-separatists|title=Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (aka Tamil Tigers) (Sri Lanka, separatists) {{!}} Council on Foreign Relations|last=Bhattacharji|first=Preeti|website=www.cfr.org|language=en|access-date=2025-06-09}}</ref>. Through brutal massacres, assassinations, and suicide bombings, the LTTE waged decades of terror which led to civilian displacement, infrastructure collapse, and the reduction of mental health services available in the northern region.[[File:DFID-funded, UNHCR emergency shelter tents, in the IDP camp at Menik Farm, Sri Lanka (3694081492).jpg|thumb|350x350px|An IDP camp in Menik Farm, Sri Lanka in 2009 ([https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-19703826 now closed]). Suicide rates in IDP camps were three times the general population.]]The civil war mainly affected the northeastern portion of the country, including the [[w:Vanni_(Sri_Lanka)|Vanni region]]. The conflict caused mass destruction to local mental healthcare facilities. Local residents described the conflict with the phrase ''varthayal varnicca mudiyathavai'', roughly translating into English as 'beyond description by words'<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}</ref>. In 2003, only two psychiatrists were found in the region, operating on extremely limited resources and further deepening long-term trauma and mental health deterioration in the population<ref name=":5" />. In 2002, the humanitarian organization [https://www.msf.org/ Médecins Sans Frontières] (MSF) performed an investigation of mental health needs in the [[w:Vavuniya|Vavuniya]] area, the site of intense conflict during the civil war (including the [[w:1985_Vavuniya_massacre|1985 Vavuniya massacre]]), and found that many of the residents suffered from high suicide rates, alcohol abuse, domestic violence, grief, and a "sense of ‘learnt helplessness’"<ref name=":5" />. A team from the University of Konstanz in Germany found that 92% of grade school children in the region were exposed to "combat, shelling, and witnessing the death of loved ones"<ref name=":9" />. [[File:Tractors. Jan 2009 displacement in the Vanni.jpg|left|thumb|350x350px|Displaced civilians originating from the Kilinochchi and Mullaitivu Districts due to military campaigns by the Sri Lankan military (January 2009). Displaced civilians had to avoid both the atrocities committed by the LTTE and the Sri Lankan government.]] Accusation of war crimes towards [[w:War_crimes_during_the_final_stages_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war|the Sri Lankan government]] have been documented by various external organizations, despite the government's attempts at removing any [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e_p1TfTguW0 mentions] or [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vtm54Y9USEg investigations] of it<ref>See also [[w:Sexual violence in the Sri Lankan civil war]].</ref>. A 2009 HRW report stated that the Sri Lankan government assumed native Tamil population residing in war zones to be "siding with the LTTE and [therefore, were] treated as combatants", leading to indiscriminate shillings and massacres of civilians<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2009-02-19|title=War on the Displaced|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/02/19/war-displaced/sri-lankan-army-and-ltte-abuses-against-civilians-vanni|journal=Human Rights Watch|language=en}}</ref>. Alongside the oppression by the Sri Lankan military, the Vanni population also endured the brutal theatrics of the LTTE, which recruited men, women, and even children with minimal training, effectively rendering them cannon fodder. Over 200,000 Tamil civilians were moved into [[w:Internally_displaced_persons_in_Sri_Lanka|designated displacement camps during the war]], where conditions were abysmal<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000}}</ref>. The suicide rate in these displacement camps were three times the community-level (2002), with a ratio of 103.5 per 10,000 compared to the Sri Lankan general population's rate of 37.5 per 10,000. Almost all suicide attempts involved poisonous substances. Other forms of violence included domestic violence and child abuse. Local health officials in Vavuniya admitted that mental health concerns were a major problem, but were unable to address these concerns due to a lack of resources and support from the government. During the [[wikipedia:Sri_Lankan_civil_war#2002_peace_process_(2002%E2%80%932006)|brief 2002 ceasefire]], the MSF implemented a "community-based programme" which included "increasing awareness, community strengthening, reinforcing coping-strategies for long-term war-affected communities, and counselling". The MSF also advocated for restrictions of poisonous substances due to the suicide attempts, and stressed that "much more [than resettlement]" would need to be done to help alleviate the psychological pain the northern population had faced<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Jong|first=Kaz|last2=Mulhern|first2=Maureen|last3=Ford|first3=Nathan|last4=Simpson|first4=Isabel|last5=Swan|first5=Alison|last6=van der Kam|first6=Saskia|date=2002-04|title=Psychological trauma of the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673602084209|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=359|issue=9316|pages=1517–1518|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08420-9}}</ref>. The ceasefire ended in 2006 and led to the [[w:Eelam_War_IV|final phase of the civil war]], eventually ending in 2009 with the [[w:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velupillai_Prabhakaran#Sri_Lankan_Army_Northern_offensive_and_death|death of the LTTE's leader]]. '''Post-war''' [[File:Puttalam district.svg|left|thumb|Puttalam District, unlike its northern counterparts, was largely spared from the intense conflict, possibly explaining the lower rates of common mental disorders (CMDs).]] The first district-wide cross-sectional multistage cluster sample survey was conducted in the [[w:Jaffna_District|Jaffna District]] shortly after the war ended. The study's sample included 1517 households and 2 internally displaced peoples camps. With a response rate of 92%, the study found that symptoms for PTSD were found in 7% of participants, symptoms of anxiety were found in 32.6% of participants, and symptoms of depression were found in 22.2% of participants. 2% of respondents were currently placed in internally displaced peoples camps at the time of the study, 29.5% were freshly resettled from the internally displaced peoples camps, and the rest of the participants (68.5%) were never placed into camps. In comparison to residents who were never placed into camps, participants that were actively held in camps tend to report more symptoms of PTSD, anxiety, and depression. The researchers also found that women were especially vulnerable to deteriorating mental health conditions. This was explained by two factors: women having to assume the roles of both the father and the mother in the family setting after the, either voluntary or forced, departure of the husband to war, and sexist violence<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Husain|first=Farah|last2=Anderson|first2=Mark|last3=Lopes Cardozo|first3=Barbara|last4=Becknell|first4=Kristin|last5=Blanton|first5=Curtis|last6=Araki|first6=Diane|last7=Kottegoda Vithana|first7=Eeshara|date=2011-08-03|title=Prevalence of War-Related Mental Health Conditions and Association With Displacement Status in Postwar Jaffna District, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1052|journal=JAMA|volume=306|issue=5|pages=522–531|doi=10.1001/jama.2011.1052|issn=0098-7484}}</ref>. A 2013 study on adult patients in [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232631/ primary care settings] (divisional hospitals, primary medical care units) found major depression to be significantly higher in females (5.1%) than males (3.6%), bolstering the observation seen in the 2009 study<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senarath|first=Upul|last2=Wickramage|first2=Kolitha|last3=Peiris|first3=Sharika Lasanthi|date=2014-03-24|title=Prevalence of depression and its associated factors among patients attending primary care settings in the post-conflict Northern Province in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|journal=BMC Psychiatry|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=85|doi=10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|issn=1471-244X|pmc=3987835|pmid=24661436}}</ref>. Muslims in Northern Sri Lanka during the conflict also faced violence and discrimination, most notably [[w:Expulsion_of_Muslims_from_the_Northern_Province_of_Sri_Lanka|the October 1990 expulsion of Muslims from the North to the Puttalam District or Jaffna]] and the [[w:Kattankudy_mosque_massacre|1990 Kattankudy mosque massacre]]. The only study testing the displaced Muslim population post-civil war was completed in 2011, where a cross-sectional survey of 450 internally displaced people or people born into displacement (ages 18 - 65) revealed 18.8% of the sample suffering from common mental health disorders (CMD), including [[w:Somatoform_disorder|somatoform disorder]] (14%), "other depressive syndromes" (7.3%), major depression (5.1%), and anxiety disorder (2.8%). The percentages found in this study for somatoform disorder and major depression were "considerably higher" than the national percentages, though the researchers noted that the prevalence of CMD was lower in comparison to other countries marred with conflict, including Palestine (40.3%) and Ethiopia (27.8%). The researchers explained that the lower rate of CMD may be attributed to the [[w:Puttalam_District|serenity of the post-settlement destination]], as conflict was mainly centered in the North and East. In contrast to earlier findings, this study did not observe a higher prevalence of CMDs among women, although increased rates of somatoform disorders were noted (though the researchers did not show the data behind this)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siriwardhana|first=Chesmal|last2=Adikari|first2=Anushka|last3=Pannala|first3=Gayani|last4=Siribaddana|first4=Sisira|last5=Abas|first5=Melanie|last6=Sumathipala|first6=Athula|last7=Stewart|first7=Robert|date=2013-05-22|title=Prolonged Internal Displacement and Common Mental Disorders in Sri Lanka: The COMRAID Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|pages=e64742|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3661540|pmid=23717656}}</ref>. Research on the mental state of combatants has been limited, but a post-war 2009 study done between soldiers of the [[w:Sri_Lanka_Army_Special_Forces_Regiment|Special Forces]] and regular soldiers showed higher levels of exposure to traumatic events for units of the Special Forces, yet the former exhibited significantly less symptoms of CMDs compared to the latter. The authors of this study, [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=cVKEBdwAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao Raveen Hanwella] and [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=ZRj74qMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra Varuni de Silva], offers the camaraderie of the unit as an explanation for the discrepancy<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|date=2012-08|title=Mental health of Special Forces personnel deployed in battle|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22038567|journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology|volume=47|issue=8|pages=1343–1351|doi=10.1007/s00127-011-0442-0|issn=1433-9285|pmid=22038567}}</ref>. A follow-up study was completed by the pair (with the addition of former Director-General of the Health Services of the Sri Lanka Navy [[w:Nicholas_Jayasekera|Nicholas Jayasekera]]), where the findings were similar, though the statistically significant bridge between the two cohorts in the previous study evaporated in the follow-up study. This may be due to the significant decline in mental health problems observed in the regular unit forces, potentially reflecting resilience in the aftermath of jarring conflict<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=Jayasekera|first2=Nicholas E. L. W.|last3=Silva|first3=Varuni A. de|date=2014-09-25|title=Mental Health Status of Sri Lanka Navy Personnel Three Years after End of Combat Operations: A Follow Up Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=9|issue=9|pages=e108113|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4177866|pmid=25254557}}</ref>. Amputees or soldiers with spinal injuries exhibited drastically different numbers, with approximately 40% of nearly 100 male-veterans in a post-war 2009 study displaying PTSD-like symptoms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abeyasinghe|first=N. L.|last2=de Zoysa|first2=P.|last3=Bandara|first3=K.M.K.C.|last4=Bartholameuz|first4=N. A.|last5=Bandara|first5=J. M.U.J.|date=2012-05-01|title=The prevalence of symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder among soldiers with amputation of a limb or spinal injury: A report from a rehabilitation centre in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|journal=Psychology, Health & Medicine|volume=17|issue=3|pages=376–381|doi=10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|issn=1354-8506|pmid=21942815}}</ref>. About a decade after the conflict ceased, a few notable studies have emerged to help guide understanding on the longer-term mental health effects on victims of the civil war. From July 2019 to October 2020, a study was conducted on 585 local adolescents (ages 12-19) in the Vavuniya district revealed that despite 15.6% of the statistic having faced one or more war-related events, only 3.9% of the participants had moderate - severe depression. In addition to considerably low depression rates, only 5.7% of participants age 17+ were found to have moderate - severe hopelessness<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000|pmc=10472617|pmid=37653394}}</ref>. The authors referenced a 2010 observation by psychiatrist [https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/author/daya-somasundaram Daya Somasundaram], who noted that many Tamil IDPs exhibited "remarkable resilience and post-traumatic growth" after the civil war—an outcome he attributed to the close-knit, family-centered nature of Tamil communities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}</ref>. Findings originating from a 2019 study undertook by several faculty members from the University of Kelaniya, the University of Jaffna, the [[w:Gampaha_Wickramarachchi_University_of_Indigenous_Medicine|Gampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous Medicine]], and the [https://onur.gov.lk/ Office for National Unity and Reconciliation (ONUR)] in Jaffna, found contrasting statistics. Out of 336 participants from districts that faced significant ramifications of the conflict (Jaffna, Kilinochchi, Mullaithivu, Vavuniya, and Mannar districts), 50.5% had extreme anxiety symptoms and 36.5% exhibited "extremely severe" symptoms of depression. 92.5% of families in the sample experienced suicidal ideation, with an observed negative correlation between trauma exposure and life satisfaction with families. Drug abuse (86.2%) and alcohol abuse (84.5%) were the two highest problematic behaviors recorded on a community-level, suggesting that the negative consequences of the civil war still persist, possibly on a substantial scale than previously recognized, in Tamil communities in the North<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thamotharampillai|first=Umaharan|last2=Perera|first2=Ruwanthi|last3=Wickremasinghe|first3=Rajitha|last4=Williams|first4=Shehan|last5=Vijayasangar|first5=Thedsanamoorthy|last6=Sivatharsan|first6=Balasubramaniam|last7=Hilbert|first7=Vanceline|last8=Somasundaram|first8=Daya|date=2025-05-06|title=Collective Trauma- Psychosocial consequences of war in northern Sri Lanka 10 years on, a mixed methods study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000696|journal=SSM - Mental Health|pages=100457|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100457|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Further research should be conducted in this field. In 2019, [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/R-M-M-Monaragala-2087692299 Dr. R. M. M. Monaragala] conducted a study on 1,845 soldiers with combat experience, finding that 3.9% of the sample suffered from PTSD. Dr. Monaragala noted that "probable depression, fatigue, aggression, and family history of mental disorder" were correlative of PTSD presence. He suggested that "screening and psychosocial intervention" were recommended avenues to alleviate CMDs of former combatants<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Monaragala|first=R. M. M.|date=2024-04-19|title=Exploring the effects of the past civil war in terms of the prevalence and associating factors of PTSD|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=14|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. === 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami === The '''2004 Boxing Day Tsunami''' was a natural disaster where a tsunami spawned off a 9.2–9.3 magnitude earthquake off the coast of Aceh in Indonesia on December 26. The tsunami greatly affected the coastlines of the country, with the death toll reaching to about 35,000 deaths. In addition, 90,000 houses were destroyed and 516,000 people were forced to migrate due to severe infrastructural damage<ref name=":5" />. It stands as the [http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/tsunami_relief/119821.htm worst natural disaster to have ever hit Sri Lanka]. [[File:Tsunami relief 2004 02.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Volunteers from [[w:Royal_College,_Colombo|Royal College in Colombo]] assisting in tsunami relief efforts (Sarvodaya Headquaters, Moratuwa).]] A survey conducted on schoolchildren (ages 8-14) in Manadkadu (Tamil-majority village in the northern coast), [[w:Kosgoda|Kosgoda]] (western coast), and [[w:Galle|Galle]] (southern coast), just a few weeks after the tsunami hit Sri Lanka, revealed that 33.8%, 13.9%, and 38.8% of children interviewed exhibited signs of PTSD (according to the DSM-IV's criteria), respectively (minus the time criteria, as the DSM-IV does not permit diagnosis of PTSD within 4 weeks of a traumatic incident). The loss of family members and exposure to previously traumatic incidents seem to highly correlate with PTSD development<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Neuner|first=Frank|last2=Schauer|first2=Elisabeth|last3=Catani|first3=Claudia|last4=Ruf|first4=Martina|last5=Elbert|first5=Thomas|date=2006|title=Post-tsunami stress: A study of posttraumatic stress disorder in children living in three severely affected regions in Sri Lanka|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jts.20121|journal=Journal of Traumatic Stress|language=en|volume=19|issue=3|pages=339–347|doi=10.1002/jts.20121|issn=1573-6598}}</ref>. Many victims in the Jaffna area suffered with "[https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/prolonged-grief-disorder pathological grief], phobias, depression and PTSD" post-tsunami. Schizophrenia in the Jaffna Tamil community, which had already suffered elevated prevalence of PTSD prior to the tsunami, had worsened—highlighting the need for specialized care in response to cumulative exposures to chronic and acute traumas. In a study published in the journal ''International Psychiatry'' (2006), Jaffna-based researchers noted that, contrary to their initial inclinations, there was not a "large[r] (than expected) rise in [the] number of people" seeking mental health support 3 months after the tsunami. However, 10 months after the disaster, the researchers anticipated that "more psychiatric disorders" would emerge due to "very little rebuilding [efforts]" and an apparent "unfairness in the aid system".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=D. J.|last2=Yoganathan|first2=S.|last3=Ganesvaran|first3=T.|date=1993-09|title=Schizophrenia in northern Sri Lanka|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7828234|journal=The Ceylon Medical Journal..|volume=38|issue=3|pages=131–135|issn=0009-0875|pmid=7828234}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Danvers|first=K.|last2=Sivayokan|first2=S.|last3=Somasundaram|first3=D. J.|last4=Sivashankar|first4=R.|date=2006-07|title=Ten months on: qualitative assessment of psychosocial issues in northern Sri Lanka following the tsunami|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6734678/|journal=International Psychiatry: Bulletin of the Board of International Affairs of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|volume=3|issue=3|pages=5–8|issn=1749-3676|pmc=6734678|pmid=31507850}}</ref> At the February 2005 ''After the Tsunami: Mental Health Challenges to the Community for Today and Tomorrow'' conference in Thailand, [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Chandanie-Hewage Dr. Chandanie Hewage] of the [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] commentated that measures taken to assist the affected were "not coordinated" due to poor "communication systems and road [conditions]." Regardless, efforts were continued by the government and health professionals to alleviate the struggles the victims were facing, including the psychological ramifications of the disaster. Several issues in the delivery of these services were highlighted by Dr. Hewage, including poor maintenance of health records, lack of awareness on drug consumption by the patients themselves, and shortages of health professionals. Dr. Hewage points out that personnel had "little" mental health training prior to the disaster, suggesting increased "research" and adequate "provision[ing] and training of staff" in the long-term<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Davidson|first=Jonathan R. T.|date=2006|title=Foreword. After the tsunami: mental health challenges to the community for today and tomorrow|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16602809|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=67 Suppl 2|pages=3–8|issn=0160-6689|pmid=16602809}}</ref>. With inadequate documentation, no systematic procedures in place, and insufficient personnel, tsunami victims with mental health concerns may not receive the services they need, further compacting neuropsychological ailments. In 2008 (about 3-4 years after the tsunami), researchers in the hard-hit village of [[w:Peraliya|Peraliya]] (Galle District) found that from a sample of approximately 90 adults, 25% suffered from moderate–severe PTSD, with women scoring "above the cut-off for anxiety" and reporting more "somatic symptoms", though researchers inferred that the PTSD rate found in the study may be influenced by war or economic hardship<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hollifield|first=Michael|last2=Hewage|first2=Chandanie|last3=Gunawardena|first3=Charlotte N.|last4=Kodituwakku|first4=Piyadasa|last5=Bopagoda|first5=Kalum|last6=Weerarathnege|first6=Krishantha|last7=Group|first7=International Post-Tsunami Study|date=2008-01|title=Symptoms and coping in Sri Lanka 20–21 months after the 2004 tsunami|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/symptoms-and-coping-in-sri-lanka-2021-months-after-the-2004-tsunami/CB33752239AF362A0BFD55B3668D60B0|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=192|issue=1|pages=39–44|doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.107.038422|issn=0007-1250}}</ref>. === 2019 Easter Bombings === The '''2019 Easter Bombings''' were a series of coordinated attacks perpetrated by the Islamic extremist group, [[w:National_Thowheeth_Jama'ath|National Thowheeth Jama'ath]], on April 21, 2019. The attack targeted three churches and three hotels in the Colombo area, killing nearly 300 people and injuring over 500. The attack was also attributed to the incompetency of the Sri Lankan government, who ignored [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48044636 multiple warnings regarding the attacks]. The attacks negatively affected the Sri Lankan Catholic community and further weakened relations between the major religious groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. In the aftermath of the attacks, professionals in the [[w:Gampaha_District|Gampaha District]] resorted to "low-cost methodological" responses to children and adolescents affected by the attack as a "severe shortage" of children and adolescent mental health experts were exposed<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chandradasa|first=Miyuru|last2=Rathnayake|first2=Layani C|last3=Rowel|first3=Madushi|last4=Fernando|first4=Lalin|date=2020-06-01|title=Early phase child and adolescent psychiatry response after mass trauma: Lessons learned from the Easter Sunday attack in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020913314|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry|language=EN|volume=66|issue=4|pages=331–334|doi=10.1177/0020764020913314|issn=0020-7640}}</ref>. In a qualitative study of 8 survivors of the attacks receiving grief counseling, [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] assistant professor [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Virasha-Godakanda Virasha Godakanda] observed that 70% of the sample size expressed "doubts" in adequate mental health interventions from the government, reducing the quality of such services. Professor Godakanda strongly endorsed for "culturally-sensitive" programs, a diversity in therapeutic approaches (including nature-based therapy), and "prolonged investigations" to track developments in mental health resources and impacts of implemented interventions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Godakanda|first=Virasha|date=2025-01-29|title=A GRIEF COUNSELING INTERVENTION AFTER THE MASS TRAUMA: LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE VICTIMS OF THE EASTER SUNDAY ATTACK IN SRI LANKA|url=https://kjmr.com.pk/kjmr/article/view/216|journal=Kashf Journal of Multidisciplinary Research|language=en|volume=2|issue=01|pages=13–32|doi=10.71146/kjmr216|issn=3007-200X}}</ref>. A few weeks following the attacks, Muslims in Sri Lanka were subjected to [[w:2019_anti-Muslim_riots_in_Sri_Lanka|violent, coordinated riots]] masterminded by Sinhalese national forces<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mujahidin|first=Muhammad Saekul|date=2023-07-03|title=Extremism and Islamophobia Against the Muslim Minority in Sri Lanka|url=https://www.ajis.org/|journal=American Journal of Islam and Society|language=en|volume=40|issue=1-2|pages=213–241|doi=10.35632/ajis.v40i1-2.3135|issn=2690-3741}}</ref>. Riots were mainly centered in the [[w:Kurunegala_District|Kurunegala]], Gampaha, and [[w:Kandy_District|Kandy]] Districts. At least [https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/5/21/in-sri-lanka-muslims-say-sinhala-neighbours-turned-against-them one confirmed death was reported]. Calls for vague ''niqab'' and ''burqa'' bans were increasingly prominent, eventually leading to the 2021 burqa ban by the Sri Lankan government. Pakistani and Afghani refugees fleeing religious persecution in Negombo were forced to be "made refugees again" after local protests were orchestrated against their settlement. Islamophobic aroma was "unleashed online, in the law, and on the street"<ref>{{Cite book|title=CARTOGRAPHIC JOURNEY OF RACE, GENDER AND POWER: global identity|date=2021|publisher=CAMBRIDGE SCHOLARS PUBLIS|isbn=978-1-5275-6965-2|location=S.l.}}</ref>. Albeit its relevancy to the attacks, no in-depth mental health studies were administered on the minority Muslim population following the Easter bombings. Further research is imperative in exploring the sustained psychological effects of Islamophobia and its effect on the Muslim minority community in the aftermath of the 2019 Easter attacks. Literature on the impact of the 2019 Easter Bombings on mental health is limited and further research should be conducted. === 2019-2024 Economic Crisis === The '''2019-2024 Economic Crisis''' refers to a 5 year period where the Sri Lankan economy experienced massive inflation and an abrupt hike in prices on basic, everyday items. It is the worse economic crisis the country has faced since the Sri Lankans were granted independence in 1948. Schools in Sri Lanka were forced to postpone examinations due to paper shortages. Gas shortages led to long lines at gas stations, some lasting for days, throughout the island. Shortages in electricity, cooking gas, and aviation were additional results of the economic crisis. Healthcare workers faced a barrage of mental health during the crisis, including a lopsided work-life balance due to unprecedented demand, increased stress and mental fatigue from a lack of resources and personnel, unhealthy coping mechanisms, job dissatisfaction, and a reduction in work quality. Such effects perpetuate a self-enforcing cycle of psychologically distressed mental healthcare workers providing subpar services, affecting patients and amplifying mental health issues experienced by both the workforce and their patients<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dilogini|first=S.|last2=Grace|first2=H. H.|last3=Thasika|first3=T.|date=2024|title=Exploring The Mental Health and Well-Being of Public Healthcare Workers (HCWs) Amid Economic Crisis in Sri Lanka|url=http://repo.lib.jfn.ac.lk/ujrr/handle/123456789/11092|language=en|publisher=Chartered Institute of Personnel Management}}</ref>. Medical students from the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Colombo reported that the economic crisis forced abrupt changes in dietary consumption, increased hopelessness in the future, increased stress and anxiety, and a decrease in interest in pursuing a "clinical post-graduate career"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Adikaranayake|first=Pesala Randika|last2=Perera|first2=Anusha Nimrod|last3=Nilaweera|first3=Akhila Imantha|last4=Fernando|first4=Desha Rajni|last5=Wijayaratne|first5=Dilushi Rowena|date=2025-07-01|title=Effects of Sri Lankan economic crisis on health, lifestyle and education of medical students in Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo – an online survey|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|journal=BMC Medical Education|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=938|doi=10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|issn=1472-6920|pmc=12211748}}</ref>. 283 government-school teachers completed a web-based cross-sectional survey in April 2024, with majority of the participants reporting a severe reduction in monthly income & 1/3 of participants exhibiting "clinical levels of psychological distress"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C. P.|last2=Senarathne|first2=D. L. P.|last3=Fernando|first3=M. S.|last4=Senevirathne|first4=S. P.|date=2025-05-28|title=Examining the economic burden and mental health distress among government school teachers in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|journal=BMC Psychology|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=572|doi=10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|issn=2050-7283}}</ref>. A study published in that same year reported that out of 261 nurses working in teaching hospitals, 91.6% were forced to allocate their finances to strictly "general needs", while more than 50% looked into international opportunism for employment. Notably, the study reported an overall near "twofold greater" rate of depression, anxiety, and stress compared to previously conducted studies on nurses<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C.P|last2=Senarathne|first2=L.|last3=Fernando|first3=M.|date=2024-04-01|title=Exploring the Association Between Behavioural Modification in Response to the Prevailing Economic Crisis and Mental Health Outcomes of Nurses from Teaching Hospitals, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/23779608241272679|journal=SAGE Open Nursing|language=EN|volume=10|pages=23779608241272679|doi=10.1177/23779608241272679|issn=2377-9608|pmc=11311183}}</ref>. The detrimental effects the crisis has had on the mental health sector reveal a concerning area of underappreciation and under compensation by the Sri Lankan government towards a critical sector for the well-being of the country. Comprehensive mental health interventions need to be prepared and ready to implement at times of national emergencies. == Present-Day Challenges == === Ethnic tension === Despite the end of the Sri Lankan civil war and the introduction of pluralist policies, such as the [https://srilankaembassy.fr/sites/default/files/files/media/pdf/NationalPolicy-English.pdf 2017 National Policy on Reconciliation and Coexistence] under the Sirisena administration, tensions amongst members of the ethnic groups still persist in the country. Evidence of these tensions was found through a 2022 study conducted in the Ratnapura district, where religious leaders expressed skepticisms, through semi-structured interviews, for "conflict transformation". A Tamil citizen of the Ratnapura community recounted that they were forced to "hide in jungles" and consume "dirty water in drainage[s]" due to scarcity of food and drinkable water as a result of the conflict. In certain personal accounts, ethnic conflicts appear to affect the social behavior and identity of the majority ethnic group. One Sinhala participant recounted his objection to the war-time retaliatory destruction of a shop run by a Tamil shopkeeper was met with interrogative questions about "whether [he was] Sinhalese or not". Both accounts convey interethnic tensions stemming from decade-long conflicts<ref>Jayathilaka, Aruna & Gamage, Sayuri. (2024). Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders in the Post-War Conflict Transformation Process: A Study Based on Rathnapura District in Srilanka. ''Retrieved from'' https://gandhimargjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Volume-46-Issue-1-April-June-2024.pdf#page=66</ref>. Beyond individual accounts and the official end of the civil war, the minority groups in the country continue to feel ostracized. The Sri Lankan Tamil population remains dissatisfied with the Sri Lankan government and their accountability of perpetrators of war crimes and information on the whereabouts of [[w:Enforced_disappearances_in_Sri_Lanka|thousands of enforced disappearances]] that took place from the 1980s. Additionally, rising anti-Muslim sentiment in recent years contribute to increased ethnic tensions, a stark contrast to the previous centuries of peaceful co-existence between the groups. [[File:Bodu Bala Sena symbol.svg|thumb|The symbol for Bodu Bala Sena, a nationalistic Sinhala Buddhist group criticized for catalyzing ethnic tensions in Sri Lanka.]] Laws passed by the Sri Lankan government, such as the [[w:Prevention_of_Terrorism_Act_(Sri_Lanka)|Prevention of Terrorism Act]] and [[wikipedia:Anti-conversion_law#Sri_Lanka|anti-conversion laws]], have forced the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom to label Sri Lanka as a nation that "[engages] or [tolerates] severe violations of religious freedom" in their 2024 report. The government has been criticized by human rights organizations for "disproportionately targeting religious minorities"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Additionally, the implementation of the three dominant languages, English, Sinhala, and Tamil, across formal education and government services have been lackadaisical, narrowing opportunities of foundational social interactions between the groups. Persistent discrimination and prejudice towards minority groups can lead to an array of complex and self-deprecating mental health issues. Effort to mitigate ethnic tensions include strategies like [[w:Community-based_participatory_research|community-based participatory research]] (CBPR), task-sharing, and securing online mental health services in order to expand mental health services. However, the implementation of evidence-based plans has been met with difficulty due to inaccessibility, high costs, and shortages of adequately-trained personnel. Movements aiming for improved intra group and inter group coexistences, such as the Jaffna People’s Forum for Coexistence developed in the wake of the 2019 Easter bombings, should be emphasized on a systematic and multi-level basis, including but not limited to education, public sectors, and within communities. Pluralistic values should be stressed across both private and public schools to foster cultural sensitivity and tolerance. Measures should be taken against threatening extremist groups promoting sectarian hostility, such as the [[w:Bodu_Bala_Sena|Bodu Bala Sena]]. === Poverty === It has been proven that poverty significantly increases the chances of developing mental illnesses. This is further amplified by possible discrimination<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knifton|first=Lee|last2=Inglis|first2=Greig|date=2020-10|title=Poverty and mental health: policy, practice and research implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7525587/|journal=BJPsych bulletin|volume=44|issue=5|pages=193–196|doi=10.1192/bjb.2020.78|issn=2056-4694|pmc=7525587|pmid=32744210}}</ref>. Poverty also affects the ability for individuals with mental health concerns to receive the treatment they need. Due to the repercussions of the economic crisis, clients in Sri Lanka could not attend further counseling sessions<ref name=":8" />. Poverty from 2021 to 2022 [https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/poverty/987B9C90-CB9F-4D93-AE8C-750588BF00QA/current/Global_POVEQ_LKA.pdf reportedly doubled], with future forecasts predicting the poverty line to "remain above 25 percent". Suicide has been empirically linked to economic hardships in previous studies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}</ref>. A 2013 study done on suicidal patients in [[w:Batticaloa_Teaching_Hospital|Batticaloa Teaching Hospital]] revealed 76% of patients who attempted suicide were from rural areas while 15% were from urban areas<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://ir.lib.seu.ac.lk/handle/123456789/1457|title=The influence of common risk factors for the patient with attempted suicide hospitalized at the teaching hospital, Batticaloa|last=Kisokanth|first=G.|last2=Najeem|first2=M. M.|last3=Karunakaran|first3=K. E.|date=2014-08-02|publisher=South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, University Park, Oluvil #32360, Sri Lanka|isbn=978-955-627-053-2|language=en-US}}</ref>. The Sri Lankan government should consider the economical impacts that poverty has on mental health and implement ways to aid poverty-stricken individuals with mental health concerns. === Stigmas === Stigma consists of the "combined effect of prejudice, ignorance and discrimination."<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|url=http://www.researchgate.net/publication/233990797_The_Stigma_of_Mental_Illness_in_Sri_Lanka_The_Perspectives_of_Community_Mental_Health_Workers|title=(PDF) The Stigma of Mental Illness in Sri Lanka: The Perspectives of Community Mental Health Workers|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2025-07-25}}</ref>. A 2012 interview consisting of nine participants (two doctors, three nurses, one occupational therapist, one development worker, and two volunteers) revealed a number of concerning societal viewpoints on individuals with mental health concerns. The interviews revealed that negative judgements were not only levied against the individual with the mental illness, but also the family. Families hid mentally ill family members from the public to avoid "shame" and possible hinderances in marriage proposals. Views that mentally ill individuals were "violent" served as the motivating factor behind socially isolating those with mental illness from their communities. Interviewees mentioned that individuals dealing with mental health challenges would have stones and "derogatory names" launched at them. A lack of community awareness regarding mental health and negative portrayals of mentally ill individuals in media exacerbates stigmatization, though the researchers commented that the media was "improving" in their depiction of mental illness. Beliefs that illnesses are caused by "spirits" can be problematic for individuals dealing with mental health issues and serves as evidence to poor mental health awareness in the country. Mental health workers themselves believed that they were being stigmatized, as mental health is reportedly not taken as seriously as physical health. Despite the intriguing perspectives provided, the small sample size and usage of snow sampling raise questionable concerns regarding the contextualization of the results<ref name=":10" />. Improving media portrayal of subjects concerning mental health and involving community members in interventions dealing with mental health issues are ways that could destigmatize mental health amongst communities in Sri Lanka. Tying collaborations between allopathic services and traditional healers instead of having these two services work individually could enhance engagement between traditional medicine and Western medicine. === Suicide Trends & Risk Factors === Suicide is defined as "the act of killing oneself deliberately, initiated and performed by the person concerned in the full knowledge or expectation of its fatal outcome"<ref name=":11">{{Cite book|title=The neuroscience of suicidal behavior|last=Heeringen|first=Kees van|date=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-60290-4|series=Cambridge fundamentals of neuroscience in psychology|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom New York, NY, USA Port Melbourne, VIC, Australia New Delhi, India Singapore}}</ref>. Although Sri Lanka has seen a significant reduction in suicide rates from the mid 1990s due to its banning of extremely toxic pesticide products, suicide and self harm remains a significant issue. The suicide rate per 100,000 people increased from 14.0 in 2019 to [https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide 15.0 in 2022] (according to WHO). On average, 27 males per 100,000 males and 5 females per 100,000 females committed suicide in 2022<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}</ref>. Hanging appears to be the most used method for suicide for both males and females, with studies revealing a steady increase in recent years<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Bandara|first=Piumee|last2=Wickrama|first2=Prabath|last3=Sivayokan|first3=Sambasivamoorthy|last4=Knipe|first4=Duleeka|last5=Rajapakse|first5=Thilini|date=2024-04-17|title=Reflections on the trends of suicide in Sri Lanka, 1997–2022: The need for continued vigilance|url=https://journals.plos.org/globalpublichealth/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|journal=PLOS Global Public Health|language=en|volume=4|issue=4|pages=e0003054|doi=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|issn=2767-3375|pmc=11023397|pmid=38630779}}</ref>. From 2023 to 2024, a group of researchers from the [[w:Eastern_University,_Sri_Lanka|Eastern University in Sri Lanka]] assessed 828 patients admitted to the Teaching Hospital in [[w:Batticaloa,_Sri_Lanka|Batticaloa, Sri Lanka]] for attempted suicide. They concluded that suicide prevention programs should be attuned to younger people (ages 15 to 35 in the study), emphasize the importance of education and reducing unemployment, and increase social support in the Tamil community. Despite the relevant insights into certain aspects of an average Sri Lankan's life that could lead to suicidal ideation (ie, poverty), the results from this study suffer in external validity as 90% of the patients were Tamil and over 50% were between 16 and 25 years. In addition, correlations between suicide and unemployment rates have been questioned, with [[w:Austerity|austerity]] being a more reliable indicator of suicide rates than unemployment rates<ref name=":11" />. Further comprehensive studies on risk factors relating to suicide should be studied to assess correlations between unemployment rates and austerity measures. The WHO suggests implementing evidence-based suicide prevention programs, such as [https://www.who.int/initiatives/live-life-initiative-for-suicide-prevention LIVE LIFE], to reduce the national suicide rate<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide|title=World Suicide Prevention day 2024 “Changing the Narrative on Suicide”|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2025-07-29}}</ref>. Media depictionss of suicidal methods, such as hanging, can lead to sensationalism and the media should be cautious of such displays in movies and TV shows<ref name=":12" />. Awareness of depression and other mental health issues can serve as a safeguard against suicidal ideation in Sri Lankan men and women. == Role of Religion == According to the last demographic report (2012), 70.2% of Sri Lankans are Buddhist, 12.6% are Hindus, 9.7% are Muslims, and 7.4% are Christians. The Theravada Buddhist community makes up the majority in several provinces throughout the country<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sri-lanka/|title=Sri Lanka|website=United States Department of State|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-07}}</ref>. Religion, especially Theravada Buddhism, has had a significant influence on not only the historical treatment of mental health in the country, but also everyday life<ref name=":15" />. The [[w:Mahāvaṃsa|''Mahāvaṃsa'']] affirms hospitals treating patients suffering from mental health issues as early as the 4th century BC. Additionally, the 1700s Nayaka king [[w:Kirti_Sri_Rajasinha|Kirthi Sri Rajasinghe]] detailed the implementation of Buddhist philosophy in psychiatry<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. De|date=2017-12-05|title=Development of civil commitment statutes (laws of involuntary detention and treatment) in Sri Lanka: a historical review|url=https://mljsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|journal=Medico-Legal Journal of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|doi=10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|issn=2012-8231}}</ref>. Modern-day empirical studies have attested to the usefulness of religion in mitigating stress and elevating mental health<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|title=Religion and Mental Health|last=Schieman|first=Scott|last2=Bierman|first2=Alex|last3=Ellison|first3=Christopher G.|date=2013|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-94-007-4276-5|editor-last=Aneshensel|editor-first=Carol S.|location=Dordrecht|pages=457–478|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|editor-last2=Phelan|editor-first2=Jo C.|editor-last3=Bierman|editor-first3=Alex}}</ref>. Religion has been found to be positively correlated with improved mental health, and more religious patients were concluded to have "better mental health and adapt[ed] more quickly to health problems" versus patients who weren't religious<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koenig|first=Harold G.|date=2012|title=Religion, spirituality, and health: the research and clinical implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3671693/|journal=ISRN psychiatry|volume=2012|pages=278730|doi=10.5402/2012/278730|issn=2090-7966|pmc=3671693|pmid=23762764}}</ref>. [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/T-N-Wickramarathna-2247724082 Dr. Wickramarathna] of the University Psychiatry Unit (UPU) at the National Hospital of Sri Lanka (NHSL) argues that psychiatrists must strive for a balance in their approach to patients and "make positive use of religion in [their] practice[s]"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wickramarathna|first=T. N.|date=2022-12-31|title=Psychiatrists should stand far from the shrine: why and why not we should separate religion from psychiatry|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=13|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. === Buddhism === 27 Sinhalese Buddhists from four Buddhist temples were selected for a series of 70-minute interviews and focus group discussions with the aim of learning the Sinhala Buddhist understanding and experience of spiritual well-being and psychological well-being. The interviewees held spiritual wellness to be the "center" of overall wellness, the "precondition for a successful life"<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|language=en-US|volume=44|issue=1|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=0258-9710}}</ref>. Sinhala Buddhists believe that wellness cannot be achieved without spiritual tranquility. The report states that participants emphasized that spirituality "cannot be directly intervened" and can only be seen through "[interactions] with society"<ref name=":14" />. Despite the ''athmaya'' (soul) being "unreachable", it can be "intervened", or treated, through the actions of the mind and body with society<ref name=":14" />. One being "psychologically ill" can affect one's spiritual being, as the participants reported in their interviews, and can be affected through "lifestyle stressors, environmental and socio-cultural causes, non-human related causes and bad-karma in the past lives"<ref name=":14" />. The researchers concluded that despite Sinhala Buddhists not being able to articulately decipher the discrepancies between psychological well-being and spiritual well-being, they are able to conceptualize and maintain a culturally embedded understanding between the two, serving as reputable evidence of the integration of mental health in Sinhala Buddhist practices. However, it is important to note that these results come from a very small sample size and cannot be generalized to all Sri Lankan Buddhists. In addition, a 2009 study found that a belief in karma was correlated with poor health. However, an earlier study found a positive correlation between the reliance on the [[w:Karma_in_Buddhism|Buddhist concept of karma]] and trauma, inferencing Buddhist karma being a prevalent response to trauma<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Levy|first=Becca R.|last2=Slade|first2=Martin D.|last3=Ranasinghe|first3=Padmini|date=2009-03|title=Causal thinking after a tsunami wave: karma beliefs, pessimistic explanatory style and health among Sri Lankan survivors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19229624|journal=Journal of Religion and Health|volume=48|issue=1|pages=38–45|doi=10.1007/s10943-008-9162-5|issn=1573-6571|pmid=19229624}}</ref>. Overall, the effectiveness of karma as a coping mechanism appears to be conflicted. Studies indicate that other practices of Buddhism seem to be utilized by individuals affected by the war. 40% of Sri Lankan Buddhists affected by the 2004 tsunami found the Buddhist ritual ''Bodhipuja'' to be helpful in dealing with traumatic experiences<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jmvh.org/article/mental-health-and-the-role-of-cultural-and-religious-support-in-the-assistance-of-disabled-veterans-in-sri-lanka/|title=Mental Health and the Role of Cultural and Religious Support in the Assistance of Disabled Veterans in Sri Lanka|website=JMVH|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-12}}</ref>. === Catholicism === Catholic counseling refers to "a nuanced and holistic mental health care paradigm that intricately weaves together psychological science with the moral, spiritual, and pastoral traditions of the Catholic Church"<ref name=":13">Perera, U. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera/publication/394095042_Catholic_Counselling_in_Sri_Lanka_Integrating_Faith_Psychology_and_Cultural_Healing/links/6889303af8031739e6098c79/Catholic-Counselling-in-Sri-Lanka-Integrating-Faith-Psychology-and-Cultural-Healing.pdf Catholic Counselling in Sri Lanka: Integrating Faith, Psychology, and Cultural Healing]. July 2025.</ref> and aims to assimilate Catholic theology and evidence-based psychological treatment while including Sri Lankan cultural elements. This is achieved through emphasis on community cohesion and a locally-based understanding of "personhood"<ref name=":13" />. The origins of Catholic counseling trace back to the introduction of Roman Catholicism to the island in the 1600s, with the focus of the early Sri Lankan Catholic community being on "[[w:Evangelism|evangelization]], education, and sacramental formation". Demand for counseling services in general increased due to the impacts of the Sri Lankan Civil War, where Catholic organizations (Caritas Sri Lanka, Seth Sarana, Subodhi Integral Centre (Piliyandala), etc.) established several Catholic-based trauma-informed programmes for victims of the Civil War. Programmes use group therapy, forgiveness rituals, and narrative repairs to alleviate war trauma. Examples of integration of Catholic virtues and counseling can be seen in [[w:Cognitive_Behavioral_Therapy|Cognitive Behavioral Therapy]] (CBT), where "hope" and "humility" are used as the frameworks for creating spiritual resilience<ref name=":13" />. The general Christian call of "agape love and acceptance" is echoed by the concept of [[w:Unconditional_positive_regard|unconditional positive regard]]. ''[[w:Lectio_Divina|Lectio Divina]]'' (Catholic prayer and meditation) and ''Marian devotions'' are integrated into therapeutic practices to achieve emotional regulation and mindfulness. Senior Lecturer [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera Udeshini Perera] of the University of Colombo articulates a critical role of Catholic counseling. She claims that secular counseling fails to address the "spiritual roots of distress and moral confusion". Catholic counseling fills in this gap by integrating "psychological insights with a transcendent orientation, supporting lasting transformation and integrity"<ref name=":13" />. As of 2025, no formal accreditation or standardized training exists for [[w:Pastoral_counseling|pastoral counselors]] in Sri Lanka, hampering the legitimacy of Catholic counseling. Udeshini Perera remarks that mental health stigma, lack of standardized training, research regarding Catholic counseling effectiveness, and acceptance of the combination of religion and science in a professional setting present challenges for Catholic pastoral counseling in the country. Additionally, Catholic psychiatry in Sri Lanka appears to be under-researched, and evidence of its empirical effects on followers appears sparse. Further research is needed in assessing the empirical effects of Catholic counseling in Sri Lanka. === Islam === The literature on the empirical effects of Islamic-based psychotherapy in Sri Lanka is limited. Research has revealed a 2012 case study where a 21-year-old Muslim woman was experiencing episodic possession states. The patient ceased attending psychiatric services and opted for religious rituals. The patient reported, in a follow-up visit, that the possession states had been absent for 3 months since her switch to religious rituals. The woman and her family attributed the apparent improvement of her condition to religious rituals<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|last3=Yoosuf|first3=Alam|last4=Karunaratne|first4=Sanjeewani|last5=de Silva|first5=Pushpa|date=2012|title=Religious Beliefs, Possession States, and Spirits: Three Case Studies from Sri Lanka|url=http://www.hindawi.com/journals/crips/2012/232740/|journal=Case Reports in Psychiatry|language=en|volume=2012|pages=1–3|doi=10.1155/2012/232740|issn=2090-682X|pmc=3437272|pmid=22970398}}</ref>. Future recommendations would be to employ resources to research the foundations of Islamic psychiatry in the country, and to observe the rituals employed and their effects on patients. Studies have found that Islamic prayer can be an effective means of "support and coping"<ref name=":15" />. Seven world-wide case studies using Islamic-based psychotherapy on patients, consisting of religious rituals such as scriptural reading from the [[w:Quran|Quran]], teaching of fundamental Islamic concepts (such as ''[[w:Tawakkul|tawakkul]]''), and active implementation of contemplation (''[[w:Tadabbur|tadabbur]]''), have reported positive effects in decreasing cognitive and emotional symptoms associated with "religious, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorder, grief, and substance use disorder.”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kurhade|first=Chhaya Shantaram|last2=Jagannathan|first2=Aarti|last3=Varambally|first3=Shivarama|last4=Shivanna|first4=Sushrutha|date=2022-01|title=Religion-based interventions for mental health disorders: A systematic review|url=https://journals.lww.com/10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|journal=Journal of Applied Consciousness Studies|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=20–33|doi=10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|issn=2949-6993}}</ref> Additionally, a community-based study of elderly patients in Bangalore, India receiving Islamic-based psychotherapy observed decreased exhibitions of sleep disorders, eating disorders, and emotional distress<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hafeez|first=Nimin|last2=Sanjay|first2=Thittamaranahalli Varadappa|last3=Puthussery|first3=Yannick Poulose|last4=Madhusudan|first4=Muralidhar|last5=Kariyappa|first5=Poornima Muddaiah|last6=Kulkarni|first6=Sridevi|last7=Raj|first7=Lavanya|date=2023-12-31|title=Spiritual practices among elderly, prevalence, pattern and associated factors: a community-based study from rural Bengaluru, India|url=https://jccpsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|journal=Journal of the College of Community Physicians of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=29|issue=4|doi=10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|issn=1391-3174}}</ref>. === Hinduism === Despite Hindus being 12.6% of the population of Sri Lanka, the research on Hinduism-based therapy in the country is limited. Ayurvedic medicine, a form of medicine originating from ancient India, predominated the Sri Lankan medical landscape for over 2,000 years and even had a symbiotic relationship with Sinhalese medicine, which also played a significant and influential role in the country's medical framework<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/article/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990/|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|volume=44|issue=1|pages=33|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=2478-1169}}</ref>. Despite its historical dominance, Ayurvedic medicine has been challenged against modern evidence-based medical standards<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://philarchive.org/rec/DOMAAT|title=Ayurveda: Ancient Tradition or Pseudoscientific Practice? A Philosophical Inquiry|last=Dominic|first=Shubham K.}}</ref>. === Comparative synthesis === Taking an overarching review of the role of religion in Sri Lanka, methods to improve mental well-being are practiced by adherents of Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. These methods are practiced through karma, tawakkul, hope, and humility. Additionally, these practices are implemented in traditionally-oriented mental health care, which has been reported to be preferred over psychiatric care at times. These rituals practiced across these religions indicate a common theme of psychologically integrated aspects of well-being. Interpretation of trauma is a central use in religion, with religious principles, such as karma and ''tawakkul'', serving as psychologically analogous mechanisms during times of distress. In terms of methodological comparisons to the studies described, qualitative interviews have documented Buddhist practices and principles, like Bodhipuja and the belief in karma, in response to traumatic events, while case studies found religious practices by other religious groups, such as a Muslim patient reading Islamic scripture and observing prayer to reduce emotional distress. Peer-reviewed sources have documented Catholic practices and principles, such as ''Lectio Divina'' and unconditional positive regard, in improving mindfulness and emotional regulation. The paper acknowledges limitations in the evaluation of certain findings, such as in Islam and Hinduism. These shortcomings, however, are a reflection of the existing literature and its deficiencies. Empirical findings indicate mental health practices are complex and are multifaceted in their effects. Evidently, religion serves a parallel role to psychiatric services in improving mental health. Despite its perceived benefits, the findings surrounding religions' role in mental health suffer from conflicting, and sometimes contradictory, results. Additionally, a disproportionate amount of empirical findings seem to be Buddhist-predominant, while other religions are underrepresented in the research. Regarding research barriers, the methodological approaches implemented to study the practices of religious followers vary, though much of the research was brought from qualitative or case-based studies, impeding generalizability. Another noteworthy issue is that many studies do not utilize standardized, psychiatric measures. == Future Outlook == Despite significant changes to the mental health environment in Sri Lanka, the current legal framework shaping mental health in the country has not been updated since 1956. A Cambridge University Press article detailed many limitations of the Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956, including discrepancies between the legal provisions of involuntary admissions and modern practices, potential exposure to trauma through extra-legal detentions of the mentally ill, and an absence of legal guidelines addressing the restraint of violent patients<ref name=":6" />. Participants from Sri Lanka reported in a comparative legislative questionnaire that they felt the mental health laws were "outdated" and descriptions of clinical roles remained ambiguous<ref name=":16" />. A draft mental health legislation from 2007 includes provisions for human rights, but due to "bureaucratic processes" and a "lack of consensus", the draft has not been officially approved. These limitations pose challenges to the standardization of mental healthcare admissions and may impact the rights of detained patients. Detained patients may have their human rights violated due to a lack of an up-to-date legal framework, thereby impeding the identification of such violations. Additionally, with the lack of clarity on clinical roles, clinical responsibilities may not be routinely recognized and observed, leading to role confusion and potential legal ramifications<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Dey|first=Sangeeta|last2=Mellsop|first2=Graham|last3=Diesfeld|first3=Kate|last4=Dharmawardene|first4=Vajira|last5=Mendis|first5=Susitha|last6=Chaudhuri|first6=Sreemanti|last7=Deb|first7=Aniruddha|last8=Huq|first8=Nafisa|last9=Ahmed|first9=Helal Uddin|date=2019-10-24|title=Comparing legislation for involuntary admission and treatment of mental illness in four South Asian countries|url=https://ijmhs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=13|issue=1|pages=67|doi=10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|issn=1752-4458|pmc=6813093|pmid=31666805}}</ref>. Lastly, current efforts should increase beyond just addressing poverty-centered matters, but also expand efforts to domestic violence victims and children with disabilities, as shelters and specialized services are limited<ref name=":82">{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Stagnation in policy development leaves Sri Lanka without a practical, up-to-date, and comprehensive mental health legislation, which could put both clinicians and patients at risk. Future reforms should include clarification on the treatment and detention process of involuntary admissions of patients and a clear delineation of clinical roles and their responsibilities. Without the necessary reforms to advance Sri Lankan mental health legislation, clinicians and vulnerable patients may suffer from a lack of comprehensive oversight. ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== Any people, organisations, or funding sources that you would like to thank. ===Competing interests=== No competing interests. ===Ethics statement=== An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section. ==References== {{reflist|35em}} [[Category:Mental health]] [[Category:Sri Lanka]] 2n8cldwazzjf1xaiezwpc2d71p571k2 2817338 2817337 2026-06-29T23:08:01Z Atcovi 276019 /* Development of mental asylums */ 2817338 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine <!-- WikiJournal of Medicine, Science, or Humanities --> | last1 = Azeez | orcid1 = 0009-0007-9202-4614 | first1 = Aaqib | last2 = | first2 = | last3 = | first3 = | last4 = | first4 = <!-- up to 9 authors can be added in this above format --> | et_al = <!-- if there are >9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --> | affiliation1 = Old Dominion University | correspondence1 = aaqib.azeez@yahoo.com | affiliations = institutes / affiliations | correspondence = email@address.com | keywords = <!-- up to 6 keywords --> | license = <!-- default is CC-BY --> | abstract = This is a narrative review. }} [abstract will be put in after the paper has been completed] == Introduction == Mental health continues to be a critically relevant topic as the island nation has experienced decades of [[w:Black_July|violent ethnic conflict]], terrorist attacks, war crimes, and economic disruptions. Sri Lanka continues to recover from a [[w:Sri_Lankan_economic_crisis_(2019–2024)|severe economic crisis (2019 - 2024)]], a [[w:Sri_Lankan_civil_war|nearly 30-year civil war ending in 2009]], a [[w:2019_Sri_Lanka_Easter_bombings|2019 terrorist attack]], and continues to face the ripple effects of the [[w:2004_Boxing_Day_tsunami|2004 Boxing Day tsunami]]. The exact effect these major events have had on mental health in the country is "unknown", but the statistics remain alarming despite a declining trend. Suicide rates in the country during the mid-1990s were the second-highest in the world with ingesting toxic products being the main suicide method. Despite the decline in suicide numbers since then—possibly attributed to Sri Lanka's ban on toxic products—evidence from a 2023 study reports an upward trend in suicide through hanging from 2016 to 2021—independent of the [[w:COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sri_Lanka|COVID-19 pandemic]]. Several risk factors for suicide, such as poverty and economic instability, are still prevalent and even increasing in the country<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakse|first=Thilini|last2=Silva|first2=Tharuka|last3=Hettiarachchi|first3=Nirosha Madhuwanthi|last4=Gunnell|first4=David|last5=Metcalfe|first5=Chris|last6=Spittal|first6=Matthew J.|last7=Knipe|first7=Duleeka|date=2023-01-19|title=The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic and Lockdowns on Self-Poisoning and Suicide in Sri Lanka: An Interrupted Time Series Analysis|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914278/|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=20|issue=3|pages=1833|doi=10.3390/ijerph20031833|issn=1660-4601|pmc=9914278|pmid=36767200}}</ref>. == Methods == [source selection process] ==Historical Development of Mental Health Services== Records attest to the care of the mentally ill through established hospitals in the island since the 4th century.<ref name=":17" /> Prior to the incarceration of the mentally ill by the European colonizing forces, the mentally ill were regarded as ''Pissowetitch'', or people who had "the spirit of the Gods within him" and "whatsoever he pronounceth, is looked upon as spoken by God himself, and the people will speak to him, as if it were the very person of God"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/14346/14346-h/14346-h.htm|title=An Historical Relation Of the Island Ceylon, in the East-Indies: Together, With an Account of the Detaining in Captivity the Author and divers other Englishmen now Living there, and of the Author’s Miraculous Escape.|last=Knox|first=Robert|website=www.gutenberg.org|language=en-us|access-date=2026-06-29}}</ref>. With this religious understanding, Lucien de Alwis reasoned that the mentally ill in Sri Lanka were "placed... at a higher social status than the mentally ill in the Western world", with this notion correlating with the unsurprising absence of evidence in there being a "large scale segregation of mentally ill from society"<ref name=":17" />. In the 1800s, established care for mental health began shifting primarily from indigenous practices, mainly derived from [[w:Ayurveda|Ayurveda medicine]], [[w:Siddha_medicine|Siddha medicine]], and [[w:Unani_medicine|Unani medicine]], to a Western mode by the British<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":0">Gambheera, H. (2011). [https://www.saarcpsychiatry.com/viewText?chapter=c6 The evolution of psychiatric services in Sri Lanka]. South Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 2(1), 25–27.</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|title=Social Psychiatry in Sri Lanka|last=Baminiwatta|first=Anuradha|last2=Williams|first2=Shehan|date=2025|publisher=Springer Nature|isbn=978-981-96-8078-8|editor-last=Arafat|editor-first=S. M. Yasir|location=Singapore|pages=141–158|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|editor-last2=Singh|editor-first2=Amit|editor-last3=Kar|editor-first3=Sujita Kumar}}</ref>. === Adoption of a Western-based mental healthcare model and ordances === In 1839, [[w:James_Alexander_Stewart-Mackenzie|James Alexander Stewart-Mackenzie]], the 7th Governor of British Ceylon, released the Lunacy Ordinance, authorizing municipal authorities to create lunatic asylums for the mentally ill in the country<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=6&Itemid=125&lang=en|title=History - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-10}}</ref>. The ordinance was concerned with the legal frameworks of detaining individuals considered dangerous to others or individuals falsely presenting themselves as mentally ill, and not on medical treatments to alleviate the conditions of detained individuals. UK psychiatrist [[w:Edward_Mapother|Edward Mapother]] critiqued the ordinance during his 1937 inspection of British Ceylon's mental health institutions in a series of reports titled ''A Disgrace to a Civilised Community'', remarking that the ordinance "[did] not seem to have contemplated treatment as a contingency to be considered"<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Permeable walls: historical perspectives on hospital and asylum visiting|date=2009|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-2599-8|editor-last=Mooney|editor-first=Graham|series=Clio medica|location=Amsterdam New York, NY|editor-last2=Reinarz|editor-first2=Jonathan}}</ref>. In 1840, the 1839 Ordinance was repealed and replaced by the 1840 Ordinance. The 1839 Ordinance was almost identical to the 1840 Ordinance, except the removal of two previous requirements: the requirement for official medical diagnoses of the mentally ill and the mandate to maintain adequate staff-to-patient ratios within lunatic asylums<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. de|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. L.|last3=Mendis|first3=T. S. S.|last4=Abhayanayaka|first4=C.|date=2024-12-31|title=The development of laws related to the disposal of forensic patients in Sri Lanka: A historical review|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=15|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. In 1873, a third Ordinance was released. It included linguistic changes, where the term, "insane", was replaced with "of unsound mind". The Ordinance also gave more power to medical professionals in determining insanity diagnoses, and more power to detainees in appealing their commitment to the mental asylum. Despite this Ordinance being the most comprehensive legislation on mental healthcare in the country at the time, the legal frameworks behind the detainment of the criminally insane were left identical to previous ordinances<ref name=":3" />. === Development of mental asylums === At the time the 1839 ordinance was released, mentally ill patients were placed either in prisons throughout the country or leprosy hospitals, such as the [[w:Hendala_Leprosy_Hospital|Hendala Leprosy Hospital]] in the Gampaha district<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" />. After the creation of the first mental asylum in Borella in 1846, patients from the Hendala Leprosy Hospital were transferred to the institute in Borella. Overcrowding soon became an issue and patients were sent to prisons across the country. [[File:Edward Mapother.jpg|thumb|A portrait taken of Edward Mapother during his time working at [[w:Maudsley_Hospital|Maudsley Hospital]] in London. ]] As medical institutions were being made to house the mentally ill, another mental asylum was created in the [[w:Cinnamon_Gardens|Cinnamon Gardens]] area of Colombo in 1884, though this mental asylum faced overcrowding in just one year<ref name=":0" />. Treatment in these asylums was limited to occupational and protection therapy, failing to provide treatment for the root causes of the mental disorders. In 1926, the Angoda Mental Hospital was established, marginally alleviating the severe overcrowding issues that were plaguing the preceding mental asylums. Despite the addition of 1,700 beds to the facility, treatment was still vastly limited and the patients were left in significantly poor conditions. === Edward Mapother's 1937 inspection of British Ceylon === Edward Mapother was born in Dublin, Ireland, on July 12, 1881 and moved to London when he was 7 years old<ref>{{Cite book|title=Madness to mental illness: a history of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|last=Bewley|first=Thomas|date=2008|publisher=RCPsych Publications ; Distributed in North America by Balogh International|isbn=978-1-904671-35-0|location=London : [S.l.]}}</ref>. Mapother attained his M.D. in 1908. While Mapother was the Medical Superintendent of Maudsley Hospital in London, England, he was invited to inspect British Ceylon's mental health institutions by Dr S. T. Gunasekara, the first Medical Director of British Ceylon<ref name=":1" />. In Mapother's visit, he commented that the Angoda Mental Hospital had the atmosphere of "a prison that is neglected and dilapidated"<ref name=":1" />. Overcrowding was still a major issue, with the institute hosting 3,000 patients—more than double the intended capacity. Patients were sleeping on mats and were clearly out of reach of adequate treatment. Mapother also noted that only 4% of public health expenditure in the country was being set for hospitals, drawing a stark comparison to London's 25%<ref name=":1" />. Mapother offered a vivid and grim account of the hospital in his reports: <blockquote> The floor, roof and walls of each cell consist alike of drab cement without any attempt at colouring or decoration. High up in one wall is a small window with stout iron bars. In the floor is a large hole into which the patient may pass his motion and urine. These cells are incompletely divided from one another by a partition which does not reach the roof so that the noise and stink from any one cell may reach at least all the others of the same row. Into these empty cells I was informed that the most noisy and troublesome patients in the hospital; were turned at night completely naked. The doors of the cell contain no observation window, and considering the violent character of many of these patients there is every ground for believing that the doors are rarely opened in the night by the solitary attendant on duty. It needs little imagination to picture the suffering of any patient in an early stage of bodily illness passing a night under such conditions, a situation which must frequently arise. I am told that the noise proceeding from this building is like that on a bad night in a menagerie<ref name=":0" />.</blockquote>Mapother proposed a series of reinforcements to the legal, institutional, and medical frameworks of mental health care in British Ceylon. This included the decentralization of the psychiatric services, a reworking of the Lunacy Ordinance to incorporate treatment into the legal framework, and the establishment of a separate service of medical professionals dedicated to psychiatry. Mapother's recommendations led to several of the best local medical professionals to be sent to London for extensive training in psychiatry, while nurses from England were sent to British Ceylon to supervise hospital operations and train local staff<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />. On August 25, 1938, the Executive Committee of Health approved the strategies proposed by Mapother, though the Government was unable to fully implement all of Mapother's interventions due to the 'heavy cost'. In fact, the Government decided to forego one of his proposals, which was the suggestion of a "Visiting Committee". This committee was tasked to "meet at the hospital, carry out inspections, and make recommendations" to the Executive Committee of Health<ref name=":1" />. The Government realized that deficiencies in their mental healthcare system could prove to be "costly" for their reputation. Mapother was reportedly enraged when he found out. Mapother intended to contact the Secretary of State regarding the "distortion" of his plans, but was interrupted by events preceding [[w:World_War_II|World War II]]<ref name=":1" />. Mapother passed away on March 20, 1940, without materializing his follow-up plans. === Post-Mapother developments and further innovations === [[File:Sri Lanka districts Colombo.svg|thumb|A map of Sri Lanka highlighting the Colombo District, where the capital is located. |right|250px]]Mapother's insights on the mental healthcare structure in British Ceylon proved to be the catalyst of massive renovations. In 1939, the first outpatient clinic was established in the [[w:National_Hospital_of_Sri_Lanka|National Hospital of Sri Lanka]] in Colombo. The first trained Ceylonese psychiatrists began practice in the 1940s, leading to the establishment of the first neuropsychiatric clinic in Colombo in 1943. Treatments for the mentally ill improved dramatically, as [[w:insulin_shock_therapy|insulin shock therapy]] and [[w:Electroconvulsive_therapy|cardiazol convulsive therapy]] were utilized<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Kathriarachchi|first=Samudra T.|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. Lakmi|last3=Amarakoon|first3=Luckshika|date=2019-06|title=Development of Mental Health Care in Sri Lanka: Lessons Learned|url=https://journals.lww.com/tpsy/fulltext/2019/33020/development_of_mental_health_care_in_sri_lanka_.1.aspx|journal=Taiwanese Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=33|issue=2|pages=55|doi=10.4103/TPSY.TPSY_15_19|issn=1028-3684}}</ref>. Mapother's advocation for the decentralization of services were further honored through the 1947 establishment of a first child guidance clinic in Colombo General Hospital<ref name=":0" />. In 1948, British Ceylon was granted independence from the British after the [[w:Sri_Lankan_independence_movement|Sri Lankan independence movement]]. Changes in the mental healthcare structure were not immediate following independence, but rapid expansions of mental healthcare services were still ongoing. The following decades saw positive institutional developments, such as the creation of a second hospital in [[w:Mulleriyawa|Mulleriyawa]] in 1957, and the creation of a psychiatric inpatient unit in Colombo General Hospital in 1967—effectively granting the city of Colombo the luxury of hosting the top psychiatric care in the country<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|title=Mental Health System Development in Sri Lanka|last=Minas|first=Harry|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Hall|first3=Teresa|date=2017|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4899-7997-1|editor-last=Minas|editor-first=Harry|location=Boston, MA|pages=59–77|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|editor-last2=Lewis|editor-first2=Milton}}</ref>. The 1950s was also the start of psychopharmacological innovations, with the introduction of [[w:Lithium_(medication)|lithium]] and long-acting injectable antipsychotics ([[w:Depot_injection|depot]] [[w:Antipsychotic|neuroleptics]]) in the succeeding years<ref name=":4" />. Additionally, the number of public psychiatrist positions increased by 400% from 1953 to 1967<ref name=":5" />. After 1960, mental health services were being established beyond the capital to other cities in the country<ref name=":2" />. In 1980, the [[w:Postgraduate_Institute_of_Medicine|Postgraduate Institute of Medicine]] began a program where students would enroll in a 5-year medical course and attain an MD in psychiatry, curbing the need for Sri Lankan medical students to be sent abroad to complete their training. Many of the medical students sent abroad for training never returned to Sri Lanka to practice, resulting in a "1:500,000 to 1000,000" ratio of psychiatrists to patients on "most occasions"<ref name=":0" />. === Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956 === In 1956, the 1873 Ordinance was revised a second time and renamed the "Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956"<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Hapangama|first=Aruni|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Kuruppuarachchi|first3=K. a. L. A.|date=2023-02|title=Why are we still living in the past? Sri Lanka needs urgent and timely reforms of its archaic mental health laws|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-international/article/why-are-we-still-living-in-the-past-sri-lanka-needs-urgent-and-timely-reforms-of-its-archaic-mental-health-laws/B18B03DC962CC6F09BC6D7877E390EE4|journal=BJPsych International|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=4–6|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.26|issn=2056-4740|pmc=9909436|pmid=36812028}}</ref>. Another linguistic development is seen with the new revision as "lunacy" was replaced with "mental disease"<ref name=":6" />. The Ordinance paved the way for community-based services to be delivered to patients closer to their residences rather than solely allocating services to just hospitals. This led to the creation of a [[w:WHO|WHO]]-backed community clinic near the [[w:University_of_Colombo|University of Colombo]] in the 1970s, where the focus was to eventually ease patients in the Angoda Mental Hospital back into the general population<ref name=":5" />. === Developments from the 1990s === The 1990s and onwards saw further positive developments in framing the mental healthcare system, including the establishment of the [https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=featured&Itemid=101&lang=en Directorate of Mental Health] in 1998. The Directorate of Mental Health is a part of the [[w:Ministry_of_Health_(Sri_Lanka)|Ministry of Health]] who is responsible for the monitoring and implementation of mental health programs across the country<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?lang=en|title=Home - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}</ref>. As of 2025, the current director of the Directorate of Mental Health is Dr. Chithramalee de Silva<ref name=":2" />. On November 11, 2005, the Mental Health Policy was approved by the Government of Sri Lanka, advocating for establishments of more de-centralized, community-based mental health services across the country beyond the capital (Colombo). The policy aimed to concisely define the rigorous standards needed to be completed for each respected medical professional, including psychiatrists and clinical psychologists<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakshe|first=Onali Bimalka Wickramaseckara|last2=Mohan|first2=Mohapradeep|last3=Singh|first3=Swaran Preet|date=2023-05|title=Development of adolescent mental health services in Sri Lanka|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10895478/|journal=BJPsych international|volume=20|issue=2|pages=41–43|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.32|issn=2056-4740|pmc=10895478|pmid=38414998}}</ref>. The policy also included a new position, the "Medical Officer of Mental Health", who oversees and assists in the implementation of community-based mental health services<ref name=":0" />. This same year, the Sri Lankan government began implementing psychological services in state institutions, such as the military<ref name=":8" />. In 2007, the National Mental Health Advisory Council (NMHAC) was created to serve as an 'advisory' board for the Ministry of Health on what actions should be executed by the Directorate of Mental Health<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=9&Itemid=220&lang=en|title=Introduction - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}</ref>. In 2008, the Angoda Mental Hospital was restructured as the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)<ref name=":7" />. === Modern-day Sri Lanka === [[File:Feeding Children in Sri Lanka.jpg|left|thumb|Despite the noteworthy improvements in mental healthcare services in recent decades, mental health remains a significant issue due to rising poverty. ]] As of 2025, the Mental Health Act (mental health legislation) has been undergoing development since 2005 and is currently awaiting to be considered for the final stage of approval. This is expected to replace the 1956 Mental Health Ordinance<ref name=":7" />. Currently, there are 7 tertiary care hospitals, 61 adult patient units, 3 child inpatient units, and 1 forensic unit with over 100 psychiatrists all throughout the 22 districts<ref name=":4" />. The [[w:Lady_Ridgeway_Hospital_for_Children|Lady Ridgeway Hospital]] in Colombo and the Sirimavo Bandaranayke Specialized Children Hospital in Kandy are tailored towards alleviating children with [[w:Learning_disability|SLD]], [[w:ADHD|ADHD]], [[w:Autism_Spectrum_Disorder|ASD]] and family support for diagnosed children. As of 2017, 22 rehabilitation centers exist through the country, including 7 alcohol rehab centers<ref name=":7" />. Despite the impressive advancements in mental healthcare in the last couple of decades, Sri Lanka still suffers significant mental health issues due to increasing poverty levels in the country. The [[w:World_Bank|World Bank]] reported that [https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2024/04/08/eesc-a08.html the poverty levels in Sri Lanka increased from 11% in 2019 to 26% in 2024], with 60% of Sri Lankan households facing "decreased incomes"<ref>Lakhtakia, Shruti, Atapattu Mudiyanselage, Udahiruni Shashadari Atapat, Walker, Richard Ancrum. ''Sri Lanka Development Update - Bridge to Recovery (English).'' Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. <nowiki>http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/099634104012434919</nowiki></ref>. This was exacerbated by Sri Lanka's excessive foreign debt, economic troubles stemming from [[w:Gotabaya_Rajapaksa|Gotabaya Rajapaksa]]'s presidential term, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the [[w:Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine|ongoing invasion of Ukraine by Russia (2022)]]. According to [[w:NYU|New York University]] graduate student [https://gc-cuny.academia.edu/NadiaAugustyniak Nadia Augustyniak] in her 2025 overview of Sri Lanka's public mental healthcare system, poverty-induced financial precarity remains a major obstacle to receiving access to mental healthcare services. Even though trauma from adverse weather and conflict is deleterious to mental health, issues originating from every-day struggles, especially struggles related to poverty, could arguably play a more significant role<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. == Impact of Conflicts, Terrorism, Political Instability & Natural Disasters == === Sri Lankan Civil War === The '''Sri Lankan Civil War''' was a domestic conflict that took place between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (abbreviated as the ''LTTE),'' a militant group formed in the 1970s as a result of rising tensions between the majority Sinhalese and minority Tamil population. The group is considered a terrorist organization<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.start.umd.edu/baad/database/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-ltte-1998.html|title=BAAD - Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) - 1998 {{!}} START.umd.edu|website=www.start.umd.edu|access-date=2025-06-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-aka-tamil-tigers-sri-lanka-separatists|title=Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (aka Tamil Tigers) (Sri Lanka, separatists) {{!}} Council on Foreign Relations|last=Bhattacharji|first=Preeti|website=www.cfr.org|language=en|access-date=2025-06-09}}</ref>. Through brutal massacres, assassinations, and suicide bombings, the LTTE waged decades of terror which led to civilian displacement, infrastructure collapse, and the reduction of mental health services available in the northern region.[[File:DFID-funded, UNHCR emergency shelter tents, in the IDP camp at Menik Farm, Sri Lanka (3694081492).jpg|thumb|350x350px|An IDP camp in Menik Farm, Sri Lanka in 2009 ([https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-19703826 now closed]). Suicide rates in IDP camps were three times the general population.]]The civil war mainly affected the northeastern portion of the country, including the [[w:Vanni_(Sri_Lanka)|Vanni region]]. The conflict caused mass destruction to local mental healthcare facilities. Local residents described the conflict with the phrase ''varthayal varnicca mudiyathavai'', roughly translating into English as 'beyond description by words'<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}</ref>. In 2003, only two psychiatrists were found in the region, operating on extremely limited resources and further deepening long-term trauma and mental health deterioration in the population<ref name=":5" />. In 2002, the humanitarian organization [https://www.msf.org/ Médecins Sans Frontières] (MSF) performed an investigation of mental health needs in the [[w:Vavuniya|Vavuniya]] area, the site of intense conflict during the civil war (including the [[w:1985_Vavuniya_massacre|1985 Vavuniya massacre]]), and found that many of the residents suffered from high suicide rates, alcohol abuse, domestic violence, grief, and a "sense of ‘learnt helplessness’"<ref name=":5" />. A team from the University of Konstanz in Germany found that 92% of grade school children in the region were exposed to "combat, shelling, and witnessing the death of loved ones"<ref name=":9" />. [[File:Tractors. Jan 2009 displacement in the Vanni.jpg|left|thumb|350x350px|Displaced civilians originating from the Kilinochchi and Mullaitivu Districts due to military campaigns by the Sri Lankan military (January 2009). Displaced civilians had to avoid both the atrocities committed by the LTTE and the Sri Lankan government.]] Accusation of war crimes towards [[w:War_crimes_during_the_final_stages_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war|the Sri Lankan government]] have been documented by various external organizations, despite the government's attempts at removing any [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e_p1TfTguW0 mentions] or [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vtm54Y9USEg investigations] of it<ref>See also [[w:Sexual violence in the Sri Lankan civil war]].</ref>. A 2009 HRW report stated that the Sri Lankan government assumed native Tamil population residing in war zones to be "siding with the LTTE and [therefore, were] treated as combatants", leading to indiscriminate shellings and massacres of civilians<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2009-02-19|title=War on the Displaced|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/02/19/war-displaced/sri-lankan-army-and-ltte-abuses-against-civilians-vanni|journal=Human Rights Watch|language=en}}</ref>. Alongside the oppression by the Sri Lankan military, the Vanni population also endured the brutal theatrics of the LTTE, which recruited men, women, and even children with minimal training, effectively rendering them cannon fodder. Over 200,000 Tamil civilians were moved into [[w:Internally_displaced_persons_in_Sri_Lanka|designated displacement camps during the war]], where conditions were abysmal<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000}}</ref>. The suicide rate in these displacement camps were three times the community-level (2002), with a ratio of 103.5 per 10,000 compared to the Sri Lankan general population's rate of 37.5 per 10,000. Almost all suicide attempts involved poisonous substances. Other forms of violence included domestic violence and child abuse. Local health officials in Vavuniya admitted that mental health concerns were a major problem, but were unable to address these concerns due to a lack of resources and support from the government. During the [[wikipedia:Sri_Lankan_civil_war#2002_peace_process_(2002%E2%80%932006)|brief 2002 ceasefire]], the MSF implemented a "community-based programme" which included "increasing awareness, community strengthening, reinforcing coping-strategies for long-term war-affected communities, and counselling". The MSF also advocated for restrictions of poisonous substances due to the suicide attempts, and stressed that "much more [than resettlement]" would need to be done to help alleviate the psychological pain the northern population had faced<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Jong|first=Kaz|last2=Mulhern|first2=Maureen|last3=Ford|first3=Nathan|last4=Simpson|first4=Isabel|last5=Swan|first5=Alison|last6=van der Kam|first6=Saskia|date=2002-04|title=Psychological trauma of the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673602084209|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=359|issue=9316|pages=1517–1518|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08420-9}}</ref>. The ceasefire ended in 2006 and led to the [[w:Eelam_War_IV|final phase of the civil war]], eventually ending in 2009 with the [[w:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velupillai_Prabhakaran#Sri_Lankan_Army_Northern_offensive_and_death|death of the LTTE's leader]]. '''Post-war''' [[File:Puttalam district.svg|left|thumb|Puttalam District, unlike its northern counterparts, was largely spared from the intense conflict, possibly explaining the lower rates of common mental disorders (CMDs).]] The first district-wide cross-sectional multistage cluster sample survey was conducted in the [[w:Jaffna_District|Jaffna District]] shortly after the war ended. The study's sample included 1517 households and 2 internally displaced peoples camps. With a response rate of 92%, the study found that symptoms for PTSD were found in 7% of participants, symptoms of anxiety were found in 32.6% of participants, and symptoms of depression were found in 22.2% of participants. 2% of respondents were currently placed in internally displaced peoples camps at the time of the study, 29.5% were freshly resettled from the internally displaced peoples camps, and the rest of the participants (68.5%) were never placed into camps. In comparison to residents who were never placed into camps, participants that were actively held in camps tend to report more symptoms of PTSD, anxiety, and depression. The researchers also found that women were especially vulnerable to deteriorating mental health conditions. This was explained by two factors: women having to assume the roles of both the father and the mother in the family setting after the, either voluntary or forced, departure of the husband to war, and sexist violence<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Husain|first=Farah|last2=Anderson|first2=Mark|last3=Lopes Cardozo|first3=Barbara|last4=Becknell|first4=Kristin|last5=Blanton|first5=Curtis|last6=Araki|first6=Diane|last7=Kottegoda Vithana|first7=Eeshara|date=2011-08-03|title=Prevalence of War-Related Mental Health Conditions and Association With Displacement Status in Postwar Jaffna District, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1052|journal=JAMA|volume=306|issue=5|pages=522–531|doi=10.1001/jama.2011.1052|issn=0098-7484}}</ref>. A 2013 study on adult patients in [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232631/ primary care settings] (divisional hospitals, primary medical care units) found major depression to be significantly higher in females (5.1%) than males (3.6%), bolstering the observation seen in the 2009 study<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senarath|first=Upul|last2=Wickramage|first2=Kolitha|last3=Peiris|first3=Sharika Lasanthi|date=2014-03-24|title=Prevalence of depression and its associated factors among patients attending primary care settings in the post-conflict Northern Province in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|journal=BMC Psychiatry|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=85|doi=10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|issn=1471-244X|pmc=3987835|pmid=24661436}}</ref>. Muslims in Northern Sri Lanka during the conflict also faced violence and discrimination, most notably [[w:Expulsion_of_Muslims_from_the_Northern_Province_of_Sri_Lanka|the October 1990 expulsion of Muslims from the North to the Puttalam District or Jaffna]] and the [[w:Kattankudy_mosque_massacre|1990 Kattankudy mosque massacre]]. The only study testing the displaced Muslim population post-civil war was completed in 2011, where a cross-sectional survey of 450 internally displaced people or people born into displacement (ages 18 - 65) revealed 18.8% of the sample suffering from common mental health disorders (CMD), including [[w:Somatoform_disorder|somatoform disorder]] (14%), "other depressive syndromes" (7.3%), major depression (5.1%), and anxiety disorder (2.8%). The percentages found in this study for somatoform disorder and major depression were "considerably higher" than the national percentages, though the researchers noted that the prevalence of CMD was lower in comparison to other countries marred with conflict, including Palestine (40.3%) and Ethiopia (27.8%). The researchers explained that the lower rate of CMD may be attributed to the [[w:Puttalam_District|serenity of the post-settlement destination]], as conflict was mainly centered in the North and East. In contrast to earlier findings, this study did not observe a higher prevalence of CMDs among women, although increased rates of somatoform disorders were noted (though the researchers did not show the data behind this)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siriwardhana|first=Chesmal|last2=Adikari|first2=Anushka|last3=Pannala|first3=Gayani|last4=Siribaddana|first4=Sisira|last5=Abas|first5=Melanie|last6=Sumathipala|first6=Athula|last7=Stewart|first7=Robert|date=2013-05-22|title=Prolonged Internal Displacement and Common Mental Disorders in Sri Lanka: The COMRAID Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|pages=e64742|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3661540|pmid=23717656}}</ref>. Research on the mental state of combatants has been limited, but a post-war 2009 study done between soldiers of the [[w:Sri_Lanka_Army_Special_Forces_Regiment|Special Forces]] and regular soldiers showed higher levels of exposure to traumatic events for units of the Special Forces, yet the former exhibited significantly less symptoms of CMDs compared to the latter. The authors of this study, [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=cVKEBdwAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao Raveen Hanwella] and [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=ZRj74qMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra Varuni de Silva], offers the camaraderie of the unit as an explanation for the discrepancy<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|date=2012-08|title=Mental health of Special Forces personnel deployed in battle|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22038567|journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology|volume=47|issue=8|pages=1343–1351|doi=10.1007/s00127-011-0442-0|issn=1433-9285|pmid=22038567}}</ref>. A follow-up study was completed by the pair (with the addition of former Director-General of the Health Services of the Sri Lanka Navy [[w:Nicholas_Jayasekera|Nicholas Jayasekera]]), where the findings were similar, though the statistically significant bridge between the two cohorts in the previous study evaporated in the follow-up study. This may be due to the significant decline in mental health problems observed in the regular unit forces, potentially reflecting resilience in the aftermath of jarring conflict<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=Jayasekera|first2=Nicholas E. L. W.|last3=Silva|first3=Varuni A. de|date=2014-09-25|title=Mental Health Status of Sri Lanka Navy Personnel Three Years after End of Combat Operations: A Follow Up Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=9|issue=9|pages=e108113|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4177866|pmid=25254557}}</ref>. Amputees or soldiers with spinal injuries exhibited drastically different numbers, with approximately 40% of nearly 100 male-veterans in a post-war 2009 study displaying PTSD-like symptoms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abeyasinghe|first=N. L.|last2=de Zoysa|first2=P.|last3=Bandara|first3=K.M.K.C.|last4=Bartholameuz|first4=N. A.|last5=Bandara|first5=J. M.U.J.|date=2012-05-01|title=The prevalence of symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder among soldiers with amputation of a limb or spinal injury: A report from a rehabilitation centre in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|journal=Psychology, Health & Medicine|volume=17|issue=3|pages=376–381|doi=10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|issn=1354-8506|pmid=21942815}}</ref>. About a decade after the conflict ceased, a few notable studies have emerged to help guide understanding on the longer-term mental health effects on victims of the civil war. From July 2019 to October 2020, a study was conducted on 585 local adolescents (ages 12-19) in the Vavuniya district revealed that despite 15.6% of the statistic having faced one or more war-related events, only 3.9% of the participants had moderate - severe depression. In addition to considerably low depression rates, only 5.7% of participants age 17+ were found to have moderate - severe hopelessness<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000|pmc=10472617|pmid=37653394}}</ref>. The authors referenced a 2010 observation by psychiatrist [https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/author/daya-somasundaram Daya Somasundaram], who noted that many Tamil IDPs exhibited "remarkable resilience and post-traumatic growth" after the civil war—an outcome he attributed to the close-knit, family-centered nature of Tamil communities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}</ref>. Findings originating from a 2019 study undertook by several faculty members from the University of Kelaniya, the University of Jaffna, the [[w:Gampaha_Wickramarachchi_University_of_Indigenous_Medicine|Gampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous Medicine]], and the [https://onur.gov.lk/ Office for National Unity and Reconciliation (ONUR)] in Jaffna, found contrasting statistics. Out of 336 participants from districts that faced significant ramifications of the conflict (Jaffna, Kilinochchi, Mullaithivu, Vavuniya, and Mannar districts), 50.5% had extreme anxiety symptoms and 36.5% exhibited "extremely severe" symptoms of depression. 92.5% of families in the sample experienced suicidal ideation, with an observed negative correlation between trauma exposure and life satisfaction with families. Drug abuse (86.2%) and alcohol abuse (84.5%) were the two highest problematic behaviors recorded on a community-level, suggesting that the negative consequences of the civil war still persist, possibly on a substantial scale than previously recognized, in Tamil communities in the North<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thamotharampillai|first=Umaharan|last2=Perera|first2=Ruwanthi|last3=Wickremasinghe|first3=Rajitha|last4=Williams|first4=Shehan|last5=Vijayasangar|first5=Thedsanamoorthy|last6=Sivatharsan|first6=Balasubramaniam|last7=Hilbert|first7=Vanceline|last8=Somasundaram|first8=Daya|date=2025-05-06|title=Collective Trauma- Psychosocial consequences of war in northern Sri Lanka 10 years on, a mixed methods study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000696|journal=SSM - Mental Health|pages=100457|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100457|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Further research should be conducted in this field. In 2019, [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/R-M-M-Monaragala-2087692299 Dr. R. M. M. Monaragala] conducted a study on 1,845 soldiers with combat experience, finding that 3.9% of the sample suffered from PTSD. Dr. Monaragala noted that "probable depression, fatigue, aggression, and family history of mental disorder" were correlative of PTSD presence. He suggested that "screening and psychosocial intervention" were recommended avenues to alleviate CMDs of former combatants<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Monaragala|first=R. M. M.|date=2024-04-19|title=Exploring the effects of the past civil war in terms of the prevalence and associating factors of PTSD|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=14|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. === 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami === The '''2004 Boxing Day Tsunami''' was a natural disaster where a tsunami spawned off a 9.2–9.3 magnitude earthquake off the coast of Aceh in Indonesia on December 26. The tsunami greatly affected the coastlines of the country, with the death toll reaching to about 35,000 deaths. In addition, 90,000 houses were destroyed and 516,000 people were forced to migrate due to severe infrastructural damage<ref name=":5" />. It stands as the [http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/tsunami_relief/119821.htm worst natural disaster to have ever hit Sri Lanka]. [[File:Tsunami relief 2004 02.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Volunteers from [[w:Royal_College,_Colombo|Royal College in Colombo]] assisting in tsunami relief efforts (Sarvodaya Headquaters, Moratuwa).]] A survey conducted on schoolchildren (ages 8-14) in Manadkadu (Tamil-majority village in the northern coast), [[w:Kosgoda|Kosgoda]] (western coast), and [[w:Galle|Galle]] (southern coast), just a few weeks after the tsunami hit Sri Lanka, revealed that 33.8%, 13.9%, and 38.8% of children interviewed exhibited signs of PTSD (according to the DSM-IV's criteria), respectively (minus the time criteria, as the DSM-IV does not permit diagnosis of PTSD within 4 weeks of a traumatic incident). The loss of family members and exposure to previously traumatic incidents seem to highly correlate with PTSD development<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Neuner|first=Frank|last2=Schauer|first2=Elisabeth|last3=Catani|first3=Claudia|last4=Ruf|first4=Martina|last5=Elbert|first5=Thomas|date=2006|title=Post-tsunami stress: A study of posttraumatic stress disorder in children living in three severely affected regions in Sri Lanka|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jts.20121|journal=Journal of Traumatic Stress|language=en|volume=19|issue=3|pages=339–347|doi=10.1002/jts.20121|issn=1573-6598}}</ref>. Many victims in the Jaffna area suffered with "[https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/prolonged-grief-disorder pathological grief], phobias, depression and PTSD" post-tsunami. Schizophrenia in the Jaffna Tamil community, which had already suffered elevated prevalence of PTSD prior to the tsunami, had worsened—highlighting the need for specialized care in response to cumulative exposures to chronic and acute traumas. In a study published in the journal ''International Psychiatry'' (2006), Jaffna-based researchers noted that, contrary to their initial inclinations, there was not a "large[r] (than expected) rise in [the] number of people" seeking mental health support 3 months after the tsunami. However, 10 months after the disaster, the researchers anticipated that "more psychiatric disorders" would emerge due to "very little rebuilding [efforts]" and an apparent "unfairness in the aid system".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=D. J.|last2=Yoganathan|first2=S.|last3=Ganesvaran|first3=T.|date=1993-09|title=Schizophrenia in northern Sri Lanka|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7828234|journal=The Ceylon Medical Journal..|volume=38|issue=3|pages=131–135|issn=0009-0875|pmid=7828234}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Danvers|first=K.|last2=Sivayokan|first2=S.|last3=Somasundaram|first3=D. J.|last4=Sivashankar|first4=R.|date=2006-07|title=Ten months on: qualitative assessment of psychosocial issues in northern Sri Lanka following the tsunami|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6734678/|journal=International Psychiatry: Bulletin of the Board of International Affairs of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|volume=3|issue=3|pages=5–8|issn=1749-3676|pmc=6734678|pmid=31507850}}</ref> At the February 2005 ''After the Tsunami: Mental Health Challenges to the Community for Today and Tomorrow'' conference in Thailand, [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Chandanie-Hewage Dr. Chandanie Hewage] of the [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] commentated that measures taken to assist the affected were "not coordinated" due to poor "communication systems and road [conditions]." Regardless, efforts were continued by the government and health professionals to alleviate the struggles the victims were facing, including the psychological ramifications of the disaster. Several issues in the delivery of these services were highlighted by Dr. Hewage, including poor maintenance of health records, lack of awareness on drug consumption by the patients themselves, and shortages of health professionals. Dr. Hewage points out that personnel had "little" mental health training prior to the disaster, suggesting increased "research" and adequate "provision[ing] and training of staff" in the long-term<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Davidson|first=Jonathan R. T.|date=2006|title=Foreword. After the tsunami: mental health challenges to the community for today and tomorrow|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16602809|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=67 Suppl 2|pages=3–8|issn=0160-6689|pmid=16602809}}</ref>. With inadequate documentation, no systematic procedures in place, and insufficient personnel, tsunami victims with mental health concerns may not receive the services they need, further compacting neuropsychological ailments. In 2008 (about 3-4 years after the tsunami), researchers in the hard-hit village of [[w:Peraliya|Peraliya]] (Galle District) found that from a sample of approximately 90 adults, 25% suffered from moderate–severe PTSD, with women scoring "above the cut-off for anxiety" and reporting more "somatic symptoms", though researchers inferred that the PTSD rate found in the study may be influenced by war or economic hardship<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hollifield|first=Michael|last2=Hewage|first2=Chandanie|last3=Gunawardena|first3=Charlotte N.|last4=Kodituwakku|first4=Piyadasa|last5=Bopagoda|first5=Kalum|last6=Weerarathnege|first6=Krishantha|last7=Group|first7=International Post-Tsunami Study|date=2008-01|title=Symptoms and coping in Sri Lanka 20–21 months after the 2004 tsunami|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/symptoms-and-coping-in-sri-lanka-2021-months-after-the-2004-tsunami/CB33752239AF362A0BFD55B3668D60B0|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=192|issue=1|pages=39–44|doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.107.038422|issn=0007-1250}}</ref>. === 2019 Easter Bombings === The '''2019 Easter Bombings''' were a series of coordinated attacks perpetrated by the Islamic extremist group, [[w:National_Thowheeth_Jama'ath|National Thowheeth Jama'ath]], on April 21, 2019. The attack targeted three churches and three hotels in the Colombo area, killing nearly 300 people and injuring over 500. The attack was also attributed to the incompetency of the Sri Lankan government, who ignored [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48044636 multiple warnings regarding the attacks]. The attacks negatively affected the Sri Lankan Catholic community and further weakened relations between the major religious groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. In the aftermath of the attacks, professionals in the [[w:Gampaha_District|Gampaha District]] resorted to "low-cost methodological" responses to children and adolescents affected by the attack as a "severe shortage" of children and adolescent mental health experts were exposed<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chandradasa|first=Miyuru|last2=Rathnayake|first2=Layani C|last3=Rowel|first3=Madushi|last4=Fernando|first4=Lalin|date=2020-06-01|title=Early phase child and adolescent psychiatry response after mass trauma: Lessons learned from the Easter Sunday attack in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020913314|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry|language=EN|volume=66|issue=4|pages=331–334|doi=10.1177/0020764020913314|issn=0020-7640}}</ref>. In a qualitative study of 8 survivors of the attacks receiving grief counseling, [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] assistant professor [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Virasha-Godakanda Virasha Godakanda] observed that 70% of the sample size expressed "doubts" in adequate mental health interventions from the government, reducing the quality of such services. Professor Godakanda strongly endorsed for "culturally-sensitive" programs, a diversity in therapeutic approaches (including nature-based therapy), and "prolonged investigations" to track developments in mental health resources and impacts of implemented interventions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Godakanda|first=Virasha|date=2025-01-29|title=A GRIEF COUNSELING INTERVENTION AFTER THE MASS TRAUMA: LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE VICTIMS OF THE EASTER SUNDAY ATTACK IN SRI LANKA|url=https://kjmr.com.pk/kjmr/article/view/216|journal=Kashf Journal of Multidisciplinary Research|language=en|volume=2|issue=01|pages=13–32|doi=10.71146/kjmr216|issn=3007-200X}}</ref>. A few weeks following the attacks, Muslims in Sri Lanka were subjected to [[w:2019_anti-Muslim_riots_in_Sri_Lanka|violent, coordinated riots]] masterminded by Sinhalese national forces<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mujahidin|first=Muhammad Saekul|date=2023-07-03|title=Extremism and Islamophobia Against the Muslim Minority in Sri Lanka|url=https://www.ajis.org/|journal=American Journal of Islam and Society|language=en|volume=40|issue=1-2|pages=213–241|doi=10.35632/ajis.v40i1-2.3135|issn=2690-3741}}</ref>. Riots were mainly centered in the [[w:Kurunegala_District|Kurunegala]], Gampaha, and [[w:Kandy_District|Kandy]] Districts. At least [https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/5/21/in-sri-lanka-muslims-say-sinhala-neighbours-turned-against-them one confirmed death was reported]. Calls for vague ''niqab'' and ''burqa'' bans were increasingly prominent, eventually leading to the 2021 burqa ban by the Sri Lankan government. Pakistani and Afghani refugees fleeing religious persecution in Negombo were forced to be "made refugees again" after local protests were orchestrated against their settlement. Islamophobic sentiment was "unleashed online, in the law, and on the street"<ref>{{Cite book|title=CARTOGRAPHIC JOURNEY OF RACE, GENDER AND POWER: global identity|date=2021|publisher=CAMBRIDGE SCHOLARS PUBLIS|isbn=978-1-5275-6965-2|location=S.l.}}</ref>. Albeit its relevancy to the attacks, no in-depth mental health studies were administered on the minority Muslim population following the Easter bombings. Further research is imperative in exploring the sustained psychological effects of Islamophobia and its effect on the Muslim minority community in the aftermath of the 2019 Easter attacks. Literature on the impact of the 2019 Easter Bombings on mental health is limited and further research should be conducted. === 2019-2024 Economic Crisis === The '''2019-2024 Economic Crisis''' refers to a 5 year period where the Sri Lankan economy experienced massive inflation and an abrupt hike in prices on basic, everyday items. It is the worse economic crisis the country has faced since the Sri Lankans were granted independence in 1948. Schools in Sri Lanka were forced to postpone examinations due to paper shortages. Gas shortages led to long lines at gas stations, some lasting for days, throughout the island. Shortages in electricity, cooking gas, and aviation were additional results of the economic crisis. Healthcare workers faced a barrage of mental health during the crisis, including a lopsided work-life balance due to unprecedented demand, increased stress and mental fatigue from a lack of resources and personnel, unhealthy coping mechanisms, job dissatisfaction, and a reduction in work quality. Such effects perpetuate a self-enforcing cycle of psychologically distressed mental healthcare workers providing subpar services, affecting patients and amplifying mental health issues experienced by both the workforce and their patients<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dilogini|first=S.|last2=Grace|first2=H. H.|last3=Thasika|first3=T.|date=2024|title=Exploring The Mental Health and Well-Being of Public Healthcare Workers (HCWs) Amid Economic Crisis in Sri Lanka|url=http://repo.lib.jfn.ac.lk/ujrr/handle/123456789/11092|language=en|publisher=Chartered Institute of Personnel Management}}</ref>. Medical students from the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Colombo reported that the economic crisis forced abrupt changes in dietary consumption, increased hopelessness in the future, increased stress and anxiety, and a decrease in interest in pursuing a "clinical post-graduate career"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Adikaranayake|first=Pesala Randika|last2=Perera|first2=Anusha Nimrod|last3=Nilaweera|first3=Akhila Imantha|last4=Fernando|first4=Desha Rajni|last5=Wijayaratne|first5=Dilushi Rowena|date=2025-07-01|title=Effects of Sri Lankan economic crisis on health, lifestyle and education of medical students in Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo – an online survey|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|journal=BMC Medical Education|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=938|doi=10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|issn=1472-6920|pmc=12211748}}</ref>. 283 government-school teachers completed a web-based cross-sectional survey in April 2024, with majority of the participants reporting a severe reduction in monthly income & 1/3 of participants exhibiting "clinical levels of psychological distress"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C. P.|last2=Senarathne|first2=D. L. P.|last3=Fernando|first3=M. S.|last4=Senevirathne|first4=S. P.|date=2025-05-28|title=Examining the economic burden and mental health distress among government school teachers in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|journal=BMC Psychology|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=572|doi=10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|issn=2050-7283}}</ref>. A study published in that same year reported that out of 261 nurses working in teaching hospitals, 91.6% were forced to allocate their finances to strictly "general needs", while more than 50% looked into international opportunism for employment. Notably, the study reported an overall near "twofold greater" rate of depression, anxiety, and stress compared to previously conducted studies on nurses<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C.P|last2=Senarathne|first2=L.|last3=Fernando|first3=M.|date=2024-04-01|title=Exploring the Association Between Behavioural Modification in Response to the Prevailing Economic Crisis and Mental Health Outcomes of Nurses from Teaching Hospitals, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/23779608241272679|journal=SAGE Open Nursing|language=EN|volume=10|pages=23779608241272679|doi=10.1177/23779608241272679|issn=2377-9608|pmc=11311183}}</ref>. The detrimental effects the crisis has had on the mental health sector reveal a concerning area of underappreciation and under compensation by the Sri Lankan government towards a critical sector for the well-being of the country. Comprehensive mental health interventions need to be prepared and ready to implement at times of national emergencies. == Present-Day Challenges == === Ethnic tension === Despite the end of the Sri Lankan civil war and the introduction of pluralist policies, such as the [https://srilankaembassy.fr/sites/default/files/files/media/pdf/NationalPolicy-English.pdf 2017 National Policy on Reconciliation and Coexistence] under the Sirisena administration, tensions amongst members of the ethnic groups still persist in the country. Evidence of these tensions was found through a 2022 study conducted in the Ratnapura district, where religious leaders expressed skepticisms, through semi-structured interviews, for "conflict transformation". A Tamil citizen of the Ratnapura community recounted that they were forced to "hide in jungles" and consume "dirty water in drainage[s]" due to scarcity of food and drinkable water as a result of the conflict. In certain personal accounts, ethnic conflicts appear to affect the social behavior and identity of the majority ethnic group. One Sinhala participant recounted his objection to the war-time retaliatory destruction of a shop run by a Tamil shopkeeper was met with interrogative questions about "whether [he was] Sinhalese or not". Both accounts convey interethnic tensions stemming from decade-long conflicts<ref>Jayathilaka, Aruna & Gamage, Sayuri. (2024). Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders in the Post-War Conflict Transformation Process: A Study Based on Rathnapura District in Srilanka. ''Retrieved from'' https://gandhimargjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Volume-46-Issue-1-April-June-2024.pdf#page=66</ref>. Beyond individual accounts and the official end of the civil war, the minority groups in the country continue to feel ostracized. The Sri Lankan Tamil population remains dissatisfied with the Sri Lankan government and their accountability of perpetrators of war crimes and information on the whereabouts of [[w:Enforced_disappearances_in_Sri_Lanka|thousands of enforced disappearances]] that took place from the 1980s. Additionally, rising anti-Muslim sentiment in recent years contribute to increased ethnic tensions, a stark contrast to the previous centuries of peaceful co-existence between the groups. [[File:Bodu Bala Sena symbol.svg|thumb|The symbol for Bodu Bala Sena, a nationalistic Sinhala Buddhist group criticized for catalyzing ethnic tensions in Sri Lanka.]] Laws passed by the Sri Lankan government, such as the [[w:Prevention_of_Terrorism_Act_(Sri_Lanka)|Prevention of Terrorism Act]] and [[wikipedia:Anti-conversion_law#Sri_Lanka|anti-conversion laws]], have forced the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom to label Sri Lanka as a nation that "[engages] or [tolerates] severe violations of religious freedom" in their 2024 report. The government has been criticized by human rights organizations for "disproportionately targeting religious minorities"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Additionally, the implementation of the three dominant languages, English, Sinhala, and Tamil, across formal education and government services have been lackadaisical, narrowing opportunities of foundational social interactions between the groups. Persistent discrimination and prejudice towards minority groups can lead to an array of complex and self-deprecating mental health issues. Effort to mitigate ethnic tensions include strategies like [[w:Community-based_participatory_research|community-based participatory research]] (CBPR), task-sharing, and securing online mental health services in order to expand mental health services. However, the implementation of evidence-based plans has been met with difficulty due to inaccessibility, high costs, and shortages of adequately-trained personnel. Movements aiming for improved intra group and inter group coexistences, such as the Jaffna People’s Forum for Coexistence developed in the wake of the 2019 Easter bombings, should be emphasized on a systematic and multi-level basis, including but not limited to education, public sectors, and within communities. Pluralistic values should be stressed across both private and public schools to foster cultural sensitivity and tolerance. Measures should be taken against threatening extremist groups promoting sectarian hostility, such as the [[w:Bodu_Bala_Sena|Bodu Bala Sena]]. === Poverty === It has been proven that poverty significantly increases the chances of developing mental illnesses. This is further amplified by possible discrimination<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knifton|first=Lee|last2=Inglis|first2=Greig|date=2020-10|title=Poverty and mental health: policy, practice and research implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7525587/|journal=BJPsych bulletin|volume=44|issue=5|pages=193–196|doi=10.1192/bjb.2020.78|issn=2056-4694|pmc=7525587|pmid=32744210}}</ref>. Poverty also affects the ability for individuals with mental health concerns to receive the treatment they need. Due to the repercussions of the economic crisis, clients in Sri Lanka could not attend further counseling sessions<ref name=":8" />. Poverty from 2021 to 2022 [https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/poverty/987B9C90-CB9F-4D93-AE8C-750588BF00QA/current/Global_POVEQ_LKA.pdf reportedly doubled], with future forecasts predicting the poverty line to "remain above 25 percent". Suicide has been empirically linked to economic hardships in previous studies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}</ref>. A 2013 study done on suicidal patients in [[w:Batticaloa_Teaching_Hospital|Batticaloa Teaching Hospital]] revealed 76% of patients who attempted suicide were from rural areas while 15% were from urban areas<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://ir.lib.seu.ac.lk/handle/123456789/1457|title=The influence of common risk factors for the patient with attempted suicide hospitalized at the teaching hospital, Batticaloa|last=Kisokanth|first=G.|last2=Najeem|first2=M. M.|last3=Karunakaran|first3=K. E.|date=2014-08-02|publisher=South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, University Park, Oluvil #32360, Sri Lanka|isbn=978-955-627-053-2|language=en-US}}</ref>. The Sri Lankan government should consider the economical impacts that poverty has on mental health and implement ways to aid poverty-stricken individuals with mental health concerns. === Stigmas === Stigma consists of the "combined effect of prejudice, ignorance and discrimination."<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|url=http://www.researchgate.net/publication/233990797_The_Stigma_of_Mental_Illness_in_Sri_Lanka_The_Perspectives_of_Community_Mental_Health_Workers|title=(PDF) The Stigma of Mental Illness in Sri Lanka: The Perspectives of Community Mental Health Workers|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2025-07-25}}</ref>. A 2012 interview consisting of nine participants (two doctors, three nurses, one occupational therapist, one development worker, and two volunteers) revealed a number of concerning societal viewpoints on individuals with mental health concerns. The interviews revealed that negative judgements were not only levied against the individual with the mental illness, but also the family. Families hid mentally ill family members from the public to avoid "shame" and possible hinderances in marriage proposals. Views that mentally ill individuals were "violent" served as the motivating factor behind socially isolating those with mental illness from their communities. Interviewees mentioned that individuals dealing with mental health challenges would have stones and "derogatory names" launched at them. A lack of community awareness regarding mental health and negative portrayals of mentally ill individuals in media exacerbates stigmatization, though the researchers commented that the media was "improving" in their depiction of mental illness. Beliefs that illnesses are caused by "spirits" can be problematic for individuals dealing with mental health issues and serves as evidence to poor mental health awareness in the country. Mental health workers themselves believed that they were being stigmatized, as mental health is reportedly not taken as seriously as physical health. Despite the intriguing perspectives provided, the small sample size and usage of snow sampling raise questionable concerns regarding the contextualization of the results<ref name=":10" />. Improving media portrayal of subjects concerning mental health and involving community members in interventions dealing with mental health issues are ways that could destigmatize mental health amongst communities in Sri Lanka. Tying collaborations between allopathic services and traditional healers instead of having these two services work individually could enhance engagement between traditional medicine and Western medicine. === Suicide Trends & Risk Factors === Suicide is defined as "the act of killing oneself deliberately, initiated and performed by the person concerned in the full knowledge or expectation of its fatal outcome"<ref name=":11">{{Cite book|title=The neuroscience of suicidal behavior|last=Heeringen|first=Kees van|date=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-60290-4|series=Cambridge fundamentals of neuroscience in psychology|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom New York, NY, USA Port Melbourne, VIC, Australia New Delhi, India Singapore}}</ref>. Although Sri Lanka has seen a significant reduction in suicide rates from the mid 1990s due to its banning of extremely toxic pesticide products, suicide and self harm remains a significant issue. The suicide rate per 100,000 people increased from 14.0 in 2019 to [https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide 15.0 in 2022] (according to WHO). On average, 27 males per 100,000 males and 5 females per 100,000 females committed suicide in 2022<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}</ref>. Hanging appears to be the most used method for suicide for both males and females, with studies revealing a steady increase in recent years<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Bandara|first=Piumee|last2=Wickrama|first2=Prabath|last3=Sivayokan|first3=Sambasivamoorthy|last4=Knipe|first4=Duleeka|last5=Rajapakse|first5=Thilini|date=2024-04-17|title=Reflections on the trends of suicide in Sri Lanka, 1997–2022: The need for continued vigilance|url=https://journals.plos.org/globalpublichealth/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|journal=PLOS Global Public Health|language=en|volume=4|issue=4|pages=e0003054|doi=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|issn=2767-3375|pmc=11023397|pmid=38630779}}</ref>. From 2023 to 2024, a group of researchers from the [[w:Eastern_University,_Sri_Lanka|Eastern University in Sri Lanka]] assessed 828 patients admitted to the Teaching Hospital in [[w:Batticaloa,_Sri_Lanka|Batticaloa, Sri Lanka]] for attempted suicide. They concluded that suicide prevention programs should be attuned to younger people (ages 15 to 35 in the study), emphasize the importance of education and reducing unemployment, and increase social support in the Tamil community. Despite the relevant insights into certain aspects of an average Sri Lankan's life that could lead to suicidal ideation (ie, poverty), the results from this study suffer in external validity as 90% of the patients were Tamil and over 50% were between 16 and 25 years. In addition, correlations between suicide and unemployment rates have been questioned, with [[w:Austerity|austerity]] being a more reliable indicator of suicide rates than unemployment rates<ref name=":11" />. Further comprehensive studies on risk factors relating to suicide should be studied to assess correlations between unemployment rates and austerity measures. The WHO suggests implementing evidence-based suicide prevention programs, such as [https://www.who.int/initiatives/live-life-initiative-for-suicide-prevention LIVE LIFE], to reduce the national suicide rate<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide|title=World Suicide Prevention day 2024 “Changing the Narrative on Suicide”|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2025-07-29}}</ref>. Media depictions of suicidal methods, such as hanging, can lead to sensationalism and the media should be cautious of such displays in movies and TV shows<ref name=":12" />. Awareness of depression and other mental health issues can serve as a safeguard against suicidal ideation in Sri Lankan men and women. == Role of Religion == According to the last demographic report (2012), 70.2% of Sri Lankans are Buddhist, 12.6% are Hindus, 9.7% are Muslims, and 7.4% are Christians. The Theravada Buddhist community makes up the majority in several provinces throughout the country<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sri-lanka/|title=Sri Lanka|website=United States Department of State|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-07}}</ref>. Religion, especially Theravada Buddhism, has had a significant influence on not only the historical treatment of mental health in the country, but also everyday life<ref name=":15" />. The [[w:Mahāvaṃsa|''Mahāvaṃsa'']] affirms hospitals treating patients suffering from mental health issues as early as the 4th century BC. Additionally, the 1700s Nayaka king [[w:Kirti_Sri_Rajasinha|Kirthi Sri Rajasinghe]] detailed the implementation of Buddhist philosophy in psychiatry<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. De|date=2017-12-05|title=Development of civil commitment statutes (laws of involuntary detention and treatment) in Sri Lanka: a historical review|url=https://mljsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|journal=Medico-Legal Journal of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|doi=10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|issn=2012-8231}}</ref>. Modern-day empirical studies have attested to the usefulness of religion in mitigating stress and elevating mental health<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|title=Religion and Mental Health|last=Schieman|first=Scott|last2=Bierman|first2=Alex|last3=Ellison|first3=Christopher G.|date=2013|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-94-007-4276-5|editor-last=Aneshensel|editor-first=Carol S.|location=Dordrecht|pages=457–478|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|editor-last2=Phelan|editor-first2=Jo C.|editor-last3=Bierman|editor-first3=Alex}}</ref>. Religion has been found to be positively correlated with improved mental health, and more religious patients were concluded to have "better mental health and adapt[ed] more quickly to health problems" versus patients who weren't religious<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koenig|first=Harold G.|date=2012|title=Religion, spirituality, and health: the research and clinical implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3671693/|journal=ISRN psychiatry|volume=2012|pages=278730|doi=10.5402/2012/278730|issn=2090-7966|pmc=3671693|pmid=23762764}}</ref>. [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/T-N-Wickramarathna-2247724082 Dr. Wickramarathna] of the University Psychiatry Unit (UPU) at the National Hospital of Sri Lanka (NHSL) argues that psychiatrists must strive for a balance in their approach to patients and "make positive use of religion in [their] practice[s]"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wickramarathna|first=T. N.|date=2022-12-31|title=Psychiatrists should stand far from the shrine: why and why not we should separate religion from psychiatry|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=13|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. === Buddhism === 27 Sinhalese Buddhists from four Buddhist temples were selected for a series of 70-minute interviews and focus group discussions with the aim of learning the Sinhala Buddhist understanding and experience of spiritual well-being and psychological well-being. The interviewees held spiritual wellness to be the "center" of overall wellness, the "precondition for a successful life"<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|language=en-US|volume=44|issue=1|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=0258-9710}}</ref>. Sinhala Buddhists believe that wellness cannot be achieved without spiritual tranquility. The report states that participants emphasized that spirituality "cannot be directly intervened" and can only be seen through "[interactions] with society"<ref name=":14" />. Despite the ''athmaya'' (soul) being "unreachable", it can be "intervened", or treated, through the actions of the mind and body with society<ref name=":14" />. One being "psychologically ill" can affect one's spiritual being, as the participants reported in their interviews, and can be affected through "lifestyle stressors, environmental and socio-cultural causes, non-human related causes and bad-karma in the past lives"<ref name=":14" />. The researchers concluded that despite Sinhala Buddhists not being able to articulately decipher the discrepancies between psychological well-being and spiritual well-being, they are able to conceptualize and maintain a culturally embedded understanding between the two, serving as reputable evidence of the integration of mental health in Sinhala Buddhist practices. However, it is important to note that these results come from a very small sample size and cannot be generalized to all Sri Lankan Buddhists. In addition, a 2009 study found that a belief in karma was correlated with poor health. However, an earlier study found a positive correlation between the reliance on the [[w:Karma_in_Buddhism|Buddhist concept of karma]] and trauma, inferencing Buddhist karma being a prevalent response to trauma<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Levy|first=Becca R.|last2=Slade|first2=Martin D.|last3=Ranasinghe|first3=Padmini|date=2009-03|title=Causal thinking after a tsunami wave: karma beliefs, pessimistic explanatory style and health among Sri Lankan survivors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19229624|journal=Journal of Religion and Health|volume=48|issue=1|pages=38–45|doi=10.1007/s10943-008-9162-5|issn=1573-6571|pmid=19229624}}</ref>. Overall, the effectiveness of karma as a coping mechanism appears to be conflicted. Studies indicate that other practices of Buddhism seem to be utilized by individuals affected by the war. 40% of Sri Lankan Buddhists affected by the 2004 tsunami found the Buddhist ritual ''Bodhipuja'' to be helpful in dealing with traumatic experiences<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jmvh.org/article/mental-health-and-the-role-of-cultural-and-religious-support-in-the-assistance-of-disabled-veterans-in-sri-lanka/|title=Mental Health and the Role of Cultural and Religious Support in the Assistance of Disabled Veterans in Sri Lanka|website=JMVH|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-12}}</ref>. === Catholicism === Catholic counseling refers to "a nuanced and holistic mental health care paradigm that intricately weaves together psychological science with the moral, spiritual, and pastoral traditions of the Catholic Church"<ref name=":13">Perera, U. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera/publication/394095042_Catholic_Counselling_in_Sri_Lanka_Integrating_Faith_Psychology_and_Cultural_Healing/links/6889303af8031739e6098c79/Catholic-Counselling-in-Sri-Lanka-Integrating-Faith-Psychology-and-Cultural-Healing.pdf Catholic Counselling in Sri Lanka: Integrating Faith, Psychology, and Cultural Healing]. July 2025.</ref> and aims to assimilate Catholic theology and evidence-based psychological treatment while including Sri Lankan cultural elements. This is achieved through emphasis on community cohesion and a locally-based understanding of "personhood"<ref name=":13" />. The origins of Catholic counseling trace back to the introduction of Roman Catholicism to the island in the 1600s, with the focus of the early Sri Lankan Catholic community being on "[[w:Evangelism|evangelization]], education, and sacramental formation". Demand for counseling services in general increased due to the impacts of the Sri Lankan Civil War, where Catholic organizations (Caritas Sri Lanka, Seth Sarana, Subodhi Integral Centre (Piliyandala), etc.) established several Catholic-based trauma-informed programmes for victims of the Civil War. Programmes use group therapy, forgiveness rituals, and narrative repairs to alleviate war trauma. Examples of integration of Catholic virtues and counseling can be seen in [[w:Cognitive_Behavioral_Therapy|Cognitive Behavioral Therapy]] (CBT), where "hope" and "humility" are used as the frameworks for creating spiritual resilience<ref name=":13" />. The general Christian call of "agape love and acceptance" is echoed by the concept of [[w:Unconditional_positive_regard|unconditional positive regard]]. ''[[w:Lectio_Divina|Lectio Divina]]'' (Catholic prayer and meditation) and ''Marian devotions'' are integrated into therapeutic practices to achieve emotional regulation and mindfulness. Senior Lecturer [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera Udeshini Perera] of the University of Colombo articulates a critical role of Catholic counseling. She claims that secular counseling fails to address the "spiritual roots of distress and moral confusion". Catholic counseling fills in this gap by integrating "psychological insights with a transcendent orientation, supporting lasting transformation and integrity"<ref name=":13" />. As of 2025, no formal accreditation or standardized training exists for [[w:Pastoral_counseling|pastoral counselors]] in Sri Lanka, hampering the legitimacy of Catholic counseling. Udeshini Perera remarks that mental health stigma, lack of standardized training, research regarding Catholic counseling effectiveness, and acceptance of the combination of religion and science in a professional setting present challenges for Catholic pastoral counseling in the country. Additionally, Catholic psychiatry in Sri Lanka appears to be under-researched, and evidence of its empirical effects on followers appears sparse. Further research is needed in assessing the empirical effects of Catholic counseling in Sri Lanka. === Islam === The literature on the empirical effects of Islamic-based psychotherapy in Sri Lanka is limited. Research has revealed a 2012 case study where a 21-year-old Muslim woman was experiencing episodic possession states. The patient ceased attending psychiatric services and opted for religious rituals. The patient reported, in a follow-up visit, that the possession states had been absent for 3 months since her switch to religious rituals. The woman and her family attributed the apparent improvement of her condition to religious rituals<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|last3=Yoosuf|first3=Alam|last4=Karunaratne|first4=Sanjeewani|last5=de Silva|first5=Pushpa|date=2012|title=Religious Beliefs, Possession States, and Spirits: Three Case Studies from Sri Lanka|url=http://www.hindawi.com/journals/crips/2012/232740/|journal=Case Reports in Psychiatry|language=en|volume=2012|pages=1–3|doi=10.1155/2012/232740|issn=2090-682X|pmc=3437272|pmid=22970398}}</ref>. Future recommendations would be to employ resources to research the foundations of Islamic psychiatry in the country, and to observe the rituals employed and their effects on patients. Studies have found that Islamic prayer can be an effective means of "support and coping"<ref name=":15" />. Seven world-wide case studies using Islamic-based psychotherapy on patients, consisting of religious rituals such as scriptural reading from the [[w:Quran|Quran]], teaching of fundamental Islamic concepts (such as ''[[w:Tawakkul|tawakkul]]''), and active implementation of contemplation (''[[w:Tadabbur|tadabbur]]''), have reported positive effects in decreasing cognitive and emotional symptoms associated with "religious, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorder, grief, and substance use disorder.”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kurhade|first=Chhaya Shantaram|last2=Jagannathan|first2=Aarti|last3=Varambally|first3=Shivarama|last4=Shivanna|first4=Sushrutha|date=2022-01|title=Religion-based interventions for mental health disorders: A systematic review|url=https://journals.lww.com/10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|journal=Journal of Applied Consciousness Studies|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=20–33|doi=10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|issn=2949-6993}}</ref> Additionally, a community-based study of elderly patients in Bangalore, India receiving Islamic-based psychotherapy observed decreased exhibitions of sleep disorders, eating disorders, and emotional distress<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hafeez|first=Nimin|last2=Sanjay|first2=Thittamaranahalli Varadappa|last3=Puthussery|first3=Yannick Poulose|last4=Madhusudan|first4=Muralidhar|last5=Kariyappa|first5=Poornima Muddaiah|last6=Kulkarni|first6=Sridevi|last7=Raj|first7=Lavanya|date=2023-12-31|title=Spiritual practices among elderly, prevalence, pattern and associated factors: a community-based study from rural Bengaluru, India|url=https://jccpsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|journal=Journal of the College of Community Physicians of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=29|issue=4|doi=10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|issn=1391-3174}}</ref>. === Hinduism === Despite Hindus being 12.6% of the population of Sri Lanka, the research on Hinduism-based therapy in the country is limited. Ayurvedic medicine, a form of medicine originating from ancient India, predominated the Sri Lankan medical landscape for over 2,000 years and even had a symbiotic relationship with Sinhalese medicine, which also played a significant and influential role in the country's medical framework<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/article/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990/|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|volume=44|issue=1|pages=33|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=2478-1169}}</ref>. Despite its historical dominance, Ayurvedic medicine has been challenged against modern evidence-based medical standards<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://philarchive.org/rec/DOMAAT|title=Ayurveda: Ancient Tradition or Pseudoscientific Practice? A Philosophical Inquiry|last=Dominic|first=Shubham K.}}</ref>. === Comparative synthesis === Taking an overarching review of the role of religion in Sri Lanka, methods to improve mental well-being are practiced by adherents of Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. These methods are practiced through karma, tawakkul, hope, and humility. Additionally, these practices are implemented in traditionally-oriented mental health care, which has been reported to be preferred over psychiatric care at times. These rituals practiced across these religions indicate a common theme of psychologically integrated aspects of well-being. Interpretation of trauma is a central use in religion, with religious principles, such as karma and ''tawakkul'', serving as psychologically analogous mechanisms during times of distress. In terms of methodological comparisons to the studies described, qualitative interviews have documented Buddhist practices and principles, like Bodhipuja and the belief in karma, in response to traumatic events, while case studies found religious practices by other religious groups, such as a Muslim patient reading Islamic scripture and observing prayer to reduce emotional distress. Peer-reviewed sources have documented Catholic practices and principles, such as ''Lectio Divina'' and unconditional positive regard, in improving mindfulness and emotional regulation. The paper acknowledges limitations in the evaluation of certain findings, such as in Islam and Hinduism. These shortcomings, however, are a reflection of the existing literature and its deficiencies. Empirical findings indicate mental health practices are complex and are multifaceted in their effects. Evidently, religion serves a parallel role to psychiatric services in improving mental health. Despite its perceived benefits, the findings surrounding religions' role in mental health suffer from conflicting, and sometimes contradictory, results. Additionally, a disproportionate amount of empirical findings seem to be Buddhist-predominant, while other religions are underrepresented in the research. Regarding research barriers, the methodological approaches implemented to study the practices of religious followers vary, though much of the research was brought from qualitative or case-based studies, impeding generalizability. Another noteworthy issue is that many studies do not utilize standardized, psychiatric measures. == Future Outlook == Despite significant changes to the mental health environment in Sri Lanka, the current legal framework shaping mental health in the country has not been updated since 1956. A Cambridge University Press article detailed many limitations of the Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956, including discrepancies between the legal provisions of involuntary admissions and modern practices, potential exposure to trauma through extra-legal detentions of the mentally ill, and an absence of legal guidelines addressing the restraint of violent patients<ref name=":6" />. Participants from Sri Lanka reported in a comparative legislative questionnaire that they felt the mental health laws were "outdated" and descriptions of clinical roles remained ambiguous<ref name=":16" />. A draft mental health legislation from 2007 includes provisions for human rights, but due to "bureaucratic processes" and a "lack of consensus", the draft has not been officially approved. These limitations pose challenges to the standardization of mental healthcare admissions and may impact the rights of detained patients. Detained patients may have their human rights violated due to a lack of an up-to-date legal framework, thereby impeding the identification of such violations. Additionally, with the lack of clarity on clinical roles, clinical responsibilities may not be routinely recognized and observed, leading to role confusion and potential legal ramifications<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Dey|first=Sangeeta|last2=Mellsop|first2=Graham|last3=Diesfeld|first3=Kate|last4=Dharmawardene|first4=Vajira|last5=Mendis|first5=Susitha|last6=Chaudhuri|first6=Sreemanti|last7=Deb|first7=Aniruddha|last8=Huq|first8=Nafisa|last9=Ahmed|first9=Helal Uddin|date=2019-10-24|title=Comparing legislation for involuntary admission and treatment of mental illness in four South Asian countries|url=https://ijmhs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=13|issue=1|pages=67|doi=10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|issn=1752-4458|pmc=6813093|pmid=31666805}}</ref>. Lastly, current efforts should increase beyond just addressing poverty-centered matters, but also expand efforts to domestic violence victims and children with disabilities, as shelters and specialized services are limited<ref name=":82">{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Stagnation in policy development leaves Sri Lanka without a practical, up-to-date, and comprehensive mental health legislation, which could put both clinicians and patients at risk. Future reforms should include clarification on the treatment and detention process of involuntary admissions of patients and a clear delineation of clinical roles and their responsibilities. Without the necessary reforms to advance Sri Lankan mental health legislation, clinicians and vulnerable patients may suffer from a lack of comprehensive oversight. ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== Any people, organisations, or funding sources that you would like to thank. ===Competing interests=== No competing interests. ===Ethics statement=== An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section. ==References== {{reflist|35em}} [[Category:Mental health]] [[Category:Sri Lanka]] 4i6mztptf7pxq7pw6bli7osrko6zd5u 0 322601 2817358 2723707 2026-06-30T07:20:21Z Jtneill 10242 2817358 wikitext text/x-wiki Reeve, J. (2024). ''[[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Understanding motivation and emotion]]'' (8th ed.). [https://www.wiley.com/en-au/shop/psychology-general/understanding-motivation-and-emotion-8th-edition-p-9781394219049 Wiley].<!-- [https://theschoollocker.com.au/john-wiley-sons-understanding-motivation-and-emotion The School Locker]. --> [https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Understanding_Motivation_and_Emotion/JzIbEQAAQBAJ Google Books]. [https://bcs.wiley.com/he-bcs/Books?action=index&itemId=1394219016&bcsId=12868 Instructor site].<!-- [https://canberra.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/discovery/fulldisplay?docid=alma991004712059403996&context=L&vid=61ARL_CNB:61ARL_CNB&search_scope=MyInst_and_CI&isFrbr=true&tab=Everything&lang=en UC Library]. --> ISBN: Paperback 978-1-394-21904-9, E-Book 978-1-394-21901-8.<!-- [https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Understanding+Motivation+and+Emotion%2C+7th+Edition-p-9781119367659 E-Book]. --><noinclude>{{/ToC}}<!-- ==External links== * [https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Understanding+Motivation+and+Emotion%2C+8th+Edition-p-9781394219049#tableofcontents-section What's new in the 7th edition?] --> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve]]</noinclude> fgk73imsmb16l50gqa98yjdfd5aaitj 0 324905 2817262 2794808 2026-06-29T16:12:38Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Credits */ 2817262 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == '''Objective''' == At the end of the contribution, you will be able to explain the concept of tertiary language teaching, give some concrete examples and apply didactic principles of tertiary language teaching to your own lessons. == '''Keywords''' == second language, didactics of plurilingualism, “Deutsch nach Englisch” (German after English), language awareness, learning strategies == '''Table of contents''' == * Introduction * History of the concept * Definitions * Practical examples * Take home messages * Self-assessment (multiple choice with solutions, open questions…) * Resources to go further == '''Introduction''' == If you teach young adults nowadays, you can usually assume that they have already learnt English, as English has become established worldwide as the first foreign language (L2), especially in the context of foreign language learning at school. Very often, we can expect that when they start learning another foreign language at school (or at university), they are already familiar with learning techniques and strategies for learning foreign languages and also have acquired a certain level of language awareness. The teaching of additional foreign languages (L3, L4, L5, the so-called tertiary languages) can therefore often build on previous experience of the language learning process of English (or other previously acquired languages). The following could be a task for learners of German as a Foreign Language who had previously learnt English, in which they are asked to reflect on the similarities and differences between English and German. In this case, they should realize that there are real friends (same meaning), but also false friends (with different meaning), which means that similarities between English and German can be helpful when learning German; but there are also stumbling blocks that can hinder learning and cause one to fall into a trap. {| class="wikitable" |'''English (E)''' |'''German (G)''' |'''Real friend or false friend?''' |'''Meaning/s''' |- |house |Haus |✅ Friend |building, in which one lives |- |hand |Hand |… |part of … |- |gift |Gift |❌ False friend |gift (E) = Geschenk (G) ↔ Gift (G) = poison (E), |- |to become |bekommen |… |… |- |brave |brav |… |... |- |student |Student |… |… |- |actually |aktuell |… |… |- |fast |fast |… |… |- |also |also |… |… |} You can then discuss with the learners which words in German are easy to understand if you know English, which words are dangerous because they mean something different, and under what circumstances your knowledge of English can still help you learn German.[A1] If we teach one of these tertiary languages, then it is important that we take the previous experience into account. But what should this teaching be like? What principles should it be based on? This article explains the origin, presents the definition and principles of tertiary language teachings. Examples are included and further reading suggestions are provided. == '''History of concept''' == Tertiary language teaching developed as an independent field of research in the 1990s. The fact that it is assumed that learners can strategically use their previously acquired knowledge and skills constructively for learning additional foreign language(s) when learning several foreign languages consecutively. This has marked a break with the previous belief that the influence of previously learnt languages was rather negative (ʽnegative transferʼ) and led to interference and that for this reason a separation of the languages offered was necessary. It was not until around 1990 that tertiary language research began to focus on the positive transfer effects and use them for foreign language teaching. The first thoughts on specific didactic approaches for the acquisition of a third language emerged as early as 1980-1990, particularly in Europe, in order to respond to the reality of a Europe that was growing together, its large and small languages, i.e. its multilingualism. The geographical focus of early research into tertiary language didactics was Scandinavia, France, Spain, Germany and Austria. With the publication of the ''European Framework of Reference for Languages'' (CEFR), an increased awareness of multilingualism was promoted and influenced the development of tertiary language teaching. In the 2000s, research was enriched by concepts of language awareness and intercomprehension. As a result, the term is increasingly being replaced by the term multilingual didactics in the sense of an overall language concept. == '''Definition''' == Tertiary language didactics is just one of several possible manifestations of the concept of plurilingual teaching. The term ''tertiary language'' refers to two different contexts: In tertiary language research, it refers to that language which is learnt after the L1 and a second foreign language (L2). In the school context, however, tertiary language refers to any other foreign language (L3, L4, L5,...) that is learnt after a second foreign language. Tertiary languages are generally foreign languages learnt late (at school). It is assumed that learning an L3 (and other foreign languages) differs significantly from learning a first foreign language (L2). In terms of language acquisition theory, it is assumed that when learners begin to learn a second (or further) foreign language, they have prerequisites that were not yet present when they learnt their first foreign language. Thus, when learning subsequent foreign languages, there are many layers of experience from learning the first foreign language. This experience is reflected in procedural and declarative knowledge, which includes knowledge of learning strategies and learning techniques as well as the language skills already acquired in the first foreign language. Language comparison is a key method. Learners of tertiary languages do not primarily activate the languages themselves, but a range of cognitive, metacognitive, and linguistic strategies influenced by their previous language learning experiences. In the context of tertiary language teaching five didactic and methodological principles are defined (Neuner 2009: 7-8): * ''Cognitive learning'': developing language awareness (by comparing languages) and language learning awareness (expanding learning techniques and learning strategies) * ''Understanding as the basis and starting point of foreign language learning'' (many language phenomena (hundreds of words; many elements of grammar; texts; etc.) can be understood by using English (or another L2) * ''Content-orientation'' (age-appropriate content; inclusion of one's own world and the world of the languages one has already begun to learn) * ''Text-orientation''; inclusion of the new types of text in the ‘new media’ * ''Economization of the learning process'' (activation of learners (incorporate all the language(s) and learning strategies already ‘in your head’ while learning a L3); creative use of language (e.g. forming hypotheses on word meanings, language rules and texts through language comparison); guidance on self-evaluation, etc.). There are languages that are typical tertiary languages. From a global perspective, German, for example, is a typical tertiary language, as German is almost always learnt after another foreign language (usually English). This state of affairs also applies in Italy, where German is usually learnt after English. This is why tertiary language teaching in Germany also became known as ''German after English'' (Deutsch als Fremdsprache nach Englisch (DaFnE)). The aim of DaFnE is to research the influences of prior English acquisition on subsequent German acquisition and to develop concepts to use these influences for German acquisition and DaF lessons (see practical examples). Unfortunately, the tertiary language teaching approach is not yet sufficiently recognized in teaching practice. In terms of curriculum and methodology, the existing programs are still too much in the tradition of nationally conceived foreign language teaching. This applies to the extensive ignoring of pluralistic approaches, in this case the individual multilingualism profiles that are relevant to learning on the part of the students, including language learning competence. == '''Practical examples:''' == There are two possible starting positions when learning and teaching a tertiary language: Either similarities are used for positive transfer or there is a warning about possible interference, e.g. false friends, differences in verb position. As a rule, the positive comparison is favored. Some examples of exercises for German as a tertiary language are given below. The '''first example''' shows how similar the German and English words for body parts are (Fig. 1). [[File:EN-DE_Parts_of_the_body.png|thumb|Fig. 1: Parts of the body]] The '''second example''' shows the similarities in verbs between English and German, but also another language (Tab.1). ''Complete the table. What are the verbs in your language?'' {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''English''' | valign="top" |'''German''' | valign="top" |'''Other language''' |- | valign="top" |'''To come''' | valign="top" |'''kommen''' | valign="top" | |- | valign="top" |to control | valign="top" |kontrollieren | valign="top" | |- | valign="top" |to discuss | valign="top" |diskutieren | valign="top" | |- | valign="top" |to drink | valign="top" |trinken | valign="top" | |- | valign="top" |to help | valign="top" |helfen | valign="top" | |- | valign="top" |to organize | valign="top" |organisieren | valign="top" | |- | valign="top" |to speak | valign="top" |sprechen | valign="top" | |- | valign="top" |to stand | valign="top" |stehen | valign="top" | |} Tab. 1: Verbs between English, German and another language The '''third example''' focuses on comparing the possessive adjectives between German, English, Italian and other languages, e.g. the student’s own L1 (Tab. 2). ''Who’s house this? Complete the table. How do you express that in your language?'' {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" | | valign="top" |'''English''' | valign="top" |'''German''' | valign="top" |'''Italian''' | valign="top" |'''Other language''' |- | valign="top" |Max (m.) | valign="top" |his house | valign="top" |sein Haus | valign="top" |la sua casa | valign="top" | |- | valign="top" |Anna (f.) | valign="top" |her house | valign="top" |ihr Haus | valign="top" |la sua casa | valign="top" | |- | valign="top" |Max and Anna | valign="top" |their house | valign="top" |ihr Haus | valign="top" |la loro casa | valign="top" | |} Tab. 2: Possessive articles in English, German, Italian and another language The '''fourth example''' focuses on the realization of the ''Konjunktiv II'' (wishes and unreal conditionals) with different auxiliary verbs in German and English, as well as other languages. (Tab. 3 and Tab. 4) ''I would like to do …''Read the example and complete the table. How is a real possibility expressed in other languages? {| class="wikitable" |'''English''' |'''German''' |'''Other language''' |'''Other language''' |- |would + infinite ''I would eat'' |Form of Konjunktiv II or würde + Infinitiv ''Ich würde … essen'' | | |} Tab. 3: Real conditional clauses in English, German and other languages ''If I had …'' How is an irreal condition (also in the past) expressed in other languages? {| class="wikitable" |'''English''' |'''German''' |'''Other language''' |'''Other language''' |- |''If I still had the chance, I would go.'' |''Wenn ich noch die Chance hätte, würde ich gehen.'' ''Hätte ich noch die Chance, würde ich gehen.'' | | |- |''If I had had the chance, I would have gone.'' |''Wenn ich die Chance gehabt hätte, wäre ich gegangen.'' ''Hätte ich die Chance gehabt, wäre ich gegangen.'' | | |} Tab. 4: Irreal conditional clauses in English, German and other languages == '''Take home messages''' == A. Read the entry again, highlight important key words and write a short summary as if you were explaining the concept of tertiary language teaching to another person. B. Try to answer the following questions: What previous experience, knowledge, strategies etc. did you transfer from learning an L2 to learning an L3? Try to find examples that include the foreign languages you have learnt so far or your language learning history. Do you already have experience with tertiary language teaching? Can you think of any examples of your own foreign language teaching or class experience where tertiary language teaching would have been more appropriate? == '''Self-assessment (multiple choice with solutions, open questions…)''' == Question 1: Which statement best describes tertiary language didactics? A) It deals with the acquisition of the first language (L1). B) It examines the acquisition and teaching of a third or additional foreign language. C) It is synonymous with second language didactics. D) It focusses exclusively on the teaching of English as a foreign language. Solution: B) Question 2: Which of the following terms is a central concept of tertiary language didactics? A) Language comparison B) Communicative method C) Universal grammar D) Audiolingual method Solution: A) Question 3: What role does the concept of positive language transfer play in tertiary language didactics? A) It describes the negative influence of already acquired languages. B) It means that learners consciously avoid drawing parallels between languages. C) It describes the promotion of the acquisition of new languages through existing language learning strategies. D) It plays no role in tertiary language didactics. Solution: C) Question 4: Which of the following language pairs and their sequence are not typical for tertiary language teaching? A) English > German B) Portuguese > Spanish C) French > Italian D) Russian > English Solution: D == '''Resources to go further''' == Hufeisen, Britta (2003): Le, L2, L3, L4, Lx – alle gleich? Linguistische, lernerinterne und lernerexterne Faktoren in Modellen zum multiplen Spracherwerb. In: ''Zeitschrift für interkulturellen Fremdsprachenunterricht'' 8 (2/3). [https:zif.tujournals.ulb-tu-darmstadt.de] Neuner, Gerhad & Hufeisen, Britta (eds.) (2003): ''Mehrsprachigkeitskonzept – Tertiärsprachen – Deutsch nach Englisch'', Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. Hufeisen, Britte/ Lindemann, Beate (1998): ''Tertiärsprachen. Theorien, Modelle, Methoden'', Stauffenburg, Tübingen. == '''Bibliography''' == Neuner, Gerhard (2009): ''Mehrsprachigkeitsdidaktik und Tertiärsprachenlernen. Grundlagen - Dimensionen – Merkmale. Zur Konzeption des Lehrwerks „deutsch.com“''. [https/www.hueber.de] Kursiča, Anta/ Neuner, Gerhard (2006): ''Deutsch ist easy''! Lehrerhandreichungen und Kopiervorlagen „Deutsch nach Englisch“ für den Anfangsunterricht, Ismaning: Hueber. Strathmann, Jochen (2019): “Tertiärsprachen” In: Fäcke, Christian/ Meißner, Franz-Joseph (eds.): Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeits- und Mehrkulturalitätsdidaktik. Tübingen: Narr Francke Attempto, pp. 415-417. Hoffmann, Sabine (2013): ''Didattica della lingua tedesca''. Roma: Carocci. Hufeisen, Britta (2011): “Tertiärsprachendidaktik” In: Barkowski, Hans/ Krumm, Hans-Jürgen (eds.): ''Fachlexikon Deutsche als Fremd- und Zweitsprache''. Tübingen und Basel: Narr Francke Attempto, p. 334. Braun, Birgit et al. (2016): ''Daf kompakt neu''. A1-B1. Übungsbuch. Stuttgart: Ernst Klett Sprachen. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Martina Nied Curcio (Università Roma Tre) * Daniela Zini (Università Roma Tre) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Linguistics]] [[Category:Applied linguistics]] kc20p3afv0rhfzbk33k7swy2ki91bqs 2817317 2817262 2026-06-29T17:22:19Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self-assessment (multiple choice with solutions, open questions…) */ 2817317 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == '''Objective''' == At the end of the contribution, you will be able to explain the concept of tertiary language teaching, give some concrete examples and apply didactic principles of tertiary language teaching to your own lessons. == '''Keywords''' == second language, didactics of plurilingualism, “Deutsch nach Englisch” (German after English), language awareness, learning strategies == '''Table of contents''' == * Introduction * History of the concept * Definitions * Practical examples * Take home messages * Self-assessment (multiple choice with solutions, open questions…) * Resources to go further == '''Introduction''' == If you teach young adults nowadays, you can usually assume that they have already learnt English, as English has become established worldwide as the first foreign language (L2), especially in the context of foreign language learning at school. Very often, we can expect that when they start learning another foreign language at school (or at university), they are already familiar with learning techniques and strategies for learning foreign languages and also have acquired a certain level of language awareness. The teaching of additional foreign languages (L3, L4, L5, the so-called tertiary languages) can therefore often build on previous experience of the language learning process of English (or other previously acquired languages). The following could be a task for learners of German as a Foreign Language who had previously learnt English, in which they are asked to reflect on the similarities and differences between English and German. In this case, they should realize that there are real friends (same meaning), but also false friends (with different meaning), which means that similarities between English and German can be helpful when learning German; but there are also stumbling blocks that can hinder learning and cause one to fall into a trap. {| class="wikitable" |'''English (E)''' |'''German (G)''' |'''Real friend or false friend?''' |'''Meaning/s''' |- |house |Haus |✅ Friend |building, in which one lives |- |hand |Hand |… |part of … |- |gift |Gift |❌ False friend |gift (E) = Geschenk (G) ↔ Gift (G) = poison (E), |- |to become |bekommen |… |… |- |brave |brav |… |... |- |student |Student |… |… |- |actually |aktuell |… |… |- |fast |fast |… |… |- |also |also |… |… |} You can then discuss with the learners which words in German are easy to understand if you know English, which words are dangerous because they mean something different, and under what circumstances your knowledge of English can still help you learn German.[A1] If we teach one of these tertiary languages, then it is important that we take the previous experience into account. But what should this teaching be like? What principles should it be based on? This article explains the origin, presents the definition and principles of tertiary language teachings. Examples are included and further reading suggestions are provided. == '''History of concept''' == Tertiary language teaching developed as an independent field of research in the 1990s. The fact that it is assumed that learners can strategically use their previously acquired knowledge and skills constructively for learning additional foreign language(s) when learning several foreign languages consecutively. This has marked a break with the previous belief that the influence of previously learnt languages was rather negative (ʽnegative transferʼ) and led to interference and that for this reason a separation of the languages offered was necessary. It was not until around 1990 that tertiary language research began to focus on the positive transfer effects and use them for foreign language teaching. The first thoughts on specific didactic approaches for the acquisition of a third language emerged as early as 1980-1990, particularly in Europe, in order to respond to the reality of a Europe that was growing together, its large and small languages, i.e. its multilingualism. The geographical focus of early research into tertiary language didactics was Scandinavia, France, Spain, Germany and Austria. With the publication of the ''European Framework of Reference for Languages'' (CEFR), an increased awareness of multilingualism was promoted and influenced the development of tertiary language teaching. In the 2000s, research was enriched by concepts of language awareness and intercomprehension. As a result, the term is increasingly being replaced by the term multilingual didactics in the sense of an overall language concept. == '''Definition''' == Tertiary language didactics is just one of several possible manifestations of the concept of plurilingual teaching. The term ''tertiary language'' refers to two different contexts: In tertiary language research, it refers to that language which is learnt after the L1 and a second foreign language (L2). In the school context, however, tertiary language refers to any other foreign language (L3, L4, L5,...) that is learnt after a second foreign language. Tertiary languages are generally foreign languages learnt late (at school). It is assumed that learning an L3 (and other foreign languages) differs significantly from learning a first foreign language (L2). In terms of language acquisition theory, it is assumed that when learners begin to learn a second (or further) foreign language, they have prerequisites that were not yet present when they learnt their first foreign language. Thus, when learning subsequent foreign languages, there are many layers of experience from learning the first foreign language. This experience is reflected in procedural and declarative knowledge, which includes knowledge of learning strategies and learning techniques as well as the language skills already acquired in the first foreign language. Language comparison is a key method. Learners of tertiary languages do not primarily activate the languages themselves, but a range of cognitive, metacognitive, and linguistic strategies influenced by their previous language learning experiences. In the context of tertiary language teaching five didactic and methodological principles are defined (Neuner 2009: 7-8): * ''Cognitive learning'': developing language awareness (by comparing languages) and language learning awareness (expanding learning techniques and learning strategies) * ''Understanding as the basis and starting point of foreign language learning'' (many language phenomena (hundreds of words; many elements of grammar; texts; etc.) can be understood by using English (or another L2) * ''Content-orientation'' (age-appropriate content; inclusion of one's own world and the world of the languages one has already begun to learn) * ''Text-orientation''; inclusion of the new types of text in the ‘new media’ * ''Economization of the learning process'' (activation of learners (incorporate all the language(s) and learning strategies already ‘in your head’ while learning a L3); creative use of language (e.g. forming hypotheses on word meanings, language rules and texts through language comparison); guidance on self-evaluation, etc.). There are languages that are typical tertiary languages. From a global perspective, German, for example, is a typical tertiary language, as German is almost always learnt after another foreign language (usually English). This state of affairs also applies in Italy, where German is usually learnt after English. This is why tertiary language teaching in Germany also became known as ''German after English'' (Deutsch als Fremdsprache nach Englisch (DaFnE)). The aim of DaFnE is to research the influences of prior English acquisition on subsequent German acquisition and to develop concepts to use these influences for German acquisition and DaF lessons (see practical examples). Unfortunately, the tertiary language teaching approach is not yet sufficiently recognized in teaching practice. In terms of curriculum and methodology, the existing programs are still too much in the tradition of nationally conceived foreign language teaching. This applies to the extensive ignoring of pluralistic approaches, in this case the individual multilingualism profiles that are relevant to learning on the part of the students, including language learning competence. == '''Practical examples:''' == There are two possible starting positions when learning and teaching a tertiary language: Either similarities are used for positive transfer or there is a warning about possible interference, e.g. false friends, differences in verb position. As a rule, the positive comparison is favored. Some examples of exercises for German as a tertiary language are given below. The '''first example''' shows how similar the German and English words for body parts are (Fig. 1). [[File:EN-DE_Parts_of_the_body.png|thumb|Fig. 1: Parts of the body]] The '''second example''' shows the similarities in verbs between English and German, but also another language (Tab.1). ''Complete the table. What are the verbs in your language?'' {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''English''' | valign="top" |'''German''' | valign="top" |'''Other language''' |- | valign="top" |'''To come''' | valign="top" |'''kommen''' | valign="top" | |- | valign="top" |to control | valign="top" |kontrollieren | valign="top" | |- | valign="top" |to discuss | valign="top" |diskutieren | valign="top" | |- | valign="top" |to drink | valign="top" |trinken | valign="top" | |- | valign="top" |to help | valign="top" |helfen | valign="top" | |- | valign="top" |to organize | valign="top" |organisieren | valign="top" | |- | valign="top" |to speak | valign="top" |sprechen | valign="top" | |- | valign="top" |to stand | valign="top" |stehen | valign="top" | |} Tab. 1: Verbs between English, German and another language The '''third example''' focuses on comparing the possessive adjectives between German, English, Italian and other languages, e.g. the student’s own L1 (Tab. 2). ''Who’s house this? Complete the table. How do you express that in your language?'' {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" | | valign="top" |'''English''' | valign="top" |'''German''' | valign="top" |'''Italian''' | valign="top" |'''Other language''' |- | valign="top" |Max (m.) | valign="top" |his house | valign="top" |sein Haus | valign="top" |la sua casa | valign="top" | |- | valign="top" |Anna (f.) | valign="top" |her house | valign="top" |ihr Haus | valign="top" |la sua casa | valign="top" | |- | valign="top" |Max and Anna | valign="top" |their house | valign="top" |ihr Haus | valign="top" |la loro casa | valign="top" | |} Tab. 2: Possessive articles in English, German, Italian and another language The '''fourth example''' focuses on the realization of the ''Konjunktiv II'' (wishes and unreal conditionals) with different auxiliary verbs in German and English, as well as other languages. (Tab. 3 and Tab. 4) ''I would like to do …''Read the example and complete the table. How is a real possibility expressed in other languages? {| class="wikitable" |'''English''' |'''German''' |'''Other language''' |'''Other language''' |- |would + infinite ''I would eat'' |Form of Konjunktiv II or würde + Infinitiv ''Ich würde … essen'' | | |} Tab. 3: Real conditional clauses in English, German and other languages ''If I had …'' How is an irreal condition (also in the past) expressed in other languages? {| class="wikitable" |'''English''' |'''German''' |'''Other language''' |'''Other language''' |- |''If I still had the chance, I would go.'' |''Wenn ich noch die Chance hätte, würde ich gehen.'' ''Hätte ich noch die Chance, würde ich gehen.'' | | |- |''If I had had the chance, I would have gone.'' |''Wenn ich die Chance gehabt hätte, wäre ich gegangen.'' ''Hätte ich die Chance gehabt, wäre ich gegangen.'' | | |} Tab. 4: Irreal conditional clauses in English, German and other languages == '''Take home messages''' == A. Read the entry again, highlight important key words and write a short summary as if you were explaining the concept of tertiary language teaching to another person. B. Try to answer the following questions: What previous experience, knowledge, strategies etc. did you transfer from learning an L2 to learning an L3? Try to find examples that include the foreign languages you have learnt so far or your language learning history. Do you already have experience with tertiary language teaching? Can you think of any examples of your own foreign language teaching or class experience where tertiary language teaching would have been more appropriate? == '''Self-assessment (multiple choice with solutions, open questions…)''' == <quiz display=simple> {Question 1: Which statement best describes tertiary language didactics?} -A) It deals with the acquisition of the first language (L1). +B) It examines the acquisition and teaching of a third or additional foreign language. -C) It is synonymous with second language didactics. -D) It focusses exclusively on the teaching of English as a foreign language. {Question 2: Which of the following terms is a central concept of tertiary language didactics?} +A) Language comparison -B) Communicative method -C) Universal grammar -D) Audiolingual method {Question 3: What role does the concept of positive language transfer play in tertiary language didactics?} -A) It describes the negative influence of already acquired languages. -B) It means that learners consciously avoid drawing parallels between languages. +C) It describes the promotion of the acquisition of new languages through existing language learning strategies. -D) It plays no role in tertiary language didactics. {Question 4: Which of the following language pairs and their sequence are not typical for tertiary language teaching?} -A) English > German -B) Portuguese > Spanish -C) French > Italian +D) Russian > English </quiz> == '''Resources to go further''' == Hufeisen, Britta (2003): Le, L2, L3, L4, Lx – alle gleich? Linguistische, lernerinterne und lernerexterne Faktoren in Modellen zum multiplen Spracherwerb. In: ''Zeitschrift für interkulturellen Fremdsprachenunterricht'' 8 (2/3). [https:zif.tujournals.ulb-tu-darmstadt.de] Neuner, Gerhad & Hufeisen, Britta (eds.) (2003): ''Mehrsprachigkeitskonzept – Tertiärsprachen – Deutsch nach Englisch'', Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. Hufeisen, Britte/ Lindemann, Beate (1998): ''Tertiärsprachen. Theorien, Modelle, Methoden'', Stauffenburg, Tübingen. == '''Bibliography''' == Neuner, Gerhard (2009): ''Mehrsprachigkeitsdidaktik und Tertiärsprachenlernen. Grundlagen - Dimensionen – Merkmale. Zur Konzeption des Lehrwerks „deutsch.com“''. [https/www.hueber.de] Kursiča, Anta/ Neuner, Gerhard (2006): ''Deutsch ist easy''! Lehrerhandreichungen und Kopiervorlagen „Deutsch nach Englisch“ für den Anfangsunterricht, Ismaning: Hueber. Strathmann, Jochen (2019): “Tertiärsprachen” In: Fäcke, Christian/ Meißner, Franz-Joseph (eds.): Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeits- und Mehrkulturalitätsdidaktik. Tübingen: Narr Francke Attempto, pp. 415-417. Hoffmann, Sabine (2013): ''Didattica della lingua tedesca''. Roma: Carocci. Hufeisen, Britta (2011): “Tertiärsprachendidaktik” In: Barkowski, Hans/ Krumm, Hans-Jürgen (eds.): ''Fachlexikon Deutsche als Fremd- und Zweitsprache''. Tübingen und Basel: Narr Francke Attempto, p. 334. Braun, Birgit et al. (2016): ''Daf kompakt neu''. A1-B1. Übungsbuch. Stuttgart: Ernst Klett Sprachen. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Martina Nied Curcio (Università Roma Tre) * Daniela Zini (Università Roma Tre) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Linguistics]] [[Category:Applied linguistics]] mgqosycw9xonxt85p0qjltmf3zel1wd 0 324906 2817215 2817213 2026-06-29T11:59:23Z ~2026-37293-24 3097836 2817215 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Warm-up activity == Imagine you are starting a new language course without any knowledge of your learners’ linguistic backgrounds. Based on the heterogeneity of learning groups, you can assume that they will have different levels of proficiency as well as different linguistic knowledge. Which instruments and methods could you use to thematise the linguistic biography of your students and diagnose their linguistic competences? == Objectives == By the end of this section, you will be able to: * define the concept language portfolio; * know the structure of the European Language Portfolio (ELP); * acknowledge practical applications for its use. == Keywords == Learner autonomy, self-assessment, reflection, awareness raising, documentation == Table of contents == * Introduction * History of the concept * Definition * Practical example: The European Language Portfolio (ELP) * Take home messages * Self-assessment (multiple choice with solutions, open questions…) * Resources to go further * Bibliography == Introduction == A language portfolio is a rich instrument to get to know the linguistic repertoires of your students and act pedagogically according to those repertoires. Indeed, it is not only a useful tool for addressing linguistic diversity, but also for supporting their learning paths, structuring teaching and learning, encouraging reflection, and implementing alternative forms of assessment, such as self-assessment. In this section, we will present the concept of language portfolio and focus on a specific standardised format: the European Language Portfolio, developed by the European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council of Europe (2024).   == History of the concept == The term portfolio originates from the French word "porte-feuilles," meaning "holding sheets," and has long been associated with the presentation and transport of artists' works (Häcker, 2007). Traditionally used in artistic fields, portfolios transitioned into educational contexts during a writing movement of the 1980s and 90s. This shift marked a departure from the dominance of standardised testing toward more formative, i.e. continuous, assessment practices. In education, portfolios have become tools for documenting and reflecting on students' learning processes. In foreign language teaching, specifically, portfolios have been adapted to enhance authentic learning experiences. They encourage learners to engage deeply with cultural and linguistic contexts, fostering not only language comprehension but also a greater appreciation of cultural diversity and multilingualism (Brinkmann, 2026). == Definition == In general terms, “a language portfolio can be defined as a systematic and purposeful collection of learner language related work that shows progress over time and respects instructional objectives. A language portfolio can contain very different types of documents: learning logs, written texts, drawings, learners’ reflections and audio or video tapes, teacher, learner and also parents’ comments on the progress made by the learner” (Gonçalves & Andrade, 2007, S. 198). A portfolio is thus a versatile tool that brings together learning, teaching, and assessment in one place. It views language learning as a journey in which skills develop simultaneously as a step by step and a holistic process. In a language portfolio, students create, collect, organize, reflect on, and present their work with clear goals in mind. Teachers guide this process by helping learners reflect about their progress and achievements. Language portfolios can take different forms, depending on their purpose. They can focus on specific competences, such as reading portfolios or writing portfolios. Often, language portfolios include a mix of written, visual, or digital elements and can be created manually or as electronic portfolios (''e-portfolios''). In addition to showcasing students' work, portfolios help teachers and learners assess progress. They support self-evaluation, peer feedback, and even external assessment. This promotes learner independence, as students use tools such as self-assessment grids to track their own growth (Brinkmann, 2026). == Practical example: The European Language Portfolio (ELP) == A specific form of a portfolio is the European Language Portfolio, which is “a personal document in which learners of all ages can record their language learning and cultural experiences both within and outside formal education. It also provides a framework for learners to assess their own language competences” (European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council, 2024). A core principle of the ELP is the promotion of plurilingualism. This means it recognizes and values the ability to communicate in multiple languages and encourages learners to develop and use their plurilingual competences in meaningful ways. To support this goal, various ELP formats have been developed to suit different age groups, educational contexts, and learning objectives, reflecting the diverse linguistic and cultural experiences of learners across Europe. The ELP is structured into three main parts: # '''Language Passport''' This section allows learners to present an overview of their language abilities, detailing the languages they have learned or are learning, and the contexts in which they have used or understood these languages. It provides a concise snapshot of their plurilingual journey, emphasizing their unique linguistic identity. # '''Language Biography''' The language biography encourages learners to self-assess their competences using the ''can-do'' descriptors of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). Through this reflective process, students identify their strengths, set goals for improvement, and track their progress over time. By focusing on their personal achievements and challenges, the language biography empowers learners to take charge of their development as plurilingual individuals. # '''Dossier''' The dossier serves as a space for learners to collect and showcase language-related documents and projects. This could include official certificates, creative work in different languages, or evidence of informal language learning experiences, such as travel journals or communication with pen pals. By organizing and presenting these materials, learners can reflect on their growth and achievements in a tangible way. The ELP is intended to be more than a record of learning — it is a tool for fostering learner autonomy. In the context of language learning, autonomy means that students take an active role in their education by making decisions about what and how they learn, evaluating their progress, and setting personal goals. The language biography, in particular, supports this independence by potentially encouraging self-assessment and reflection. By using tools like the CEFR’s ''can-do'' grids, learners develop a clear understanding of their abilities and can identify areas for improvement. This process not only builds confidence but also teaches them to take responsibility for their own learning journey. Additionally, the emphasis on plurilingualism within the ELP broadens learners' perspectives, showing them how their knowledge of one language can support the acquisition of others. This interconnected understanding is expected to enhance their ability to navigate a multilingual world with confidence and competence (European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council, 2024; Little, 2012). Between 2001 and 2010, 118 models of the ELP were validated and accredited. They were designed for different age groups (from 4-year-olds to adults) and different educational sectors (primary and secondary education, vocational education, higher education, etc.). Templates, such as an interactive standard version of the Language Passport for adult learners (in English and French), can be accessed via the Council's website. The self-assessment grids are available in 32 language. As Ballweg (2019, p. 131) points out, however, the ELP did not gain as much traction as initially expected. Little (2019, p. 28-30) cites the difficulties in aligning the ELP with existing curricula and the lack of sufficient support from teachers and institutions in its implementation as possible reasons. == Take-home message == * The potentials of the portfolio include multilingual evaluation, alternative assessment, an emphasis of the individual learner’s background, and learner independence. * The portfolio has many potentials but it is necessary to adapt it to the learners, to prepare and assess it properly. = Self-assessment = 1. What is the main function of portfolios in foreign language teaching, as described in the text? A) To evaluate students through standardized testing. B) To enhance authentic learning experiences and foster cultural appreciation. C) To store and transport artistic works. D) To focus solely on improving writing skills. '''Correct Answer:''' B '''B) To enhance authentic learning experiences and foster cultural appreciation.''' 2. Which of the following is ''not'' a typical characteristic of a language portfolio? A) It emphasizes standardized testing as the primary assessment tool. B) It encourages self-assessment and reflection. C) It can include diverse and multimodal content, such as written and digital formats. D) It integrates learning, teaching, and assessment into one cohesive process. '''Correct Answer:''' '''A) It emphasizes standardized testing as the primary assessment tool.''' 3. What are the three main components of the European Language Portfolio (ELP), and how do they support the development of plurilingualism and learner autonomy? = Resources to go further = Ballweg, S. & Kühn, B. (2019), ''Portfolioarbeit im Kontext von Sprachenunterricht. Neue internationale Entwicklungen'', Universitätsverlag Göttingen. Council of Europe. ''European Language Portfolio.'' <nowiki>https://www.coe.int/en/web/portfolio</nowiki> Kühn, B., & Pérez Cavana, M. L. (Eds.) ''Perspectives from the European Language Portfolio : Learner Autonomy and Self-Assessment''. Routledge, 2012. = Bibliography = Ballweg, S. (2019). Portfolio im Kontext von Mehrsprachigkeit. In F.-J. Meißner & C. Fäcke (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeits- und Mehrkulturalitätsdidaktik'' (pp. 130–133). Narr Francke Attempto. Brinkmann, L. (2026). Language portfolio. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue / Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education.'' Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/document/1588003 European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council (2024). <nowiki>https://www.ecml.at/Thematicareas/Curriculaandevaluation/EuropeanLanguagePortfolio/Browseportfolios/tabid/4182/language/en-GB/Default.aspx</nowiki> Gonçalves, M. d. L., & Andrade, A. I. (2007). Connecting languages: the use of the portfolio as a means of exploring and overcoming frontiers within the curriculum. ''European Journal of Teacher Education'', ''30''(2), 195–213. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/02619760701274001</nowiki> Häcker, T. (2007). ''Portfolio. Ein Entwicklungsinstrument für selbstbestimmtes Lernen. Eine explorative Studie zur Arbeit mit Portfolios in der Sekundarstufe'' I (2. ed.). Schneider-Verlag. Little, D. (2012). The European Language Portfolio: history, key concerns and future prospects. In B. Kühn & M. L. Pérez-Cavana (Eds.), ''Perspectives from the European language portfolio: Learner autonomy and self-assessment'' (pp. 7–21). Routledge. Little, D. (2019). The European Language Portfolio: Past Success, Present Reality, Future Prospects. In S. Ballweg & B. Kühn (Eds.), ''Portfolioarbeit im Kontext von Sprachenunterricht. Neue internationale Entwicklungen'' (pp. 17–35), Universitätsverlag Göttingen. __INDEX__ __NEWSECTIONLINK__ ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, cofinanced by the European Commission) : Lisa Brinkmann (Universität Hamburg) & Christoph Hülsmann (Paris Lodron Universität Salzburg) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] h967n0zfrnda4d3ynfu77h99771xlqx 2817217 2817215 2026-06-29T12:02:01Z ~2026-37293-24 3097836 2817217 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Warm-up activity == Imagine you are starting a new language course without any knowledge of your learners’ linguistic backgrounds. Based on the heterogeneity of learning groups, you can assume that they will have different levels of proficiency as well as different linguistic knowledge. Which instruments and methods could you use to thematise the linguistic biography of your students and diagnose their linguistic competences? == Objectives == By the end of this section, you will be able to: * define the concept language portfolio; * know the structure of the European Language Portfolio (ELP); * acknowledge practical applications for its use. == Keywords == Learner autonomy, self-assessment, reflection, awareness raising, documentation == Table of contents == * Introduction * History of the concept * Definition * Practical example: The European Language Portfolio (ELP) * Take home messages * Self-assessment (multiple choice with solutions, open questions…) * Resources to go further * Bibliography == Introduction == A language portfolio is a rich instrument to get to know the linguistic repertoires of your students and act pedagogically according to those repertoires. Indeed, it is not only a useful tool for addressing linguistic diversity, but also for supporting their learning paths, structuring teaching and learning, encouraging reflection, and implementing alternative forms of assessment, such as self-assessment. In this section, we will present the concept of language portfolio and focus on a specific standardised format: the European Language Portfolio, developed by the European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council of Europe (2024).   == History of the concept == The term portfolio originates from the French word "porte-feuilles," meaning "holding sheets," and has long been associated with the presentation and transport of artists' works (Häcker, 2007). Traditionally used in artistic fields, portfolios transitioned into educational contexts during a writing movement of the 1980s and 90s. This shift marked a departure from the dominance of standardised testing toward more formative, i.e. continuous, assessment practices. In education, portfolios have become tools for documenting and reflecting on students' learning processes. In foreign language teaching, specifically, portfolios have been adapted to enhance authentic learning experiences. They encourage learners to engage deeply with cultural and linguistic contexts, fostering not only language comprehension but also a greater appreciation of cultural diversity and multilingualism (Brinkmann, 2026). == Definition == In general terms, “a language portfolio can be defined as a systematic and purposeful collection of learner language related work that shows progress over time and respects instructional objectives. A language portfolio can contain very different types of documents: learning logs, written texts, drawings, learners’ reflections and audio or video tapes, teacher, learner and also parents’ comments on the progress made by the learner” (Gonçalves & Andrade, 2007, S. 198). A portfolio is thus a versatile tool that brings together learning, teaching, and assessment in one place. It views language learning as a journey in which skills develop simultaneously as a step by step and a holistic process. In a language portfolio, students create, collect, organize, reflect on, and present their work with clear goals in mind. Teachers guide this process by helping learners reflect about their progress and achievements. Language portfolios can take different forms, depending on their purpose. They can focus on specific competences, such as reading portfolios or writing portfolios. Often, language portfolios include a mix of written, visual, or digital elements and can be created manually or as electronic portfolios (''e-portfolios''). In addition to showcasing students' work, portfolios help teachers and learners assess progress. They support self-evaluation, peer feedback, and even external assessment. This promotes learner independence, as students use tools such as self-assessment grids to track their own growth (Brinkmann, 2026). == Practical example: The European Language Portfolio (ELP) == A specific form of a portfolio is the European Language Portfolio, which is “a personal document in which learners of all ages can record their language learning and cultural experiences both within and outside formal education. It also provides a framework for learners to assess their own language competences” (European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council, 2024). A core principle of the ELP is the promotion of plurilingualism. This means it recognizes and values the ability to communicate in multiple languages and encourages learners to develop and use their plurilingual competences in meaningful ways. To support this goal, various ELP formats have been developed to suit different age groups, educational contexts, and learning objectives, reflecting the diverse linguistic and cultural experiences of learners across Europe. The ELP is structured into three main parts: # '''Language Passport''': This section allows learners to present an overview of their language abilities, detailing the languages they have learned or are learning, and the contexts in which they have used or understood these languages. It provides a concise snapshot of their plurilingual journey, emphasizing their unique linguistic identity. # '''Language Biography:''' The language biography encourages learners to self-assess their competences using the ''can-do'' descriptors of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). Through this reflective process, students identify their strengths, set goals for improvement, and track their progress over time. By focusing on their personal achievements and challenges, the language biography empowers learners to take charge of their development as plurilingual individuals. # '''Dossier''': The dossier serves as a space for learners to collect and showcase language-related documents and projects. This could include official certificates, creative work in different languages, or evidence of informal language learning experiences, such as travel journals or communication with pen pals. By organizing and presenting these materials, learners can reflect on their growth and achievements in a tangible way. The ELP is intended to be more than a record of learning — it is a tool for fostering learner autonomy. In the context of language learning, autonomy means that students take an active role in their education by making decisions about what and how they learn, evaluating their progress, and setting personal goals. The language biography, in particular, supports this independence by potentially encouraging self-assessment and reflection. By using tools like the CEFR’s ''can-do'' grids, learners develop a clear understanding of their abilities and can identify areas for improvement. This process not only builds confidence but also teaches them to take responsibility for their own learning journey. Additionally, the emphasis on plurilingualism within the ELP broadens learners' perspectives, showing them how their knowledge of one language can support the acquisition of others. This interconnected understanding is expected to enhance their ability to navigate a multilingual world with confidence and competence (European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council, 2024; Little, 2012). Between 2001 and 2010, 118 models of the ELP were validated and accredited. They were designed for different age groups (from 4-year-olds to adults) and different educational sectors (primary and secondary education, vocational education, higher education, etc.). Templates, such as an interactive standard version of the Language Passport for adult learners (in English and French), can be accessed via the Council's website. The self-assessment grids are available in 32 language. As Ballweg (2019, p. 131) points out, however, the ELP did not gain as much traction as initially expected. Little (2019, p. 28-30) cites the difficulties in aligning the ELP with existing curricula and the lack of sufficient support from teachers and institutions in its implementation as possible reasons. == Take-home message == * The potentials of the portfolio include multilingual evaluation, alternative assessment, an emphasis of the individual learner’s background, and learner independence. * The portfolio has many potentials but it is necessary to adapt it to the learners, to prepare and assess it properly. = Self-assessment = 1. What is the main function of portfolios in foreign language teaching, as described in the text? A) To evaluate students through standardized testing. B) To enhance authentic learning experiences and foster cultural appreciation. C) To store and transport artistic works. D) To focus solely on improving writing skills. '''Correct Answer:''' B '''B) To enhance authentic learning experiences and foster cultural appreciation.''' 2. Which of the following is ''not'' a typical characteristic of a language portfolio? A) It emphasizes standardized testing as the primary assessment tool. B) It encourages self-assessment and reflection. C) It can include diverse and multimodal content, such as written and digital formats. D) It integrates learning, teaching, and assessment into one cohesive process. '''Correct Answer:''' '''A) It emphasizes standardized testing as the primary assessment tool.''' 3. What are the three main components of the European Language Portfolio (ELP), and how do they support the development of plurilingualism and learner autonomy? = Resources to go further = Ballweg, S. & Kühn, B. (2019), ''Portfolioarbeit im Kontext von Sprachenunterricht. Neue internationale Entwicklungen'', Universitätsverlag Göttingen. Council of Europe. ''European Language Portfolio.'' <nowiki>https://www.coe.int/en/web/portfolio</nowiki> Kühn, B., & Pérez Cavana, M. L. (Eds.) ''Perspectives from the European Language Portfolio : Learner Autonomy and Self-Assessment''. Routledge, 2012. = Bibliography = Ballweg, S. (2019). Portfolio im Kontext von Mehrsprachigkeit. In F.-J. Meißner & C. Fäcke (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeits- und Mehrkulturalitätsdidaktik'' (pp. 130–133). Narr Francke Attempto. Brinkmann, L. (2026). Language portfolio. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue / Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education.'' Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/document/1588003 European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council (2024). <nowiki>https://www.ecml.at/Thematicareas/Curriculaandevaluation/EuropeanLanguagePortfolio/Browseportfolios/tabid/4182/language/en-GB/Default.aspx</nowiki> Gonçalves, M. d. L., & Andrade, A. I. (2007). Connecting languages: the use of the portfolio as a means of exploring and overcoming frontiers within the curriculum. ''European Journal of Teacher Education'', ''30''(2), 195–213. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/02619760701274001</nowiki> Häcker, T. (2007). ''Portfolio. Ein Entwicklungsinstrument für selbstbestimmtes Lernen. Eine explorative Studie zur Arbeit mit Portfolios in der Sekundarstufe'' I (2. ed.). Schneider-Verlag. Little, D. (2012). The European Language Portfolio: history, key concerns and future prospects. In B. Kühn & M. L. Pérez-Cavana (Eds.), ''Perspectives from the European language portfolio: Learner autonomy and self-assessment'' (pp. 7–21). Routledge. Little, D. (2019). The European Language Portfolio: Past Success, Present Reality, Future Prospects. In S. Ballweg & B. Kühn (Eds.), ''Portfolioarbeit im Kontext von Sprachenunterricht. Neue internationale Entwicklungen'' (pp. 17–35), Universitätsverlag Göttingen. __INDEX__ __NEWSECTIONLINK__ ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, cofinanced by the European Commission) : Lisa Brinkmann (Universität Hamburg) & Christoph Hülsmann (Paris Lodron Universität Salzburg) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] bb7vme7nptwt4xla7u0i82mnk731hg4 2817219 2817217 2026-06-29T12:02:50Z ~2026-37293-24 3097836 2817219 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Warm-up activity == Imagine you are starting a new language course without any knowledge of your learners’ linguistic backgrounds. Based on the heterogeneity of learning groups, you can assume that they will have different levels of proficiency as well as different linguistic knowledge. Which instruments and methods could you use to thematise the linguistic biography of your students and diagnose their linguistic competences? == Objectives == By the end of this section, you will be able to: * define the concept language portfolio; * know the structure of the European Language Portfolio (ELP); * acknowledge practical applications for its use. == Keywords == Learner autonomy, self-assessment, reflection, awareness raising, documentation == Table of contents == * Introduction * History of the concept * Definition * Practical example: The European Language Portfolio (ELP) * Take home messages * Self-assessment (multiple choice with solutions, open questions…) * Resources to go further * Bibliography == Introduction == A language portfolio is a rich instrument to get to know the linguistic repertoires of your students and act pedagogically according to those repertoires. Indeed, it is not only a useful tool for addressing linguistic diversity, but also for supporting their learning paths, structuring teaching and learning, encouraging reflection, and implementing alternative forms of assessment, such as self-assessment. In this section, we will present the concept of language portfolio and focus on a specific standardised format: the European Language Portfolio, developed by the European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council of Europe (2024).   == History of the concept == The term portfolio originates from the French word "porte-feuilles," meaning "holding sheets," and has long been associated with the presentation and transport of artists' works (Häcker, 2007). Traditionally used in artistic fields, portfolios transitioned into educational contexts during a writing movement of the 1980s and 90s. This shift marked a departure from the dominance of standardised testing toward more formative, i.e. continuous, assessment practices. In education, portfolios have become tools for documenting and reflecting on students' learning processes. In foreign language teaching, specifically, portfolios have been adapted to enhance authentic learning experiences. They encourage learners to engage deeply with cultural and linguistic contexts, fostering not only language comprehension but also a greater appreciation of cultural diversity and multilingualism (Brinkmann, 2026). == Definition == In general terms, “a language portfolio can be defined as a systematic and purposeful collection of learner language related work that shows progress over time and respects instructional objectives. A language portfolio can contain very different types of documents: learning logs, written texts, drawings, learners’ reflections and audio or video tapes, teacher, learner and also parents’ comments on the progress made by the learner” (Gonçalves & Andrade, 2007, S. 198). A portfolio is thus a versatile tool that brings together learning, teaching, and assessment in one place. It views language learning as a journey in which skills develop simultaneously as a step by step and a holistic process. In a language portfolio, students create, collect, organize, reflect on, and present their work with clear goals in mind. Teachers guide this process by helping learners reflect about their progress and achievements. Language portfolios can take different forms, depending on their purpose. They can focus on specific competences, such as reading portfolios or writing portfolios. Often, language portfolios include a mix of written, visual, or digital elements and can be created manually or as electronic portfolios (''e-portfolios''). In addition to showcasing students' work, portfolios help teachers and learners assess progress. They support self-evaluation, peer feedback, and even external assessment. This promotes learner independence, as students use tools such as self-assessment grids to track their own growth (Brinkmann, 2026). == Practical example: The European Language Portfolio (ELP) == A specific form of a portfolio is the European Language Portfolio, which is “a personal document in which learners of all ages can record their language learning and cultural experiences both within and outside formal education. It also provides a framework for learners to assess their own language competences” (European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council, 2024). A core principle of the ELP is the promotion of plurilingualism. This means it recognizes and values the ability to communicate in multiple languages and encourages learners to develop and use their plurilingual competences in meaningful ways. To support this goal, various ELP formats have been developed to suit different age groups, educational contexts, and learning objectives, reflecting the diverse linguistic and cultural experiences of learners across Europe. The ELP is structured into three main parts: # '''Language Passport''': This section allows learners to present an overview of their language abilities, detailing the languages they have learned or are learning, and the contexts in which they have used or understood these languages. It provides a concise snapshot of their plurilingual journey, emphasizing their unique linguistic identity. # '''Language Biography:''' The language biography encourages learners to self-assess their competences using the ''can-do'' descriptors of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). Through this reflective process, students identify their strengths, set goals for improvement, and track their progress over time. By focusing on their personal achievements and challenges, the language biography empowers learners to take charge of their development as plurilingual individuals. # '''Dossier''': The dossier serves as a space for learners to collect and showcase language-related documents and projects. This could include official certificates, creative work in different languages, or evidence of informal language learning experiences, such as travel journals or communication with pen pals. By organizing and presenting these materials, learners can reflect on their growth and achievements in a tangible way. The ELP is intended to be more than a record of learning — it is a tool for fostering learner autonomy. In the context of language learning, autonomy means that students take an active role in their education by making decisions about what and how they learn, evaluating their progress, and setting personal goals. The language biography, in particular, supports this independence by potentially encouraging self-assessment and reflection. By using tools like the CEFR’s ''can-do'' grids, learners develop a clear understanding of their abilities and can identify areas for improvement. This process not only builds confidence but also teaches them to take responsibility for their own learning journey. Additionally, the emphasis on plurilingualism within the ELP broadens learners' perspectives, showing them how their knowledge of one language can support the acquisition of others. This interconnected understanding is expected to enhance their ability to navigate a multilingual world with confidence and competence (European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council, 2024; Little, 2012). Between 2001 and 2010, 118 models of the ELP were validated and accredited. They were designed for different age groups (from 4-year-olds to adults) and different educational sectors (primary and secondary education, vocational education, higher education, etc.). Templates, such as an interactive standard version of the Language Passport for adult learners (in English and French), can be accessed via the Council's website. The self-assessment grids are available in 32 language. As Ballweg (2019, p. 131) points out, however, the ELP did not gain as much traction as initially expected. Little (2019, p. 28-30) cites the difficulties in aligning the ELP with existing curricula and the lack of sufficient support from teachers and institutions in its implementation as possible reasons. == Take-home message == * The potentials of the portfolio include multilingual evaluation, alternative assessment, an emphasis of the individual learner’s background, and learner independence. * The portfolio has many potentials but it is necessary to adapt it to the learners, to prepare and assess it properly. = Self-assessment = 1. What is the main function of portfolios in foreign language teaching, as described in the text? A) To evaluate students through standardized testing. B) To enhance authentic learning experiences and foster cultural appreciation. C) To store and transport artistic works. D) To focus solely on improving writing skills. '''Correct Answer:''' B '''B) To enhance authentic learning experiences and foster cultural appreciation.''' 2. Which of the following is ''not'' a typical characteristic of a language portfolio? A) It emphasizes standardized testing as the primary assessment tool. B) It encourages self-assessment and reflection. C) It can include diverse and multimodal content, such as written and digital formats. D) It integrates learning, teaching, and assessment into one cohesive process. '''Correct Answer:''' '''A) It emphasizes standardized testing as the primary assessment tool.''' 3. What are the three main components of the European Language Portfolio (ELP), and how do they support the development of plurilingualism and learner autonomy? = Resources to go further = Ballweg, S., & Kühn, B. (2019), ''Portfolioarbeit im Kontext von Sprachenunterricht. Neue internationale Entwicklungen'', Universitätsverlag Göttingen. Council of Europe. ''European Language Portfolio.'' <nowiki>https://www.coe.int/en/web/portfolio</nowiki> Kühn, B., & Pérez Cavana, M. L. (Eds.) ''Perspectives from the European Language Portfolio : Learner Autonomy and Self-Assessment''. Routledge, 2012. = Bibliography = Ballweg, S. (2019). Portfolio im Kontext von Mehrsprachigkeit. In F.-J. Meißner & C. Fäcke (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeits- und Mehrkulturalitätsdidaktik'' (pp. 130–133). Narr Francke Attempto. Brinkmann, L. (2026). Language portfolio. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue / Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education.'' Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/document/1588003 European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council (2024). <nowiki>https://www.ecml.at/Thematicareas/Curriculaandevaluation/EuropeanLanguagePortfolio/Browseportfolios/tabid/4182/language/en-GB/Default.aspx</nowiki> Gonçalves, M. d. L., & Andrade, A. I. (2007). Connecting languages: the use of the portfolio as a means of exploring and overcoming frontiers within the curriculum. ''European Journal of Teacher Education'', ''30''(2), 195–213. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/02619760701274001</nowiki> Häcker, T. (2007). ''Portfolio. Ein Entwicklungsinstrument für selbstbestimmtes Lernen. Eine explorative Studie zur Arbeit mit Portfolios in der Sekundarstufe'' I (2. ed.). Schneider-Verlag. Little, D. (2012). The European Language Portfolio: history, key concerns and future prospects. In B. Kühn & M. L. Pérez-Cavana (Eds.), ''Perspectives from the European language portfolio: Learner autonomy and self-assessment'' (pp. 7–21). Routledge. Little, D. (2019). The European Language Portfolio: Past Success, Present Reality, Future Prospects. In S. Ballweg & B. Kühn (Eds.), ''Portfolioarbeit im Kontext von Sprachenunterricht. Neue internationale Entwicklungen'' (pp. 17–35), Universitätsverlag Göttingen. __INDEX__ __NEWSECTIONLINK__ ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, cofinanced by the European Commission) : Lisa Brinkmann (Universität Hamburg) & Christoph Hülsmann (Paris Lodron Universität Salzburg) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] tqwrgvtafrrspt7112ybm6bdcik0rc7 2817221 2817219 2026-06-29T12:03:56Z ~2026-37293-24 3097836 2817221 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Warm-up activity == Imagine you are starting a new language course without any knowledge of your learners’ linguistic backgrounds. Based on the heterogeneity of learning groups, you can assume that they will have different levels of proficiency as well as different linguistic knowledge. Which instruments and methods could you use to thematise the linguistic biography of your students and diagnose their linguistic competences? == Objectives == By the end of this section, you will be able to: * define the concept language portfolio; * know the structure of the European Language Portfolio (ELP); * acknowledge practical applications for its use. == Keywords == Learner autonomy, self-assessment, reflection, awareness raising, documentation == Table of contents == * Introduction * History of the concept * Definition * Practical example: The European Language Portfolio (ELP) * Take-home messages * Self-assessment (multiple choice with solutions, open questions…) * Resources to go further * Bibliography == Introduction == A language portfolio is a rich instrument to get to know the linguistic repertoires of your students and act pedagogically according to those repertoires. Indeed, it is not only a useful tool for addressing linguistic diversity, but also for supporting their learning paths, structuring teaching and learning, encouraging reflection, and implementing alternative forms of assessment, such as self-assessment. In this section, we will present the concept of language portfolio and focus on a specific standardised format: the European Language Portfolio, developed by the European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council of Europe (2024).   == History of the concept == The term portfolio originates from the French word "porte-feuilles," meaning "holding sheets," and has long been associated with the presentation and transport of artists' works (Häcker, 2007). Traditionally used in artistic fields, portfolios transitioned into educational contexts during a writing movement of the 1980s and 90s. This shift marked a departure from the dominance of standardised testing toward more formative, i.e. continuous, assessment practices. In education, portfolios have become tools for documenting and reflecting on students' learning processes. In foreign language teaching, specifically, portfolios have been adapted to enhance authentic learning experiences. They encourage learners to engage deeply with cultural and linguistic contexts, fostering not only language comprehension but also a greater appreciation of cultural diversity and multilingualism (Brinkmann, 2026). == Definition == In general terms, “a language portfolio can be defined as a systematic and purposeful collection of learner language related work that shows progress over time and respects instructional objectives. A language portfolio can contain very different types of documents: learning logs, written texts, drawings, learners’ reflections and audio or video tapes, teacher, learner and also parents’ comments on the progress made by the learner” (Gonçalves & Andrade, 2007, S. 198). A portfolio is thus a versatile tool that brings together learning, teaching, and assessment in one place. It views language learning as a journey in which skills develop simultaneously as a step by step and a holistic process. In a language portfolio, students create, collect, organize, reflect on, and present their work with clear goals in mind. Teachers guide this process by helping learners reflect about their progress and achievements. Language portfolios can take different forms, depending on their purpose. They can focus on specific competences, such as reading portfolios or writing portfolios. Often, language portfolios include a mix of written, visual, or digital elements and can be created manually or as electronic portfolios (''e-portfolios''). In addition to showcasing students' work, portfolios help teachers and learners assess progress. They support self-evaluation, peer feedback, and even external assessment. This promotes learner independence, as students use tools such as self-assessment grids to track their own growth (Brinkmann, 2026). == Practical example: The European Language Portfolio (ELP) == A specific form of a portfolio is the European Language Portfolio, which is “a personal document in which learners of all ages can record their language learning and cultural experiences both within and outside formal education. It also provides a framework for learners to assess their own language competences” (European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council, 2024). A core principle of the ELP is the promotion of plurilingualism. This means it recognizes and values the ability to communicate in multiple languages and encourages learners to develop and use their plurilingual competences in meaningful ways. To support this goal, various ELP formats have been developed to suit different age groups, educational contexts, and learning objectives, reflecting the diverse linguistic and cultural experiences of learners across Europe. The ELP is structured into three main parts: # '''Language Passport''': This section allows learners to present an overview of their language abilities, detailing the languages they have learned or are learning, and the contexts in which they have used or understood these languages. It provides a concise snapshot of their plurilingual journey, emphasizing their unique linguistic identity. # '''Language Biography:''' The language biography encourages learners to self-assess their competences using the ''can-do'' descriptors of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). Through this reflective process, students identify their strengths, set goals for improvement, and track their progress over time. By focusing on their personal achievements and challenges, the language biography empowers learners to take charge of their development as plurilingual individuals. # '''Dossier''': The dossier serves as a space for learners to collect and showcase language-related documents and projects. This could include official certificates, creative work in different languages, or evidence of informal language learning experiences, such as travel journals or communication with pen pals. By organizing and presenting these materials, learners can reflect on their growth and achievements in a tangible way. The ELP is intended to be more than a record of learning — it is a tool for fostering learner autonomy. In the context of language learning, autonomy means that students take an active role in their education by making decisions about what and how they learn, evaluating their progress, and setting personal goals. The language biography, in particular, supports this independence by potentially encouraging self-assessment and reflection. By using tools like the CEFR’s ''can-do'' grids, learners develop a clear understanding of their abilities and can identify areas for improvement. This process not only builds confidence but also teaches them to take responsibility for their own learning journey. Additionally, the emphasis on plurilingualism within the ELP broadens learners' perspectives, showing them how their knowledge of one language can support the acquisition of others. This interconnected understanding is expected to enhance their ability to navigate a multilingual world with confidence and competence (European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council, 2024; Little, 2012). Between 2001 and 2010, 118 models of the ELP were validated and accredited. They were designed for different age groups (from 4-year-olds to adults) and different educational sectors (primary and secondary education, vocational education, higher education, etc.). Templates, such as an interactive standard version of the Language Passport for adult learners (in English and French), can be accessed via the Council's website. The self-assessment grids are available in 32 language. As Ballweg (2019, p. 131) points out, however, the ELP did not gain as much traction as initially expected. Little (2019, p. 28-30) cites the difficulties in aligning the ELP with existing curricula and the lack of sufficient support from teachers and institutions in its implementation as possible reasons. == Take-home message == * The potentials of the portfolio include multilingual evaluation, alternative assessment, an emphasis of the individual learner’s background, and learner independence. * The portfolio has many potentials but it is necessary to adapt it to the learners, to prepare and assess it properly. = Self-assessment = 1. What is the main function of portfolios in foreign language teaching, as described in the text? A) To evaluate students through standardized testing. B) To enhance authentic learning experiences and foster cultural appreciation. C) To store and transport artistic works. D) To focus solely on improving writing skills. '''Correct Answer:''' B '''B) To enhance authentic learning experiences and foster cultural appreciation.''' 2. Which of the following is ''not'' a typical characteristic of a language portfolio? A) It emphasizes standardized testing as the primary assessment tool. B) It encourages self-assessment and reflection. C) It can include diverse and multimodal content, such as written and digital formats. D) It integrates learning, teaching, and assessment into one cohesive process. '''Correct Answer:''' '''A) It emphasizes standardized testing as the primary assessment tool.''' 3. What are the three main components of the European Language Portfolio (ELP), and how do they support the development of plurilingualism and learner autonomy? = Resources to go further = Ballweg, S., & Kühn, B. (2019), ''Portfolioarbeit im Kontext von Sprachenunterricht. Neue internationale Entwicklungen'', Universitätsverlag Göttingen. Council of Europe. ''European Language Portfolio.'' <nowiki>https://www.coe.int/en/web/portfolio</nowiki> Kühn, B., & Pérez Cavana, M. L. (Eds.) ''Perspectives from the European Language Portfolio : Learner Autonomy and Self-Assessment''. Routledge, 2012. = Bibliography = Ballweg, S. (2019). Portfolio im Kontext von Mehrsprachigkeit. In F.-J. Meißner & C. Fäcke (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeits- und Mehrkulturalitätsdidaktik'' (pp. 130–133). Narr Francke Attempto. Brinkmann, L. (2026). Language portfolio. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue / Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education.'' Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/document/1588003 European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council (2024). <nowiki>https://www.ecml.at/Thematicareas/Curriculaandevaluation/EuropeanLanguagePortfolio/Browseportfolios/tabid/4182/language/en-GB/Default.aspx</nowiki> Gonçalves, M. d. L., & Andrade, A. I. (2007). Connecting languages: the use of the portfolio as a means of exploring and overcoming frontiers within the curriculum. ''European Journal of Teacher Education'', ''30''(2), 195–213. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/02619760701274001</nowiki> Häcker, T. (2007). ''Portfolio. Ein Entwicklungsinstrument für selbstbestimmtes Lernen. Eine explorative Studie zur Arbeit mit Portfolios in der Sekundarstufe'' I (2. ed.). Schneider-Verlag. Little, D. (2012). The European Language Portfolio: history, key concerns and future prospects. In B. Kühn & M. L. Pérez-Cavana (Eds.), ''Perspectives from the European language portfolio: Learner autonomy and self-assessment'' (pp. 7–21). Routledge. Little, D. (2019). The European Language Portfolio: Past Success, Present Reality, Future Prospects. In S. Ballweg & B. Kühn (Eds.), ''Portfolioarbeit im Kontext von Sprachenunterricht. Neue internationale Entwicklungen'' (pp. 17–35), Universitätsverlag Göttingen. __INDEX__ __NEWSECTIONLINK__ ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, cofinanced by the European Commission) : Lisa Brinkmann (Universität Hamburg) & Christoph Hülsmann (Paris Lodron Universität Salzburg) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] 3i6tcdf15gb7r4tsms05nn75oe7a8sc 2817250 2817221 2026-06-29T15:59:56Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Credits */ 2817250 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Warm-up activity == Imagine you are starting a new language course without any knowledge of your learners’ linguistic backgrounds. Based on the heterogeneity of learning groups, you can assume that they will have different levels of proficiency as well as different linguistic knowledge. Which instruments and methods could you use to thematise the linguistic biography of your students and diagnose their linguistic competences? == Objectives == By the end of this section, you will be able to: * define the concept language portfolio; * know the structure of the European Language Portfolio (ELP); * acknowledge practical applications for its use. == Keywords == Learner autonomy, self-assessment, reflection, awareness raising, documentation == Table of contents == * Introduction * History of the concept * Definition * Practical example: The European Language Portfolio (ELP) * Take-home messages * Self-assessment (multiple choice with solutions, open questions…) * Resources to go further * Bibliography == Introduction == A language portfolio is a rich instrument to get to know the linguistic repertoires of your students and act pedagogically according to those repertoires. Indeed, it is not only a useful tool for addressing linguistic diversity, but also for supporting their learning paths, structuring teaching and learning, encouraging reflection, and implementing alternative forms of assessment, such as self-assessment. In this section, we will present the concept of language portfolio and focus on a specific standardised format: the European Language Portfolio, developed by the European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council of Europe (2024).   == History of the concept == The term portfolio originates from the French word "porte-feuilles," meaning "holding sheets," and has long been associated with the presentation and transport of artists' works (Häcker, 2007). Traditionally used in artistic fields, portfolios transitioned into educational contexts during a writing movement of the 1980s and 90s. This shift marked a departure from the dominance of standardised testing toward more formative, i.e. continuous, assessment practices. In education, portfolios have become tools for documenting and reflecting on students' learning processes. In foreign language teaching, specifically, portfolios have been adapted to enhance authentic learning experiences. They encourage learners to engage deeply with cultural and linguistic contexts, fostering not only language comprehension but also a greater appreciation of cultural diversity and multilingualism (Brinkmann, 2026). == Definition == In general terms, “a language portfolio can be defined as a systematic and purposeful collection of learner language related work that shows progress over time and respects instructional objectives. A language portfolio can contain very different types of documents: learning logs, written texts, drawings, learners’ reflections and audio or video tapes, teacher, learner and also parents’ comments on the progress made by the learner” (Gonçalves & Andrade, 2007, S. 198). A portfolio is thus a versatile tool that brings together learning, teaching, and assessment in one place. It views language learning as a journey in which skills develop simultaneously as a step by step and a holistic process. In a language portfolio, students create, collect, organize, reflect on, and present their work with clear goals in mind. Teachers guide this process by helping learners reflect about their progress and achievements. Language portfolios can take different forms, depending on their purpose. They can focus on specific competences, such as reading portfolios or writing portfolios. Often, language portfolios include a mix of written, visual, or digital elements and can be created manually or as electronic portfolios (''e-portfolios''). In addition to showcasing students' work, portfolios help teachers and learners assess progress. They support self-evaluation, peer feedback, and even external assessment. This promotes learner independence, as students use tools such as self-assessment grids to track their own growth (Brinkmann, 2026). == Practical example: The European Language Portfolio (ELP) == A specific form of a portfolio is the European Language Portfolio, which is “a personal document in which learners of all ages can record their language learning and cultural experiences both within and outside formal education. It also provides a framework for learners to assess their own language competences” (European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council, 2024). A core principle of the ELP is the promotion of plurilingualism. This means it recognizes and values the ability to communicate in multiple languages and encourages learners to develop and use their plurilingual competences in meaningful ways. To support this goal, various ELP formats have been developed to suit different age groups, educational contexts, and learning objectives, reflecting the diverse linguistic and cultural experiences of learners across Europe. The ELP is structured into three main parts: # '''Language Passport''': This section allows learners to present an overview of their language abilities, detailing the languages they have learned or are learning, and the contexts in which they have used or understood these languages. It provides a concise snapshot of their plurilingual journey, emphasizing their unique linguistic identity. # '''Language Biography:''' The language biography encourages learners to self-assess their competences using the ''can-do'' descriptors of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). Through this reflective process, students identify their strengths, set goals for improvement, and track their progress over time. By focusing on their personal achievements and challenges, the language biography empowers learners to take charge of their development as plurilingual individuals. # '''Dossier''': The dossier serves as a space for learners to collect and showcase language-related documents and projects. This could include official certificates, creative work in different languages, or evidence of informal language learning experiences, such as travel journals or communication with pen pals. By organizing and presenting these materials, learners can reflect on their growth and achievements in a tangible way. The ELP is intended to be more than a record of learning — it is a tool for fostering learner autonomy. In the context of language learning, autonomy means that students take an active role in their education by making decisions about what and how they learn, evaluating their progress, and setting personal goals. The language biography, in particular, supports this independence by potentially encouraging self-assessment and reflection. By using tools like the CEFR’s ''can-do'' grids, learners develop a clear understanding of their abilities and can identify areas for improvement. This process not only builds confidence but also teaches them to take responsibility for their own learning journey. Additionally, the emphasis on plurilingualism within the ELP broadens learners' perspectives, showing them how their knowledge of one language can support the acquisition of others. This interconnected understanding is expected to enhance their ability to navigate a multilingual world with confidence and competence (European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council, 2024; Little, 2012). Between 2001 and 2010, 118 models of the ELP were validated and accredited. They were designed for different age groups (from 4-year-olds to adults) and different educational sectors (primary and secondary education, vocational education, higher education, etc.). Templates, such as an interactive standard version of the Language Passport for adult learners (in English and French), can be accessed via the Council's website. The self-assessment grids are available in 32 language. As Ballweg (2019, p. 131) points out, however, the ELP did not gain as much traction as initially expected. Little (2019, p. 28-30) cites the difficulties in aligning the ELP with existing curricula and the lack of sufficient support from teachers and institutions in its implementation as possible reasons. == Take-home message == * The potentials of the portfolio include multilingual evaluation, alternative assessment, an emphasis of the individual learner’s background, and learner independence. * The portfolio has many potentials but it is necessary to adapt it to the learners, to prepare and assess it properly. = Self-assessment = 1. What is the main function of portfolios in foreign language teaching, as described in the text? A) To evaluate students through standardized testing. B) To enhance authentic learning experiences and foster cultural appreciation. C) To store and transport artistic works. D) To focus solely on improving writing skills. '''Correct Answer:''' B '''B) To enhance authentic learning experiences and foster cultural appreciation.''' 2. Which of the following is ''not'' a typical characteristic of a language portfolio? A) It emphasizes standardized testing as the primary assessment tool. B) It encourages self-assessment and reflection. C) It can include diverse and multimodal content, such as written and digital formats. D) It integrates learning, teaching, and assessment into one cohesive process. '''Correct Answer:''' '''A) It emphasizes standardized testing as the primary assessment tool.''' 3. What are the three main components of the European Language Portfolio (ELP), and how do they support the development of plurilingualism and learner autonomy? = Resources to go further = Ballweg, S., & Kühn, B. (2019), ''Portfolioarbeit im Kontext von Sprachenunterricht. Neue internationale Entwicklungen'', Universitätsverlag Göttingen. Council of Europe. ''European Language Portfolio.'' <nowiki>https://www.coe.int/en/web/portfolio</nowiki> Kühn, B., & Pérez Cavana, M. L. (Eds.) ''Perspectives from the European Language Portfolio : Learner Autonomy and Self-Assessment''. Routledge, 2012. = Bibliography = Ballweg, S. (2019). Portfolio im Kontext von Mehrsprachigkeit. In F.-J. Meißner & C. Fäcke (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeits- und Mehrkulturalitätsdidaktik'' (pp. 130–133). Narr Francke Attempto. Brinkmann, L. (2026). Language portfolio. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue / Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education.'' Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/document/1588003 European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council (2024). <nowiki>https://www.ecml.at/Thematicareas/Curriculaandevaluation/EuropeanLanguagePortfolio/Browseportfolios/tabid/4182/language/en-GB/Default.aspx</nowiki> Gonçalves, M. d. L., & Andrade, A. I. (2007). Connecting languages: the use of the portfolio as a means of exploring and overcoming frontiers within the curriculum. ''European Journal of Teacher Education'', ''30''(2), 195–213. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/02619760701274001</nowiki> Häcker, T. (2007). ''Portfolio. Ein Entwicklungsinstrument für selbstbestimmtes Lernen. Eine explorative Studie zur Arbeit mit Portfolios in der Sekundarstufe'' I (2. ed.). Schneider-Verlag. Little, D. (2012). The European Language Portfolio: history, key concerns and future prospects. In B. Kühn & M. L. Pérez-Cavana (Eds.), ''Perspectives from the European language portfolio: Learner autonomy and self-assessment'' (pp. 7–21). Routledge. Little, D. (2019). The European Language Portfolio: Past Success, Present Reality, Future Prospects. In S. Ballweg & B. Kühn (Eds.), ''Portfolioarbeit im Kontext von Sprachenunterricht. Neue internationale Entwicklungen'' (pp. 17–35), Universitätsverlag Göttingen. __INDEX__ __NEWSECTIONLINK__ ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, cofinanced by the European Commission) : * Lisa Brinkmann (Universität Hamburg) * Christoph Hülsmann (Paris Lodron Universität Salzburg) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] i5whzg7ur2ahk2osp62j8i9vsgoex0c 2817296 2817250 2026-06-29T16:47:23Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self-assessment */ 2817296 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Warm-up activity == Imagine you are starting a new language course without any knowledge of your learners’ linguistic backgrounds. Based on the heterogeneity of learning groups, you can assume that they will have different levels of proficiency as well as different linguistic knowledge. Which instruments and methods could you use to thematise the linguistic biography of your students and diagnose their linguistic competences? == Objectives == By the end of this section, you will be able to: * define the concept language portfolio; * know the structure of the European Language Portfolio (ELP); * acknowledge practical applications for its use. == Keywords == Learner autonomy, self-assessment, reflection, awareness raising, documentation == Table of contents == * Introduction * History of the concept * Definition * Practical example: The European Language Portfolio (ELP) * Take-home messages * Self-assessment (multiple choice with solutions, open questions…) * Resources to go further * Bibliography == Introduction == A language portfolio is a rich instrument to get to know the linguistic repertoires of your students and act pedagogically according to those repertoires. Indeed, it is not only a useful tool for addressing linguistic diversity, but also for supporting their learning paths, structuring teaching and learning, encouraging reflection, and implementing alternative forms of assessment, such as self-assessment. In this section, we will present the concept of language portfolio and focus on a specific standardised format: the European Language Portfolio, developed by the European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council of Europe (2024).   == History of the concept == The term portfolio originates from the French word "porte-feuilles," meaning "holding sheets," and has long been associated with the presentation and transport of artists' works (Häcker, 2007). Traditionally used in artistic fields, portfolios transitioned into educational contexts during a writing movement of the 1980s and 90s. This shift marked a departure from the dominance of standardised testing toward more formative, i.e. continuous, assessment practices. In education, portfolios have become tools for documenting and reflecting on students' learning processes. In foreign language teaching, specifically, portfolios have been adapted to enhance authentic learning experiences. They encourage learners to engage deeply with cultural and linguistic contexts, fostering not only language comprehension but also a greater appreciation of cultural diversity and multilingualism (Brinkmann, 2026). == Definition == In general terms, “a language portfolio can be defined as a systematic and purposeful collection of learner language related work that shows progress over time and respects instructional objectives. A language portfolio can contain very different types of documents: learning logs, written texts, drawings, learners’ reflections and audio or video tapes, teacher, learner and also parents’ comments on the progress made by the learner” (Gonçalves & Andrade, 2007, S. 198). A portfolio is thus a versatile tool that brings together learning, teaching, and assessment in one place. It views language learning as a journey in which skills develop simultaneously as a step by step and a holistic process. In a language portfolio, students create, collect, organize, reflect on, and present their work with clear goals in mind. Teachers guide this process by helping learners reflect about their progress and achievements. Language portfolios can take different forms, depending on their purpose. They can focus on specific competences, such as reading portfolios or writing portfolios. Often, language portfolios include a mix of written, visual, or digital elements and can be created manually or as electronic portfolios (''e-portfolios''). In addition to showcasing students' work, portfolios help teachers and learners assess progress. They support self-evaluation, peer feedback, and even external assessment. This promotes learner independence, as students use tools such as self-assessment grids to track their own growth (Brinkmann, 2026). == Practical example: The European Language Portfolio (ELP) == A specific form of a portfolio is the European Language Portfolio, which is “a personal document in which learners of all ages can record their language learning and cultural experiences both within and outside formal education. It also provides a framework for learners to assess their own language competences” (European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council, 2024). A core principle of the ELP is the promotion of plurilingualism. This means it recognizes and values the ability to communicate in multiple languages and encourages learners to develop and use their plurilingual competences in meaningful ways. To support this goal, various ELP formats have been developed to suit different age groups, educational contexts, and learning objectives, reflecting the diverse linguistic and cultural experiences of learners across Europe. The ELP is structured into three main parts: # '''Language Passport''': This section allows learners to present an overview of their language abilities, detailing the languages they have learned or are learning, and the contexts in which they have used or understood these languages. It provides a concise snapshot of their plurilingual journey, emphasizing their unique linguistic identity. # '''Language Biography:''' The language biography encourages learners to self-assess their competences using the ''can-do'' descriptors of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). Through this reflective process, students identify their strengths, set goals for improvement, and track their progress over time. By focusing on their personal achievements and challenges, the language biography empowers learners to take charge of their development as plurilingual individuals. # '''Dossier''': The dossier serves as a space for learners to collect and showcase language-related documents and projects. This could include official certificates, creative work in different languages, or evidence of informal language learning experiences, such as travel journals or communication with pen pals. By organizing and presenting these materials, learners can reflect on their growth and achievements in a tangible way. The ELP is intended to be more than a record of learning — it is a tool for fostering learner autonomy. In the context of language learning, autonomy means that students take an active role in their education by making decisions about what and how they learn, evaluating their progress, and setting personal goals. The language biography, in particular, supports this independence by potentially encouraging self-assessment and reflection. By using tools like the CEFR’s ''can-do'' grids, learners develop a clear understanding of their abilities and can identify areas for improvement. This process not only builds confidence but also teaches them to take responsibility for their own learning journey. Additionally, the emphasis on plurilingualism within the ELP broadens learners' perspectives, showing them how their knowledge of one language can support the acquisition of others. This interconnected understanding is expected to enhance their ability to navigate a multilingual world with confidence and competence (European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council, 2024; Little, 2012). Between 2001 and 2010, 118 models of the ELP were validated and accredited. They were designed for different age groups (from 4-year-olds to adults) and different educational sectors (primary and secondary education, vocational education, higher education, etc.). Templates, such as an interactive standard version of the Language Passport for adult learners (in English and French), can be accessed via the Council's website. The self-assessment grids are available in 32 language. As Ballweg (2019, p. 131) points out, however, the ELP did not gain as much traction as initially expected. Little (2019, p. 28-30) cites the difficulties in aligning the ELP with existing curricula and the lack of sufficient support from teachers and institutions in its implementation as possible reasons. == Take-home message == * The potentials of the portfolio include multilingual evaluation, alternative assessment, an emphasis of the individual learner’s background, and learner independence. * The portfolio has many potentials but it is necessary to adapt it to the learners, to prepare and assess it properly. = Self-assessment = <quiz display=simple> {What is the main function of portfolios in foreign language teaching, as described in the text?} -A) To evaluate students through standardized testing. +B) To enhance authentic learning experiences and foster cultural appreciation. -C) To store and transport artistic works. -D) To focus solely on improving writing skills. {Which of the following is ''not'' a typical characteristic of a language portfolio?} +A) It emphasizes standardized testing as the primary assessment tool. -B) It encourages self-assessment and reflection. -C) It can include diverse and multimodal content, such as written and digital formats. -D) It integrates learning, teaching, and assessment into one cohesive process. </quiz> ==Reflection== What are the three main components of the European Language Portfolio (ELP), and how do they support the development of plurilingualism and learner autonomy? = Resources to go further = Ballweg, S., & Kühn, B. (2019), ''Portfolioarbeit im Kontext von Sprachenunterricht. Neue internationale Entwicklungen'', Universitätsverlag Göttingen. Council of Europe. ''European Language Portfolio.'' <nowiki>https://www.coe.int/en/web/portfolio</nowiki> Kühn, B., & Pérez Cavana, M. L. (Eds.) ''Perspectives from the European Language Portfolio : Learner Autonomy and Self-Assessment''. Routledge, 2012. = Bibliography = Ballweg, S. (2019). Portfolio im Kontext von Mehrsprachigkeit. In F.-J. Meißner & C. Fäcke (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeits- und Mehrkulturalitätsdidaktik'' (pp. 130–133). Narr Francke Attempto. Brinkmann, L. (2026). Language portfolio. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue / Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education.'' Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/document/1588003 European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council (2024). <nowiki>https://www.ecml.at/Thematicareas/Curriculaandevaluation/EuropeanLanguagePortfolio/Browseportfolios/tabid/4182/language/en-GB/Default.aspx</nowiki> Gonçalves, M. d. L., & Andrade, A. I. (2007). Connecting languages: the use of the portfolio as a means of exploring and overcoming frontiers within the curriculum. ''European Journal of Teacher Education'', ''30''(2), 195–213. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/02619760701274001</nowiki> Häcker, T. (2007). ''Portfolio. Ein Entwicklungsinstrument für selbstbestimmtes Lernen. Eine explorative Studie zur Arbeit mit Portfolios in der Sekundarstufe'' I (2. ed.). Schneider-Verlag. Little, D. (2012). The European Language Portfolio: history, key concerns and future prospects. In B. Kühn & M. L. Pérez-Cavana (Eds.), ''Perspectives from the European language portfolio: Learner autonomy and self-assessment'' (pp. 7–21). Routledge. Little, D. (2019). The European Language Portfolio: Past Success, Present Reality, Future Prospects. In S. Ballweg & B. Kühn (Eds.), ''Portfolioarbeit im Kontext von Sprachenunterricht. Neue internationale Entwicklungen'' (pp. 17–35), Universitätsverlag Göttingen. __INDEX__ __NEWSECTIONLINK__ ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, cofinanced by the European Commission) : * Lisa Brinkmann (Universität Hamburg) * Christoph Hülsmann (Paris Lodron Universität Salzburg) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] 31qcn25427vsip3d4fn92du95qvp5dr 2817297 2817296 2026-06-29T16:47:38Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Resources to go further */ 2817297 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Warm-up activity == Imagine you are starting a new language course without any knowledge of your learners’ linguistic backgrounds. Based on the heterogeneity of learning groups, you can assume that they will have different levels of proficiency as well as different linguistic knowledge. Which instruments and methods could you use to thematise the linguistic biography of your students and diagnose their linguistic competences? == Objectives == By the end of this section, you will be able to: * define the concept language portfolio; * know the structure of the European Language Portfolio (ELP); * acknowledge practical applications for its use. == Keywords == Learner autonomy, self-assessment, reflection, awareness raising, documentation == Table of contents == * Introduction * History of the concept * Definition * Practical example: The European Language Portfolio (ELP) * Take-home messages * Self-assessment (multiple choice with solutions, open questions…) * Resources to go further * Bibliography == Introduction == A language portfolio is a rich instrument to get to know the linguistic repertoires of your students and act pedagogically according to those repertoires. Indeed, it is not only a useful tool for addressing linguistic diversity, but also for supporting their learning paths, structuring teaching and learning, encouraging reflection, and implementing alternative forms of assessment, such as self-assessment. In this section, we will present the concept of language portfolio and focus on a specific standardised format: the European Language Portfolio, developed by the European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council of Europe (2024).   == History of the concept == The term portfolio originates from the French word "porte-feuilles," meaning "holding sheets," and has long been associated with the presentation and transport of artists' works (Häcker, 2007). Traditionally used in artistic fields, portfolios transitioned into educational contexts during a writing movement of the 1980s and 90s. This shift marked a departure from the dominance of standardised testing toward more formative, i.e. continuous, assessment practices. In education, portfolios have become tools for documenting and reflecting on students' learning processes. In foreign language teaching, specifically, portfolios have been adapted to enhance authentic learning experiences. They encourage learners to engage deeply with cultural and linguistic contexts, fostering not only language comprehension but also a greater appreciation of cultural diversity and multilingualism (Brinkmann, 2026). == Definition == In general terms, “a language portfolio can be defined as a systematic and purposeful collection of learner language related work that shows progress over time and respects instructional objectives. A language portfolio can contain very different types of documents: learning logs, written texts, drawings, learners’ reflections and audio or video tapes, teacher, learner and also parents’ comments on the progress made by the learner” (Gonçalves & Andrade, 2007, S. 198). A portfolio is thus a versatile tool that brings together learning, teaching, and assessment in one place. It views language learning as a journey in which skills develop simultaneously as a step by step and a holistic process. In a language portfolio, students create, collect, organize, reflect on, and present their work with clear goals in mind. Teachers guide this process by helping learners reflect about their progress and achievements. Language portfolios can take different forms, depending on their purpose. They can focus on specific competences, such as reading portfolios or writing portfolios. Often, language portfolios include a mix of written, visual, or digital elements and can be created manually or as electronic portfolios (''e-portfolios''). In addition to showcasing students' work, portfolios help teachers and learners assess progress. They support self-evaluation, peer feedback, and even external assessment. This promotes learner independence, as students use tools such as self-assessment grids to track their own growth (Brinkmann, 2026). == Practical example: The European Language Portfolio (ELP) == A specific form of a portfolio is the European Language Portfolio, which is “a personal document in which learners of all ages can record their language learning and cultural experiences both within and outside formal education. It also provides a framework for learners to assess their own language competences” (European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council, 2024). A core principle of the ELP is the promotion of plurilingualism. This means it recognizes and values the ability to communicate in multiple languages and encourages learners to develop and use their plurilingual competences in meaningful ways. To support this goal, various ELP formats have been developed to suit different age groups, educational contexts, and learning objectives, reflecting the diverse linguistic and cultural experiences of learners across Europe. The ELP is structured into three main parts: # '''Language Passport''': This section allows learners to present an overview of their language abilities, detailing the languages they have learned or are learning, and the contexts in which they have used or understood these languages. It provides a concise snapshot of their plurilingual journey, emphasizing their unique linguistic identity. # '''Language Biography:''' The language biography encourages learners to self-assess their competences using the ''can-do'' descriptors of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). Through this reflective process, students identify their strengths, set goals for improvement, and track their progress over time. By focusing on their personal achievements and challenges, the language biography empowers learners to take charge of their development as plurilingual individuals. # '''Dossier''': The dossier serves as a space for learners to collect and showcase language-related documents and projects. This could include official certificates, creative work in different languages, or evidence of informal language learning experiences, such as travel journals or communication with pen pals. By organizing and presenting these materials, learners can reflect on their growth and achievements in a tangible way. The ELP is intended to be more than a record of learning — it is a tool for fostering learner autonomy. In the context of language learning, autonomy means that students take an active role in their education by making decisions about what and how they learn, evaluating their progress, and setting personal goals. The language biography, in particular, supports this independence by potentially encouraging self-assessment and reflection. By using tools like the CEFR’s ''can-do'' grids, learners develop a clear understanding of their abilities and can identify areas for improvement. This process not only builds confidence but also teaches them to take responsibility for their own learning journey. Additionally, the emphasis on plurilingualism within the ELP broadens learners' perspectives, showing them how their knowledge of one language can support the acquisition of others. This interconnected understanding is expected to enhance their ability to navigate a multilingual world with confidence and competence (European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council, 2024; Little, 2012). Between 2001 and 2010, 118 models of the ELP were validated and accredited. They were designed for different age groups (from 4-year-olds to adults) and different educational sectors (primary and secondary education, vocational education, higher education, etc.). Templates, such as an interactive standard version of the Language Passport for adult learners (in English and French), can be accessed via the Council's website. The self-assessment grids are available in 32 language. As Ballweg (2019, p. 131) points out, however, the ELP did not gain as much traction as initially expected. Little (2019, p. 28-30) cites the difficulties in aligning the ELP with existing curricula and the lack of sufficient support from teachers and institutions in its implementation as possible reasons. == Take-home message == * The potentials of the portfolio include multilingual evaluation, alternative assessment, an emphasis of the individual learner’s background, and learner independence. * The portfolio has many potentials but it is necessary to adapt it to the learners, to prepare and assess it properly. = Self-assessment = <quiz display=simple> {What is the main function of portfolios in foreign language teaching, as described in the text?} -A) To evaluate students through standardized testing. +B) To enhance authentic learning experiences and foster cultural appreciation. -C) To store and transport artistic works. -D) To focus solely on improving writing skills. {Which of the following is ''not'' a typical characteristic of a language portfolio?} +A) It emphasizes standardized testing as the primary assessment tool. -B) It encourages self-assessment and reflection. -C) It can include diverse and multimodal content, such as written and digital formats. -D) It integrates learning, teaching, and assessment into one cohesive process. </quiz> ==Reflection== What are the three main components of the European Language Portfolio (ELP), and how do they support the development of plurilingualism and learner autonomy? = Resources to go further = * Ballweg, S., & Kühn, B. (2019), ''Portfolioarbeit im Kontext von Sprachenunterricht. Neue internationale Entwicklungen'', Universitätsverlag Göttingen. * Council of Europe. ''European Language Portfolio.'' <nowiki>https://www.coe.int/en/web/portfolio</nowiki> * Kühn, B., & Pérez Cavana, M. L. (Eds.) ''Perspectives from the European Language Portfolio : Learner Autonomy and Self-Assessment''. Routledge, 2012. = Bibliography = Ballweg, S. (2019). Portfolio im Kontext von Mehrsprachigkeit. In F.-J. Meißner & C. Fäcke (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeits- und Mehrkulturalitätsdidaktik'' (pp. 130–133). Narr Francke Attempto. Brinkmann, L. (2026). Language portfolio. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue / Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education.'' Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/document/1588003 European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council (2024). <nowiki>https://www.ecml.at/Thematicareas/Curriculaandevaluation/EuropeanLanguagePortfolio/Browseportfolios/tabid/4182/language/en-GB/Default.aspx</nowiki> Gonçalves, M. d. L., & Andrade, A. I. (2007). Connecting languages: the use of the portfolio as a means of exploring and overcoming frontiers within the curriculum. ''European Journal of Teacher Education'', ''30''(2), 195–213. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/02619760701274001</nowiki> Häcker, T. (2007). ''Portfolio. Ein Entwicklungsinstrument für selbstbestimmtes Lernen. Eine explorative Studie zur Arbeit mit Portfolios in der Sekundarstufe'' I (2. ed.). Schneider-Verlag. Little, D. (2012). The European Language Portfolio: history, key concerns and future prospects. In B. Kühn & M. L. Pérez-Cavana (Eds.), ''Perspectives from the European language portfolio: Learner autonomy and self-assessment'' (pp. 7–21). Routledge. Little, D. (2019). The European Language Portfolio: Past Success, Present Reality, Future Prospects. In S. Ballweg & B. Kühn (Eds.), ''Portfolioarbeit im Kontext von Sprachenunterricht. Neue internationale Entwicklungen'' (pp. 17–35), Universitätsverlag Göttingen. __INDEX__ __NEWSECTIONLINK__ ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, cofinanced by the European Commission) : * Lisa Brinkmann (Universität Hamburg) * Christoph Hülsmann (Paris Lodron Universität Salzburg) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] ch5yk4uomhl4unmnaazas44ancksehy 0 324909 2817309 2792552 2026-06-29T17:03:10Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self-assessment */ 2817309 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == Your school has just received a 12-year-old child who has been educated in his country of origin, but who doesn't yet speak the language of schooling. Your colleagues are meeting to establish a way of assessing the student's previous skills in three subject areas (mathematics, geography and history) in order to integrate him into a specific school year. Think about how you would proceed to evaluate the student's knowledge and competences and how you would decide on which languages to use in that process. Furthermore, also consider whether language(s) in the newcomer student repertoire is the only issue to take into account in the evaluation. == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * define what the assessment of plurilingual students entails; * identify contexts where plurilingual assessment formats in education might make sense and be justified; * list some possibilities to integrate plurilingual assessment formats in education. == Keywords == Linguistic hierarchies, epistemic hierarchies, cognitive injustice, symbolic violence, test accommodation. == Table of contents == * Introduction: plurilingual assessment for social and cognitive justice * Assessing the plurilingual student: theoretical and ethical starting points * Plurilingual assessment in practice: voices from the teachers and ways forward * Take home messages * Self-assessment * Resources to go further * Bibliography == Introduction: plurilingual assessment for social and cognitive justice == It is well known that any group of learners, in any context, is heterogeneous. It can be due to different motivations or learning strategies, due to having different pre-knowledge of school subjects or due to different relationships with languages. These can be the languages of schooling or the language in which knowledge of certain subjects is transmitted, to give just a few examples. Now, because language is central to the transmission and construction of knowledge, its little mastery also has an influence on students' motivations, the learning strategies they can develop and the way they can mobilise (or not) their pre-knowledge. Thus, the use of plurilingual pedagogies has been advocated to support greater affective and cognitive involvement of students who do not have the language of schooling as their L1. However, although the more or less systematic use of these pedagogies and teaching-learning strategies is already recognised by teachers (especially language teachers), the use of plurilingual assessment formats still tends to be seen as an ‘eccentricity’. This is the case for diagnostic (to inform teachers, at the beginning of the year, about the current status of knowledge), formative (in continuous assessment to monitor the learning processes) and summative assessment (at the end of the year or of the school cycle, through a quantitative grade). Let's start with the obvious power of testing: “tests are powerful (…) because they are imposed on all students in all schools, with no way of resisting them” (Shohamy, 2006, p. 93). And they are imposed in a standardised way, both in terms of design (including in a single language), format and the reading of the results. Following Melo-Pfeifer & Ollivier (2025), “even when school systems recognize the unfair monolingual assessment system, accommodations for plurilingual students are most often limited to structural accommodations (more time to take the test or allowing the use of translation tools or dictionaries), but without questioning students’ abilities to use those tools and the very monolingual framework design of the tests, in which the answers are monolingual, just as the students' answers are expected to be” (Melo-Pfeifer & Ollivier, 2025, following Abedi, 2013). This means that teachers do acknowledge the challenges of assessing plurilingual students but are still implementing rather monolingual accommodations and accommodations that might not meet students' previous literacy practices (such as using a dictionary). In this section of the Wikiversity, we will present some theoretical and ethical assumptions that justify the use of plurilingual assessment formats. The main argument is that the use of such assessment formats combats cognitive injustice and makes the assumptions of plurilingual inclusive education more coherent by bringing plurilingual teaching-learning and assessment strategies closer together. == Assessing the plurilingual student: theoretical and ethical starting points == From the outset, every student could be considered plurilingual, since the definition of plurilingual competence encompasses knowledge of different varieties and registers and is not limited to productive competences in different languages (it can include partial and receptive competences, for example). The plurilingual learner profile dealt with in this section is that of children and young people in a situation of mobility (forced or not) who arrive in a new country or region with no knowledge (or little knowledge) of the language of schooling, as in the initial reflection situation. We can expand it to encompass children growing up in multilingual regions, whose family languages and language(s) of schooling are not coincident. When a child joins a new educational system in a different language, assessment difficulties may not be limited to language skills. Firstly, the curricula of the different school subjects are different in different national and/or regional contexts, so when assessing, the perspective of the host country overlaps with that of the country of origin, creating a situation of knowledge hierarchy. Such a situation can lead to epistemic hierarchy, since some knowledge is considered in the assessment process as more important than others (the knowledge included in the host country's curricula). In addition, the tests use cultural references that may be unfamiliar to the newly arrived student (even if the linguistic terms are recognised): the example of the expression ‘bean bag’ included in the wording of a maths test reported by Mahoney (2024, p. 113) shows this inequality: “We discovered that the two international students (India, Saudi Arabia) had never thrown a bean bag and were unfamiliar with any games related to bean bags. But the 14 domestic students had all thrown a bean bag previously. These types of cultural referents may make the assessment more comprehensible to students from mainstream US culture!” (Mahoney, 2024, p. 113). Furthermore, assessment formats in many contexts tend to reproduce hierarchies in terms of literacy models (for example, knowledge is more highly valued when expressed in writing), with an almost exclusive valorisation of written literacy and the ‘culture of paper’ and text production. However, plurilingual students have not always been schooled and educated in this written-centered culture, so multimodal assessment, on top of plurilingual assessment, models should be considered. There is also the fact that the plurilingual student is not only dealing with a new language, but potentially also with different assessment cultures: the type of exercises proposed, the nature of the answers expected, the type of language used, the length of the tests, to name but a few. In this sense, an epistemic hierarchy is joined by a linguistic hierarchy in the process of assessing plurilingual students. Firstly, it should be noted that education systems tend to (re)produce the perspective that education systems are eminently monolingual, despite the fact that they are attended by plurilingual populations. Thus, monolingual teaching and learning methods and monolingual materials are joined by monolingual assessment formats. The plurilingual student therefore sees the use of all their skills and competences limited, reducing the expression of their knowledge to the language of the test, which can be seen as a sign of cognitive injustice. Even when this student has undergone (intensive) lessons to learn the new language and shows signs of understanding the statements, “test developers should be aware that the productive and receptive language skills of MLs [multilingual learners] develop differently, and that this may interfere with their ability to engage with a test” (Mahoney, 2024, p. 11). To this injustice we could add the exercise of symbolic violence, since, at least in cases of forced mobility, plurilingual students may be obliged to express their knowledge in a language with which they have a negative emotional bond. As a whole, the use of monolingual assessment models is a sign of linguistic inequality, i.e., gaps “that arise in part due to practices and structures informed by monolingual mindsets, standard language ideologies and deficit beliefs about linguistic diversity and multi/plurilingual practice” (Erling & Moore, 2021, p. 6). Some examples of this inequity: * a newly arrived migrant kid at school is evaluated with mainstream assessment forms, based on the sole use of the language of schooling, * DaZ (German as a second language) students (in the German context) have to perform as if they were Deutsch L1-students to get the same grades in subjects other than language-centered. Based on the arguments listed above, we could say that the use of plurilingual assessment methods has the potential to reduce symbolic violence in testing situations, mitigate cognitive injustice and reduce linguistic and epistemic hierarchies. == Plurilingual assessment in practice: voices from the teachers and ways forward == Plurilingual assessment means “incorporating multilingual elements into assessments, whether they are content-related or language-related” (Vogt & Antia, 2024, p. 11). It is possible to list diagnostic, formative and summative assessment practices that are plurilingual in nature. These practices can make use of plurilingualism in the formulation of questions in test statements (making it easier to understand the content being assessed) and in the acceptance of plurilingualism and the use of multimodal elements (such as diagrams or drawings) when answering questions (making it easier to express the knowledge acquired). The plurilingualism of the test can also be seen in the combination of the wording of the questions and the answers (Melo-Pfeifer & Thölkes, 2022, p. 226). Now, this type of accommodation, even when addressing particular linguistic needs, does not support the fully plurilingual and multimodal expression of the individual. Students might be entitled to: * “native language testing” (Abedi, 2013), meaning being tested in the L1 despite this not being the language of schooling; * “multilingual-by-translation testing” (De Angelis, 2021), i.e., having one or several translated version(s) of the “official” test being given to the other students; * linguistically simplified versions of a test in the language of schooling, meaning a test which presents a streamlined version of the language (less coordinated sentences, for example) or/and with linguistic scaffolding (such as synonyms or definitions). In the first two formats, the presence of a linguistic mediator could be required. These formats are nevertheless also monolingual and do not challenge the monolingual habitus in assessment (De Angelis, 2021). In this sense, plurilingual students could be encouraged to combine their linguistic and other resources to showcase their knowledge, since knowledge may have been built up in different languages throughout potentially successive mobility processes. Cenoz (2024, p. xiii) proposes a continuum model that illustrates the possibilities of integrating and using plurilingual assessment formats. The continuum illustrates increasing openness to plurilingual practices in assessment, which emphasises the need to: * move from rigid, additive models of assessment (just using more than one language) to more integrated, dynamic models (translanguaging). * shift from accommodation to empowerment, where students are not just being helped to cope with a monolingual system but are actively encouraged to use their full linguistic repertoire. [[File:Figure 1 - Use of plurilingual instructions in assessment.png|thumb|'''Figure 1 - Use of plurilingual instructions in assessment''']] Despite a certain embrace of plurilingual teaching-learning strategies, results from the PEP with mostly foreign language teachers in Europe project showed that teachers are more sceptical about using plurilingual assessment. To the question ‘do you use plurilingual instructions in assessment’, 27,7% of the 800 respondent (language) teachers indicated a complete absence of plurilingual practices, whereas the remaining 56.2% incorporate plurilingualism in their assessments at some point or in some manner (see Figure 1). Moreover, plurilingualism in language education and testing is more prevalent in the formulation and explanation of instructions than in the languages permitted for responses. [[File:Figure 2 - Plurilingual practices in instructions and in learners' productions.png|alt=Figure 2 - Plurilingual practices in instructions and in learners' production|thumb|'''Figure 2 - Plurilingual practices in instructions and in learners' production''']] When it comes to providing instructions and/or explanations in multiple languages, 8.19% of teachers reported doing so in all cases, while 18.12% reported doing so in the majority of assessments. Overall, 67.38% of respondents incorporate plurilingual practices into their instructions and supplementary explanations, while 17.72% stated that they never engage in such practices (see Figure 2). Recognising the gap between plurilingual teaching-learning practices and the use of strategies in assessment processes is important because, as they are used little or not at all in a growing culture (and even fetishisation) of assessment as a control and accountability strategy (making teacher responsible for student results), this invisibility of plurilingual formats reinforces the disdain for minority languages and the sole valorisation of curricular and school languages. As Mahoney says, ‘if it's not tested, it's not taught’ (2024, p. 15). In other words, the inclusion of plurilingual formats in assessment could reinforce and legitimise the systematic introduction of plurilingual pedagogies in education. == Take home messages == * For the sake of coherence of plurilingual teaching practices in education (which include planning, implementation and assessment), plurilingual assessment has to be considered, in diagnostic, formative and summative moments. * Plurilingual assessment formats of newcomer students allow them to showcase their subject-specific knowledge, without linguistic limitations, and is therefore aligned with recent calls to address social and cognitive justice in education. * In foreign language teaching and learning, plurilingual assessment formats can be used to showcase students’ full linguistic repertoires, which are needed to act and collaborate in specific plurilingual situations (see evaluation of plurilingual competence). == Self-assessment == <quiz display=simple> {Although plurilingual pedagogies are already being implemented in education, the assessment of plurilingual students still tends to be monolingual.} +True -False {Plurilingual students’ language difficulties are the only obstacles to their assessment in school.} -True +False {Plurilingual assessment should be limited to translating test prompts into several languages.} -True +False {The use of plurilingual assessment formats increases the plurilingual student’s chances of expressing the acquisition of knowledge.} +True -False </quiz> == Resources to go further == Mahoney, K. (2024, 2^nd edition). ''The assessment of multilingual learners''. Multilingual Matters. Melo-Pfeifer, S., & Ollivier, Ch. (Eds.) (2024). ''Assessment of plurilingual competence and plurilingual learners in educational settings: Educative issues and empirical approaches''. Routledge. Shohamy, E. (2001). ''The power of the tests. A critical perspective on the uses of language'' ''tests''. Harlow: Longman. == Bibliography == Abedi, J. (2013). Accommodations in the assessment of English language learners. In A.J. Kunnan (Ed.), ''The Companion to Language Assessment''. Wiley. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118411360.wbcla059</nowiki> Cenoz, J. (2024). Foreword. In S. Melo-Pfeifer & Ch. Ollivier (Eds.), ''Assessment of plurilingual competence and plurilingual learners in educational settings: Educative issues and empirical approaches'' (pp. xi-xvi). Routledge. Cortés Velásquez, D. et al (2025). ''Language use in secondary and higher education: Teachers’ beliefs and practices. Survey Report''. PEP Project URL <nowiki>https://sites.google.com/view/pepproject/accueil</nowiki>. De Angelis, G. (2021). ''Multilingual testing and assessment''. Multilingual Matters. Erling, E., & Moore, E. (2021). Socially just plurilingual education in Europe: shifting subjectivities and practices through research and action. ''International Journal of Multilingualism''. DOI: 10.1080/14790718.2021.1913171. Mahoney, K. (2024, 2^nd edition). ''The assessment of multilingual learners''. Multilingual Matters. Melo-Pfeifer, S. & Ollivier, C. (2025). Plurilingual assessment. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopedia of plurilingual education''. Peter Lang (open access). Melo-Pfeifer, S., & Thölkes, M. (2022). “Wie soll ich das Kind bewerten?”: between standardization and differentiation in the assessment of refugee students. A qualitative study of foreign language teachers’ representations in Germany. In G. S. Levine & D. Mallows (Eds.), ''Language Learning of Migrants in Europe:'' ''Theoretical, Empirical, Policy, and Pedagogical Issues'' (pp. 219-243). Springer. Shohamy, E (2006). ''Language policy: Hidden agendas and new approaches''. Routledge. Vogt, K., & Antia, B.  (Eds.) (2024). ''Multilingual Assessment – Finding the Nexus?''. Peter Lang. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : Sílvia Melo-Pfeifer (Universität Hamburg) & Christian Ollivier (Université de La Réunion). [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] i128iihxr4l4mu8tx1w8jm5s1wpkee4 0 324939 2817266 2792558 2026-06-29T16:13:47Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Credits */ 2817266 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting Activity == [[File:Translanguaging in Paris.png|alt=Translanguaging in Paris|thumb|Figure 1 - Translanguaging in Paris]] Imagine you are observing a classroom where students from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds interact. * How do they switch between languages? * Do they use different languages for different purposes (e.g. socializing, academic tasks)? * How would you describe their language use: do they mix languages or use them separately? Look at the following examples (see Figure 1 and Figure 2): Signs where multiple languages are used (see Linguistic Landscapes in Education). Now think about the questions below: * How are these languages being used and why? * Try to think of monolingual versions of the examples. How would the communication/messages be different?[[File:Languages in Paris.png|alt=Languages in Paris|thumb|Figure 2 - Languages in Paris]] == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * Recognize different theoretical perspectives on plurilingualism. * Understand the implications of a translanguaging approach to language use. * Develop a critical awareness of how plurilingualism functions in everyday communication and education. == Keywords == Plurilingualism, linguistic repertoire, bilingualism, multilingualism, translanguaging, language practices, sociolinguistics, education. == Table of Contents == # Introduction # History of the Concept # Definitions and Theoretical Perspectives # Practical Examples # Take-Home Messages # Self-Assessment # Resources to Go Further # Bibliography == Introduction == The study of '''plurilingualism''' and its implications for education has evolved significantly over the past decades. Traditionally, language use was conceptualized through '''monolingual ideologies''', where each language was seen as a separate, countable entity. However, more recent theories, such as translanguaging, '''Unitary Translanguaging Theory (UTT)''' and '''Crosslinguistic Translanguaging Theory (CTT)''', argue for a more fluid and '''dynamic vision''' of language use. Plurilingualism challenges the idea that languages exist as '''discrete systems''' and instead emphasizes that multilinguals '''draw on an integrated linguistic repertoire''' (see below) depending on the context and communicative needs. These ideas have significant implications for '''education, identity, and social interaction'''. == History of the Concept == The notion of '''plurilingualism''' has evolved alongside '''shifting perspectives in sociolinguistics and applied linguistics'''. * '''Early Views (1950s–1980s)''' ** Traditional theories treated languages as '''fixed, separate entities'''. ** Penfield & Roberts (1959) described bilingual speakers as having an '''“automatic switch”''' between languages, implying clear separation. * '''First approaches to holistic perspectives (1980s–1990s)''' ** Grosjean (1982; 1989) stated that the bilingual is not two monolinguals in one person. ** Coste, Moore & Zarate (1997) developed '''a holistic model''' in which plurilingual competence is described as a '''complex and composite reservoir'''. * '''Critical Perspectives (2000–2010)''' ** Makoni & Pennycook (2007) challenged the idea that languages are '''pre-existing objects''', arguing that they are '''social constructs'''. ** García (2009)  stated that '''bilinguals don’t use languages as separate systems''', emphasizing the integrated nature of linguistic repertoires. * '''Dynamic Theory (2002)''' ** Herdina & Jessner (2002) stress the '''dynamic and interactive''' nature of the multilingual system. *      '''Translanguaging theories (2009–present)''' ** According to García (2009, p. 45), “translanguaging are '''multiple discursive practices''' in which bilinguals engage in order to '''make sense of their bilingual worlds'''” (emphasis in original). ** Cummins (2021) proposes the distinction between the Unitary Translanguaging Theory (UTT) and the Crosslinguistic Translanguaging Theory (CTT). The UTT  proposes that all linguistic resources belong to a '''single cognitive system''', rather than to separate languages. The CTT focuses on '''cross-linguistic influences and transfer''', particularly in educational settings. These shifts have '''redefined plurilingual education''', moving away from strict language separation to a '''more fluid, integrated approach.''' == Definitions and Theoretical Perspectives == * '''Plurilingualism''': “the dynamic and developing linguistic repertoire of an individual user/learner” (Council or Europe, 2020, p. 30) * '''Translanguaging''': A perspective that sees '''language use as fluid''', where speakers move across linguistic boundaries without adhering to rigid categorizations. Translanguaging refers to how speakers deploy their full linguistic/semiotic/multimodal repertoire “without regard for watchful adherence to the socially and politically defined boundaries of named languages (Otheguy, García & Reid, 2015, p. 281). Translanguaging refers to the strategic use of all linguistic resources by multilinguals to engage in communication. This practice allows speakers to choose linguistic forms that best suit their communicative needs and contexts, and it challenges the traditional notion of separate language systems (Canagarajah, 2011). Multilingual speakers can fluidly use their language resources in "translanguaging spaces", in which they draw on their full linguistic repertoires to make meaning and engage in communication (Li Wei, 2011). * '''Linguistic Repertoire''': The full range of '''linguistic and semiotic resources''' an individual has access to, regardless of conventional language boundaries. It includes various linguistic resources that speakers acquire in different ways (such as languages learned at home from an early age, those learned later in school or beyond, or learned independently), for which they may have varying levels of proficiency. They may serve different functions in one’s life (family communication, socializing, working, or expressing group identity) which can be carried out jointly by multiple languages. Linguistic repertoires are not static but dynamic and fluid, and can change over time or depending on the communication situations. Its notion challenges the idea of separate languages isolated within strict borders and advocates a holistic perception of one’s plurilingual competence.  Language learning is thus perceived as a process of extending and reorganising one’s repertoire. * '''Unitary Translanguaging Theory (UTT)''' (Cummins, 2021): It argues that multilinguals operate within '''a single linguistic system''', rather than separate languages. * '''Crosslinguistic Translanguaging Theory (CTT)''' (Cummins, 2021): It explores how '''crosslinguistic connections shape language learning and communication''', particularly in formal education. According to the '''Unitary Theory of Translanguaging (UTT)''', multilinguals draw from a single, unitary linguistic system, where languages are not seen as distinct entities. In contrast, the '''Complex Theory of Translanguaging (CTT)''' claims that multilinguals do use and distinguish between separate languages. It doesn’t question the concept of “language” itself (Cummins, 2021, p. 10). Both theories recognise that languages are '''socially constructed''', shaped by social contexts, rather than being static or fixed systems and they both '''challenge the traditional view''' that languages should be '''separated''' in instructional settings. In both views, '''translanguaging''' refers to the flexible use of all available linguistic resources. It involves switching and blending across languages, allowing speakers to express themselves more fully and adaptively. Both theories involve dynamic perceptions of plurilingualism and recognize translanguaging as a critical tool for promoting social justice and equity in education. However, CTT does not deny the actual concept and reality of specific languages supporting the '''interdependence''' of academic language skills, '''additive bilingualism''', and t'''eaching for transfer across languages'''. == Practical Examples == === Example 1: Linguistic Landscapes === [[File:Multilingual signs, fingerposts in Brisbane, Australia 02.jpg|alt=Multilingual signs, fingerposts in Brisbane, Australia|thumb|Figure 3 - Multilingual signs, fingerposts in Brisbane, Australia]] Multilingual signs in public spaces demonstrate '''how languages coexist''' and interact. A street sign in Brussels may include '''French, Dutch, and English''', reflecting '''social and political dimensions''' of plurilingualism. === Example 2: Classroom Translanguaging Practices === Students in a bilingual classroom use '''English for academic tasks''' but '''switch to their home language for peer discussions'''. This challenges '''traditional monolingual teaching''' models. An engaging activity to promote the use of one's entire linguistic repertoire could be a '''plurilingual debate'''. Students are given a topic and asked to prepare several arguments. During the debate, they present their points while intentionally switching between the different languages they can use. === Example 3: Crosslinguistic Transfer in Writing === One possible activity for exploiting similarities between languages is described in Kursiša & Richter-Vapaatalo (2018, p. 63). Finnish learners of German compare the typical structure and expressions used in informal emails in German, English, Swedish and Finnish, identifying similarities and differences. Link: “Mehr als Deutsch”: https://www.goethe.de/prj/dlp/de/unterrichtsmaterial/mehr_als_deutsch === Example 4: Plurilingual Digital Communication === WhatsApp messages mixing '''multiple languages, emojis, and voice recordings''' showcase how plurilingualism is naturally integrated into '''daily interactions'''. == Take-Home Messages == * Plurilingualism is not about speaking multiple separate languages but about integrating and mobilizing linguistic resources dynamically in order to communicate and/or to learn languages. * Translanguaging challenges traditional language boundaries and emphasizes fluid communication strategies. * Theories like UTT and CTT reshape our understanding of bilingualism and multilingual education, promoting inclusive approaches. * According to translanguaging theories, languages are '''socially constructed''', shaped by social contexts, and not static or fixed systems. They '''challenge the traditional view''' that languages should be '''separated''' in instructional settings. == Self-Assessment == 1. Which statement best aligns with Unitary Translanguaging Theory (UTT)? <blockquote>A) Bilinguals have an automatic switch that separates languages in their minds. B) Multilingual speakers access their linguistic resources as part of a single cognitive system. C) Languages should be taught separately to avoid interference. D) Translanguaging only happens in informal settings.</blockquote> 2. What is the main critique of traditional bilingual models according to translanguaging theories? <blockquote>A) They assume bilinguals speak two completely separate languages. B) They support language diversity in education. C) They promote crosslinguistic mediation. D) They encourage translanguaging in the classroom.</blockquote> 3. Which statement best aligns with CTT? <blockquote>A) CTT rejects the idea of a unitary linguistic system. B) CTT advocates for maintaining the concept of specific languages while also supporting additive bilingualism and the transfer of academic skills across languages. C) CTT criticizes switching between languages because it assumes the existence of two separate linguistic systems. D) CTT believes that languages do not exist as real entities.</blockquote>'''Correct answers:''' # B) Multilingual speakers access their linguistic resources as part of a single cognitive system. # A) They assume bilinguals speak two completely separate languages. # B) CTT advocates for maintaining the concept of specific languages while also supporting additive bilingualism and the transfer of academic skills across languages. == Resources to go further == * '''CEFR and Plurilingualism''': https://www.coe.int/en/web/language-policy/plurilingualism * '''CARAP/FREPA:''' https://carap.ecml.at/ * '''Research on Translanguaging''': https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14790718.2017.1400501 * '''CUNY-NYSIEB Translanguaging Resources''': The City University of New York's New York State Initiative on Emergent Bilinguals offers a comprehensive collection of materials, including articles, videos, and classroom strategies, to support the implementation of translanguaging in educational settings. https://www.cuny-nysieb.org/translanguaging-resources == Bibliography == * Canagarajah, S. (2011). Translanguaging in the classroom: Emerging issues for research and pedagogy. ''International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 14''(3), 271–283.''Relations.'' Routledge. * Canagarajah, S. (2013). ''Translingual Practice: Global Englishes and Cosmopolitan'' * Cavallaro, C. J., & Sembiante, S. F. (2020). Facilitating culturally sustaining, functional literacy practices in a middle school ESOL reading program: a design-based research study. ''Language and Education'', ''35''(2), 160–179. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500782.2020.1775244 * Cummins, J. (2021). Translanguaging: A critical analysis of theoretical claims. In P. Juvonen & M. Källkvist (Eds.), ''Pedagogical Translanguaging: Theoretical, Methodological and Empirical Perspectives'' (pp. 7–36). Multilingual Matters.  https://doi.org/10.21832/9781788927383 * García, O. (2009). ''Bilingual education in the 21st century: A global perspective.'' Wiley-Blackwell, München. * García, O., & Lin, A. (2017). ''Translanguaging in Bilingual Education''. Springer. * Kasula, A. J. (2016). Olowalu Review: Developing identity through translanguaging in a multilingual literary magazine. ''Colomb. Appl. Linguist. J., 18''(2), 109–118. * Kursiša, A., & Richter-Vapaatalo, U. (Eds.). (2018). ''Mehr als Deutsch!'' Goethe-Institut Finnland. https://www.goethe.de/prj/dlp/de/unterrichtsmaterial/mehr_als_deutsch * Makoni, S., & Pennycook, A. (2007). ''Disinventing and Reconstituting Languages.'' Multilingual Matters. * Otheguy, R., García, O., & Reid, W. (2015). Clarifying Translanguaging and Deconstructing Named Languages. ''Applied Linguistics Review, 6(3),'' 281–307. * Otheguy, R., García, O., & Reid, W. (2015). Translanguaging and the role of language in social identity. ''International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 18''(3), 281–297. * Penfield, W., & Roberts, L. (1959). S''peech and Brain Mechanisms''. Princeton University Press. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Diego Cortés Velásquez (Università Roma Tre) * Anastasia Gkaintartzi (University of Thessaly) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] lsh49k54ghe9yjf47nqu6rj3iwks7o5 2817320 2817266 2026-06-29T17:29:46Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self-Assessment */ 2817320 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting Activity == [[File:Translanguaging in Paris.png|alt=Translanguaging in Paris|thumb|Figure 1 - Translanguaging in Paris]] Imagine you are observing a classroom where students from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds interact. * How do they switch between languages? * Do they use different languages for different purposes (e.g. socializing, academic tasks)? * How would you describe their language use: do they mix languages or use them separately? Look at the following examples (see Figure 1 and Figure 2): Signs where multiple languages are used (see Linguistic Landscapes in Education). Now think about the questions below: * How are these languages being used and why? * Try to think of monolingual versions of the examples. How would the communication/messages be different?[[File:Languages in Paris.png|alt=Languages in Paris|thumb|Figure 2 - Languages in Paris]] == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * Recognize different theoretical perspectives on plurilingualism. * Understand the implications of a translanguaging approach to language use. * Develop a critical awareness of how plurilingualism functions in everyday communication and education. == Keywords == Plurilingualism, linguistic repertoire, bilingualism, multilingualism, translanguaging, language practices, sociolinguistics, education. == Table of Contents == # Introduction # History of the Concept # Definitions and Theoretical Perspectives # Practical Examples # Take-Home Messages # Self-Assessment # Resources to Go Further # Bibliography == Introduction == The study of '''plurilingualism''' and its implications for education has evolved significantly over the past decades. Traditionally, language use was conceptualized through '''monolingual ideologies''', where each language was seen as a separate, countable entity. However, more recent theories, such as translanguaging, '''Unitary Translanguaging Theory (UTT)''' and '''Crosslinguistic Translanguaging Theory (CTT)''', argue for a more fluid and '''dynamic vision''' of language use. Plurilingualism challenges the idea that languages exist as '''discrete systems''' and instead emphasizes that multilinguals '''draw on an integrated linguistic repertoire''' (see below) depending on the context and communicative needs. These ideas have significant implications for '''education, identity, and social interaction'''. == History of the Concept == The notion of '''plurilingualism''' has evolved alongside '''shifting perspectives in sociolinguistics and applied linguistics'''. * '''Early Views (1950s–1980s)''' ** Traditional theories treated languages as '''fixed, separate entities'''. ** Penfield & Roberts (1959) described bilingual speakers as having an '''“automatic switch”''' between languages, implying clear separation. * '''First approaches to holistic perspectives (1980s–1990s)''' ** Grosjean (1982; 1989) stated that the bilingual is not two monolinguals in one person. ** Coste, Moore & Zarate (1997) developed '''a holistic model''' in which plurilingual competence is described as a '''complex and composite reservoir'''. * '''Critical Perspectives (2000–2010)''' ** Makoni & Pennycook (2007) challenged the idea that languages are '''pre-existing objects''', arguing that they are '''social constructs'''. ** García (2009)  stated that '''bilinguals don’t use languages as separate systems''', emphasizing the integrated nature of linguistic repertoires. * '''Dynamic Theory (2002)''' ** Herdina & Jessner (2002) stress the '''dynamic and interactive''' nature of the multilingual system. *      '''Translanguaging theories (2009–present)''' ** According to García (2009, p. 45), “translanguaging are '''multiple discursive practices''' in which bilinguals engage in order to '''make sense of their bilingual worlds'''” (emphasis in original). ** Cummins (2021) proposes the distinction between the Unitary Translanguaging Theory (UTT) and the Crosslinguistic Translanguaging Theory (CTT). The UTT  proposes that all linguistic resources belong to a '''single cognitive system''', rather than to separate languages. The CTT focuses on '''cross-linguistic influences and transfer''', particularly in educational settings. These shifts have '''redefined plurilingual education''', moving away from strict language separation to a '''more fluid, integrated approach.''' == Definitions and Theoretical Perspectives == * '''Plurilingualism''': “the dynamic and developing linguistic repertoire of an individual user/learner” (Council or Europe, 2020, p. 30) * '''Translanguaging''': A perspective that sees '''language use as fluid''', where speakers move across linguistic boundaries without adhering to rigid categorizations. Translanguaging refers to how speakers deploy their full linguistic/semiotic/multimodal repertoire “without regard for watchful adherence to the socially and politically defined boundaries of named languages (Otheguy, García & Reid, 2015, p. 281). Translanguaging refers to the strategic use of all linguistic resources by multilinguals to engage in communication. This practice allows speakers to choose linguistic forms that best suit their communicative needs and contexts, and it challenges the traditional notion of separate language systems (Canagarajah, 2011). Multilingual speakers can fluidly use their language resources in "translanguaging spaces", in which they draw on their full linguistic repertoires to make meaning and engage in communication (Li Wei, 2011). * '''Linguistic Repertoire''': The full range of '''linguistic and semiotic resources''' an individual has access to, regardless of conventional language boundaries. It includes various linguistic resources that speakers acquire in different ways (such as languages learned at home from an early age, those learned later in school or beyond, or learned independently), for which they may have varying levels of proficiency. They may serve different functions in one’s life (family communication, socializing, working, or expressing group identity) which can be carried out jointly by multiple languages. Linguistic repertoires are not static but dynamic and fluid, and can change over time or depending on the communication situations. Its notion challenges the idea of separate languages isolated within strict borders and advocates a holistic perception of one’s plurilingual competence.  Language learning is thus perceived as a process of extending and reorganising one’s repertoire. * '''Unitary Translanguaging Theory (UTT)''' (Cummins, 2021): It argues that multilinguals operate within '''a single linguistic system''', rather than separate languages. * '''Crosslinguistic Translanguaging Theory (CTT)''' (Cummins, 2021): It explores how '''crosslinguistic connections shape language learning and communication''', particularly in formal education. According to the '''Unitary Theory of Translanguaging (UTT)''', multilinguals draw from a single, unitary linguistic system, where languages are not seen as distinct entities. In contrast, the '''Complex Theory of Translanguaging (CTT)''' claims that multilinguals do use and distinguish between separate languages. It doesn’t question the concept of “language” itself (Cummins, 2021, p. 10). Both theories recognise that languages are '''socially constructed''', shaped by social contexts, rather than being static or fixed systems and they both '''challenge the traditional view''' that languages should be '''separated''' in instructional settings. In both views, '''translanguaging''' refers to the flexible use of all available linguistic resources. It involves switching and blending across languages, allowing speakers to express themselves more fully and adaptively. Both theories involve dynamic perceptions of plurilingualism and recognize translanguaging as a critical tool for promoting social justice and equity in education. However, CTT does not deny the actual concept and reality of specific languages supporting the '''interdependence''' of academic language skills, '''additive bilingualism''', and t'''eaching for transfer across languages'''. == Practical Examples == === Example 1: Linguistic Landscapes === [[File:Multilingual signs, fingerposts in Brisbane, Australia 02.jpg|alt=Multilingual signs, fingerposts in Brisbane, Australia|thumb|Figure 3 - Multilingual signs, fingerposts in Brisbane, Australia]] Multilingual signs in public spaces demonstrate '''how languages coexist''' and interact. A street sign in Brussels may include '''French, Dutch, and English''', reflecting '''social and political dimensions''' of plurilingualism. === Example 2: Classroom Translanguaging Practices === Students in a bilingual classroom use '''English for academic tasks''' but '''switch to their home language for peer discussions'''. This challenges '''traditional monolingual teaching''' models. An engaging activity to promote the use of one's entire linguistic repertoire could be a '''plurilingual debate'''. Students are given a topic and asked to prepare several arguments. During the debate, they present their points while intentionally switching between the different languages they can use. === Example 3: Crosslinguistic Transfer in Writing === One possible activity for exploiting similarities between languages is described in Kursiša & Richter-Vapaatalo (2018, p. 63). Finnish learners of German compare the typical structure and expressions used in informal emails in German, English, Swedish and Finnish, identifying similarities and differences. Link: “Mehr als Deutsch”: https://www.goethe.de/prj/dlp/de/unterrichtsmaterial/mehr_als_deutsch === Example 4: Plurilingual Digital Communication === WhatsApp messages mixing '''multiple languages, emojis, and voice recordings''' showcase how plurilingualism is naturally integrated into '''daily interactions'''. == Take-Home Messages == * Plurilingualism is not about speaking multiple separate languages but about integrating and mobilizing linguistic resources dynamically in order to communicate and/or to learn languages. * Translanguaging challenges traditional language boundaries and emphasizes fluid communication strategies. * Theories like UTT and CTT reshape our understanding of bilingualism and multilingual education, promoting inclusive approaches. * According to translanguaging theories, languages are '''socially constructed''', shaped by social contexts, and not static or fixed systems. They '''challenge the traditional view''' that languages should be '''separated''' in instructional settings. == Self-Assessment == <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best aligns with Unitary Translanguaging Theory (UTT)? -A) Bilinguals have an automatic switch that separates languages in their minds. +B) Multilingual speakers access their linguistic resources as part of a single cognitive system. -C) Languages should be taught separately to avoid interference. -D) Translanguaging only happens in informal settings. {What is the main critique of traditional bilingual models according to translanguaging theories? +A) They assume bilinguals speak two completely separate languages. -B) They support language diversity in education. -C) They promote crosslinguistic mediation. -D) They encourage translanguaging in the classroom. {Which statement best aligns with CTT? -A) CTT rejects the idea of a unitary linguistic system. +B) CTT advocates for maintaining the concept of specific languages while also supporting additive bilingualism and the transfer of academic skills across languages. -C) CTT criticizes switching between languages because it assumes the existence of two separate linguistic systems. -D) CTT believes that languages do not exist as real entities. </quiz> == Resources to go further == * '''CEFR and Plurilingualism''': https://www.coe.int/en/web/language-policy/plurilingualism * '''CARAP/FREPA:''' https://carap.ecml.at/ * '''Research on Translanguaging''': https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14790718.2017.1400501 * '''CUNY-NYSIEB Translanguaging Resources''': The City University of New York's New York State Initiative on Emergent Bilinguals offers a comprehensive collection of materials, including articles, videos, and classroom strategies, to support the implementation of translanguaging in educational settings. https://www.cuny-nysieb.org/translanguaging-resources == Bibliography == * Canagarajah, S. (2011). Translanguaging in the classroom: Emerging issues for research and pedagogy. ''International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 14''(3), 271–283.''Relations.'' Routledge. * Canagarajah, S. (2013). ''Translingual Practice: Global Englishes and Cosmopolitan'' * Cavallaro, C. J., & Sembiante, S. F. (2020). Facilitating culturally sustaining, functional literacy practices in a middle school ESOL reading program: a design-based research study. ''Language and Education'', ''35''(2), 160–179. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500782.2020.1775244 * Cummins, J. (2021). Translanguaging: A critical analysis of theoretical claims. In P. Juvonen & M. Källkvist (Eds.), ''Pedagogical Translanguaging: Theoretical, Methodological and Empirical Perspectives'' (pp. 7–36). Multilingual Matters.  https://doi.org/10.21832/9781788927383 * García, O. (2009). ''Bilingual education in the 21st century: A global perspective.'' Wiley-Blackwell, München. * García, O., & Lin, A. (2017). ''Translanguaging in Bilingual Education''. Springer. * Kasula, A. J. (2016). Olowalu Review: Developing identity through translanguaging in a multilingual literary magazine. ''Colomb. Appl. Linguist. J., 18''(2), 109–118. * Kursiša, A., & Richter-Vapaatalo, U. (Eds.). (2018). ''Mehr als Deutsch!'' Goethe-Institut Finnland. https://www.goethe.de/prj/dlp/de/unterrichtsmaterial/mehr_als_deutsch * Makoni, S., & Pennycook, A. (2007). ''Disinventing and Reconstituting Languages.'' Multilingual Matters. * Otheguy, R., García, O., & Reid, W. (2015). Clarifying Translanguaging and Deconstructing Named Languages. ''Applied Linguistics Review, 6(3),'' 281–307. * Otheguy, R., García, O., & Reid, W. (2015). Translanguaging and the role of language in social identity. ''International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 18''(3), 281–297. * Penfield, W., & Roberts, L. (1959). S''peech and Brain Mechanisms''. Princeton University Press. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Diego Cortés Velásquez (Università Roma Tre) * Anastasia Gkaintartzi (University of Thessaly) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] ft1n43ol92e5mbb87eidxorb1ggqi44 2817321 2817320 2026-06-29T17:30:03Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self-Assessment */ 2817321 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting Activity == [[File:Translanguaging in Paris.png|alt=Translanguaging in Paris|thumb|Figure 1 - Translanguaging in Paris]] Imagine you are observing a classroom where students from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds interact. * How do they switch between languages? * Do they use different languages for different purposes (e.g. socializing, academic tasks)? * How would you describe their language use: do they mix languages or use them separately? Look at the following examples (see Figure 1 and Figure 2): Signs where multiple languages are used (see Linguistic Landscapes in Education). Now think about the questions below: * How are these languages being used and why? * Try to think of monolingual versions of the examples. How would the communication/messages be different?[[File:Languages in Paris.png|alt=Languages in Paris|thumb|Figure 2 - Languages in Paris]] == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * Recognize different theoretical perspectives on plurilingualism. * Understand the implications of a translanguaging approach to language use. * Develop a critical awareness of how plurilingualism functions in everyday communication and education. == Keywords == Plurilingualism, linguistic repertoire, bilingualism, multilingualism, translanguaging, language practices, sociolinguistics, education. == Table of Contents == # Introduction # History of the Concept # Definitions and Theoretical Perspectives # Practical Examples # Take-Home Messages # Self-Assessment # Resources to Go Further # Bibliography == Introduction == The study of '''plurilingualism''' and its implications for education has evolved significantly over the past decades. Traditionally, language use was conceptualized through '''monolingual ideologies''', where each language was seen as a separate, countable entity. However, more recent theories, such as translanguaging, '''Unitary Translanguaging Theory (UTT)''' and '''Crosslinguistic Translanguaging Theory (CTT)''', argue for a more fluid and '''dynamic vision''' of language use. Plurilingualism challenges the idea that languages exist as '''discrete systems''' and instead emphasizes that multilinguals '''draw on an integrated linguistic repertoire''' (see below) depending on the context and communicative needs. These ideas have significant implications for '''education, identity, and social interaction'''. == History of the Concept == The notion of '''plurilingualism''' has evolved alongside '''shifting perspectives in sociolinguistics and applied linguistics'''. * '''Early Views (1950s–1980s)''' ** Traditional theories treated languages as '''fixed, separate entities'''. ** Penfield & Roberts (1959) described bilingual speakers as having an '''“automatic switch”''' between languages, implying clear separation. * '''First approaches to holistic perspectives (1980s–1990s)''' ** Grosjean (1982; 1989) stated that the bilingual is not two monolinguals in one person. ** Coste, Moore & Zarate (1997) developed '''a holistic model''' in which plurilingual competence is described as a '''complex and composite reservoir'''. * '''Critical Perspectives (2000–2010)''' ** Makoni & Pennycook (2007) challenged the idea that languages are '''pre-existing objects''', arguing that they are '''social constructs'''. ** García (2009)  stated that '''bilinguals don’t use languages as separate systems''', emphasizing the integrated nature of linguistic repertoires. * '''Dynamic Theory (2002)''' ** Herdina & Jessner (2002) stress the '''dynamic and interactive''' nature of the multilingual system. *      '''Translanguaging theories (2009–present)''' ** According to García (2009, p. 45), “translanguaging are '''multiple discursive practices''' in which bilinguals engage in order to '''make sense of their bilingual worlds'''” (emphasis in original). ** Cummins (2021) proposes the distinction between the Unitary Translanguaging Theory (UTT) and the Crosslinguistic Translanguaging Theory (CTT). The UTT  proposes that all linguistic resources belong to a '''single cognitive system''', rather than to separate languages. The CTT focuses on '''cross-linguistic influences and transfer''', particularly in educational settings. These shifts have '''redefined plurilingual education''', moving away from strict language separation to a '''more fluid, integrated approach.''' == Definitions and Theoretical Perspectives == * '''Plurilingualism''': “the dynamic and developing linguistic repertoire of an individual user/learner” (Council or Europe, 2020, p. 30) * '''Translanguaging''': A perspective that sees '''language use as fluid''', where speakers move across linguistic boundaries without adhering to rigid categorizations. Translanguaging refers to how speakers deploy their full linguistic/semiotic/multimodal repertoire “without regard for watchful adherence to the socially and politically defined boundaries of named languages (Otheguy, García & Reid, 2015, p. 281). Translanguaging refers to the strategic use of all linguistic resources by multilinguals to engage in communication. This practice allows speakers to choose linguistic forms that best suit their communicative needs and contexts, and it challenges the traditional notion of separate language systems (Canagarajah, 2011). Multilingual speakers can fluidly use their language resources in "translanguaging spaces", in which they draw on their full linguistic repertoires to make meaning and engage in communication (Li Wei, 2011). * '''Linguistic Repertoire''': The full range of '''linguistic and semiotic resources''' an individual has access to, regardless of conventional language boundaries. It includes various linguistic resources that speakers acquire in different ways (such as languages learned at home from an early age, those learned later in school or beyond, or learned independently), for which they may have varying levels of proficiency. They may serve different functions in one’s life (family communication, socializing, working, or expressing group identity) which can be carried out jointly by multiple languages. Linguistic repertoires are not static but dynamic and fluid, and can change over time or depending on the communication situations. Its notion challenges the idea of separate languages isolated within strict borders and advocates a holistic perception of one’s plurilingual competence.  Language learning is thus perceived as a process of extending and reorganising one’s repertoire. * '''Unitary Translanguaging Theory (UTT)''' (Cummins, 2021): It argues that multilinguals operate within '''a single linguistic system''', rather than separate languages. * '''Crosslinguistic Translanguaging Theory (CTT)''' (Cummins, 2021): It explores how '''crosslinguistic connections shape language learning and communication''', particularly in formal education. According to the '''Unitary Theory of Translanguaging (UTT)''', multilinguals draw from a single, unitary linguistic system, where languages are not seen as distinct entities. In contrast, the '''Complex Theory of Translanguaging (CTT)''' claims that multilinguals do use and distinguish between separate languages. It doesn’t question the concept of “language” itself (Cummins, 2021, p. 10). Both theories recognise that languages are '''socially constructed''', shaped by social contexts, rather than being static or fixed systems and they both '''challenge the traditional view''' that languages should be '''separated''' in instructional settings. In both views, '''translanguaging''' refers to the flexible use of all available linguistic resources. It involves switching and blending across languages, allowing speakers to express themselves more fully and adaptively. Both theories involve dynamic perceptions of plurilingualism and recognize translanguaging as a critical tool for promoting social justice and equity in education. However, CTT does not deny the actual concept and reality of specific languages supporting the '''interdependence''' of academic language skills, '''additive bilingualism''', and t'''eaching for transfer across languages'''. == Practical Examples == === Example 1: Linguistic Landscapes === [[File:Multilingual signs, fingerposts in Brisbane, Australia 02.jpg|alt=Multilingual signs, fingerposts in Brisbane, Australia|thumb|Figure 3 - Multilingual signs, fingerposts in Brisbane, Australia]] Multilingual signs in public spaces demonstrate '''how languages coexist''' and interact. A street sign in Brussels may include '''French, Dutch, and English''', reflecting '''social and political dimensions''' of plurilingualism. === Example 2: Classroom Translanguaging Practices === Students in a bilingual classroom use '''English for academic tasks''' but '''switch to their home language for peer discussions'''. This challenges '''traditional monolingual teaching''' models. An engaging activity to promote the use of one's entire linguistic repertoire could be a '''plurilingual debate'''. Students are given a topic and asked to prepare several arguments. During the debate, they present their points while intentionally switching between the different languages they can use. === Example 3: Crosslinguistic Transfer in Writing === One possible activity for exploiting similarities between languages is described in Kursiša & Richter-Vapaatalo (2018, p. 63). Finnish learners of German compare the typical structure and expressions used in informal emails in German, English, Swedish and Finnish, identifying similarities and differences. Link: “Mehr als Deutsch”: https://www.goethe.de/prj/dlp/de/unterrichtsmaterial/mehr_als_deutsch === Example 4: Plurilingual Digital Communication === WhatsApp messages mixing '''multiple languages, emojis, and voice recordings''' showcase how plurilingualism is naturally integrated into '''daily interactions'''. == Take-Home Messages == * Plurilingualism is not about speaking multiple separate languages but about integrating and mobilizing linguistic resources dynamically in order to communicate and/or to learn languages. * Translanguaging challenges traditional language boundaries and emphasizes fluid communication strategies. * Theories like UTT and CTT reshape our understanding of bilingualism and multilingual education, promoting inclusive approaches. * According to translanguaging theories, languages are '''socially constructed''', shaped by social contexts, and not static or fixed systems. They '''challenge the traditional view''' that languages should be '''separated''' in instructional settings. == Self-Assessment == <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best aligns with Unitary Translanguaging Theory (UTT)?} -A) Bilinguals have an automatic switch that separates languages in their minds. +B) Multilingual speakers access their linguistic resources as part of a single cognitive system. -C) Languages should be taught separately to avoid interference. -D) Translanguaging only happens in informal settings. {What is the main critique of traditional bilingual models according to translanguaging theories?} +A) They assume bilinguals speak two completely separate languages. -B) They support language diversity in education. -C) They promote crosslinguistic mediation. -D) They encourage translanguaging in the classroom. {Which statement best aligns with CTT?} -A) CTT rejects the idea of a unitary linguistic system. +B) CTT advocates for maintaining the concept of specific languages while also supporting additive bilingualism and the transfer of academic skills across languages. -C) CTT criticizes switching between languages because it assumes the existence of two separate linguistic systems. -D) CTT believes that languages do not exist as real entities. </quiz> == Resources to go further == * '''CEFR and Plurilingualism''': https://www.coe.int/en/web/language-policy/plurilingualism * '''CARAP/FREPA:''' https://carap.ecml.at/ * '''Research on Translanguaging''': https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14790718.2017.1400501 * '''CUNY-NYSIEB Translanguaging Resources''': The City University of New York's New York State Initiative on Emergent Bilinguals offers a comprehensive collection of materials, including articles, videos, and classroom strategies, to support the implementation of translanguaging in educational settings. https://www.cuny-nysieb.org/translanguaging-resources == Bibliography == * Canagarajah, S. (2011). Translanguaging in the classroom: Emerging issues for research and pedagogy. ''International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 14''(3), 271–283.''Relations.'' Routledge. * Canagarajah, S. (2013). ''Translingual Practice: Global Englishes and Cosmopolitan'' * Cavallaro, C. J., & Sembiante, S. F. (2020). Facilitating culturally sustaining, functional literacy practices in a middle school ESOL reading program: a design-based research study. ''Language and Education'', ''35''(2), 160–179. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500782.2020.1775244 * Cummins, J. (2021). Translanguaging: A critical analysis of theoretical claims. In P. Juvonen & M. Källkvist (Eds.), ''Pedagogical Translanguaging: Theoretical, Methodological and Empirical Perspectives'' (pp. 7–36). Multilingual Matters.  https://doi.org/10.21832/9781788927383 * García, O. (2009). ''Bilingual education in the 21st century: A global perspective.'' Wiley-Blackwell, München. * García, O., & Lin, A. (2017). ''Translanguaging in Bilingual Education''. Springer. * Kasula, A. J. (2016). Olowalu Review: Developing identity through translanguaging in a multilingual literary magazine. ''Colomb. Appl. Linguist. J., 18''(2), 109–118. * Kursiša, A., & Richter-Vapaatalo, U. (Eds.). (2018). ''Mehr als Deutsch!'' Goethe-Institut Finnland. https://www.goethe.de/prj/dlp/de/unterrichtsmaterial/mehr_als_deutsch * Makoni, S., & Pennycook, A. (2007). ''Disinventing and Reconstituting Languages.'' Multilingual Matters. * Otheguy, R., García, O., & Reid, W. (2015). Clarifying Translanguaging and Deconstructing Named Languages. ''Applied Linguistics Review, 6(3),'' 281–307. * Otheguy, R., García, O., & Reid, W. (2015). Translanguaging and the role of language in social identity. ''International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 18''(3), 281–297. * Penfield, W., & Roberts, L. (1959). S''peech and Brain Mechanisms''. Princeton University Press. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Diego Cortés Velásquez (Università Roma Tre) * Anastasia Gkaintartzi (University of Thessaly) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] kkspl61qrygundwsg9agq01x2f73zxl 0 326060 2817238 2817206 2026-06-29T15:02:42Z Jeanne Noiraud 1366702 /* Ontology */ completing next steps of ontology 2817238 wikitext text/x-wiki == Acknowledgements == The present text was originally written on a Wikiversity page, if you are reading it in another format, you can find this page here : [[Just sustainability transitions: a living review|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review]]. You are free to add your comments on the page discussion section. === Contributors === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Affiliation !ORCID !Contribution |- |Adélie Ranville |IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208) |https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135 |Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling, article writing |- |Amélie E. Pereira |Laboratoire DICEN IDF | |Meta-data enrichement, article writing |- |Finn Nielsen |Technical University of Denmark |https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6128-3356 |Data visualisation |} Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review == Introduction == Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}</ref>. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}</ref>. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}</ref><ref>Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. </ref>. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination. === The problem of academic information overload === Global scientific output doubles every nine years<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}</ref>. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily. === The problem of knowledge synthesis === The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable<ref>{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}</ref> and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews that can be updated dynamically with new knowledge (examples : <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia. === The problem of scientific results dissemination === There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}</ref>. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}</ref> and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}</ref>. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}</ref>, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow<ref name=":10">Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., & Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. <nowiki>http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf</nowiki> </ref>. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap<ref name=":10" />. Because of gender segregation in disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}</ref>, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}</ref>, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]]. == Toward a living review on just sustainability transition == === Just sustainability transition === Just sustainability transition transition is "a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society"<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}</ref>. The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions<ref name=":0" />. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions<ref name=":0" />. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}</ref> and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. Developping living reviews seem particularly relevant for the just transition literature: first, modeling knowledge and building graphs allows to take into account the complexity of sustainability transitions which involve multiple levels of analysis<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> and fragmented results coming from various disciplines<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>. Then, making literature reviews "living" would allow researchers to be less subject to information overload through a more systematic accumulation of knowledge. Finally, conducting this review with an open science philosophy aswers the challenge of knowledge dissemination, which is crucial in a context of socio-ecological emergency when decision-makers need to rapidely access reliable information on possible sustainability transition trajectories. === Living reviews === The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked<ref name="Why1">{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}</ref>. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4">{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}</ref>. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" />. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":2">https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/</ref>. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research<ref name="Why1" /><ref name=":6" />, such as just transition. Literature review methods are currently evolving with new technological possibilities. Generative artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT are expected to have a strong influence on literature review activities<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes<ref name=":12" />, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}</ref>. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are "on the rise" (2025), but not yet integrated into tested and validated methodologies<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}</ref>. Human validation stays notably necessary<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alshami|first=Ahmad|last2=Elsayed|first2=Moustafa|last3=Ali|first3=Eslam|last4=Eltoukhy|first4=Abdelrahman E. E.|last5=Zayed|first5=Tarek|date=2023-07-09|title=Harnessing the Power of ChatGPT for Automating Systematic Review Process: Methodology, Case Study, Limitations, and Future Directions|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/11/7/351|journal=Systems|language=en|volume=11|issue=7|pages=351|doi=10.3390/systems11070351|issn=2079-8954}}</ref>,<ref name=":13" />. While AI can appear as a solution for scaling literature reviews, we are in the present project exploring another possible scenario which is to use more crowdsourcing in the literature review process. === Wikimedia projects === Wikipedia is a successfull example of large-scaled crowdsourcing of reliable knowledge synthesis. That is why this project proposes to explore the potential of the Wikimedia ecosystem for conducting living reviews. Since Wikipedia does aim to host original research<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikipedia:No original research|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:No_original_research&oldid=1360514388|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>, we are working on two sister projects : Wikidata and Wikiversity. [[wikipedia:Wikidata|Wikidata]] is a "collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=April 26, 2013|title=Welcome to Wikidata! Now what?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|access-date=October 2, 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002152920/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|url-status=live}}</ref>"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikidata|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikidata&oldid=1360462340|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. "A [[wikidata:Q33002955|knowledge graph]] is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}</ref> A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}</ref> Such graphs have a strong potential to conduct knowledge synthesis<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Fotopoulou">{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.</ref><ref name=":18" />. They are especially usefull to build the ontologies (formal representations of concepts) that are necessary to organize and represent existing knowledge<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>. In complement to using Wikidata to model knowledge, we decided to use Wikiversity to report and write our research results. [[wikipedia:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] is another Wikimedia project hosting pedagogical content, original research, and even a publishing house ([[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]])<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Wikiversity|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity&oldid=1358552930|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. Wikiversity pages are editable by everyone, have a discussion tab and a history log tab. Our research question is : '''How can Wikimedia projects contribute to building a collaborative living review on just sustainability transition ?''' In this project, we aim to test 4 hypothesis : ●       '''Hypothesis 1:''' Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations. ●       '''Hypothesis 2:''' Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (e.g. conceptual typologies, cause-effect chains…). ●       '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs. ●       '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikimedia or Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data). We also have 2 assumptions : ●       '''Assumption 1:''' Wikimedia projects have to be integrated into validated scientific protocols in order to be a valuable research tool. ●       '''Assumption 2:''' Wikimedia project contribution has to be made interoperable with tools, methods and data types already used by researchers. == Methodology == Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, and other open-science infrastructures. The first step was to build and enrich the bibliographic metadata of the corpus of articles we selected in Wikidata. The second step was to model the content of the findings of these articles in Wikidata (e.g. causes-effects relationships...). The third step was to experiment relevant visualization of this content (e.g. causes-effects graphs). The las step was to write our report on aWikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, following a linked open data philosophy. == 1. Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata == The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''' (Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations), and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology. To build and enrich our academic corpus on Wikidata, we searched existing databases, selected the sample of articles we wanted to study, imported these articles metadata into Wikidata, enriched these metadata and finally reflected on the advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich academic corpus. === Database search === Doing a systematic review on all aspects of just transition would have resulted in too many articles to review. We thus decided to first explore one aspect of justice : procedural justice. Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions<ref name=":4" /> such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}</ref>. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures<ref name=":0" />. For our search, we selected keywords related to procedural justice (procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory) and keywords related to sustainability transition (sustainability OR energy OR climate) AND (transition OR transitions). We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Keywords search !Database !Search date !Filters !Number of results |- |(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) |Web of Science (all databases, all dates) |December 2025 |Document type: Review Article |362 |} === Article selection === Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were * Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...) * Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...) * Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions * Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy * Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973 === Importing selected articles into Wikidata === To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the "export to Wikidata QuickStatements" function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata. Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|"Merge" gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items. === Article classification through metadata enrichement === Metadatas are data describing other data. The metadata of academic items usually include title, author, publication outlet, publication date, pages, DOI, URL... and can be structured following specific standards (e.g. [[wikipedia:Dublin_Core|Dublin Core]]). In academic databases such as WOS or OpenAlex, the only metadata available regarding the content of an academic article are the abstract and sometimes keywords. However, researchers conducting literature reviews need more precise informations. An important part of literature review work can thus be about describing what the articles are about. For example, describing industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt)<ref name=":5" />. By metadata enrichment, we mean completing metadata to include additional information about the content of an academic piece. In Wikidata, each type of information is added using a specific property. A property is the edge that links two entities in the Wikidata knowledge graph. We selected three Wikidata properties to describe the content of our selected articles : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe the geographical scope of the study. We also worked on adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} ==== We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Main topic !Description |- |[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]] |acceptability |characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose |- |[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]] |accountability |concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making |- |[[d:Q421953|Q421953]] |actor–network theory |theory within social science |- |[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]] |affordability | |- |[[d:Q185836|Q185836]] |age of a person |time elapsed since a person was born |- |[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]] |animal studies |field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways |- |[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]] |awareness |state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns |- |[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]] |blue carbon |carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems |- |[[d:Q430460|Q430460]] |capability approach |economic theory |- |[[d:Q7569|Q7569]] |child |human between birth and puberty |- |[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]] |civic engagement |individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern |- |[[d:Q125928|Q125928]] |climate change |human-caused changes to climate on Earth |- |[[d:Q260607|Q260607]] |climate change adaptation |process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities |- |[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]] |climate justice |term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice |- |[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]] |co-creation |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]] |co-design |approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders |- |[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]] |coproduction |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q11024|Q11024]] |communication |act of conveying intended meaning |- |[[d:Q177634|Q177634]] |community |social unit of human organisms who share common values |- |[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]] |community choice aggregation |alternative energy supply system |- |[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]] |community energy |delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects |- |[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]] |community participation |The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community |- |[[d:Q188843|Q188843]] |cosmopolitanism |ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality |- |[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]] |decarbonization |change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions |- |[[d:Q284289|Q284289]] |deliberative democracy |form of democracy focusing on consensus |- |[[d:Q7174|Q7174]] |democracy |form of government |- |[[d:Q552284|Q552284]] |distributive justice |concept of the socially just allocation of goods |- |[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]] |diversity |concept in sociology and political studies |- |[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]] |ecological economics |research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems |- |[[d:Q8134|Q8134]] |economics |social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services |- |[[d:Q868575|Q868575]] |empowerment |providing increased autonomy |- |[[d:Q295865|Q295865]] |ecosystem service |benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems |- |[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]] |energy citizenship |involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions |- |[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&redirect=no Q131444737] |community energy |[redirection] |- |[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]] |energy consumption |amount of energy or power used |- |[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]] |senior |elderly person |- |[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]] |energy democracy |concept in environmental justice movement |- |[[d:Q192704|Q192704]] |energy efficiency |ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine |- |[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]] |energy modeling |process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them |- |[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]] |energy policy |policy addressing energy issues |- |[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]] |energy poverty |lack of access to modern energy services |- |[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]] |energy production |conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans |- |[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]] |energy justice |subconcept of economic equality |- |[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]] |energy renovation |building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used |- |[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]] |energy security |national security considerations of energy availability |- |[[d:Q837718|Q837718]] |energy storage |capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time |- |[[d:Q795757|Q795757]] |energy transition |long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems |- |[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]] |environmental justice |system of fairness |- |[[d:Q771773|Q771773]] |fairness |concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society |- |[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]] |farming system |method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics |- |[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]] |food system |all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population |- |[[d:Q4421|Q4421]] |forest |dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area |- |[[d:Q48277|Q48277]] |gender |social concept which distinguish the different gender categories |- |[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]] |governance |all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society |- |[[d:Q8458|Q8458]] |human rights |inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled |- |[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]] |human rights violation |act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights |- |[[d:Q103817|Q103817]] |indigenous people |first inhabitants of an area and their descendants |- |[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]] |indigenous science |indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method |- |[[d:Q770480|Q770480]] |injustice |quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes |- |[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]] |interactional justice |the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment |- |[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]] |intersectionnality |theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression |- |[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]] |just transition |Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy. |- |[[d:Q366139|Q366139]] |legitimation |the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group |- |[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]] |living lab |user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities |- |[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]] |low income |home with little money |- |[[d:Q43619|Q43619]] |natural environment |all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof |- |[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]] |nature-positive |global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030 |- |[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]] |non-human |organism not in the genus Homo |- |[[d:Q728646|Q728646]] |partnership |arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests |- |[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]] |policy making |the act of developing policy |- |[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]] |political theory |class of theory |- |[[d:Q265425|Q265425]] |postcolonialism |academic discipline |- |[[d:Q25107|Q25107]] |power |ability to influence the behavior of others |- |[[d:Q442100|Q442100]] |procedural justice |fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources |- |[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]] |project governance |management framework |- |[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]] |public engagement |Policy-making practice |- |[[d:Q541936|Q541936]] |public participation |participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes |- |[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]] |recognition justice |social philosophy theory |- |[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]] |renewable electricity |electricity from renweable sources |- |[[d:Q12705|Q12705]] |renewable energy |energy collected from renewable resources |- |[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]] |renewable energy policy | |- |[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]] |restorative justice |approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement |- |[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]] |rural population |inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural |- |[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]] |smart system |adaptive intelligent systems |- |[[d:Q187588|Q187588]] |social class |group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors |- |[[d:Q264892|Q264892]] |social justice |concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied |- |[[d:Q34749|Q34749]] |social science |academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society |- |[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]] |stakeholder participation |involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity |- |[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]] |sustainability transition | |- |[[d:Q219416|Q219416]] |sustainability |ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state |- |[[d:Q131201|Q131201]] |sustainable development |mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations |- |[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]] |Sustainable Development Goals |set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change |- |[[d:Q69883|Q69883]] |urban planning |technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment |- |[[d:Q920600|Q920600]] |urban renewal |program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay |- |[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]] |vulnerable population |group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent |- |[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]] |water-management | |- |[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]] |well-being |measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction |- |[[d:Q467|Q467]] |woman |female adult human |- |[[d:Q188867|Q188867]] |future studies |study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures |- |[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]] |participatory design |active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process |}Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} ==== Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&property=P279&mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved some of these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q101116078}} can have {{Wikidata entity link|Q653137}} as {{Wikidata entity link|P13391}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paré|first=Guy|last2=Trudel|first2=Marie-Claude|last3=Jaana|first3=Mirou|last4=Kitsiou|first4=Spyros|date=2015-03|title=Synthesizing information systems knowledge: A typology of literature reviews|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378720614001116|journal=Information & Management|language=en|volume=52|issue=2|pages=183–199|doi=10.1016/j.im.2014.08.008}}</ref>. The types of reviews were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Study type !Description |- |[[d:Q603441|Q603441]] |bibliometrics |statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles |- |[[d:Q472342|Q472342]] |scientometrics |study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation |- |[[d:Q815382|Q815382]] |meta-analysis |statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources |- |[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]] |systematic review |publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic |- |[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]] |literature review |process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic |- |[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]] |meta-regression |statistical tool used in meta-analyses |- |[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]] |realist evaluation |theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes |- |[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]] |combinatorial meta-analysis |study of the statistical properties of combinations of studies from a meta-analytic dataset |- |[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]] |network meta-analysis |meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions |- |[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]] |scoping review |search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |- |[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]] |conceptual review |academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature |- |[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]] |critical review |type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research |- |[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]] |integrative literature review |type of literature review |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |}For each article, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} ==== When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article "{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}" focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} ==== When scholarly metadata are imported into Wikidata, the name of authors are stored as a chain of characters and linked to the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2093}}. The property {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} allows to make a link with a Wikidata item representing the author. This avoids the problem of homonym authors by attributing a unique identifyer to authors in Wikidata and linking these identifiers to existing ones such as ORCID. We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages. === Advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich living academic corpus === To share the result of our work, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973. The data is also available directly in Wikidata. The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1'''(Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations)'''.''' ==== Advantages of Wikidata ==== Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative nature as well as its interoperability. Wikidata ontology (that is how the data are structured) is collaboratively defined and properties can be added if relevant (after validation by the community). Compared to global databases like WOS or OpenAlex, Wikidata allows to enter more detail about each academic articles and anyone can add data. Another notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, "energy transition" was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Contrary to institutional thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. The multilingual nature of Wikidata was also a strengh, some Wikidata contributors added labels for the concepts we used into different languages (For example, contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in Armenian and Slovenian, languages we do not speak at all). ==== Limitations of Wikidata ==== Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and does not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base, by taking notes and highlighting the content of the full texts. Wikidata is not connected to this process and there is a missing tool to facilitate the construction of graphs from the qualitative analysis of texts. In addition, when one is working on a specific corpus of item in Wikidata, it is also difficult to keep track of this corpus. We linked each academic item we were working on to our research project by adding a statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}, but it was still relatively difficult to "filter" the part of the knowledge graph we were working on. Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount o bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data congested queries on Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. ==== Future possbilities ==== A solution to the limitations would be to developp the links between Wikidata and other tools of the open science ecosystem. For example, developping and maintaining plugins or extensions for specialised softwares like Zotero, Wikibase, and Omeka could connect Wikidata with more specialised graphs. Such extensions could help building local graphs by allowing the reuse of wikidata item (eg. autocompletion), but also help contributing to Wikidata thanks to export features. Building corpus of more precise academic metadata on Wikidata could also ultimately improve the precision of catalogues such as OpenAlex. For example, Wikidata items could be used to tag articles in a more precise way instead of using keywords and crowdsourced corpus built in Wikidata could be used to train more precise taging algorythms. == 2.Modelling the content of litterature reviews == The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 2''' (Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference) by modelling the content of our selected articles into Wikidata. [[wikipedia:Knowledge_modeling|Knowledge modelling]] is the process of making a machine readable model of a knowledge. As we have a background in social sciences, we felt the need to question the relationship between this process and other methodologies such as concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks. === Concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks === ==== Concept maps ==== [[File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|thumb|Example conceptual diagram|251x251px]]Concept maps are ''concepts'' (boxes) and ''propositions'' (arrow indicating the relationship between two boxes)<ref name=":19">Cañas, Alberto J., et al. "CmapTools: A knowledge modeling and sharing environment." (2004): 125-135. https://thomaseskridge.com/assets/pdf/Canas-2004.pdf</ref>. Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}</ref>. They can be built using specialised softwares (e.g. [https://cmap.ihmc.us/ Cmap])<ref name=":19" />. The "box and arrow" logic is similar to how knowledge is modelled on Wikidata : the equivalent of concepts is ''item'' and the equivalent of propositions are ''statements''. The difference between a softwares like Cmap and Wikidata is the underlying format of the data. ==== Thematic networks ==== [[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|447x447px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: based on Attride-Stirling 2001)]] A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}</ref>. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}</ref>. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data<ref name=":7" />. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes. Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes. However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not always specified. [[File:Adoption_CLD.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adoption_CLD.svg|thumb|421x421px|Causal loop diagram of ''Adoption'' model, used to demonstrate systems dynamics]] ==== Causal diagrams ==== The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}</ref>. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about "[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}</ref> Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can "feedback" (two variables can influence each other)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}</ref>. === Knowledge modelling in Wikidata === ==== Conceptual modelling ==== We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to model concepts in Wikidata. Scholars in management have called for more rigorous ways to define concepts. Definitions encompass various aspects such as the nature of the phenomenon, its characteristics, the links with prototypical cases or examples, the contrast with other concepts, the links with causes and consequences...<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}</ref>, and scholars have advised to take insight from philosophy to work on concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}</ref>. We thus read work in cognitive science which was summarizing approaches coming from psychology and philsosophy attempting to determine the content of concepts<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}</ref>. We summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them. * Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}... * Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. (The closer a phenomenon is to the prototype, the more likely it belong to the category). Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} (see discussion here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties). * Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}, {{P|1478}}, {{P|P9353}} (see discussions here : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en). * Essence: the content of a concept is "something" deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what its properties will be. * Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}. ==== Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} ==== To test concept modelling, we started by experimenting by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic : * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} We read each paper and used them as source to manually enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, Droubi et. Al stated "Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as reference (see screenshot below). The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&oldid=2495982191. [[File:Wikidata statement- energy democracy is an instance of ideal.png|915x915px|border]] We listed the difficulties encountered as we worked and we also asked the Wikidata community to give us feedback on our modelling on the item discussion page (https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Talk:Q14944319). ===== Contradictions ===== Wikidata contributor's feedback highlighted some apparent contradictions (The values in "does not have effect" seems contrary to what is listed in "has goal".) We would however argue this is not a problem because "statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}</ref>. Wikidata essentially supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}</ref>. In the case of goals versus effects statements, the discrepancy between the goals of energy democracy and what it actually achieves is precisely what some authors are critiquing<ref name=":20" />. Recommandations : Contradictions are allowed in Wikidata. ===== Precision ===== We also received feedbacks regarding a lack of precision in our statements (too many and too vague statements). We indeed noted that conceptual modelling requires an important degree of formalization and precision. This is a key advantage of Wikidata to be able to create links toward precise concepts which have their own identifiers. For example, we were able to create statements about specific laws and their unique identifiers in legal databases (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}} and its identifier in the EUR-Lex database). However, the sources we are working with are not always precise enough and when concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence "management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}</ref>, "choice" could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}}... We can see here that academic texts are using natural language and thus are using ambiguous terms. However, another reason why we ended up with very general statements is because we avoided the creation of new Wikidata items, while this could help make the statements more precise. Recommandations : If a concept is ambiguous it should not be included in the modelled statements. Create more precise relevant concepts if they do not exist in Wikidata. ===== Concision ===== Wikidata contributor's feedback indicated a lack of concision. Some of it coming from the fact that some values were "in the tree of another value". The rule we take from this feeback is a need of logical simplification. Two examples illustrate possible logical simplification : * We stated that {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} was an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q33104069}} and an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}}. But in that case, it is not necessary to state that it is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}}, because {{Wikidata entity link|Q33104069}} is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q131362181}}, which is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}} (see diagram on the right). Here, we have to keep only the more precise item. This reasonning is based on the assumption that {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} is transitive. It seems this reasonning could be generalized could potentially be automatized in Wikidata through a complex property constraint (we made a proposition in this sense here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata:WikiProject_Reasoning/Use_cases#Parcimonious_statement_constraints_based_on_subclass_of_(P279)_and_part_of_(P361)_transitivity<nowiki/>) * We stated that {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}. But if we consider that {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} of {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}, then the inclusion of {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} is implied. Here we could keep only the broader item. But unlike the reasonning above, we could not identify a way to generalize this reasonning. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}} can be a subclass of {{Wikidata entity link|Q43229}}, but using the former item is more informative than using the later. For the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, using a value that is too precise results in too many statements and using a value that is too general results in too trivial statements. [[File:Wikidata visualisation screenshot of subclasses relationships including the item political concept.png|thumb|298x298px|Subclass relationships between "concept" and "political concept".]]Recommandations : When possible, use logical simplification to make statements more parcimonious. ===== Quantification ===== The paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that "9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources". Modelling this sentence by adding a statement in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q177323}} would require creating a specific property for final energy consumption. There are such properties of this type in Wikidata : for example, for renewable energy subsidies, there is {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}}. This type of property is notably useful to display information about an item on Wikipedia through infoboxes (e.g. the population of a town). But the current informal rule on Wikidata property creation is to prefer the use of general properties and avoid the creation of specific properties. Thus an alternative way to model quantity is to create a specific item to represent what is quantified and use other properties to represent quantities (see example below). [[File:Wikidata screenshot of percentage modelling.png|border|783x783px]] But since data are usually stored elsewhere in more convenient formats, it may not be always relevant to include quantitative data into Wikidata. Instead, it might be more useful to link the item that is quantified to an external dataset about it. This can be done using the property {{Wikidata entity link|P1325}}. Recommandation : Use existing properties for the quantity if it exists. If it does not exist, create an item representing what is measured, link it toward external datasets and add relevant quantitative statements. ===== Ontology ===== Ultimately, several of our difficulties were linked to some ontology challenges reflecting the complexity of the concept we were working on. According to the litterature, {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} refer to multiple entities. It represents a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome (we reflected this with multiple {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} statements). We encountered struggles to model differences between process versus outcomes, ideal versus reality, discourses versus practices and phenomenon versus theory. The wikidata community recommands having different items for ''process and outcome'' (criterion "{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}"). For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork). However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes which are are ongoing and evolving without a clear ending. In an attempt to separate ''ideal versus reality,'' we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes attempting to reach it. It was difficult to separate ''phenomenon versus theory.'' For example, modelling the idea that the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Our sources suggested that energy democracy discourses and practices may have different causes, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movments promoting it, but this was not a very precise way to model this idea. The conclusion of our first attempt is that trying to include the multiple "natures" of energy democracy into a single item is not satisfactory. Implementing the modelling recommandations we identified above may not be sufficient to build more parcimonious statements. Creating new items to reflect the different aspects of energy democracy may here be necessary. But how should we split the different natures of the concept ? Here the definition of an {{Wikidata entity link|Q324254}} (formal representation) in WIkidata quickly escalate into questionning {{Wikidata entity link|Q44325}} (metaphysical reflexion on the nature of things), and especially {{Wikidata entity link|Q1713511}} (the nature of the social world). Critical realists posits that different things have different ways of being (modes of reality). They propose to classify entities in four categories : material entities (that can exist independently of humans), conceptual entities (concepts, discourses, ideas, meaning…), artefactual entities (human-made and combining conceptual and material elements) and social entities (that depends on human activity to exist)<ref>Fleetwood, S. (2004). An ontology for organisation and management studies. ''Critical Realist Applications in Organisation and Management Studies'', 27–53.</ref>. A complex concept like {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is concerned with all these types of entities. The energy system include many material entities such as oil fields, the sun, seas, trees... and artefacts such as energy production unit, power lines, home appliances, trucks... (Including conceptual entities such as the name of these artefacts or the knowledge to make them function.). There are the social entities in which they are encompassed (the enregy sectors, energy businesses, energy policies...). There are conceptual entities like normative/political discourses discussing how these artefact and social system should work and there are conceptual entities in the academic sphere building theories about how all this works or should work. Wikidata "supports multiple coexisting classification" and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.<ref name=":8" /> Current Wikidata ontology is structured with dischotomies such as {{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q4406616}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1970309}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q16686448}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q23958946}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q103940464}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q3799040}}... But its {{Wikidata entity link|Q1713511}} is unclear. The table below shows the possible root class entity for a few social entities, it is clear they fall under various root distinctions and do not belong to a common class. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Item ! Existing root class entity |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q190539}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q16686448}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q34770}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q9081}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q43229}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q49773}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}} |} Our next step would thus be to create new items to reflect the different facets of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} : the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it, the concrete initiatives implementing it, the litterature theorizing it, etc... And make sure the {{Wikidata entity link|Q3882785}} for these various entities is consistent. To do so we will align with a relevant existing standard (we opened the discussion about social ontology with the wikidata community here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata_talk:WikiProject_Ontology#Social_ontology). == 3. Data visualisation == The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 3''' (SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs). === Filter statements === * Visualize only statements using a specitic source. Example : https://w.wiki/PFqH * Visualize only items which are part to the present project (require that all items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}). === Mapping a concept === Scholia request "topic in context" : [https://query.wikidata.org/#%23%20tool%3A%20scholia%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20PREFIX%20target%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ14944319%3E%0A%23defaultView%3AGraph%0APREFIX%20wd%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wdt%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fprop%2Fdirect%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wikibase%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwikiba.se%2Fontology%23%3E%0APREFIX%20rdf%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F1999%2F02%2F22-rdf-syntax-ns%23%3E%0A%0ASELECT%20%3Fnode%20%3FnodeLabel%20%3FnodeImage%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeLabel%20%3FchildNodeImage%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fnode%20%3FchildNode%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28target%3A%20AS%20%3Fnode%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fp%20%3Fi%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3Fi%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FP%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20UNION%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fnode%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28%22EFFBD8%22%20AS%20%3Frgb%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20target%3A%20%3Fp%20%3FchildNode%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3Fnodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fnodeclaim%20%3FnodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20%3FchildNodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%7D Example with Energy democracy] === Mapping sources consensus === Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight. == 4. Writing == The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 4''' (Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links). Writing on a Wikiversity page offers some advantages to implement the principles of open linked data in text format. We could cite academic items using their Wikidata QID to generate the citations below, and also link toward Wikidata entities using a template ([[Template:Wikidata entity link|Wikidata entity link]]). === The issue of text interoperability === A key issue we are encountering is the question of the interoperability of texts. While the interoperability of data is starting to be well discussed in the open science community, the interoperability of texts do not seem to benefit from the same level of discussion. We encountered several interoperability issues regarding our writing. First, copying texts written on a word processor software (e.g. microsoft word) into a wiki page (or the other way around) is relatively seamless in terms of formatting, except for the management of references. Reformatting references is very time consuming and a real barrier for text interoperability in academic context : it is difficult to copy text from an academic publication into a wiki text, and difficult to turn a wiki text into a publication. There are also uncertaineties regarding how to combine texts published under creative common licences. Academic texts published under CC-BY-SA licences can in theory be remixed and reused. But academia does not have established practices regarding how this can be done. If we want to reuse a whole page, should we put it in quotation marks and simply cite the paper ? Should the original authors be listed as co-authors ? Will academic publisher accept such new writing practices while they usually require that publications contain mainly unpublished content ? The norms of what is appropriate remix and reuse practices in academia has yet to be decided... and we invite the open science community to discuss this issue. == Future research == The analysis of knowledge graph could in theory allow to make logical deduction to generate new data<ref name=":9" />. Reflect on the future of scholarly communication : https://hal.science/hal-03277615/file/OPERAS_Future_of_Scholarly_Communication_06.2021.pdf === Wikidata for systematic categorizing === In management sciences « systematic categorizing is the best and perhaps only method for clearing up semantic confusion, management scholars never take the classical approaches to categorizing that facilitated tremendous progress in the physical sciences, and seldomly build on extant categorial schemes. »<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. == Funding == This project is funded by the [[m:Grants:Programs/Wikimedia_Research_&_Technology_Fund/Wikimedia_Research_Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]], Grant ID: G-RS-2504-18935. The text of the initial research proposal is available here : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20760603. == Data == {| class="wikitable sortable" ! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title |- | [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review |- | [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review |- | [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter? |- | [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset. |- | [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies? |- | [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection |- | [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development |- | [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research |- | [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition |- | [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning |- | [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view |- | [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory |- | [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries |- | [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies |- | [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes |- | [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation |- | [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives |- | [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies |- | [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice? |- | [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review |- | [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research |- | [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape |- | [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models |- | [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review |- | [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation |- | [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings |- | [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework |- | [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende |- | [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa |- | [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities |- | [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion |- | [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review |- | [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights |- | [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review |- | [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations |- | [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance |- | [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions |- | [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review |- | [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice |- | [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice |- | [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review |- | [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review |- | [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions |- | [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition |- | [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy |- | [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends |- | [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience |} == References == {{References}} i7erd00o3q7pwhgvb2j6yfil3ydwh7l 2817271 2817238 2026-06-29T16:22:57Z Jeanne Noiraud 1366702 /* 3. Data visualisation */ clean and complete data visualisation use cases 2817271 wikitext text/x-wiki == Acknowledgements == The present text was originally written on a Wikiversity page, if you are reading it in another format, you can find this page here : [[Just sustainability transitions: a living review|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review]]. You are free to add your comments on the page discussion section. === Contributors === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Affiliation !ORCID !Contribution |- |Adélie Ranville |IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208) |https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135 |Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling, article writing |- |Amélie E. Pereira |Laboratoire DICEN IDF | |Meta-data enrichement, article writing |- |Finn Nielsen |Technical University of Denmark |https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6128-3356 |Data visualisation |} Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review == Introduction == Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}</ref>. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}</ref>. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}</ref><ref>Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. </ref>. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination. === The problem of academic information overload === Global scientific output doubles every nine years<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}</ref>. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily. === The problem of knowledge synthesis === The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable<ref>{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}</ref> and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews that can be updated dynamically with new knowledge (examples : <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia. === The problem of scientific results dissemination === There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}</ref>. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}</ref> and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}</ref>. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}</ref>, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow<ref name=":10">Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., & Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. <nowiki>http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf</nowiki> </ref>. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap<ref name=":10" />. Because of gender segregation in disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}</ref>, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}</ref>, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]]. == Toward a living review on just sustainability transition == === Just sustainability transition === Just sustainability transition transition is "a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society"<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}</ref>. The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions<ref name=":0" />. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions<ref name=":0" />. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}</ref> and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. Developping living reviews seem particularly relevant for the just transition literature: first, modeling knowledge and building graphs allows to take into account the complexity of sustainability transitions which involve multiple levels of analysis<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> and fragmented results coming from various disciplines<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>. Then, making literature reviews "living" would allow researchers to be less subject to information overload through a more systematic accumulation of knowledge. Finally, conducting this review with an open science philosophy aswers the challenge of knowledge dissemination, which is crucial in a context of socio-ecological emergency when decision-makers need to rapidely access reliable information on possible sustainability transition trajectories. === Living reviews === The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked<ref name="Why1">{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}</ref>. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4">{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}</ref>. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" />. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":2">https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/</ref>. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research<ref name="Why1" /><ref name=":6" />, such as just transition. Literature review methods are currently evolving with new technological possibilities. Generative artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT are expected to have a strong influence on literature review activities<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes<ref name=":12" />, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}</ref>. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are "on the rise" (2025), but not yet integrated into tested and validated methodologies<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}</ref>. Human validation stays notably necessary<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alshami|first=Ahmad|last2=Elsayed|first2=Moustafa|last3=Ali|first3=Eslam|last4=Eltoukhy|first4=Abdelrahman E. E.|last5=Zayed|first5=Tarek|date=2023-07-09|title=Harnessing the Power of ChatGPT for Automating Systematic Review Process: Methodology, Case Study, Limitations, and Future Directions|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/11/7/351|journal=Systems|language=en|volume=11|issue=7|pages=351|doi=10.3390/systems11070351|issn=2079-8954}}</ref>,<ref name=":13" />. While AI can appear as a solution for scaling literature reviews, we are in the present project exploring another possible scenario which is to use more crowdsourcing in the literature review process. === Wikimedia projects === Wikipedia is a successfull example of large-scaled crowdsourcing of reliable knowledge synthesis. That is why this project proposes to explore the potential of the Wikimedia ecosystem for conducting living reviews. Since Wikipedia does aim to host original research<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikipedia:No original research|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:No_original_research&oldid=1360514388|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>, we are working on two sister projects : Wikidata and Wikiversity. [[wikipedia:Wikidata|Wikidata]] is a "collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=April 26, 2013|title=Welcome to Wikidata! Now what?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|access-date=October 2, 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002152920/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|url-status=live}}</ref>"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikidata|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikidata&oldid=1360462340|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. "A [[wikidata:Q33002955|knowledge graph]] is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}</ref> A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}</ref> Such graphs have a strong potential to conduct knowledge synthesis<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Fotopoulou">{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.</ref><ref name=":18" />. They are especially usefull to build the ontologies (formal representations of concepts) that are necessary to organize and represent existing knowledge<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>. In complement to using Wikidata to model knowledge, we decided to use Wikiversity to report and write our research results. [[wikipedia:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] is another Wikimedia project hosting pedagogical content, original research, and even a publishing house ([[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]])<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Wikiversity|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity&oldid=1358552930|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. Wikiversity pages are editable by everyone, have a discussion tab and a history log tab. Our research question is : '''How can Wikimedia projects contribute to building a collaborative living review on just sustainability transition ?''' In this project, we aim to test 4 hypothesis : ●       '''Hypothesis 1:''' Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations. ●       '''Hypothesis 2:''' Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (e.g. conceptual typologies, cause-effect chains…). ●       '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs. ●       '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikimedia or Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data). We also have 2 assumptions : ●       '''Assumption 1:''' Wikimedia projects have to be integrated into validated scientific protocols in order to be a valuable research tool. ●       '''Assumption 2:''' Wikimedia project contribution has to be made interoperable with tools, methods and data types already used by researchers. == Methodology == Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, and other open-science infrastructures. The first step was to build and enrich the bibliographic metadata of the corpus of articles we selected in Wikidata. The second step was to model the content of the findings of these articles in Wikidata (e.g. causes-effects relationships...). The third step was to experiment relevant visualization of this content (e.g. causes-effects graphs). The las step was to write our report on aWikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, following a linked open data philosophy. == 1. Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata == The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''' (Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations), and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology. To build and enrich our academic corpus on Wikidata, we searched existing databases, selected the sample of articles we wanted to study, imported these articles metadata into Wikidata, enriched these metadata and finally reflected on the advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich academic corpus. === Database search === Doing a systematic review on all aspects of just transition would have resulted in too many articles to review. We thus decided to first explore one aspect of justice : procedural justice. Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions<ref name=":4" /> such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}</ref>. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures<ref name=":0" />. For our search, we selected keywords related to procedural justice (procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory) and keywords related to sustainability transition (sustainability OR energy OR climate) AND (transition OR transitions). We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Keywords search !Database !Search date !Filters !Number of results |- |(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) |Web of Science (all databases, all dates) |December 2025 |Document type: Review Article |362 |} === Article selection === Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were * Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...) * Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...) * Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions * Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy * Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973 === Importing selected articles into Wikidata === To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the "export to Wikidata QuickStatements" function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata. Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|"Merge" gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items. === Article classification through metadata enrichement === Metadatas are data describing other data. The metadata of academic items usually include title, author, publication outlet, publication date, pages, DOI, URL... and can be structured following specific standards (e.g. [[wikipedia:Dublin_Core|Dublin Core]]). In academic databases such as WOS or OpenAlex, the only metadata available regarding the content of an academic article are the abstract and sometimes keywords. However, researchers conducting literature reviews need more precise informations. An important part of literature review work can thus be about describing what the articles are about. For example, describing industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt)<ref name=":5" />. By metadata enrichment, we mean completing metadata to include additional information about the content of an academic piece. In Wikidata, each type of information is added using a specific property. A property is the edge that links two entities in the Wikidata knowledge graph. We selected three Wikidata properties to describe the content of our selected articles : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe the geographical scope of the study. We also worked on adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} ==== We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Main topic !Description |- |[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]] |acceptability |characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose |- |[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]] |accountability |concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making |- |[[d:Q421953|Q421953]] |actor–network theory |theory within social science |- |[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]] |affordability | |- |[[d:Q185836|Q185836]] |age of a person |time elapsed since a person was born |- |[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]] |animal studies |field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways |- |[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]] |awareness |state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns |- |[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]] |blue carbon |carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems |- |[[d:Q430460|Q430460]] |capability approach |economic theory |- |[[d:Q7569|Q7569]] |child |human between birth and puberty |- |[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]] |civic engagement |individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern |- |[[d:Q125928|Q125928]] |climate change |human-caused changes to climate on Earth |- |[[d:Q260607|Q260607]] |climate change adaptation |process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities |- |[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]] |climate justice |term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice |- |[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]] |co-creation |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]] |co-design |approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders |- |[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]] |coproduction |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q11024|Q11024]] |communication |act of conveying intended meaning |- |[[d:Q177634|Q177634]] |community |social unit of human organisms who share common values |- |[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]] |community choice aggregation |alternative energy supply system |- |[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]] |community energy |delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects |- |[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]] |community participation |The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community |- |[[d:Q188843|Q188843]] |cosmopolitanism |ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality |- |[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]] |decarbonization |change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions |- |[[d:Q284289|Q284289]] |deliberative democracy |form of democracy focusing on consensus |- |[[d:Q7174|Q7174]] |democracy |form of government |- |[[d:Q552284|Q552284]] |distributive justice |concept of the socially just allocation of goods |- |[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]] |diversity |concept in sociology and political studies |- |[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]] |ecological economics |research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems |- |[[d:Q8134|Q8134]] |economics |social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services |- |[[d:Q868575|Q868575]] |empowerment |providing increased autonomy |- |[[d:Q295865|Q295865]] |ecosystem service |benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems |- |[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]] |energy citizenship |involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions |- |[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&redirect=no Q131444737] |community energy |[redirection] |- |[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]] |energy consumption |amount of energy or power used |- |[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]] |senior |elderly person |- |[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]] |energy democracy |concept in environmental justice movement |- |[[d:Q192704|Q192704]] |energy efficiency |ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine |- |[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]] |energy modeling |process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them |- |[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]] |energy policy |policy addressing energy issues |- |[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]] |energy poverty |lack of access to modern energy services |- |[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]] |energy production |conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans |- |[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]] |energy justice |subconcept of economic equality |- |[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]] |energy renovation |building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used |- |[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]] |energy security |national security considerations of energy availability |- |[[d:Q837718|Q837718]] |energy storage |capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time |- |[[d:Q795757|Q795757]] |energy transition |long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems |- |[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]] |environmental justice |system of fairness |- |[[d:Q771773|Q771773]] |fairness |concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society |- |[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]] |farming system |method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics |- |[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]] |food system |all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population |- |[[d:Q4421|Q4421]] |forest |dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area |- |[[d:Q48277|Q48277]] |gender |social concept which distinguish the different gender categories |- |[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]] |governance |all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society |- |[[d:Q8458|Q8458]] |human rights |inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled |- |[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]] |human rights violation |act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights |- |[[d:Q103817|Q103817]] |indigenous people |first inhabitants of an area and their descendants |- |[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]] |indigenous science |indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method |- |[[d:Q770480|Q770480]] |injustice |quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes |- |[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]] |interactional justice |the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment |- |[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]] |intersectionnality |theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression |- |[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]] |just transition |Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy. |- |[[d:Q366139|Q366139]] |legitimation |the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group |- |[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]] |living lab |user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities |- |[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]] |low income |home with little money |- |[[d:Q43619|Q43619]] |natural environment |all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof |- |[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]] |nature-positive |global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030 |- |[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]] |non-human |organism not in the genus Homo |- |[[d:Q728646|Q728646]] |partnership |arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests |- |[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]] |policy making |the act of developing policy |- |[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]] |political theory |class of theory |- |[[d:Q265425|Q265425]] |postcolonialism |academic discipline |- |[[d:Q25107|Q25107]] |power |ability to influence the behavior of others |- |[[d:Q442100|Q442100]] |procedural justice |fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources |- |[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]] |project governance |management framework |- |[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]] |public engagement |Policy-making practice |- |[[d:Q541936|Q541936]] |public participation |participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes |- |[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]] |recognition justice |social philosophy theory |- |[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]] |renewable electricity |electricity from renweable sources |- |[[d:Q12705|Q12705]] |renewable energy |energy collected from renewable resources |- |[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]] |renewable energy policy | |- |[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]] |restorative justice |approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement |- |[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]] |rural population |inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural |- |[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]] |smart system |adaptive intelligent systems |- |[[d:Q187588|Q187588]] |social class |group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors |- |[[d:Q264892|Q264892]] |social justice |concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied |- |[[d:Q34749|Q34749]] |social science |academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society |- |[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]] |stakeholder participation |involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity |- |[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]] |sustainability transition | |- |[[d:Q219416|Q219416]] |sustainability |ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state |- |[[d:Q131201|Q131201]] |sustainable development |mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations |- |[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]] |Sustainable Development Goals |set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change |- |[[d:Q69883|Q69883]] |urban planning |technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment |- |[[d:Q920600|Q920600]] |urban renewal |program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay |- |[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]] |vulnerable population |group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent |- |[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]] |water-management | |- |[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]] |well-being |measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction |- |[[d:Q467|Q467]] |woman |female adult human |- |[[d:Q188867|Q188867]] |future studies |study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures |- |[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]] |participatory design |active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process |}Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} ==== Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&property=P279&mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved some of these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q101116078}} can have {{Wikidata entity link|Q653137}} as {{Wikidata entity link|P13391}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paré|first=Guy|last2=Trudel|first2=Marie-Claude|last3=Jaana|first3=Mirou|last4=Kitsiou|first4=Spyros|date=2015-03|title=Synthesizing information systems knowledge: A typology of literature reviews|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378720614001116|journal=Information & Management|language=en|volume=52|issue=2|pages=183–199|doi=10.1016/j.im.2014.08.008}}</ref>. The types of reviews were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Study type !Description |- |[[d:Q603441|Q603441]] |bibliometrics |statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles |- |[[d:Q472342|Q472342]] |scientometrics |study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation |- |[[d:Q815382|Q815382]] |meta-analysis |statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources |- |[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]] |systematic review |publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic |- |[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]] |literature review |process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic |- |[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]] |meta-regression |statistical tool used in meta-analyses |- |[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]] |realist evaluation |theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes |- |[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]] |combinatorial meta-analysis |study of the statistical properties of combinations of studies from a meta-analytic dataset |- |[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]] |network meta-analysis |meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions |- |[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]] |scoping review |search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |- |[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]] |conceptual review |academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature |- |[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]] |critical review |type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research |- |[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]] |integrative literature review |type of literature review |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |}For each article, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} ==== When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article "{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}" focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} ==== When scholarly metadata are imported into Wikidata, the name of authors are stored as a chain of characters and linked to the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2093}}. The property {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} allows to make a link with a Wikidata item representing the author. This avoids the problem of homonym authors by attributing a unique identifyer to authors in Wikidata and linking these identifiers to existing ones such as ORCID. We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages. === Advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich living academic corpus === To share the result of our work, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973. The data is also available directly in Wikidata. The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1'''(Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations)'''.''' ==== Advantages of Wikidata ==== Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative nature as well as its interoperability. Wikidata ontology (that is how the data are structured) is collaboratively defined and properties can be added if relevant (after validation by the community). Compared to global databases like WOS or OpenAlex, Wikidata allows to enter more detail about each academic articles and anyone can add data. Another notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, "energy transition" was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Contrary to institutional thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. The multilingual nature of Wikidata was also a strengh, some Wikidata contributors added labels for the concepts we used into different languages (For example, contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in Armenian and Slovenian, languages we do not speak at all). ==== Limitations of Wikidata ==== Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and does not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base, by taking notes and highlighting the content of the full texts. Wikidata is not connected to this process and there is a missing tool to facilitate the construction of graphs from the qualitative analysis of texts. In addition, when one is working on a specific corpus of item in Wikidata, it is also difficult to keep track of this corpus. We linked each academic item we were working on to our research project by adding a statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}, but it was still relatively difficult to "filter" the part of the knowledge graph we were working on. Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount o bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data congested queries on Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. ==== Future possbilities ==== A solution to the limitations would be to developp the links between Wikidata and other tools of the open science ecosystem. For example, developping and maintaining plugins or extensions for specialised softwares like Zotero, Wikibase, and Omeka could connect Wikidata with more specialised graphs. Such extensions could help building local graphs by allowing the reuse of wikidata item (eg. autocompletion), but also help contributing to Wikidata thanks to export features. Building corpus of more precise academic metadata on Wikidata could also ultimately improve the precision of catalogues such as OpenAlex. For example, Wikidata items could be used to tag articles in a more precise way instead of using keywords and crowdsourced corpus built in Wikidata could be used to train more precise taging algorythms. == 2.Modelling the content of litterature reviews == The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 2''' (Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference) by modelling the content of our selected articles into Wikidata. [[wikipedia:Knowledge_modeling|Knowledge modelling]] is the process of making a machine readable model of a knowledge. As we have a background in social sciences, we felt the need to question the relationship between this process and other methodologies such as concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks. === Concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks === ==== Concept maps ==== [[File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|thumb|Example conceptual diagram|251x251px]]Concept maps are ''concepts'' (boxes) and ''propositions'' (arrow indicating the relationship between two boxes)<ref name=":19">Cañas, Alberto J., et al. "CmapTools: A knowledge modeling and sharing environment." (2004): 125-135. https://thomaseskridge.com/assets/pdf/Canas-2004.pdf</ref>. Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}</ref>. They can be built using specialised softwares (e.g. [https://cmap.ihmc.us/ Cmap])<ref name=":19" />. The "box and arrow" logic is similar to how knowledge is modelled on Wikidata : the equivalent of concepts is ''item'' and the equivalent of propositions are ''statements''. The difference between a softwares like Cmap and Wikidata is the underlying format of the data. ==== Thematic networks ==== [[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|447x447px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: based on Attride-Stirling 2001)]] A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}</ref>. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}</ref>. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data<ref name=":7" />. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes. Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes. However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not always specified. [[File:Adoption_CLD.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adoption_CLD.svg|thumb|421x421px|Causal loop diagram of ''Adoption'' model, used to demonstrate systems dynamics]] ==== Causal diagrams ==== The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}</ref>. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about "[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}</ref> Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can "feedback" (two variables can influence each other)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}</ref>. === Knowledge modelling in Wikidata === ==== Conceptual modelling ==== We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to model concepts in Wikidata. Scholars in management have called for more rigorous ways to define concepts. Definitions encompass various aspects such as the nature of the phenomenon, its characteristics, the links with prototypical cases or examples, the contrast with other concepts, the links with causes and consequences...<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}</ref>, and scholars have advised to take insight from philosophy to work on concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}</ref>. We thus read work in cognitive science which was summarizing approaches coming from psychology and philsosophy attempting to determine the content of concepts<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}</ref>. We summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them. * Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}... * Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. (The closer a phenomenon is to the prototype, the more likely it belong to the category). Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} (see discussion here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties). * Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}, {{P|1478}}, {{P|P9353}} (see discussions here : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en). * Essence: the content of a concept is "something" deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what its properties will be. * Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}. ==== Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} ==== To test concept modelling, we started by experimenting by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic : * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} We read each paper and used them as source to manually enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, Droubi et. Al stated "Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as reference (see screenshot below). The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&oldid=2495982191. [[File:Wikidata statement- energy democracy is an instance of ideal.png|915x915px|border]] We listed the difficulties encountered as we worked and we also asked the Wikidata community to give us feedback on our modelling on the item discussion page (https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Talk:Q14944319). ===== Contradictions ===== Wikidata contributor's feedback highlighted some apparent contradictions (The values in "does not have effect" seems contrary to what is listed in "has goal".) We would however argue this is not a problem because "statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}</ref>. Wikidata essentially supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}</ref>. In the case of goals versus effects statements, the discrepancy between the goals of energy democracy and what it actually achieves is precisely what some authors are critiquing<ref name=":20" />. Recommandations : Contradictions are allowed in Wikidata. ===== Precision ===== We also received feedbacks regarding a lack of precision in our statements (too many and too vague statements). We indeed noted that conceptual modelling requires an important degree of formalization and precision. This is a key advantage of Wikidata to be able to create links toward precise concepts which have their own identifiers. For example, we were able to create statements about specific laws and their unique identifiers in legal databases (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}} and its identifier in the EUR-Lex database). However, the sources we are working with are not always precise enough and when concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence "management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}</ref>, "choice" could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}}... We can see here that academic texts are using natural language and thus are using ambiguous terms. However, another reason why we ended up with very general statements is because we avoided the creation of new Wikidata items, while this could help make the statements more precise. Recommandations : If a concept is ambiguous it should not be included in the modelled statements. Create more precise relevant concepts if they do not exist in Wikidata. ===== Concision ===== Wikidata contributor's feedback indicated a lack of concision. Some of it coming from the fact that some values were "in the tree of another value". The rule we take from this feeback is a need of logical simplification. Two examples illustrate possible logical simplification : * We stated that {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} was an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q33104069}} and an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}}. But in that case, it is not necessary to state that it is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}}, because {{Wikidata entity link|Q33104069}} is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q131362181}}, which is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}} (see diagram on the right). Here, we have to keep only the more precise item. This reasonning is based on the assumption that {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} is transitive. It seems this reasonning could be generalized could potentially be automatized in Wikidata through a complex property constraint (we made a proposition in this sense here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata:WikiProject_Reasoning/Use_cases#Parcimonious_statement_constraints_based_on_subclass_of_(P279)_and_part_of_(P361)_transitivity<nowiki/>) * We stated that {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}. But if we consider that {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} of {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}, then the inclusion of {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} is implied. Here we could keep only the broader item. But unlike the reasonning above, we could not identify a way to generalize this reasonning. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}} can be a subclass of {{Wikidata entity link|Q43229}}, but using the former item is more informative than using the later. For the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, using a value that is too precise results in too many statements and using a value that is too general results in too trivial statements. [[File:Wikidata visualisation screenshot of subclasses relationships including the item political concept.png|thumb|298x298px|Subclass relationships between "concept" and "political concept".]]Recommandations : When possible, use logical simplification to make statements more parcimonious. ===== Quantification ===== The paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that "9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources". Modelling this sentence by adding a statement in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q177323}} would require creating a specific property for final energy consumption. There are such properties of this type in Wikidata : for example, for renewable energy subsidies, there is {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}}. This type of property is notably useful to display information about an item on Wikipedia through infoboxes (e.g. the population of a town). But the current informal rule on Wikidata property creation is to prefer the use of general properties and avoid the creation of specific properties. Thus an alternative way to model quantity is to create a specific item to represent what is quantified and use other properties to represent quantities (see example below). [[File:Wikidata screenshot of percentage modelling.png|border|783x783px]] But since data are usually stored elsewhere in more convenient formats, it may not be always relevant to include quantitative data into Wikidata. Instead, it might be more useful to link the item that is quantified to an external dataset about it. This can be done using the property {{Wikidata entity link|P1325}}. Recommandation : Use existing properties for the quantity if it exists. If it does not exist, create an item representing what is measured, link it toward external datasets and add relevant quantitative statements. ===== Ontology ===== Ultimately, several of our difficulties were linked to some ontology challenges reflecting the complexity of the concept we were working on. According to the litterature, {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} refer to multiple entities. It represents a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome (we reflected this with multiple {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} statements). We encountered struggles to model differences between process versus outcomes, ideal versus reality, discourses versus practices and phenomenon versus theory. The wikidata community recommands having different items for ''process and outcome'' (criterion "{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}"). For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork). However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes which are are ongoing and evolving without a clear ending. In an attempt to separate ''ideal versus reality,'' we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes attempting to reach it. It was difficult to separate ''phenomenon versus theory.'' For example, modelling the idea that the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Our sources suggested that energy democracy discourses and practices may have different causes, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movments promoting it, but this was not a very precise way to model this idea. The conclusion of our first attempt is that trying to include the multiple "natures" of energy democracy into a single item is not satisfactory. Implementing the modelling recommandations we identified above may not be sufficient to build more parcimonious statements. Creating new items to reflect the different aspects of energy democracy may here be necessary. But how should we split the different natures of the concept ? Here the definition of an {{Wikidata entity link|Q324254}} (formal representation) in WIkidata quickly escalate into questionning {{Wikidata entity link|Q44325}} (metaphysical reflexion on the nature of things), and especially {{Wikidata entity link|Q1713511}} (the nature of the social world). Critical realists posits that different things have different ways of being (modes of reality). They propose to classify entities in four categories : material entities (that can exist independently of humans), conceptual entities (concepts, discourses, ideas, meaning…), artefactual entities (human-made and combining conceptual and material elements) and social entities (that depends on human activity to exist)<ref>Fleetwood, S. (2004). An ontology for organisation and management studies. ''Critical Realist Applications in Organisation and Management Studies'', 27–53.</ref>. A complex concept like {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is concerned with all these types of entities. The energy system include many material entities such as oil fields, the sun, seas, trees... and artefacts such as energy production unit, power lines, home appliances, trucks... (Including conceptual entities such as the name of these artefacts or the knowledge to make them function.). There are the social entities in which they are encompassed (the enregy sectors, energy businesses, energy policies...). There are conceptual entities like normative/political discourses discussing how these artefact and social system should work and there are conceptual entities in the academic sphere building theories about how all this works or should work. Wikidata "supports multiple coexisting classification" and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.<ref name=":8" /> Current Wikidata ontology is structured with dischotomies such as {{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q4406616}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1970309}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q16686448}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q23958946}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q103940464}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q3799040}}... But its {{Wikidata entity link|Q1713511}} is unclear. The table below shows the possible root class entity for a few social entities, it is clear they fall under various root distinctions and do not belong to a common class. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Item ! Existing root class entity |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q190539}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q16686448}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q34770}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q9081}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q43229}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q49773}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}} |} Our next step would thus be to create new items to reflect the different facets of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} : the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it, the concrete initiatives implementing it, the litterature theorizing it, etc... And make sure the {{Wikidata entity link|Q3882785}} for these various entities is consistent. To do so we will align with a relevant existing standard (we opened the discussion about social ontology with the wikidata community here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata_talk:WikiProject_Ontology#Social_ontology). == 3. Data visualisation == The goal of this step is to test '''Hypothesis 3''' (SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs). At this stage we started to identify visualization use cases we would like to test, they are listed below. === Filter statements === * Visualize only statements using a specitic source in order to map the content of a single academic article. First test here: https://w.wiki/PFqH * Visualize only items which are part of the present project (all the academic items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}). === Properties visualisation === * Visualise the "tree" of a property used in an item : Wikidata graph builder seem to be the most user friendly, robust and versatile tool to visualise a graph of a single property (https://angryloki.github.io) === Concepts visualisation === * Map all statements related to a single item (e.g. Scholia request "topic in context" : [https://query.wikidata.org/#%23%20tool%3A%20scholia%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20PREFIX%20target%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ14944319%3E%0A%23defaultView%3AGraph%0APREFIX%20wd%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wdt%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fprop%2Fdirect%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wikibase%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwikiba.se%2Fontology%23%3E%0APREFIX%20rdf%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F1999%2F02%2F22-rdf-syntax-ns%23%3E%0A%0ASELECT%20%3Fnode%20%3FnodeLabel%20%3FnodeImage%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeLabel%20%3FchildNodeImage%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fnode%20%3FchildNode%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28target%3A%20AS%20%3Fnode%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fp%20%3Fi%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3Fi%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FP%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20UNION%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fnode%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28%22EFFBD8%22%20AS%20%3Frgb%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20target%3A%20%3Fp%20%3FchildNode%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3Fnodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fnodeclaim%20%3FnodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20%3FchildNodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%7D Example with Energy democracy]) * Map the statements that two items have in common to make comparisons. === Mapping sources consensus === * Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight in order to make consensual statements more visible. == 4. Writing == The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 4''' (Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links). Writing on a Wikiversity page offers some advantages to implement the principles of open linked data in text format. We could cite academic items using their Wikidata QID to generate the citations below, and also link toward Wikidata entities using a template ([[Template:Wikidata entity link|Wikidata entity link]]). === The issue of text interoperability === A key issue we are encountering is the question of the interoperability of texts. While the interoperability of data is starting to be well discussed in the open science community, the interoperability of texts do not seem to benefit from the same level of discussion. We encountered several interoperability issues regarding our writing. First, copying texts written on a word processor software (e.g. microsoft word) into a wiki page (or the other way around) is relatively seamless in terms of formatting, except for the management of references. Reformatting references is very time consuming and a real barrier for text interoperability in academic context : it is difficult to copy text from an academic publication into a wiki text, and difficult to turn a wiki text into a publication. There are also uncertaineties regarding how to combine texts published under creative common licences. Academic texts published under CC-BY-SA licences can in theory be remixed and reused. But academia does not have established practices regarding how this can be done. If we want to reuse a whole page, should we put it in quotation marks and simply cite the paper ? Should the original authors be listed as co-authors ? Will academic publisher accept such new writing practices while they usually require that publications contain mainly unpublished content ? The norms of what is appropriate remix and reuse practices in academia has yet to be decided... and we invite the open science community to discuss this issue. == Future research == The analysis of knowledge graph could in theory allow to make logical deduction to generate new data<ref name=":9" />. Reflect on the future of scholarly communication : https://hal.science/hal-03277615/file/OPERAS_Future_of_Scholarly_Communication_06.2021.pdf === Wikidata for systematic categorizing === In management sciences « systematic categorizing is the best and perhaps only method for clearing up semantic confusion, management scholars never take the classical approaches to categorizing that facilitated tremendous progress in the physical sciences, and seldomly build on extant categorial schemes. »<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. == Funding == This project is funded by the [[m:Grants:Programs/Wikimedia_Research_&_Technology_Fund/Wikimedia_Research_Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]], Grant ID: G-RS-2504-18935. The text of the initial research proposal is available here : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20760603. == Data == {| class="wikitable sortable" ! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title |- | [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review |- | [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review |- | [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter? |- | [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset. |- | [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies? |- | [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection |- | [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development |- | [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research |- | [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition |- | [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning |- | [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view |- | [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory |- | [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries |- | [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies |- | [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes |- | [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation |- | [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives |- | [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies |- | [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice? |- | [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review |- | [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research |- | [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape |- | [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models |- | [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review |- | [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation |- | [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings |- | [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework |- | [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende |- | [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa |- | [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities |- | [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion |- | [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review |- | [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights |- | [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review |- | [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations |- | [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance |- | [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions |- | [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review |- | [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice |- | [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice |- | [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review |- | [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review |- | [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions |- | [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition |- | [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy |- | [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends |- | [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience |} == References == {{References}} snlam07194q0w4hhlyc4npk3cwoqc26 2817277 2817271 2026-06-29T16:28:06Z Jeanne Noiraud 1366702 /* 4. Writing*/ checking typos and adding issue of linking references to QID automatically 2817277 wikitext text/x-wiki == Acknowledgements == The present text was originally written on a Wikiversity page, if you are reading it in another format, you can find this page here : [[Just sustainability transitions: a living review|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review]]. You are free to add your comments on the page discussion section. === Contributors === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Affiliation !ORCID !Contribution |- |Adélie Ranville |IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208) |https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135 |Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling, article writing |- |Amélie E. Pereira |Laboratoire DICEN IDF | |Meta-data enrichement, article writing |- |Finn Nielsen |Technical University of Denmark |https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6128-3356 |Data visualisation |} Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review == Introduction == Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}</ref>. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}</ref>. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}</ref><ref>Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. </ref>. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination. === The problem of academic information overload === Global scientific output doubles every nine years<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}</ref>. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily. === The problem of knowledge synthesis === The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable<ref>{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}</ref> and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews that can be updated dynamically with new knowledge (examples : <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia. === The problem of scientific results dissemination === There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}</ref>. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}</ref> and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}</ref>. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}</ref>, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow<ref name=":10">Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., & Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. <nowiki>http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf</nowiki> </ref>. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap<ref name=":10" />. Because of gender segregation in disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}</ref>, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}</ref>, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]]. == Toward a living review on just sustainability transition == === Just sustainability transition === Just sustainability transition transition is "a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society"<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}</ref>. The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions<ref name=":0" />. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions<ref name=":0" />. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}</ref> and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. Developping living reviews seem particularly relevant for the just transition literature: first, modeling knowledge and building graphs allows to take into account the complexity of sustainability transitions which involve multiple levels of analysis<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> and fragmented results coming from various disciplines<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>. Then, making literature reviews "living" would allow researchers to be less subject to information overload through a more systematic accumulation of knowledge. Finally, conducting this review with an open science philosophy aswers the challenge of knowledge dissemination, which is crucial in a context of socio-ecological emergency when decision-makers need to rapidely access reliable information on possible sustainability transition trajectories. === Living reviews === The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked<ref name="Why1">{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}</ref>. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4">{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}</ref>. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" />. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":2">https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/</ref>. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research<ref name="Why1" /><ref name=":6" />, such as just transition. Literature review methods are currently evolving with new technological possibilities. Generative artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT are expected to have a strong influence on literature review activities<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes<ref name=":12" />, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}</ref>. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are "on the rise" (2025), but not yet integrated into tested and validated methodologies<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}</ref>. Human validation stays notably necessary<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alshami|first=Ahmad|last2=Elsayed|first2=Moustafa|last3=Ali|first3=Eslam|last4=Eltoukhy|first4=Abdelrahman E. E.|last5=Zayed|first5=Tarek|date=2023-07-09|title=Harnessing the Power of ChatGPT for Automating Systematic Review Process: Methodology, Case Study, Limitations, and Future Directions|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/11/7/351|journal=Systems|language=en|volume=11|issue=7|pages=351|doi=10.3390/systems11070351|issn=2079-8954}}</ref>,<ref name=":13" />. While AI can appear as a solution for scaling literature reviews, we are in the present project exploring another possible scenario which is to use more crowdsourcing in the literature review process. === Wikimedia projects === Wikipedia is a successfull example of large-scaled crowdsourcing of reliable knowledge synthesis. That is why this project proposes to explore the potential of the Wikimedia ecosystem for conducting living reviews. Since Wikipedia does aim to host original research<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikipedia:No original research|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:No_original_research&oldid=1360514388|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>, we are working on two sister projects : Wikidata and Wikiversity. [[wikipedia:Wikidata|Wikidata]] is a "collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=April 26, 2013|title=Welcome to Wikidata! Now what?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|access-date=October 2, 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002152920/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|url-status=live}}</ref>"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikidata|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikidata&oldid=1360462340|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. "A [[wikidata:Q33002955|knowledge graph]] is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}</ref> A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}</ref> Such graphs have a strong potential to conduct knowledge synthesis<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Fotopoulou">{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.</ref><ref name=":18" />. They are especially usefull to build the ontologies (formal representations of concepts) that are necessary to organize and represent existing knowledge<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>. In complement to using Wikidata to model knowledge, we decided to use Wikiversity to report and write our research results. [[wikipedia:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] is another Wikimedia project hosting pedagogical content, original research, and even a publishing house ([[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]])<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Wikiversity|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity&oldid=1358552930|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. Wikiversity pages are editable by everyone, have a discussion tab and a history log tab. Our research question is : '''How can Wikimedia projects contribute to building a collaborative living review on just sustainability transition ?''' In this project, we aim to test 4 hypothesis : ●       '''Hypothesis 1:''' Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations. ●       '''Hypothesis 2:''' Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (e.g. conceptual typologies, cause-effect chains…). ●       '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs. ●       '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikimedia or Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data). We also have 2 assumptions : ●       '''Assumption 1:''' Wikimedia projects have to be integrated into validated scientific protocols in order to be a valuable research tool. ●       '''Assumption 2:''' Wikimedia project contribution has to be made interoperable with tools, methods and data types already used by researchers. == Methodology == Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, and other open-science infrastructures. The first step was to build and enrich the bibliographic metadata of the corpus of articles we selected in Wikidata. The second step was to model the content of the findings of these articles in Wikidata (e.g. causes-effects relationships...). The third step was to experiment relevant visualization of this content (e.g. causes-effects graphs). The las step was to write our report on aWikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, following a linked open data philosophy. == 1. Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata == The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''' (Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations), and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology. To build and enrich our academic corpus on Wikidata, we searched existing databases, selected the sample of articles we wanted to study, imported these articles metadata into Wikidata, enriched these metadata and finally reflected on the advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich academic corpus. === Database search === Doing a systematic review on all aspects of just transition would have resulted in too many articles to review. We thus decided to first explore one aspect of justice : procedural justice. Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions<ref name=":4" /> such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}</ref>. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures<ref name=":0" />. For our search, we selected keywords related to procedural justice (procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory) and keywords related to sustainability transition (sustainability OR energy OR climate) AND (transition OR transitions). We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Keywords search !Database !Search date !Filters !Number of results |- |(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) |Web of Science (all databases, all dates) |December 2025 |Document type: Review Article |362 |} === Article selection === Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were * Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...) * Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...) * Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions * Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy * Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973 === Importing selected articles into Wikidata === To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the "export to Wikidata QuickStatements" function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata. Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|"Merge" gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items. === Article classification through metadata enrichement === Metadatas are data describing other data. The metadata of academic items usually include title, author, publication outlet, publication date, pages, DOI, URL... and can be structured following specific standards (e.g. [[wikipedia:Dublin_Core|Dublin Core]]). In academic databases such as WOS or OpenAlex, the only metadata available regarding the content of an academic article are the abstract and sometimes keywords. However, researchers conducting literature reviews need more precise informations. An important part of literature review work can thus be about describing what the articles are about. For example, describing industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt)<ref name=":5" />. By metadata enrichment, we mean completing metadata to include additional information about the content of an academic piece. In Wikidata, each type of information is added using a specific property. A property is the edge that links two entities in the Wikidata knowledge graph. We selected three Wikidata properties to describe the content of our selected articles : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe the geographical scope of the study. We also worked on adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} ==== We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Main topic !Description |- |[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]] |acceptability |characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose |- |[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]] |accountability |concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making |- |[[d:Q421953|Q421953]] |actor–network theory |theory within social science |- |[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]] |affordability | |- |[[d:Q185836|Q185836]] |age of a person |time elapsed since a person was born |- |[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]] |animal studies |field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways |- |[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]] |awareness |state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns |- |[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]] |blue carbon |carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems |- |[[d:Q430460|Q430460]] |capability approach |economic theory |- |[[d:Q7569|Q7569]] |child |human between birth and puberty |- |[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]] |civic engagement |individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern |- |[[d:Q125928|Q125928]] |climate change |human-caused changes to climate on Earth |- |[[d:Q260607|Q260607]] |climate change adaptation |process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities |- |[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]] |climate justice |term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice |- |[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]] |co-creation |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]] |co-design |approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders |- |[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]] |coproduction |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q11024|Q11024]] |communication |act of conveying intended meaning |- |[[d:Q177634|Q177634]] |community |social unit of human organisms who share common values |- |[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]] |community choice aggregation |alternative energy supply system |- |[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]] |community energy |delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects |- |[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]] |community participation |The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community |- |[[d:Q188843|Q188843]] |cosmopolitanism |ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality |- |[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]] |decarbonization |change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions |- |[[d:Q284289|Q284289]] |deliberative democracy |form of democracy focusing on consensus |- |[[d:Q7174|Q7174]] |democracy |form of government |- |[[d:Q552284|Q552284]] |distributive justice |concept of the socially just allocation of goods |- |[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]] |diversity |concept in sociology and political studies |- |[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]] |ecological economics |research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems |- |[[d:Q8134|Q8134]] |economics |social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services |- |[[d:Q868575|Q868575]] |empowerment |providing increased autonomy |- |[[d:Q295865|Q295865]] |ecosystem service |benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems |- |[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]] |energy citizenship |involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions |- |[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&redirect=no Q131444737] |community energy |[redirection] |- |[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]] |energy consumption |amount of energy or power used |- |[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]] |senior |elderly person |- |[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]] |energy democracy |concept in environmental justice movement |- |[[d:Q192704|Q192704]] |energy efficiency |ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine |- |[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]] |energy modeling |process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them |- |[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]] |energy policy |policy addressing energy issues |- |[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]] |energy poverty |lack of access to modern energy services |- |[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]] |energy production |conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans |- |[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]] |energy justice |subconcept of economic equality |- |[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]] |energy renovation |building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used |- |[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]] |energy security |national security considerations of energy availability |- |[[d:Q837718|Q837718]] |energy storage |capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time |- |[[d:Q795757|Q795757]] |energy transition |long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems |- |[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]] |environmental justice |system of fairness |- |[[d:Q771773|Q771773]] |fairness |concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society |- |[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]] |farming system |method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics |- |[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]] |food system |all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population |- |[[d:Q4421|Q4421]] |forest |dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area |- |[[d:Q48277|Q48277]] |gender |social concept which distinguish the different gender categories |- |[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]] |governance |all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society |- |[[d:Q8458|Q8458]] |human rights |inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled |- |[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]] |human rights violation |act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights |- |[[d:Q103817|Q103817]] |indigenous people |first inhabitants of an area and their descendants |- |[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]] |indigenous science |indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method |- |[[d:Q770480|Q770480]] |injustice |quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes |- |[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]] |interactional justice |the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment |- |[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]] |intersectionnality |theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression |- |[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]] |just transition |Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy. |- |[[d:Q366139|Q366139]] |legitimation |the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group |- |[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]] |living lab |user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities |- |[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]] |low income |home with little money |- |[[d:Q43619|Q43619]] |natural environment |all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof |- |[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]] |nature-positive |global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030 |- |[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]] |non-human |organism not in the genus Homo |- |[[d:Q728646|Q728646]] |partnership |arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests |- |[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]] |policy making |the act of developing policy |- |[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]] |political theory |class of theory |- |[[d:Q265425|Q265425]] |postcolonialism |academic discipline |- |[[d:Q25107|Q25107]] |power |ability to influence the behavior of others |- |[[d:Q442100|Q442100]] |procedural justice |fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources |- |[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]] |project governance |management framework |- |[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]] |public engagement |Policy-making practice |- |[[d:Q541936|Q541936]] |public participation |participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes |- |[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]] |recognition justice |social philosophy theory |- |[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]] |renewable electricity |electricity from renweable sources |- |[[d:Q12705|Q12705]] |renewable energy |energy collected from renewable resources |- |[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]] |renewable energy policy | |- |[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]] |restorative justice |approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement |- |[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]] |rural population |inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural |- |[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]] |smart system |adaptive intelligent systems |- |[[d:Q187588|Q187588]] |social class |group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors |- |[[d:Q264892|Q264892]] |social justice |concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied |- |[[d:Q34749|Q34749]] |social science |academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society |- |[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]] |stakeholder participation |involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity |- |[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]] |sustainability transition | |- |[[d:Q219416|Q219416]] |sustainability |ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state |- |[[d:Q131201|Q131201]] |sustainable development |mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations |- |[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]] |Sustainable Development Goals |set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change |- |[[d:Q69883|Q69883]] |urban planning |technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment |- |[[d:Q920600|Q920600]] |urban renewal |program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay |- |[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]] |vulnerable population |group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent |- |[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]] |water-management | |- |[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]] |well-being |measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction |- |[[d:Q467|Q467]] |woman |female adult human |- |[[d:Q188867|Q188867]] |future studies |study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures |- |[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]] |participatory design |active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process |}Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} ==== Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&property=P279&mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved some of these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q101116078}} can have {{Wikidata entity link|Q653137}} as {{Wikidata entity link|P13391}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paré|first=Guy|last2=Trudel|first2=Marie-Claude|last3=Jaana|first3=Mirou|last4=Kitsiou|first4=Spyros|date=2015-03|title=Synthesizing information systems knowledge: A typology of literature reviews|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378720614001116|journal=Information & Management|language=en|volume=52|issue=2|pages=183–199|doi=10.1016/j.im.2014.08.008}}</ref>. The types of reviews were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Study type !Description |- |[[d:Q603441|Q603441]] |bibliometrics |statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles |- |[[d:Q472342|Q472342]] |scientometrics |study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation |- |[[d:Q815382|Q815382]] |meta-analysis |statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources |- |[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]] |systematic review |publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic |- |[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]] |literature review |process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic |- |[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]] |meta-regression |statistical tool used in meta-analyses |- |[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]] |realist evaluation |theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes |- |[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]] |combinatorial meta-analysis |study of the statistical properties of combinations of studies from a meta-analytic dataset |- |[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]] |network meta-analysis |meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions |- |[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]] |scoping review |search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |- |[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]] |conceptual review |academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature |- |[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]] |critical review |type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research |- |[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]] |integrative literature review |type of literature review |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |}For each article, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} ==== When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article "{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}" focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} ==== When scholarly metadata are imported into Wikidata, the name of authors are stored as a chain of characters and linked to the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2093}}. The property {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} allows to make a link with a Wikidata item representing the author. This avoids the problem of homonym authors by attributing a unique identifyer to authors in Wikidata and linking these identifiers to existing ones such as ORCID. We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages. === Advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich living academic corpus === To share the result of our work, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973. The data is also available directly in Wikidata. The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1'''(Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations)'''.''' ==== Advantages of Wikidata ==== Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative nature as well as its interoperability. Wikidata ontology (that is how the data are structured) is collaboratively defined and properties can be added if relevant (after validation by the community). Compared to global databases like WOS or OpenAlex, Wikidata allows to enter more detail about each academic articles and anyone can add data. Another notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, "energy transition" was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Contrary to institutional thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. The multilingual nature of Wikidata was also a strengh, some Wikidata contributors added labels for the concepts we used into different languages (For example, contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in Armenian and Slovenian, languages we do not speak at all). ==== Limitations of Wikidata ==== Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and does not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base, by taking notes and highlighting the content of the full texts. Wikidata is not connected to this process and there is a missing tool to facilitate the construction of graphs from the qualitative analysis of texts. In addition, when one is working on a specific corpus of item in Wikidata, it is also difficult to keep track of this corpus. We linked each academic item we were working on to our research project by adding a statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}, but it was still relatively difficult to "filter" the part of the knowledge graph we were working on. Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount o bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data congested queries on Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. ==== Future possbilities ==== A solution to the limitations would be to developp the links between Wikidata and other tools of the open science ecosystem. For example, developping and maintaining plugins or extensions for specialised softwares like Zotero, Wikibase, and Omeka could connect Wikidata with more specialised graphs. Such extensions could help building local graphs by allowing the reuse of wikidata item (eg. autocompletion), but also help contributing to Wikidata thanks to export features. Building corpus of more precise academic metadata on Wikidata could also ultimately improve the precision of catalogues such as OpenAlex. For example, Wikidata items could be used to tag articles in a more precise way instead of using keywords and crowdsourced corpus built in Wikidata could be used to train more precise taging algorythms. == 2.Modelling the content of litterature reviews == The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 2''' (Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference) by modelling the content of our selected articles into Wikidata. [[wikipedia:Knowledge_modeling|Knowledge modelling]] is the process of making a machine readable model of a knowledge. As we have a background in social sciences, we felt the need to question the relationship between this process and other methodologies such as concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks. === Concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks === ==== Concept maps ==== [[File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|thumb|Example conceptual diagram|251x251px]]Concept maps are ''concepts'' (boxes) and ''propositions'' (arrow indicating the relationship between two boxes)<ref name=":19">Cañas, Alberto J., et al. "CmapTools: A knowledge modeling and sharing environment." (2004): 125-135. https://thomaseskridge.com/assets/pdf/Canas-2004.pdf</ref>. Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}</ref>. They can be built using specialised softwares (e.g. [https://cmap.ihmc.us/ Cmap])<ref name=":19" />. The "box and arrow" logic is similar to how knowledge is modelled on Wikidata : the equivalent of concepts is ''item'' and the equivalent of propositions are ''statements''. The difference between a softwares like Cmap and Wikidata is the underlying format of the data. ==== Thematic networks ==== [[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|447x447px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: based on Attride-Stirling 2001)]] A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}</ref>. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}</ref>. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data<ref name=":7" />. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes. Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes. However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not always specified. [[File:Adoption_CLD.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adoption_CLD.svg|thumb|421x421px|Causal loop diagram of ''Adoption'' model, used to demonstrate systems dynamics]] ==== Causal diagrams ==== The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}</ref>. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about "[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}</ref> Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can "feedback" (two variables can influence each other)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}</ref>. === Knowledge modelling in Wikidata === ==== Conceptual modelling ==== We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to model concepts in Wikidata. Scholars in management have called for more rigorous ways to define concepts. Definitions encompass various aspects such as the nature of the phenomenon, its characteristics, the links with prototypical cases or examples, the contrast with other concepts, the links with causes and consequences...<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}</ref>, and scholars have advised to take insight from philosophy to work on concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}</ref>. We thus read work in cognitive science which was summarizing approaches coming from psychology and philsosophy attempting to determine the content of concepts<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}</ref>. We summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them. * Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}... * Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. (The closer a phenomenon is to the prototype, the more likely it belong to the category). Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} (see discussion here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties). * Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}, {{P|1478}}, {{P|P9353}} (see discussions here : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en). * Essence: the content of a concept is "something" deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what its properties will be. * Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}. ==== Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} ==== To test concept modelling, we started by experimenting by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic : * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} We read each paper and used them as source to manually enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, Droubi et. Al stated "Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as reference (see screenshot below). The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&oldid=2495982191. [[File:Wikidata statement- energy democracy is an instance of ideal.png|915x915px|border]] We listed the difficulties encountered as we worked and we also asked the Wikidata community to give us feedback on our modelling on the item discussion page (https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Talk:Q14944319). ===== Contradictions ===== Wikidata contributor's feedback highlighted some apparent contradictions (The values in "does not have effect" seems contrary to what is listed in "has goal".) We would however argue this is not a problem because "statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}</ref>. Wikidata essentially supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}</ref>. In the case of goals versus effects statements, the discrepancy between the goals of energy democracy and what it actually achieves is precisely what some authors are critiquing<ref name=":20" />. Recommandations : Contradictions are allowed in Wikidata. ===== Precision ===== We also received feedbacks regarding a lack of precision in our statements (too many and too vague statements). We indeed noted that conceptual modelling requires an important degree of formalization and precision. This is a key advantage of Wikidata to be able to create links toward precise concepts which have their own identifiers. For example, we were able to create statements about specific laws and their unique identifiers in legal databases (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}} and its identifier in the EUR-Lex database). However, the sources we are working with are not always precise enough and when concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence "management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}</ref>, "choice" could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}}... We can see here that academic texts are using natural language and thus are using ambiguous terms. However, another reason why we ended up with very general statements is because we avoided the creation of new Wikidata items, while this could help make the statements more precise. Recommandations : If a concept is ambiguous it should not be included in the modelled statements. Create more precise relevant concepts if they do not exist in Wikidata. ===== Concision ===== Wikidata contributor's feedback indicated a lack of concision. Some of it coming from the fact that some values were "in the tree of another value". The rule we take from this feeback is a need of logical simplification. Two examples illustrate possible logical simplification : * We stated that {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} was an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q33104069}} and an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}}. But in that case, it is not necessary to state that it is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}}, because {{Wikidata entity link|Q33104069}} is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q131362181}}, which is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}} (see diagram on the right). Here, we have to keep only the more precise item. This reasonning is based on the assumption that {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} is transitive. It seems this reasonning could be generalized could potentially be automatized in Wikidata through a complex property constraint (we made a proposition in this sense here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata:WikiProject_Reasoning/Use_cases#Parcimonious_statement_constraints_based_on_subclass_of_(P279)_and_part_of_(P361)_transitivity<nowiki/>) * We stated that {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}. But if we consider that {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} of {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}, then the inclusion of {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} is implied. Here we could keep only the broader item. But unlike the reasonning above, we could not identify a way to generalize this reasonning. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}} can be a subclass of {{Wikidata entity link|Q43229}}, but using the former item is more informative than using the later. For the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, using a value that is too precise results in too many statements and using a value that is too general results in too trivial statements. [[File:Wikidata visualisation screenshot of subclasses relationships including the item political concept.png|thumb|298x298px|Subclass relationships between "concept" and "political concept".]]Recommandations : When possible, use logical simplification to make statements more parcimonious. ===== Quantification ===== The paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that "9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources". Modelling this sentence by adding a statement in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q177323}} would require creating a specific property for final energy consumption. There are such properties of this type in Wikidata : for example, for renewable energy subsidies, there is {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}}. This type of property is notably useful to display information about an item on Wikipedia through infoboxes (e.g. the population of a town). But the current informal rule on Wikidata property creation is to prefer the use of general properties and avoid the creation of specific properties. Thus an alternative way to model quantity is to create a specific item to represent what is quantified and use other properties to represent quantities (see example below). [[File:Wikidata screenshot of percentage modelling.png|border|783x783px]] But since data are usually stored elsewhere in more convenient formats, it may not be always relevant to include quantitative data into Wikidata. Instead, it might be more useful to link the item that is quantified to an external dataset about it. This can be done using the property {{Wikidata entity link|P1325}}. Recommandation : Use existing properties for the quantity if it exists. If it does not exist, create an item representing what is measured, link it toward external datasets and add relevant quantitative statements. ===== Ontology ===== Ultimately, several of our difficulties were linked to some ontology challenges reflecting the complexity of the concept we were working on. According to the litterature, {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} refer to multiple entities. It represents a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome (we reflected this with multiple {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} statements). We encountered struggles to model differences between process versus outcomes, ideal versus reality, discourses versus practices and phenomenon versus theory. The wikidata community recommands having different items for ''process and outcome'' (criterion "{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}"). For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork). However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes which are are ongoing and evolving without a clear ending. In an attempt to separate ''ideal versus reality,'' we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes attempting to reach it. It was difficult to separate ''phenomenon versus theory.'' For example, modelling the idea that the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Our sources suggested that energy democracy discourses and practices may have different causes, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movments promoting it, but this was not a very precise way to model this idea. The conclusion of our first attempt is that trying to include the multiple "natures" of energy democracy into a single item is not satisfactory. Implementing the modelling recommandations we identified above may not be sufficient to build more parcimonious statements. Creating new items to reflect the different aspects of energy democracy may here be necessary. But how should we split the different natures of the concept ? Here the definition of an {{Wikidata entity link|Q324254}} (formal representation) in WIkidata quickly escalate into questionning {{Wikidata entity link|Q44325}} (metaphysical reflexion on the nature of things), and especially {{Wikidata entity link|Q1713511}} (the nature of the social world). Critical realists posits that different things have different ways of being (modes of reality). They propose to classify entities in four categories : material entities (that can exist independently of humans), conceptual entities (concepts, discourses, ideas, meaning…), artefactual entities (human-made and combining conceptual and material elements) and social entities (that depends on human activity to exist)<ref>Fleetwood, S. (2004). An ontology for organisation and management studies. ''Critical Realist Applications in Organisation and Management Studies'', 27–53.</ref>. A complex concept like {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is concerned with all these types of entities. The energy system include many material entities such as oil fields, the sun, seas, trees... and artefacts such as energy production unit, power lines, home appliances, trucks... (Including conceptual entities such as the name of these artefacts or the knowledge to make them function.). There are the social entities in which they are encompassed (the enregy sectors, energy businesses, energy policies...). There are conceptual entities like normative/political discourses discussing how these artefact and social system should work and there are conceptual entities in the academic sphere building theories about how all this works or should work. Wikidata "supports multiple coexisting classification" and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.<ref name=":8" /> Current Wikidata ontology is structured with dischotomies such as {{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q4406616}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1970309}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q16686448}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q23958946}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q103940464}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q3799040}}... But its {{Wikidata entity link|Q1713511}} is unclear. The table below shows the possible root class entity for a few social entities, it is clear they fall under various root distinctions and do not belong to a common class. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Item ! Existing root class entity |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q190539}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q16686448}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q34770}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q9081}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q43229}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q49773}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}} |} Our next step would thus be to create new items to reflect the different facets of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} : the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it, the concrete initiatives implementing it, the litterature theorizing it, etc... And make sure the {{Wikidata entity link|Q3882785}} for these various entities is consistent. To do so we will align with a relevant existing standard (we opened the discussion about social ontology with the wikidata community here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata_talk:WikiProject_Ontology#Social_ontology). == 3. Data visualisation == The goal of this step is to test '''Hypothesis 3''' (SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs). At this stage we started to identify visualization use cases we would like to test, they are listed below. === Filter statements === * Visualize only statements using a specitic source in order to map the content of a single academic article. First test here: https://w.wiki/PFqH * Visualize only items which are part of the present project (all the academic items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}). === Properties visualisation === * Visualise the "tree" of a property used in an item : Wikidata graph builder seem to be the most user friendly, robust and versatile tool to visualise a graph of a single property (https://angryloki.github.io) === Concepts visualisation === * Map all statements related to a single item (e.g. Scholia request "topic in context" : [https://query.wikidata.org/#%23%20tool%3A%20scholia%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20PREFIX%20target%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ14944319%3E%0A%23defaultView%3AGraph%0APREFIX%20wd%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wdt%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fprop%2Fdirect%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wikibase%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwikiba.se%2Fontology%23%3E%0APREFIX%20rdf%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F1999%2F02%2F22-rdf-syntax-ns%23%3E%0A%0ASELECT%20%3Fnode%20%3FnodeLabel%20%3FnodeImage%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeLabel%20%3FchildNodeImage%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fnode%20%3FchildNode%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28target%3A%20AS%20%3Fnode%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fp%20%3Fi%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3Fi%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FP%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20UNION%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fnode%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28%22EFFBD8%22%20AS%20%3Frgb%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20target%3A%20%3Fp%20%3FchildNode%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3Fnodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fnodeclaim%20%3FnodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20%3FchildNodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%7D Example with Energy democracy]) * Map the statements that two items have in common to make comparisons. === Mapping sources consensus === * Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight in order to make consensual statements more visible. == 4. Writing == The goal of this step is to test '''Hypothesis 4''' (Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links). Writing on a Wikiversity page offers some advantages to implement the principles of open linked data in text format. We could cite academic items using their Wikidata QID to generate the citations below (but if we use an URL to cite a paper, it does not automatically check if there is an existing QID for it), and also link toward Wikidata entities using a template ([[Template:Wikidata entity link|Wikidata entity link]]). === The issue of text interoperability === A key issue we are encountering is the question of the interoperability of texts. While the interoperability of data is starting to be well discussed in the open science community, the interoperability of texts do not seem to benefit from the same level of discussion. We encountered several interoperability issues regarding our writing. First, copying texts written on a word processor software (e.g. microsoft word) into a wiki page (or the other way around) is relatively seamless in terms of formatting, except for the management of references. Reformatting references is very time consuming and a real barrier for text interoperability in academic context : it is difficult to copy text from an academic publication into a wiki text, and difficult to turn a wiki text into a publication. There are also uncertaineties regarding how to reuse texts published under creative common licences. Academic texts published under CC-BY-SA licences can in theory be remixed and reused. But academia does not have established practices regarding how this can be done. If we want to reuse a whole page, should we put it in quotation marks and simply cite the paper ? Should the original authors be listed as co-authors ? Will academic publisher accept such new writing practices while they usually require that publications contain mainly unpublished content ? The norms of what is appropriate remix and reuse practices in academia has yet to be decided... and we invite the open science community to discuss this issue. == Future research == The analysis of knowledge graph could in theory allow to make logical deduction to generate new data<ref name=":9" />. Reflect on the future of scholarly communication : https://hal.science/hal-03277615/file/OPERAS_Future_of_Scholarly_Communication_06.2021.pdf === Wikidata for systematic categorizing === In management sciences « systematic categorizing is the best and perhaps only method for clearing up semantic confusion, management scholars never take the classical approaches to categorizing that facilitated tremendous progress in the physical sciences, and seldomly build on extant categorial schemes. »<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. == Funding == This project is funded by the [[m:Grants:Programs/Wikimedia_Research_&_Technology_Fund/Wikimedia_Research_Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]], Grant ID: G-RS-2504-18935. The text of the initial research proposal is available here : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20760603. == Data == {| class="wikitable sortable" ! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title |- | [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review |- | [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review |- | [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter? |- | [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset. |- | [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies? |- | [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection |- | [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development |- | [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research |- | [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition |- | [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning |- | [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view |- | [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory |- | [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries |- | [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies |- | [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes |- | [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation |- | [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives |- | [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies |- | [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice? |- | [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review |- | [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research |- | [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape |- | [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models |- | [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review |- | [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation |- | [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings |- | [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework |- | [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende |- | [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa |- | [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities |- | [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion |- | [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review |- | [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights |- | [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review |- | [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations |- | [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance |- | [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions |- | [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review |- | [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice |- | [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice |- | [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review |- | [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review |- | [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions |- | [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition |- | [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy |- | [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends |- | [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience |} == References == {{References}} 3dp4idim6ojctifthz0tqizwfdgh453 2817293 2817277 2026-06-29T16:43:12Z Jeanne Noiraud 1366702 /* Future research */ renaming the section into "discussion", adding information into section 4. Writing 2817293 wikitext text/x-wiki == Acknowledgements == The present text was originally written on a Wikiversity page, if you are reading it in another format, you can find this page here : [[Just sustainability transitions: a living review|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review]]. You are free to add your comments on the page discussion section. === Contributors === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Affiliation !ORCID !Contribution |- |Adélie Ranville |IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208) |https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135 |Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling, article writing |- |Amélie E. Pereira |Laboratoire DICEN IDF | |Meta-data enrichement, article writing |- |Finn Nielsen |Technical University of Denmark |https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6128-3356 |Data visualisation |} Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review == Introduction == Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}</ref>. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}</ref>. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}</ref><ref>Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. </ref>. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination. === The problem of academic information overload === Global scientific output doubles every nine years<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}</ref>. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily. === The problem of knowledge synthesis === The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable<ref>{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}</ref> and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews that can be updated dynamically with new knowledge (examples : <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia. === The problem of scientific results dissemination === There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}</ref>. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}</ref> and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}</ref>. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}</ref>, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow<ref name=":10">Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., & Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. <nowiki>http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf</nowiki> </ref>. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap<ref name=":10" />. Because of gender segregation in disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}</ref>, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}</ref>, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]]. == Toward a living review on just sustainability transition == === Just sustainability transition === Just sustainability transition transition is "a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society"<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}</ref>. The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions<ref name=":0" />. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions<ref name=":0" />. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}</ref> and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. Developping living reviews seem particularly relevant for the just transition literature: first, modeling knowledge and building graphs allows to take into account the complexity of sustainability transitions which involve multiple levels of analysis<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> and fragmented results coming from various disciplines<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>. Then, making literature reviews "living" would allow researchers to be less subject to information overload through a more systematic accumulation of knowledge. Finally, conducting this review with an open science philosophy aswers the challenge of knowledge dissemination, which is crucial in a context of socio-ecological emergency when decision-makers need to rapidely access reliable information on possible sustainability transition trajectories. === Living reviews === The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked<ref name="Why1">{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}</ref>. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4">{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}</ref>. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" />. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":2">https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/</ref>. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research<ref name="Why1" /><ref name=":6" />, such as just transition. Literature review methods are currently evolving with new technological possibilities. Generative artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT are expected to have a strong influence on literature review activities<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes<ref name=":12" />, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}</ref>. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are "on the rise" (2025), but not yet integrated into tested and validated methodologies<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}</ref>. Human validation stays notably necessary<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alshami|first=Ahmad|last2=Elsayed|first2=Moustafa|last3=Ali|first3=Eslam|last4=Eltoukhy|first4=Abdelrahman E. E.|last5=Zayed|first5=Tarek|date=2023-07-09|title=Harnessing the Power of ChatGPT for Automating Systematic Review Process: Methodology, Case Study, Limitations, and Future Directions|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/11/7/351|journal=Systems|language=en|volume=11|issue=7|pages=351|doi=10.3390/systems11070351|issn=2079-8954}}</ref>,<ref name=":13" />. While AI can appear as a solution for scaling literature reviews, we are in the present project exploring another possible scenario which is to use more crowdsourcing in the literature review process. === Wikimedia projects === Wikipedia is a successfull example of large-scaled crowdsourcing of reliable knowledge synthesis. That is why this project proposes to explore the potential of the Wikimedia ecosystem for conducting living reviews. Since Wikipedia does aim to host original research<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikipedia:No original research|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:No_original_research&oldid=1360514388|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>, we are working on two sister projects : Wikidata and Wikiversity. [[wikipedia:Wikidata|Wikidata]] is a "collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=April 26, 2013|title=Welcome to Wikidata! Now what?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|access-date=October 2, 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002152920/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|url-status=live}}</ref>"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikidata|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikidata&oldid=1360462340|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. "A [[wikidata:Q33002955|knowledge graph]] is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}</ref> A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}</ref> Such graphs have a strong potential to conduct knowledge synthesis<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Fotopoulou">{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.</ref><ref name=":18" />. They are especially usefull to build the ontologies (formal representations of concepts) that are necessary to organize and represent existing knowledge<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>. In complement to using Wikidata to model knowledge, we decided to use Wikiversity to report and write our research results. [[wikipedia:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] is another Wikimedia project hosting pedagogical content, original research, and even a publishing house ([[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]])<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Wikiversity|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity&oldid=1358552930|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. Wikiversity pages are editable by everyone, have a discussion tab and a history log tab. Our research question is : '''How can Wikimedia projects contribute to building a collaborative living review on just sustainability transition ?''' In this project, we aim to test 4 hypothesis : ●       '''Hypothesis 1:''' Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations. ●       '''Hypothesis 2:''' Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (e.g. conceptual typologies, cause-effect chains…). ●       '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs. ●       '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikimedia or Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data). We also have 2 assumptions : ●       '''Assumption 1:''' Wikimedia projects have to be integrated into validated scientific protocols in order to be a valuable research tool. ●       '''Assumption 2:''' Wikimedia project contribution has to be made interoperable with tools, methods and data types already used by researchers. == Methodology == Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, and other open-science infrastructures. The first step was to build and enrich the bibliographic metadata of the corpus of articles we selected in Wikidata. The second step was to model the content of the findings of these articles in Wikidata (e.g. causes-effects relationships...). The third step was to experiment relevant visualization of this content (e.g. causes-effects graphs). The las step was to write our report on aWikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, following a linked open data philosophy. == 1. Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata == The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''' (Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations), and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology. To build and enrich our academic corpus on Wikidata, we searched existing databases, selected the sample of articles we wanted to study, imported these articles metadata into Wikidata, enriched these metadata and finally reflected on the advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich academic corpus. === Database search === Doing a systematic review on all aspects of just transition would have resulted in too many articles to review. We thus decided to first explore one aspect of justice : procedural justice. Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions<ref name=":4" /> such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}</ref>. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures<ref name=":0" />. For our search, we selected keywords related to procedural justice (procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory) and keywords related to sustainability transition (sustainability OR energy OR climate) AND (transition OR transitions). We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Keywords search !Database !Search date !Filters !Number of results |- |(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) |Web of Science (all databases, all dates) |December 2025 |Document type: Review Article |362 |} === Article selection === Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were * Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...) * Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...) * Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions * Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy * Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973 === Importing selected articles into Wikidata === To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the "export to Wikidata QuickStatements" function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata. Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|"Merge" gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items. === Article classification through metadata enrichement === Metadatas are data describing other data. The metadata of academic items usually include title, author, publication outlet, publication date, pages, DOI, URL... and can be structured following specific standards (e.g. [[wikipedia:Dublin_Core|Dublin Core]]). In academic databases such as WOS or OpenAlex, the only metadata available regarding the content of an academic article are the abstract and sometimes keywords. However, researchers conducting literature reviews need more precise informations. An important part of literature review work can thus be about describing what the articles are about. For example, describing industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt)<ref name=":5" />. By metadata enrichment, we mean completing metadata to include additional information about the content of an academic piece. In Wikidata, each type of information is added using a specific property. A property is the edge that links two entities in the Wikidata knowledge graph. We selected three Wikidata properties to describe the content of our selected articles : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe the geographical scope of the study. We also worked on adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} ==== We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Main topic !Description |- |[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]] |acceptability |characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose |- |[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]] |accountability |concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making |- |[[d:Q421953|Q421953]] |actor–network theory |theory within social science |- |[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]] |affordability | |- |[[d:Q185836|Q185836]] |age of a person |time elapsed since a person was born |- |[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]] |animal studies |field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways |- |[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]] |awareness |state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns |- |[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]] |blue carbon |carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems |- |[[d:Q430460|Q430460]] |capability approach |economic theory |- |[[d:Q7569|Q7569]] |child |human between birth and puberty |- |[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]] |civic engagement |individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern |- |[[d:Q125928|Q125928]] |climate change |human-caused changes to climate on Earth |- |[[d:Q260607|Q260607]] |climate change adaptation |process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities |- |[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]] |climate justice |term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice |- |[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]] |co-creation |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]] |co-design |approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders |- |[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]] |coproduction |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q11024|Q11024]] |communication |act of conveying intended meaning |- |[[d:Q177634|Q177634]] |community |social unit of human organisms who share common values |- |[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]] |community choice aggregation |alternative energy supply system |- |[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]] |community energy |delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects |- |[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]] |community participation |The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community |- |[[d:Q188843|Q188843]] |cosmopolitanism |ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality |- |[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]] |decarbonization |change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions |- |[[d:Q284289|Q284289]] |deliberative democracy |form of democracy focusing on consensus |- |[[d:Q7174|Q7174]] |democracy |form of government |- |[[d:Q552284|Q552284]] |distributive justice |concept of the socially just allocation of goods |- |[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]] |diversity |concept in sociology and political studies |- |[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]] |ecological economics |research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems |- |[[d:Q8134|Q8134]] |economics |social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services |- |[[d:Q868575|Q868575]] |empowerment |providing increased autonomy |- |[[d:Q295865|Q295865]] |ecosystem service |benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems |- |[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]] |energy citizenship |involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions |- |[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&redirect=no Q131444737] |community energy |[redirection] |- |[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]] |energy consumption |amount of energy or power used |- |[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]] |senior |elderly person |- |[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]] |energy democracy |concept in environmental justice movement |- |[[d:Q192704|Q192704]] |energy efficiency |ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine |- |[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]] |energy modeling |process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them |- |[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]] |energy policy |policy addressing energy issues |- |[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]] |energy poverty |lack of access to modern energy services |- |[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]] |energy production |conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans |- |[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]] |energy justice |subconcept of economic equality |- |[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]] |energy renovation |building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used |- |[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]] |energy security |national security considerations of energy availability |- |[[d:Q837718|Q837718]] |energy storage |capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time |- |[[d:Q795757|Q795757]] |energy transition |long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems |- |[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]] |environmental justice |system of fairness |- |[[d:Q771773|Q771773]] |fairness |concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society |- |[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]] |farming system |method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics |- |[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]] |food system |all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population |- |[[d:Q4421|Q4421]] |forest |dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area |- |[[d:Q48277|Q48277]] |gender |social concept which distinguish the different gender categories |- |[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]] |governance |all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society |- |[[d:Q8458|Q8458]] |human rights |inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled |- |[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]] |human rights violation |act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights |- |[[d:Q103817|Q103817]] |indigenous people |first inhabitants of an area and their descendants |- |[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]] |indigenous science |indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method |- |[[d:Q770480|Q770480]] |injustice |quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes |- |[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]] |interactional justice |the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment |- |[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]] |intersectionnality |theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression |- |[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]] |just transition |Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy. |- |[[d:Q366139|Q366139]] |legitimation |the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group |- |[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]] |living lab |user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities |- |[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]] |low income |home with little money |- |[[d:Q43619|Q43619]] |natural environment |all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof |- |[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]] |nature-positive |global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030 |- |[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]] |non-human |organism not in the genus Homo |- |[[d:Q728646|Q728646]] |partnership |arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests |- |[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]] |policy making |the act of developing policy |- |[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]] |political theory |class of theory |- |[[d:Q265425|Q265425]] |postcolonialism |academic discipline |- |[[d:Q25107|Q25107]] |power |ability to influence the behavior of others |- |[[d:Q442100|Q442100]] |procedural justice |fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources |- |[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]] |project governance |management framework |- |[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]] |public engagement |Policy-making practice |- |[[d:Q541936|Q541936]] |public participation |participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes |- |[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]] |recognition justice |social philosophy theory |- |[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]] |renewable electricity |electricity from renweable sources |- |[[d:Q12705|Q12705]] |renewable energy |energy collected from renewable resources |- |[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]] |renewable energy policy | |- |[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]] |restorative justice |approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement |- |[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]] |rural population |inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural |- |[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]] |smart system |adaptive intelligent systems |- |[[d:Q187588|Q187588]] |social class |group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors |- |[[d:Q264892|Q264892]] |social justice |concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied |- |[[d:Q34749|Q34749]] |social science |academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society |- |[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]] |stakeholder participation |involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity |- |[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]] |sustainability transition | |- |[[d:Q219416|Q219416]] |sustainability |ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state |- |[[d:Q131201|Q131201]] |sustainable development |mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations |- |[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]] |Sustainable Development Goals |set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change |- |[[d:Q69883|Q69883]] |urban planning |technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment |- |[[d:Q920600|Q920600]] |urban renewal |program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay |- |[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]] |vulnerable population |group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent |- |[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]] |water-management | |- |[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]] |well-being |measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction |- |[[d:Q467|Q467]] |woman |female adult human |- |[[d:Q188867|Q188867]] |future studies |study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures |- |[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]] |participatory design |active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process |}Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} ==== Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&property=P279&mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved some of these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q101116078}} can have {{Wikidata entity link|Q653137}} as {{Wikidata entity link|P13391}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paré|first=Guy|last2=Trudel|first2=Marie-Claude|last3=Jaana|first3=Mirou|last4=Kitsiou|first4=Spyros|date=2015-03|title=Synthesizing information systems knowledge: A typology of literature reviews|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378720614001116|journal=Information & Management|language=en|volume=52|issue=2|pages=183–199|doi=10.1016/j.im.2014.08.008}}</ref>. The types of reviews were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Study type !Description |- |[[d:Q603441|Q603441]] |bibliometrics |statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles |- |[[d:Q472342|Q472342]] |scientometrics |study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation |- |[[d:Q815382|Q815382]] |meta-analysis |statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources |- |[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]] |systematic review |publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic |- |[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]] |literature review |process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic |- |[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]] |meta-regression |statistical tool used in meta-analyses |- |[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]] |realist evaluation |theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes |- |[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]] |combinatorial meta-analysis |study of the statistical properties of combinations of studies from a meta-analytic dataset |- |[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]] |network meta-analysis |meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions |- |[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]] |scoping review |search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |- |[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]] |conceptual review |academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature |- |[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]] |critical review |type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research |- |[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]] |integrative literature review |type of literature review |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |}For each article, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} ==== When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article "{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}" focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} ==== When scholarly metadata are imported into Wikidata, the name of authors are stored as a chain of characters and linked to the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2093}}. The property {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} allows to make a link with a Wikidata item representing the author. This avoids the problem of homonym authors by attributing a unique identifyer to authors in Wikidata and linking these identifiers to existing ones such as ORCID. We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages. === Advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich living academic corpus === To share the result of our work, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973. The data is also available directly in Wikidata. The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1'''(Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations)'''.''' ==== Advantages of Wikidata ==== Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative nature as well as its interoperability. Wikidata ontology (that is how the data are structured) is collaboratively defined and properties can be added if relevant (after validation by the community). Compared to global databases like WOS or OpenAlex, Wikidata allows to enter more detail about each academic articles and anyone can add data. Another notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, "energy transition" was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Contrary to institutional thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. The multilingual nature of Wikidata was also a strengh, some Wikidata contributors added labels for the concepts we used into different languages (For example, contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in Armenian and Slovenian, languages we do not speak at all). ==== Limitations of Wikidata ==== Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and does not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base, by taking notes and highlighting the content of the full texts. Wikidata is not connected to this process and there is a missing tool to facilitate the construction of graphs from the qualitative analysis of texts. In addition, when one is working on a specific corpus of item in Wikidata, it is also difficult to keep track of this corpus. We linked each academic item we were working on to our research project by adding a statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}, but it was still relatively difficult to "filter" the part of the knowledge graph we were working on. Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount o bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data congested queries on Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. ==== Future possbilities ==== A solution to the limitations would be to developp the links between Wikidata and other tools of the open science ecosystem. For example, developping and maintaining plugins or extensions for specialised softwares like Zotero, Wikibase, and Omeka could connect Wikidata with more specialised graphs. Such extensions could help building local graphs by allowing the reuse of wikidata item (eg. autocompletion), but also help contributing to Wikidata thanks to export features. Building corpus of more precise academic metadata on Wikidata could also ultimately improve the precision of catalogues such as OpenAlex. For example, Wikidata items could be used to tag articles in a more precise way instead of using keywords and crowdsourced corpus built in Wikidata could be used to train more precise taging algorythms. == 2.Modelling the content of litterature reviews == The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 2''' (Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference) by modelling the content of our selected articles into Wikidata. [[wikipedia:Knowledge_modeling|Knowledge modelling]] is the process of making a machine readable model of a knowledge. As we have a background in social sciences, we felt the need to question the relationship between this process and other methodologies such as concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks. === Concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks === ==== Concept maps ==== [[File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|thumb|Example conceptual diagram|251x251px]]Concept maps are ''concepts'' (boxes) and ''propositions'' (arrow indicating the relationship between two boxes)<ref name=":19">Cañas, Alberto J., et al. "CmapTools: A knowledge modeling and sharing environment." (2004): 125-135. https://thomaseskridge.com/assets/pdf/Canas-2004.pdf</ref>. Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}</ref>. They can be built using specialised softwares (e.g. [https://cmap.ihmc.us/ Cmap])<ref name=":19" />. The "box and arrow" logic is similar to how knowledge is modelled on Wikidata : the equivalent of concepts is ''item'' and the equivalent of propositions are ''statements''. The difference between a softwares like Cmap and Wikidata is the underlying format of the data. ==== Thematic networks ==== [[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|447x447px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: based on Attride-Stirling 2001)]] A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}</ref>. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}</ref>. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data<ref name=":7" />. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes. Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes. However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not always specified. [[File:Adoption_CLD.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adoption_CLD.svg|thumb|421x421px|Causal loop diagram of ''Adoption'' model, used to demonstrate systems dynamics]] ==== Causal diagrams ==== The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}</ref>. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about "[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}</ref> Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can "feedback" (two variables can influence each other)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}</ref>. === Knowledge modelling in Wikidata === ==== Conceptual modelling ==== We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to model concepts in Wikidata. Scholars in management have called for more rigorous ways to define concepts. Definitions encompass various aspects such as the nature of the phenomenon, its characteristics, the links with prototypical cases or examples, the contrast with other concepts, the links with causes and consequences...<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}</ref>, and scholars have advised to take insight from philosophy to work on concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}</ref>. We thus read work in cognitive science which was summarizing approaches coming from psychology and philsosophy attempting to determine the content of concepts<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}</ref>. We summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them. * Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}... * Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. (The closer a phenomenon is to the prototype, the more likely it belong to the category). Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} (see discussion here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties). * Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}, {{P|1478}}, {{P|P9353}} (see discussions here : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en). * Essence: the content of a concept is "something" deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what its properties will be. * Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}. ==== Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} ==== To test concept modelling, we started by experimenting by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic : * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} We read each paper and used them as source to manually enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, Droubi et. Al stated "Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as reference (see screenshot below). The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&oldid=2495982191. [[File:Wikidata statement- energy democracy is an instance of ideal.png|915x915px|border]] We listed the difficulties encountered as we worked and we also asked the Wikidata community to give us feedback on our modelling on the item discussion page (https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Talk:Q14944319). ===== Contradictions ===== Wikidata contributor's feedback highlighted some apparent contradictions (The values in "does not have effect" seems contrary to what is listed in "has goal".) We would however argue this is not a problem because "statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}</ref>. Wikidata essentially supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}</ref>. In the case of goals versus effects statements, the discrepancy between the goals of energy democracy and what it actually achieves is precisely what some authors are critiquing<ref name=":20" />. Recommandations : Contradictions are allowed in Wikidata. ===== Precision ===== We also received feedbacks regarding a lack of precision in our statements (too many and too vague statements). We indeed noted that conceptual modelling requires an important degree of formalization and precision. This is a key advantage of Wikidata to be able to create links toward precise concepts which have their own identifiers. For example, we were able to create statements about specific laws and their unique identifiers in legal databases (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}} and its identifier in the EUR-Lex database). However, the sources we are working with are not always precise enough and when concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence "management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}</ref>, "choice" could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}}... We can see here that academic texts are using natural language and thus are using ambiguous terms. However, another reason why we ended up with very general statements is because we avoided the creation of new Wikidata items, while this could help make the statements more precise. Recommandations : If a concept is ambiguous it should not be included in the modelled statements. Create more precise relevant concepts if they do not exist in Wikidata. ===== Concision ===== Wikidata contributor's feedback indicated a lack of concision. Some of it coming from the fact that some values were "in the tree of another value". The rule we take from this feeback is a need of logical simplification. Two examples illustrate possible logical simplification : * We stated that {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} was an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q33104069}} and an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}}. But in that case, it is not necessary to state that it is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}}, because {{Wikidata entity link|Q33104069}} is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q131362181}}, which is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}} (see diagram on the right). Here, we have to keep only the more precise item. This reasonning is based on the assumption that {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} is transitive. It seems this reasonning could be generalized could potentially be automatized in Wikidata through a complex property constraint (we made a proposition in this sense here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata:WikiProject_Reasoning/Use_cases#Parcimonious_statement_constraints_based_on_subclass_of_(P279)_and_part_of_(P361)_transitivity<nowiki/>) * We stated that {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}. But if we consider that {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} of {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}, then the inclusion of {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} is implied. Here we could keep only the broader item. But unlike the reasonning above, we could not identify a way to generalize this reasonning. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}} can be a subclass of {{Wikidata entity link|Q43229}}, but using the former item is more informative than using the later. For the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, using a value that is too precise results in too many statements and using a value that is too general results in too trivial statements. [[File:Wikidata visualisation screenshot of subclasses relationships including the item political concept.png|thumb|298x298px|Subclass relationships between "concept" and "political concept".]]Recommandations : When possible, use logical simplification to make statements more parcimonious. ===== Quantification ===== The paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that "9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources". Modelling this sentence by adding a statement in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q177323}} would require creating a specific property for final energy consumption. There are such properties of this type in Wikidata : for example, for renewable energy subsidies, there is {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}}. This type of property is notably useful to display information about an item on Wikipedia through infoboxes (e.g. the population of a town). But the current informal rule on Wikidata property creation is to prefer the use of general properties and avoid the creation of specific properties. Thus an alternative way to model quantity is to create a specific item to represent what is quantified and use other properties to represent quantities (see example below). [[File:Wikidata screenshot of percentage modelling.png|border|783x783px]] But since data are usually stored elsewhere in more convenient formats, it may not be always relevant to include quantitative data into Wikidata. Instead, it might be more useful to link the item that is quantified to an external dataset about it. This can be done using the property {{Wikidata entity link|P1325}}. Recommandation : Use existing properties for the quantity if it exists. If it does not exist, create an item representing what is measured, link it toward external datasets and add relevant quantitative statements. ===== Ontology ===== Ultimately, several of our difficulties were linked to some ontology challenges reflecting the complexity of the concept we were working on. According to the litterature, {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} refer to multiple entities. It represents a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome (we reflected this with multiple {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} statements). We encountered struggles to model differences between process versus outcomes, ideal versus reality, discourses versus practices and phenomenon versus theory. The wikidata community recommands having different items for ''process and outcome'' (criterion "{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}"). For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork). However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes which are are ongoing and evolving without a clear ending. In an attempt to separate ''ideal versus reality,'' we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes attempting to reach it. It was difficult to separate ''phenomenon versus theory.'' For example, modelling the idea that the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Our sources suggested that energy democracy discourses and practices may have different causes, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movments promoting it, but this was not a very precise way to model this idea. The conclusion of our first attempt is that trying to include the multiple "natures" of energy democracy into a single item is not satisfactory. Implementing the modelling recommandations we identified above may not be sufficient to build more parcimonious statements. Creating new items to reflect the different aspects of energy democracy may here be necessary. But how should we split the different natures of the concept ? Here the definition of an {{Wikidata entity link|Q324254}} (formal representation) in WIkidata quickly escalate into questionning {{Wikidata entity link|Q44325}} (metaphysical reflexion on the nature of things), and especially {{Wikidata entity link|Q1713511}} (the nature of the social world). Critical realists posits that different things have different ways of being (modes of reality). They propose to classify entities in four categories : material entities (that can exist independently of humans), conceptual entities (concepts, discourses, ideas, meaning…), artefactual entities (human-made and combining conceptual and material elements) and social entities (that depends on human activity to exist)<ref>Fleetwood, S. (2004). An ontology for organisation and management studies. ''Critical Realist Applications in Organisation and Management Studies'', 27–53.</ref>. A complex concept like {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is concerned with all these types of entities. The energy system include many material entities such as oil fields, the sun, seas, trees... and artefacts such as energy production unit, power lines, home appliances, trucks... (Including conceptual entities such as the name of these artefacts or the knowledge to make them function.). There are the social entities in which they are encompassed (the enregy sectors, energy businesses, energy policies...). There are conceptual entities like normative/political discourses discussing how these artefact and social system should work and there are conceptual entities in the academic sphere building theories about how all this works or should work. Wikidata "supports multiple coexisting classification" and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.<ref name=":8" /> Current Wikidata ontology is structured with dischotomies such as {{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q4406616}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1970309}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q16686448}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q23958946}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q103940464}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q3799040}}... But its {{Wikidata entity link|Q1713511}} is unclear. The table below shows the possible root class entity for a few social entities, it is clear they fall under various root distinctions and do not belong to a common class. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Item ! Existing root class entity |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q190539}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q16686448}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q34770}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q9081}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q43229}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q49773}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}} |} Our next step would thus be to create new items to reflect the different facets of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} : the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it, the concrete initiatives implementing it, the litterature theorizing it, etc... And make sure the {{Wikidata entity link|Q3882785}} for these various entities is consistent. To do so we will align with a relevant existing standard (we opened the discussion about social ontology with the wikidata community here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata_talk:WikiProject_Ontology#Social_ontology). == 3. Data visualisation == The goal of this step is to test '''Hypothesis 3''' (SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs). At this stage we started to identify visualization use cases we would like to test, they are listed below. === Filter statements === * Visualize only statements using a specitic source in order to map the content of a single academic article. First test here: https://w.wiki/PFqH * Visualize only items which are part of the present project (all the academic items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}). === Properties visualisation === * Visualise the "tree" of a property used in an item : Wikidata graph builder seem to be the most user friendly, robust and versatile tool to visualise a graph of a single property (https://angryloki.github.io) === Concepts visualisation === * Map all statements related to a single item (e.g. Scholia request "topic in context" : [https://query.wikidata.org/#%23%20tool%3A%20scholia%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20PREFIX%20target%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ14944319%3E%0A%23defaultView%3AGraph%0APREFIX%20wd%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wdt%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fprop%2Fdirect%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wikibase%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwikiba.se%2Fontology%23%3E%0APREFIX%20rdf%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F1999%2F02%2F22-rdf-syntax-ns%23%3E%0A%0ASELECT%20%3Fnode%20%3FnodeLabel%20%3FnodeImage%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeLabel%20%3FchildNodeImage%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fnode%20%3FchildNode%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28target%3A%20AS%20%3Fnode%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fp%20%3Fi%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3Fi%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FP%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20UNION%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fnode%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28%22EFFBD8%22%20AS%20%3Frgb%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20target%3A%20%3Fp%20%3FchildNode%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3Fnodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fnodeclaim%20%3FnodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20%3FchildNodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%7D Example with Energy democracy]) * Map the statements that two items have in common to make comparisons. === Mapping sources consensus === * Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight in order to make consensual statements more visible. == 4. Writing == The goal of this step is to test '''Hypothesis 4''' (Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links). The FAIRisation of scholarly communication includes multiple issues such as multilingualism<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maryl|first=Maciej|last2=Blaszczyńska|first2=Marta|last3=Zalotyńska|first3=Agnieszka|last4=Taylor|first4=Laurence|last5=Avanço|first5=Karla|last6=Balula|first6=Ana|last7=Buchner|first7=Anna|last8=Caliman|first8=Lorena|last9=Clivaz|first9=Claire|date=2021-01|title=Future of Scholarly Communication|url=https://hal.science/hal-03277615}}</ref> === Advantages of Wikiversity === Writing on a Wikiversity page offers some advantages to implement the principles of open linked data in text format. We could cite academic items using their Wikidata QID to generate the citations below (but if we use an URL to cite a paper, it does not automatically check if there is an existing QID for it), and also link toward Wikidata entities using a template ([[Template:Wikidata entity link|Wikidata entity link]]). Although we did not translate the present page for now, Wikiversity offers the possibility to translate a page in multiple languages. === The issue of text interoperability === A key issue we are encountering is the question of the interoperability of texts. While the interoperability of data is starting to be well discussed in the open science community, the interoperability of texts do not seem to benefit from the same level of discussion. We encountered several interoperability issues regarding our writing. First, copying texts written on a word processor software (e.g. microsoft word) into a wiki page (or the other way around) is relatively seamless in terms of formatting, except for the management of references. Reformatting references is very time consuming and a real barrier for text interoperability in academic context : it is difficult to copy text from an academic publication into a wiki text, and difficult to turn a wiki text into a publication. There are also uncertaineties regarding how to reuse texts published under creative common licences. Academic texts published under CC-BY-SA licences can in theory be remixed and reused. But academia does not have established practices regarding how this can be done. If we want to reuse a whole page, should we put it in quotation marks and simply cite the paper ? Should the original authors be listed as co-authors ? Will academic publisher accept such new writing practices while they usually require that publications contain mainly unpublished content ? The norms of what is appropriate remix and reuse practices in academia has yet to be decided... and we invite the open science community to discuss this issue. == Discussion == The analysis of knowledge graph could in theory allow to make logical deduction to generate new data<ref name=":9" />. -unexpected finding : the formalization necessary to do knowledge modelling in wikidata invites to formalize the reasonning behind modelling choices === Wikidata for systematic categorizing === In management sciences « systematic categorizing is the best and perhaps only method for clearing up semantic confusion, management scholars never take the classical approaches to categorizing that facilitated tremendous progress in the physical sciences, and seldomly build on extant categorial schemes. »<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. == Funding == This project is funded by the [[m:Grants:Programs/Wikimedia_Research_&_Technology_Fund/Wikimedia_Research_Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]], Grant ID: G-RS-2504-18935. The text of the initial research proposal is available here : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20760603. == Data == {| class="wikitable sortable" ! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title |- | [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review |- | [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review |- | [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter? |- | [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset. |- | [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies? |- | [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection |- | [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development |- | [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research |- | [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition |- | [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning |- | [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view |- | [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory |- | [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries |- | [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies |- | [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes |- | [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation |- | [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives |- | [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies |- | [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice? |- | [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review |- | [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research |- | [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape |- | [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models |- | [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review |- | [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation |- | [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings |- | [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework |- | [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende |- | [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa |- | [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities |- | [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion |- | [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review |- | [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights |- | [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review |- | [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations |- | [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance |- | [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions |- | [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review |- | [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice |- | [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice |- | [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review |- | [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review |- | [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions |- | [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition |- | [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy |- | [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends |- | [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience |} == References == {{References}} 0d85zddnp7dna2879yz3d7g5k061hon 2817311 2817293 2026-06-29T17:05:25Z Jeanne Noiraud 1366702 /* Discussion*/ Writing discussion of hypothesis 1 and 2 2817311 wikitext text/x-wiki == Acknowledgements == The present text was originally written on a Wikiversity page, if you are reading it in another format, you can find this page here : [[Just sustainability transitions: a living review|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review]]. You are free to add your comments on the page discussion section. === Contributors === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Affiliation !ORCID !Contribution |- |Adélie Ranville |IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208) |https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135 |Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling, article writing |- |Amélie E. Pereira |Laboratoire DICEN IDF | |Meta-data enrichement, article writing |- |Finn Nielsen |Technical University of Denmark |https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6128-3356 |Data visualisation |} Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review == Introduction == Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}</ref>. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}</ref>. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}</ref><ref>Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. </ref>. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination. === The problem of academic information overload === Global scientific output doubles every nine years<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}</ref>. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily. === The problem of knowledge synthesis === The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable<ref>{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}</ref> and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews that can be updated dynamically with new knowledge (examples : <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia. === The problem of scientific results dissemination === There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}</ref>. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}</ref> and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}</ref>. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}</ref>, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow<ref name=":10">Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., & Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. <nowiki>http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf</nowiki> </ref>. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap<ref name=":10" />. Because of gender segregation in disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}</ref>, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}</ref>, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]]. == Toward a living review on just sustainability transition == === Just sustainability transition === Just sustainability transition transition is "a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society"<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}</ref>. The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions<ref name=":0" />. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions<ref name=":0" />. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}</ref> and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. Developping living reviews seem particularly relevant for the just transition literature: first, modeling knowledge and building graphs allows to take into account the complexity of sustainability transitions which involve multiple levels of analysis<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> and fragmented results coming from various disciplines<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>. Then, making literature reviews "living" would allow researchers to be less subject to information overload through a more systematic accumulation of knowledge. Finally, conducting this review with an open science philosophy aswers the challenge of knowledge dissemination, which is crucial in a context of socio-ecological emergency when decision-makers need to rapidely access reliable information on possible sustainability transition trajectories. === Living reviews === The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked<ref name="Why1">{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}</ref>. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4">{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}</ref>. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" />. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":2">https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/</ref>. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research<ref name="Why1" /><ref name=":6" />, such as just transition. Literature review methods are currently evolving with new technological possibilities. Generative artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT are expected to have a strong influence on literature review activities<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes<ref name=":12" />, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}</ref>. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are "on the rise" (2025), but not yet integrated into tested and validated methodologies<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}</ref>. Human validation stays notably necessary<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alshami|first=Ahmad|last2=Elsayed|first2=Moustafa|last3=Ali|first3=Eslam|last4=Eltoukhy|first4=Abdelrahman E. E.|last5=Zayed|first5=Tarek|date=2023-07-09|title=Harnessing the Power of ChatGPT for Automating Systematic Review Process: Methodology, Case Study, Limitations, and Future Directions|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/11/7/351|journal=Systems|language=en|volume=11|issue=7|pages=351|doi=10.3390/systems11070351|issn=2079-8954}}</ref>,<ref name=":13" />. While AI can appear as a solution for scaling literature reviews, we are in the present project exploring another possible scenario which is to use more crowdsourcing in the literature review process. === Wikimedia projects === Wikipedia is a successfull example of large-scaled crowdsourcing of reliable knowledge synthesis. That is why this project proposes to explore the potential of the Wikimedia ecosystem for conducting living reviews. Since Wikipedia does aim to host original research<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikipedia:No original research|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:No_original_research&oldid=1360514388|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>, we are working on two sister projects : Wikidata and Wikiversity. [[wikipedia:Wikidata|Wikidata]] is a "collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=April 26, 2013|title=Welcome to Wikidata! Now what?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|access-date=October 2, 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002152920/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|url-status=live}}</ref>"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikidata|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikidata&oldid=1360462340|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. "A [[wikidata:Q33002955|knowledge graph]] is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}</ref> A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}</ref> Such graphs have a strong potential to conduct knowledge synthesis<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Fotopoulou">{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.</ref><ref name=":18" />. They are especially usefull to build the ontologies (formal representations of concepts) that are necessary to organize and represent existing knowledge<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>. In complement to using Wikidata to model knowledge, we decided to use Wikiversity to report and write our research results. [[wikipedia:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] is another Wikimedia project hosting pedagogical content, original research, and even a publishing house ([[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]])<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Wikiversity|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity&oldid=1358552930|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. Wikiversity pages are editable by everyone, have a discussion tab and a history log tab. Our research question is : '''How can Wikimedia projects contribute to building a collaborative living review on just sustainability transition ?''' In this project, we aim to test 4 hypothesis : ●       '''Hypothesis 1:''' Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations. ●       '''Hypothesis 2:''' Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (e.g. conceptual typologies, cause-effect chains…). ●       '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs. ●       '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikimedia or Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data). We also have 2 assumptions : ●       '''Assumption 1:''' Wikimedia projects have to be integrated into validated scientific protocols in order to be a valuable research tool. ●       '''Assumption 2:''' Wikimedia project contribution has to be made interoperable with tools, methods and data types already used by researchers. == Methodology == Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, and other open-science infrastructures. The first step was to build and enrich the bibliographic metadata of the corpus of articles we selected in Wikidata. The second step was to model the content of the findings of these articles in Wikidata (e.g. causes-effects relationships...). The third step was to experiment relevant visualization of this content (e.g. causes-effects graphs). The las step was to write our report on aWikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, following a linked open data philosophy. == 1. Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata == The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''' (Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations), and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology. To build and enrich our academic corpus on Wikidata, we searched existing databases, selected the sample of articles we wanted to study, imported these articles metadata into Wikidata, enriched these metadata and finally reflected on the advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich academic corpus. === Database search === Doing a systematic review on all aspects of just transition would have resulted in too many articles to review. We thus decided to first explore one aspect of justice : procedural justice. Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions<ref name=":4" /> such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}</ref>. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures<ref name=":0" />. For our search, we selected keywords related to procedural justice (procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory) and keywords related to sustainability transition (sustainability OR energy OR climate) AND (transition OR transitions). We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Keywords search !Database !Search date !Filters !Number of results |- |(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) |Web of Science (all databases, all dates) |December 2025 |Document type: Review Article |362 |} === Article selection === Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were * Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...) * Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...) * Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions * Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy * Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973 === Importing selected articles into Wikidata === To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the "export to Wikidata QuickStatements" function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata. Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|"Merge" gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items. === Article classification through metadata enrichement === Metadatas are data describing other data. The metadata of academic items usually include title, author, publication outlet, publication date, pages, DOI, URL... and can be structured following specific standards (e.g. [[wikipedia:Dublin_Core|Dublin Core]]). In academic databases such as WOS or OpenAlex, the only metadata available regarding the content of an academic article are the abstract and sometimes keywords. However, researchers conducting literature reviews need more precise informations. An important part of literature review work can thus be about describing what the articles are about. For example, describing industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt)<ref name=":5" />. By metadata enrichment, we mean completing metadata to include additional information about the content of an academic piece. In Wikidata, each type of information is added using a specific property. A property is the edge that links two entities in the Wikidata knowledge graph. We selected three Wikidata properties to describe the content of our selected articles : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe the geographical scope of the study. We also worked on adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} ==== We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Main topic !Description |- |[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]] |acceptability |characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose |- |[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]] |accountability |concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making |- |[[d:Q421953|Q421953]] |actor–network theory |theory within social science |- |[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]] |affordability | |- |[[d:Q185836|Q185836]] |age of a person |time elapsed since a person was born |- |[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]] |animal studies |field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways |- |[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]] |awareness |state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns |- |[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]] |blue carbon |carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems |- |[[d:Q430460|Q430460]] |capability approach |economic theory |- |[[d:Q7569|Q7569]] |child |human between birth and puberty |- |[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]] |civic engagement |individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern |- |[[d:Q125928|Q125928]] |climate change |human-caused changes to climate on Earth |- |[[d:Q260607|Q260607]] |climate change adaptation |process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities |- |[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]] |climate justice |term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice |- |[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]] |co-creation |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]] |co-design |approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders |- |[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]] |coproduction |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q11024|Q11024]] |communication |act of conveying intended meaning |- |[[d:Q177634|Q177634]] |community |social unit of human organisms who share common values |- |[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]] |community choice aggregation |alternative energy supply system |- |[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]] |community energy |delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects |- |[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]] |community participation |The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community |- |[[d:Q188843|Q188843]] |cosmopolitanism |ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality |- |[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]] |decarbonization |change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions |- |[[d:Q284289|Q284289]] |deliberative democracy |form of democracy focusing on consensus |- |[[d:Q7174|Q7174]] |democracy |form of government |- |[[d:Q552284|Q552284]] |distributive justice |concept of the socially just allocation of goods |- |[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]] |diversity |concept in sociology and political studies |- |[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]] |ecological economics |research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems |- |[[d:Q8134|Q8134]] |economics |social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services |- |[[d:Q868575|Q868575]] |empowerment |providing increased autonomy |- |[[d:Q295865|Q295865]] |ecosystem service |benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems |- |[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]] |energy citizenship |involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions |- |[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&redirect=no Q131444737] |community energy |[redirection] |- |[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]] |energy consumption |amount of energy or power used |- |[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]] |senior |elderly person |- |[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]] |energy democracy |concept in environmental justice movement |- |[[d:Q192704|Q192704]] |energy efficiency |ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine |- |[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]] |energy modeling |process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them |- |[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]] |energy policy |policy addressing energy issues |- |[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]] |energy poverty |lack of access to modern energy services |- |[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]] |energy production |conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans |- |[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]] |energy justice |subconcept of economic equality |- |[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]] |energy renovation |building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used |- |[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]] |energy security |national security considerations of energy availability |- |[[d:Q837718|Q837718]] |energy storage |capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time |- |[[d:Q795757|Q795757]] |energy transition |long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems |- |[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]] |environmental justice |system of fairness |- |[[d:Q771773|Q771773]] |fairness |concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society |- |[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]] |farming system |method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics |- |[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]] |food system |all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population |- |[[d:Q4421|Q4421]] |forest |dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area |- |[[d:Q48277|Q48277]] |gender |social concept which distinguish the different gender categories |- |[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]] |governance |all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society |- |[[d:Q8458|Q8458]] |human rights |inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled |- |[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]] |human rights violation |act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights |- |[[d:Q103817|Q103817]] |indigenous people |first inhabitants of an area and their descendants |- |[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]] |indigenous science |indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method |- |[[d:Q770480|Q770480]] |injustice |quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes |- |[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]] |interactional justice |the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment |- |[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]] |intersectionnality |theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression |- |[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]] |just transition |Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy. |- |[[d:Q366139|Q366139]] |legitimation |the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group |- |[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]] |living lab |user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities |- |[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]] |low income |home with little money |- |[[d:Q43619|Q43619]] |natural environment |all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof |- |[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]] |nature-positive |global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030 |- |[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]] |non-human |organism not in the genus Homo |- |[[d:Q728646|Q728646]] |partnership |arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests |- |[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]] |policy making |the act of developing policy |- |[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]] |political theory |class of theory |- |[[d:Q265425|Q265425]] |postcolonialism |academic discipline |- |[[d:Q25107|Q25107]] |power |ability to influence the behavior of others |- |[[d:Q442100|Q442100]] |procedural justice |fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources |- |[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]] |project governance |management framework |- |[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]] |public engagement |Policy-making practice |- |[[d:Q541936|Q541936]] |public participation |participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes |- |[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]] |recognition justice |social philosophy theory |- |[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]] |renewable electricity |electricity from renweable sources |- |[[d:Q12705|Q12705]] |renewable energy |energy collected from renewable resources |- |[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]] |renewable energy policy | |- |[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]] |restorative justice |approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement |- |[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]] |rural population |inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural |- |[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]] |smart system |adaptive intelligent systems |- |[[d:Q187588|Q187588]] |social class |group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors |- |[[d:Q264892|Q264892]] |social justice |concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied |- |[[d:Q34749|Q34749]] |social science |academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society |- |[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]] |stakeholder participation |involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity |- |[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]] |sustainability transition | |- |[[d:Q219416|Q219416]] |sustainability |ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state |- |[[d:Q131201|Q131201]] |sustainable development |mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations |- |[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]] |Sustainable Development Goals |set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change |- |[[d:Q69883|Q69883]] |urban planning |technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment |- |[[d:Q920600|Q920600]] |urban renewal |program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay |- |[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]] |vulnerable population |group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent |- |[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]] |water-management | |- |[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]] |well-being |measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction |- |[[d:Q467|Q467]] |woman |female adult human |- |[[d:Q188867|Q188867]] |future studies |study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures |- |[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]] |participatory design |active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process |}Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} ==== Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&property=P279&mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved some of these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q101116078}} can have {{Wikidata entity link|Q653137}} as {{Wikidata entity link|P13391}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paré|first=Guy|last2=Trudel|first2=Marie-Claude|last3=Jaana|first3=Mirou|last4=Kitsiou|first4=Spyros|date=2015-03|title=Synthesizing information systems knowledge: A typology of literature reviews|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378720614001116|journal=Information & Management|language=en|volume=52|issue=2|pages=183–199|doi=10.1016/j.im.2014.08.008}}</ref>. The types of reviews were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Study type !Description |- |[[d:Q603441|Q603441]] |bibliometrics |statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles |- |[[d:Q472342|Q472342]] |scientometrics |study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation |- |[[d:Q815382|Q815382]] |meta-analysis |statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources |- |[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]] |systematic review |publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic |- |[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]] |literature review |process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic |- |[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]] |meta-regression |statistical tool used in meta-analyses |- |[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]] |realist evaluation |theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes |- |[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]] |combinatorial meta-analysis |study of the statistical properties of combinations of studies from a meta-analytic dataset |- |[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]] |network meta-analysis |meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions |- |[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]] |scoping review |search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |- |[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]] |conceptual review |academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature |- |[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]] |critical review |type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research |- |[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]] |integrative literature review |type of literature review |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |}For each article, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} ==== When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article "{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}" focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} ==== When scholarly metadata are imported into Wikidata, the name of authors are stored as a chain of characters and linked to the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2093}}. The property {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} allows to make a link with a Wikidata item representing the author. This avoids the problem of homonym authors by attributing a unique identifyer to authors in Wikidata and linking these identifiers to existing ones such as ORCID. We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages. === Advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich living academic corpus === To share the result of our work, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973. The data is also available directly in Wikidata. The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1'''(Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations)'''.''' ==== Advantages of Wikidata ==== Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative nature as well as its interoperability. Wikidata ontology (that is how the data are structured) is collaboratively defined and properties can be added if relevant (after validation by the community). Compared to global databases like WOS or OpenAlex, Wikidata allows to enter more detail about each academic articles and anyone can add data. Another notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, "energy transition" was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Contrary to institutional thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. The multilingual nature of Wikidata was also a strengh, some Wikidata contributors added labels for the concepts we used into different languages (For example, contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in Armenian and Slovenian, languages we do not speak at all). ==== Limitations of Wikidata ==== Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and does not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base, by taking notes and highlighting the content of the full texts. Wikidata is not connected to this process and there is a missing tool to facilitate the construction of graphs from the qualitative analysis of texts. In addition, when one is working on a specific corpus of item in Wikidata, it is also difficult to keep track of this corpus. We linked each academic item we were working on to our research project by adding a statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}, but it was still relatively difficult to "filter" the part of the knowledge graph we were working on. Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount o bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data congested queries on Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. ==== Future possbilities ==== A solution to the limitations would be to developp the links between Wikidata and other tools of the open science ecosystem. For example, developping and maintaining plugins or extensions for specialised softwares like Zotero, Wikibase, and Omeka could connect Wikidata with more specialised graphs. Such extensions could help building local graphs by allowing the reuse of wikidata item (eg. autocompletion), but also help contributing to Wikidata thanks to export features. Building corpus of more precise academic metadata on Wikidata could also ultimately improve the precision of catalogues such as OpenAlex. For example, Wikidata items could be used to tag articles in a more precise way instead of using keywords and crowdsourced corpus built in Wikidata could be used to train more precise taging algorythms. == 2.Modelling the content of litterature reviews == The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 2''' (Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference) by modelling the content of our selected articles into Wikidata. [[wikipedia:Knowledge_modeling|Knowledge modelling]] is the process of making a machine readable model of a knowledge. As we have a background in social sciences, we felt the need to question the relationship between this process and other methodologies such as concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks. === Concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks === ==== Concept maps ==== [[File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|thumb|Example conceptual diagram|251x251px]]Concept maps are ''concepts'' (boxes) and ''propositions'' (arrow indicating the relationship between two boxes)<ref name=":19">Cañas, Alberto J., et al. "CmapTools: A knowledge modeling and sharing environment." (2004): 125-135. https://thomaseskridge.com/assets/pdf/Canas-2004.pdf</ref>. Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}</ref>. They can be built using specialised softwares (e.g. [https://cmap.ihmc.us/ Cmap])<ref name=":19" />. The "box and arrow" logic is similar to how knowledge is modelled on Wikidata : the equivalent of concepts is ''item'' and the equivalent of propositions are ''statements''. The difference between a softwares like Cmap and Wikidata is the underlying format of the data. ==== Thematic networks ==== [[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|447x447px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: based on Attride-Stirling 2001)]] A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}</ref>. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}</ref>. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data<ref name=":7" />. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes. Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes. However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not always specified. [[File:Adoption_CLD.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adoption_CLD.svg|thumb|421x421px|Causal loop diagram of ''Adoption'' model, used to demonstrate systems dynamics]] ==== Causal diagrams ==== The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}</ref>. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about "[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}</ref> Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can "feedback" (two variables can influence each other)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}</ref>. === Knowledge modelling in Wikidata === ==== Conceptual modelling ==== We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to model concepts in Wikidata. Scholars in management have called for more rigorous ways to define concepts. Definitions encompass various aspects such as the nature of the phenomenon, its characteristics, the links with prototypical cases or examples, the contrast with other concepts, the links with causes and consequences...<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}</ref>, and scholars have advised to take insight from philosophy to work on concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}</ref>. We thus read work in cognitive science which was summarizing approaches coming from psychology and philsosophy attempting to determine the content of concepts<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}</ref>. We summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them. * Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}... * Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. (The closer a phenomenon is to the prototype, the more likely it belong to the category). Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} (see discussion here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties). * Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}, {{P|1478}}, {{P|P9353}} (see discussions here : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en). * Essence: the content of a concept is "something" deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what its properties will be. * Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}. ==== Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} ==== To test concept modelling, we started by experimenting by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic : * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} We read each paper and used them as source to manually enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, Droubi et. Al stated "Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as reference (see screenshot below). The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&oldid=2495982191. [[File:Wikidata statement- energy democracy is an instance of ideal.png|915x915px|border]] We listed the difficulties encountered as we worked and we also asked the Wikidata community to give us feedback on our modelling on the item discussion page (https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Talk:Q14944319). ===== Contradictions ===== Wikidata contributor's feedback highlighted some apparent contradictions (The values in "does not have effect" seems contrary to what is listed in "has goal".) We would however argue this is not a problem because "statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}</ref>. Wikidata essentially supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}</ref>. In the case of goals versus effects statements, the discrepancy between the goals of energy democracy and what it actually achieves is precisely what some authors are critiquing<ref name=":20" />. Recommandations : Contradictions are allowed in Wikidata. ===== Precision ===== We also received feedbacks regarding a lack of precision in our statements (too many and too vague statements). We indeed noted that conceptual modelling requires an important degree of formalization and precision. This is a key advantage of Wikidata to be able to create links toward precise concepts which have their own identifiers. For example, we were able to create statements about specific laws and their unique identifiers in legal databases (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}} and its identifier in the EUR-Lex database). However, the sources we are working with are not always precise enough and when concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence "management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}</ref>, "choice" could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}}... We can see here that academic texts are using natural language and thus are using ambiguous terms. However, another reason why we ended up with very general statements is because we avoided the creation of new Wikidata items, while this could help make the statements more precise. Recommandations : If a concept is ambiguous it should not be included in the modelled statements. Create more precise relevant concepts if they do not exist in Wikidata. ===== Concision ===== Wikidata contributor's feedback indicated a lack of concision. Some of it coming from the fact that some values were "in the tree of another value". The rule we take from this feeback is a need of logical simplification. Two examples illustrate possible logical simplification : * We stated that {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} was an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q33104069}} and an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}}. But in that case, it is not necessary to state that it is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}}, because {{Wikidata entity link|Q33104069}} is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q131362181}}, which is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}} (see diagram on the right). Here, we have to keep only the more precise item. This reasonning is based on the assumption that {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} is transitive. It seems this reasonning could be generalized could potentially be automatized in Wikidata through a complex property constraint (we made a proposition in this sense here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata:WikiProject_Reasoning/Use_cases#Parcimonious_statement_constraints_based_on_subclass_of_(P279)_and_part_of_(P361)_transitivity<nowiki/>) * We stated that {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}. But if we consider that {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} of {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}, then the inclusion of {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} is implied. Here we could keep only the broader item. But unlike the reasonning above, we could not identify a way to generalize this reasonning. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}} can be a subclass of {{Wikidata entity link|Q43229}}, but using the former item is more informative than using the later. For the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, using a value that is too precise results in too many statements and using a value that is too general results in too trivial statements. [[File:Wikidata visualisation screenshot of subclasses relationships including the item political concept.png|thumb|298x298px|Subclass relationships between "concept" and "political concept".]]Recommandations : When possible, use logical simplification to make statements more parcimonious. ===== Quantification ===== The paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that "9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources". Modelling this sentence by adding a statement in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q177323}} would require creating a specific property for final energy consumption. There are such properties of this type in Wikidata : for example, for renewable energy subsidies, there is {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}}. This type of property is notably useful to display information about an item on Wikipedia through infoboxes (e.g. the population of a town). But the current informal rule on Wikidata property creation is to prefer the use of general properties and avoid the creation of specific properties. Thus an alternative way to model quantity is to create a specific item to represent what is quantified and use other properties to represent quantities (see example below). [[File:Wikidata screenshot of percentage modelling.png|border|783x783px]] But since data are usually stored elsewhere in more convenient formats, it may not be always relevant to include quantitative data into Wikidata. Instead, it might be more useful to link the item that is quantified to an external dataset about it. This can be done using the property {{Wikidata entity link|P1325}}. Recommandation : Use existing properties for the quantity if it exists. If it does not exist, create an item representing what is measured, link it toward external datasets and add relevant quantitative statements. ===== Ontology ===== Ultimately, several of our difficulties were linked to some ontology challenges reflecting the complexity of the concept we were working on. According to the litterature, {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} refer to multiple entities. It represents a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome (we reflected this with multiple {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} statements). We encountered struggles to model differences between process versus outcomes, ideal versus reality, discourses versus practices and phenomenon versus theory. The wikidata community recommands having different items for ''process and outcome'' (criterion "{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}"). For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork). However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes which are are ongoing and evolving without a clear ending. In an attempt to separate ''ideal versus reality,'' we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes attempting to reach it. It was difficult to separate ''phenomenon versus theory.'' For example, modelling the idea that the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Our sources suggested that energy democracy discourses and practices may have different causes, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movments promoting it, but this was not a very precise way to model this idea. The conclusion of our first attempt is that trying to include the multiple "natures" of energy democracy into a single item is not satisfactory. Implementing the modelling recommandations we identified above may not be sufficient to build more parcimonious statements. Creating new items to reflect the different aspects of energy democracy may here be necessary. But how should we split the different natures of the concept ? Here the definition of an {{Wikidata entity link|Q324254}} (formal representation) in WIkidata quickly escalate into questionning {{Wikidata entity link|Q44325}} (metaphysical reflexion on the nature of things), and especially {{Wikidata entity link|Q1713511}} (the nature of the social world). Critical realists posits that different things have different ways of being (modes of reality). They propose to classify entities in four categories : material entities (that can exist independently of humans), conceptual entities (concepts, discourses, ideas, meaning…), artefactual entities (human-made and combining conceptual and material elements) and social entities (that depends on human activity to exist)<ref>Fleetwood, S. (2004). An ontology for organisation and management studies. ''Critical Realist Applications in Organisation and Management Studies'', 27–53.</ref>. A complex concept like {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is concerned with all these types of entities. The energy system include many material entities such as oil fields, the sun, seas, trees... and artefacts such as energy production unit, power lines, home appliances, trucks... (Including conceptual entities such as the name of these artefacts or the knowledge to make them function.). There are the social entities in which they are encompassed (the enregy sectors, energy businesses, energy policies...). There are conceptual entities like normative/political discourses discussing how these artefact and social system should work and there are conceptual entities in the academic sphere building theories about how all this works or should work. Wikidata "supports multiple coexisting classification" and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.<ref name=":8" /> Current Wikidata ontology is structured with dischotomies such as {{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q4406616}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1970309}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q16686448}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q23958946}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q103940464}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q3799040}}... But its {{Wikidata entity link|Q1713511}} is unclear. The table below shows the possible root class entity for a few social entities, it is clear they fall under various root distinctions and do not belong to a common class. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Item ! Existing root class entity |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q190539}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q16686448}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q34770}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q9081}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q43229}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q49773}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}} |} Our next step would thus be to create new items to reflect the different facets of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} : the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it, the concrete initiatives implementing it, the litterature theorizing it, etc... And make sure the {{Wikidata entity link|Q3882785}} for these various entities is consistent. To do so we will align with a relevant existing standard (we opened the discussion about social ontology with the wikidata community here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata_talk:WikiProject_Ontology#Social_ontology). == 3. Data visualisation == The goal of this step is to test '''Hypothesis 3''' (SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs). At this stage we started to identify visualization use cases we would like to test, they are listed below. === Filter statements === * Visualize only statements using a specitic source in order to map the content of a single academic article. First test here: https://w.wiki/PFqH * Visualize only items which are part of the present project (all the academic items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}). === Properties visualisation === * Visualise the "tree" of a property used in an item : Wikidata graph builder seem to be the most user friendly, robust and versatile tool to visualise a graph of a single property (https://angryloki.github.io) === Concepts visualisation === * Map all statements related to a single item (e.g. Scholia request "topic in context" : [https://query.wikidata.org/#%23%20tool%3A%20scholia%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20PREFIX%20target%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ14944319%3E%0A%23defaultView%3AGraph%0APREFIX%20wd%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wdt%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fprop%2Fdirect%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wikibase%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwikiba.se%2Fontology%23%3E%0APREFIX%20rdf%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F1999%2F02%2F22-rdf-syntax-ns%23%3E%0A%0ASELECT%20%3Fnode%20%3FnodeLabel%20%3FnodeImage%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeLabel%20%3FchildNodeImage%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fnode%20%3FchildNode%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28target%3A%20AS%20%3Fnode%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fp%20%3Fi%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3Fi%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FP%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20UNION%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fnode%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28%22EFFBD8%22%20AS%20%3Frgb%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20target%3A%20%3Fp%20%3FchildNode%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3Fnodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fnodeclaim%20%3FnodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20%3FchildNodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%7D Example with Energy democracy]) * Map the statements that two items have in common to make comparisons. === Mapping sources consensus === * Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight in order to make consensual statements more visible. == 4. Writing == The goal of this step is to test '''Hypothesis 4''' (Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links). === Advantages of Wikiversity === Writing on a Wikiversity page offers some advantages to implement the principles of open linked data in text format. We could cite academic items using their Wikidata QID to generate the citations below (but if we use an URL to cite a paper, it does not automatically check if there is an existing QID for it), and also link toward Wikidata entities using a template ([[Template:Wikidata entity link|Wikidata entity link]]). Although we did not translate the present page for now, Wikiversity offers the possibility to translate a page in multiple languages. === The issue of text interoperability === A key issue we are encountering is the question of the interoperability of texts. While the interoperability of data is starting to be well discussed in the open science community, the interoperability of texts do not seem to benefit from the same level of discussion. We encountered several interoperability issues regarding our writing. First, copying texts written on a word processor software (e.g. microsoft word) into a wiki page (or the other way around) is relatively seamless in terms of formatting, except for the management of references. Reformatting references is very time consuming and a real barrier for text interoperability in academic context : it is difficult to copy text from an academic publication into a wiki text, and difficult to turn a wiki text into a publication. There are also uncertaineties regarding how to reuse texts published under creative common licences. Academic texts published under CC-BY-SA licences can in theory be remixed and reused. But academia does not have established practices regarding how this can be done. If we want to reuse a whole page, should we put it in quotation marks and simply cite the paper ? Should the original authors be listed as co-authors ? Will academic publisher accept such new writing practices while they usually require that publications contain mainly unpublished content ? The norms of what is appropriate remix and reuse practices in academia has yet to be decided... and we invite the open science community to discuss this issue. == Discussion == Our goal was to assess the potential of Wikidata and Wikiversity to build a living literature review method and tackle issues of information overload, knowledge synthesis and knowledge dissemination, following open science principles. By conducting a meta-review on just sustainability transition (that is a review of existing literature reviews), and experimenting with existing technical solutions, we were able to identify the strenghs and limitations of the Wikidata ecosystem. First Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations (Hypothesis 1 is verified). However, the technical barriers to do so are still high and the Wikidata database is too general to allow a community to work on a specific curated corpus of scientific items. We thus believe that developping two ways relationships (reuse and contribution) between Wikidata and more specialized research softwares could Secondly, Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (Hypothesis 2 is verified). However, this requires developping and using a methodology regarding what is a rigorous modelling in social science and as well as specific ontologies. ●       '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs. ●       '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data). The analysis of knowledge graph could in theory allow to make logical deduction to generate new data<ref name=":9" />. -unexpected finding : the formalization necessary to do knowledge modelling in wikidata invites to formalize the reasonning behind modelling choices The FAIRisation of scholarly communication includes multiple issues such as multilingualism<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maryl|first=Maciej|last2=Blaszczyńska|first2=Marta|last3=Zalotyńska|first3=Agnieszka|last4=Taylor|first4=Laurence|last5=Avanço|first5=Karla|last6=Balula|first6=Ana|last7=Buchner|first7=Anna|last8=Caliman|first8=Lorena|last9=Clivaz|first9=Claire|date=2021-01|title=Future of Scholarly Communication|url=https://hal.science/hal-03277615}}</ref> === Wikidata for systematic categorizing === In management sciences « systematic categorizing is the best and perhaps only method for clearing up semantic confusion, management scholars never take the classical approaches to categorizing that facilitated tremendous progress in the physical sciences, and seldomly build on extant categorial schemes. »<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. == Funding == This project is funded by the [[m:Grants:Programs/Wikimedia_Research_&_Technology_Fund/Wikimedia_Research_Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]], Grant ID: G-RS-2504-18935. The text of the initial research proposal is available here : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20760603. == Data == {| class="wikitable sortable" ! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title |- | [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review |- | [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review |- | [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter? |- | [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset. |- | [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies? |- | [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection |- | [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development |- | [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research |- | [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition |- | [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning |- | [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view |- | [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory |- | [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries |- | [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies |- | [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes |- | [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation |- | [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives |- | [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies |- | [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice? |- | [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review |- | [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research |- | [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape |- | [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models |- | [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review |- | [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation |- | [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings |- | [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework |- | [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende |- | [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa |- | [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities |- | [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion |- | [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review |- | [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights |- | [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review |- | [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations |- | [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance |- | [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions |- | [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review |- | [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice |- | [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice |- | [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review |- | [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review |- | [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions |- | [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition |- | [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy |- | [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends |- | [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience |} == References == {{References}} a1t0smklefcgocpuil3k4gn5w8qvjpt 2817322 2817311 2026-06-29T17:51:25Z Jeanne Noiraud 1366702 /* Discussion */ Writing discussion of hypothesis 2 and 4 2817322 wikitext text/x-wiki == Acknowledgements == The present text was originally written on a Wikiversity page, if you are reading it in another format, you can find this page here : [[Just sustainability transitions: a living review|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review]]. You are free to add your comments on the page discussion section. === Contributors === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Affiliation !ORCID !Contribution |- |Adélie Ranville |IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208) |https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135 |Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling, article writing |- |Amélie E. Pereira |Laboratoire DICEN IDF | |Meta-data enrichement, article writing |- |Finn Nielsen |Technical University of Denmark |https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6128-3356 |Data visualisation |} Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review == Introduction == Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}</ref>. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}</ref>. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}</ref><ref>Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. </ref>. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination. === The problem of academic information overload === Global scientific output doubles every nine years<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}</ref>. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily. === The problem of knowledge synthesis === The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable<ref>{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}</ref> and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews that can be updated dynamically with new knowledge (examples : <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia. === The problem of scientific results dissemination === There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}</ref>. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}</ref> and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}</ref>. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}</ref>, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow<ref name=":10">Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., & Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. <nowiki>http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf</nowiki> </ref>. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap<ref name=":10" />. Because of gender segregation in disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}</ref>, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}</ref>, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]]. == Toward a living review on just sustainability transition == === Just sustainability transition === Just sustainability transition transition is "a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society"<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}</ref>. The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions<ref name=":0" />. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions<ref name=":0" />. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}</ref> and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. Developping living reviews seem particularly relevant for the just transition literature: first, modeling knowledge and building graphs allows to take into account the complexity of sustainability transitions which involve multiple levels of analysis<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> and fragmented results coming from various disciplines<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>. Then, making literature reviews "living" would allow researchers to be less subject to information overload through a more systematic accumulation of knowledge. Finally, conducting this review with an open science philosophy aswers the challenge of knowledge dissemination, which is crucial in a context of socio-ecological emergency when decision-makers need to rapidely access reliable information on possible sustainability transition trajectories. === Living reviews === The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked<ref name="Why1">{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}</ref>. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4">{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}</ref>. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" />. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":2">https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/</ref>. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research<ref name="Why1" /><ref name=":6" />, such as just transition. Literature review methods are currently evolving with new technological possibilities. Generative artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT are expected to have a strong influence on literature review activities<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes<ref name=":12" />, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}</ref>. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are "on the rise" (2025), but not yet integrated into tested and validated methodologies<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}</ref>. Human validation stays notably necessary<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alshami|first=Ahmad|last2=Elsayed|first2=Moustafa|last3=Ali|first3=Eslam|last4=Eltoukhy|first4=Abdelrahman E. E.|last5=Zayed|first5=Tarek|date=2023-07-09|title=Harnessing the Power of ChatGPT for Automating Systematic Review Process: Methodology, Case Study, Limitations, and Future Directions|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/11/7/351|journal=Systems|language=en|volume=11|issue=7|pages=351|doi=10.3390/systems11070351|issn=2079-8954}}</ref>,<ref name=":13" />. While AI can appear as a solution for scaling literature reviews, we are in the present project exploring another possible scenario which is to use more crowdsourcing in the literature review process. === Wikimedia projects === Wikipedia is a successfull example of large-scaled crowdsourcing of reliable knowledge synthesis. That is why this project proposes to explore the potential of the Wikimedia ecosystem for conducting living reviews. Since Wikipedia does aim to host original research<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikipedia:No original research|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:No_original_research&oldid=1360514388|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>, we are working on two sister projects : Wikidata and Wikiversity. [[wikipedia:Wikidata|Wikidata]] is a "collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=April 26, 2013|title=Welcome to Wikidata! Now what?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|access-date=October 2, 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002152920/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|url-status=live}}</ref>"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikidata|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikidata&oldid=1360462340|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. "A [[wikidata:Q33002955|knowledge graph]] is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}</ref> A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}</ref> Such graphs have a strong potential to conduct knowledge synthesis<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Fotopoulou">{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.</ref><ref name=":18" />. They are especially usefull to build the ontologies (formal representations of concepts) that are necessary to organize and represent existing knowledge<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>. In complement to using Wikidata to model knowledge, we decided to use Wikiversity to report and write our research results. [[wikipedia:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] is another Wikimedia project hosting pedagogical content, original research, and even a publishing house ([[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]])<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Wikiversity|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity&oldid=1358552930|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. Wikiversity pages are editable by everyone, have a discussion tab and a history log tab. Our research question is : '''How can Wikimedia projects contribute to building a collaborative living review on just sustainability transition ?''' In this project, we aim to test 4 hypothesis : ●       '''Hypothesis 1:''' Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations. ●       '''Hypothesis 2:''' Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (e.g. conceptual typologies, cause-effect chains…). ●       '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs. ●       '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikimedia or Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data). We also have 2 assumptions : ●       '''Assumption 1:''' Wikimedia projects have to be integrated into validated scientific protocols in order to be a valuable research tool. ●       '''Assumption 2:''' Wikimedia project contribution has to be made interoperable with tools, methods and data types already used by researchers. == Methodology == Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, and other open-science infrastructures. The first step was to build and enrich the bibliographic metadata of the corpus of articles we selected in Wikidata. The second step was to model the content of the findings of these articles in Wikidata (e.g. causes-effects relationships...). The third step was to experiment relevant visualization of this content (e.g. causes-effects graphs). The las step was to write our report on aWikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, following a linked open data philosophy. == 1. Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata == The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''' (Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations), and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology. To build and enrich our academic corpus on Wikidata, we searched existing databases, selected the sample of articles we wanted to study, imported these articles metadata into Wikidata, enriched these metadata and finally reflected on the advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich academic corpus. === Database search === Doing a systematic review on all aspects of just transition would have resulted in too many articles to review. We thus decided to first explore one aspect of justice : procedural justice. Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions<ref name=":4" /> such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}</ref>. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures<ref name=":0" />. For our search, we selected keywords related to procedural justice (procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory) and keywords related to sustainability transition (sustainability OR energy OR climate) AND (transition OR transitions). We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Keywords search !Database !Search date !Filters !Number of results |- |(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) |Web of Science (all databases, all dates) |December 2025 |Document type: Review Article |362 |} === Article selection === Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were * Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...) * Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...) * Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions * Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy * Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973 === Importing selected articles into Wikidata === To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the "export to Wikidata QuickStatements" function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata. Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|"Merge" gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items. === Article classification through metadata enrichement === Metadatas are data describing other data. The metadata of academic items usually include title, author, publication outlet, publication date, pages, DOI, URL... and can be structured following specific standards (e.g. [[wikipedia:Dublin_Core|Dublin Core]]). In academic databases such as WOS or OpenAlex, the only metadata available regarding the content of an academic article are the abstract and sometimes keywords. However, researchers conducting literature reviews need more precise informations. An important part of literature review work can thus be about describing what the articles are about. For example, describing industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt)<ref name=":5" />. By metadata enrichment, we mean completing metadata to include additional information about the content of an academic piece. In Wikidata, each type of information is added using a specific property. A property is the edge that links two entities in the Wikidata knowledge graph. We selected three Wikidata properties to describe the content of our selected articles : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe the geographical scope of the study. We also worked on adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} ==== We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Main topic !Description |- |[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]] |acceptability |characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose |- |[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]] |accountability |concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making |- |[[d:Q421953|Q421953]] |actor–network theory |theory within social science |- |[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]] |affordability | |- |[[d:Q185836|Q185836]] |age of a person |time elapsed since a person was born |- |[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]] |animal studies |field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways |- |[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]] |awareness |state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns |- |[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]] |blue carbon |carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems |- |[[d:Q430460|Q430460]] |capability approach |economic theory |- |[[d:Q7569|Q7569]] |child |human between birth and puberty |- |[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]] |civic engagement |individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern |- |[[d:Q125928|Q125928]] |climate change |human-caused changes to climate on Earth |- |[[d:Q260607|Q260607]] |climate change adaptation |process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities |- |[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]] |climate justice |term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice |- |[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]] |co-creation |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]] |co-design |approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders |- |[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]] |coproduction |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q11024|Q11024]] |communication |act of conveying intended meaning |- |[[d:Q177634|Q177634]] |community |social unit of human organisms who share common values |- |[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]] |community choice aggregation |alternative energy supply system |- |[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]] |community energy |delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects |- |[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]] |community participation |The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community |- |[[d:Q188843|Q188843]] |cosmopolitanism |ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality |- |[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]] |decarbonization |change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions |- |[[d:Q284289|Q284289]] |deliberative democracy |form of democracy focusing on consensus |- |[[d:Q7174|Q7174]] |democracy |form of government |- |[[d:Q552284|Q552284]] |distributive justice |concept of the socially just allocation of goods |- |[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]] |diversity |concept in sociology and political studies |- |[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]] |ecological economics |research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems |- |[[d:Q8134|Q8134]] |economics |social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services |- |[[d:Q868575|Q868575]] |empowerment |providing increased autonomy |- |[[d:Q295865|Q295865]] |ecosystem service |benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems |- |[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]] |energy citizenship |involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions |- |[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&redirect=no Q131444737] |community energy |[redirection] |- |[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]] |energy consumption |amount of energy or power used |- |[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]] |senior |elderly person |- |[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]] |energy democracy |concept in environmental justice movement |- |[[d:Q192704|Q192704]] |energy efficiency |ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine |- |[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]] |energy modeling |process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them |- |[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]] |energy policy |policy addressing energy issues |- |[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]] |energy poverty |lack of access to modern energy services |- |[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]] |energy production |conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans |- |[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]] |energy justice |subconcept of economic equality |- |[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]] |energy renovation |building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used |- |[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]] |energy security |national security considerations of energy availability |- |[[d:Q837718|Q837718]] |energy storage |capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time |- |[[d:Q795757|Q795757]] |energy transition |long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems |- |[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]] |environmental justice |system of fairness |- |[[d:Q771773|Q771773]] |fairness |concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society |- |[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]] |farming system |method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics |- |[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]] |food system |all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population |- |[[d:Q4421|Q4421]] |forest |dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area |- |[[d:Q48277|Q48277]] |gender |social concept which distinguish the different gender categories |- |[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]] |governance |all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society |- |[[d:Q8458|Q8458]] |human rights |inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled |- |[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]] |human rights violation |act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights |- |[[d:Q103817|Q103817]] |indigenous people |first inhabitants of an area and their descendants |- |[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]] |indigenous science |indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method |- |[[d:Q770480|Q770480]] |injustice |quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes |- |[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]] |interactional justice |the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment |- |[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]] |intersectionnality |theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression |- |[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]] |just transition |Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy. |- |[[d:Q366139|Q366139]] |legitimation |the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group |- |[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]] |living lab |user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities |- |[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]] |low income |home with little money |- |[[d:Q43619|Q43619]] |natural environment |all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof |- |[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]] |nature-positive |global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030 |- |[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]] |non-human |organism not in the genus Homo |- |[[d:Q728646|Q728646]] |partnership |arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests |- |[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]] |policy making |the act of developing policy |- |[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]] |political theory |class of theory |- |[[d:Q265425|Q265425]] |postcolonialism |academic discipline |- |[[d:Q25107|Q25107]] |power |ability to influence the behavior of others |- |[[d:Q442100|Q442100]] |procedural justice |fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources |- |[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]] |project governance |management framework |- |[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]] |public engagement |Policy-making practice |- |[[d:Q541936|Q541936]] |public participation |participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes |- |[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]] |recognition justice |social philosophy theory |- |[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]] |renewable electricity |electricity from renweable sources |- |[[d:Q12705|Q12705]] |renewable energy |energy collected from renewable resources |- |[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]] |renewable energy policy | |- |[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]] |restorative justice |approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement |- |[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]] |rural population |inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural |- |[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]] |smart system |adaptive intelligent systems |- |[[d:Q187588|Q187588]] |social class |group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors |- |[[d:Q264892|Q264892]] |social justice |concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied |- |[[d:Q34749|Q34749]] |social science |academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society |- |[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]] |stakeholder participation |involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity |- |[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]] |sustainability transition | |- |[[d:Q219416|Q219416]] |sustainability |ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state |- |[[d:Q131201|Q131201]] |sustainable development |mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations |- |[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]] |Sustainable Development Goals |set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change |- |[[d:Q69883|Q69883]] |urban planning |technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment |- |[[d:Q920600|Q920600]] |urban renewal |program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay |- |[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]] |vulnerable population |group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent |- |[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]] |water-management | |- |[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]] |well-being |measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction |- |[[d:Q467|Q467]] |woman |female adult human |- |[[d:Q188867|Q188867]] |future studies |study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures |- |[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]] |participatory design |active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process |}Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} ==== Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&property=P279&mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved some of these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q101116078}} can have {{Wikidata entity link|Q653137}} as {{Wikidata entity link|P13391}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paré|first=Guy|last2=Trudel|first2=Marie-Claude|last3=Jaana|first3=Mirou|last4=Kitsiou|first4=Spyros|date=2015-03|title=Synthesizing information systems knowledge: A typology of literature reviews|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378720614001116|journal=Information & Management|language=en|volume=52|issue=2|pages=183–199|doi=10.1016/j.im.2014.08.008}}</ref>. The types of reviews were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Study type !Description |- |[[d:Q603441|Q603441]] |bibliometrics |statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles |- |[[d:Q472342|Q472342]] |scientometrics |study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation |- |[[d:Q815382|Q815382]] |meta-analysis |statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources |- |[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]] |systematic review |publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic |- |[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]] |literature review |process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic |- |[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]] |meta-regression |statistical tool used in meta-analyses |- |[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]] |realist evaluation |theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes |- |[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]] |combinatorial meta-analysis |study of the statistical properties of combinations of studies from a meta-analytic dataset |- |[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]] |network meta-analysis |meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions |- |[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]] |scoping review |search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |- |[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]] |conceptual review |academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature |- |[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]] |critical review |type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research |- |[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]] |integrative literature review |type of literature review |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |}For each article, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} ==== When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article "{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}" focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} ==== When scholarly metadata are imported into Wikidata, the name of authors are stored as a chain of characters and linked to the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2093}}. The property {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} allows to make a link with a Wikidata item representing the author. This avoids the problem of homonym authors by attributing a unique identifyer to authors in Wikidata and linking these identifiers to existing ones such as ORCID. We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages. === Advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich living academic corpus === To share the result of our work, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973. The data is also available directly in Wikidata. The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1'''(Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations)'''.''' ==== Advantages of Wikidata ==== Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative nature as well as its interoperability. Wikidata ontology (that is how the data are structured) is collaboratively defined and properties can be added if relevant (after validation by the community). Compared to global databases like WOS or OpenAlex, Wikidata allows to enter more detail about each academic articles and anyone can add data. Another notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, "energy transition" was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Contrary to institutional thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. The multilingual nature of Wikidata was also a strengh, some Wikidata contributors added labels for the concepts we used into different languages (For example, contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in Armenian and Slovenian, languages we do not speak at all). ==== Limitations of Wikidata ==== Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and does not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base, by taking notes and highlighting the content of the full texts. Wikidata is not connected to this process and there is a missing tool to facilitate the construction of graphs from the qualitative analysis of texts. In addition, when one is working on a specific corpus of item in Wikidata, it is also difficult to keep track of this corpus. We linked each academic item we were working on to our research project by adding a statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}, but it was still relatively difficult to "filter" the part of the knowledge graph we were working on. Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount o bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data congested queries on Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. ==== Future possbilities ==== A solution to the limitations would be to developp the links between Wikidata and other tools of the open science ecosystem. For example, developping and maintaining plugins or extensions for specialised softwares like Zotero, Wikibase, and Omeka could connect Wikidata with more specialised graphs. Such extensions could help building local graphs by allowing the reuse of wikidata item (eg. autocompletion), but also help contributing to Wikidata thanks to export features. Building corpus of more precise academic metadata on Wikidata could also ultimately improve the precision of catalogues such as OpenAlex. For example, Wikidata items could be used to tag articles in a more precise way instead of using keywords and crowdsourced corpus built in Wikidata could be used to train more precise taging algorythms. == 2.Modelling the content of litterature reviews == The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 2''' (Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference) by modelling the content of our selected articles into Wikidata. [[wikipedia:Knowledge_modeling|Knowledge modelling]] is the process of making a machine readable model of a knowledge. As we have a background in social sciences, we felt the need to question the relationship between this process and other methodologies such as concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks. === Concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks === ==== Concept maps ==== [[File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|thumb|Example conceptual diagram|251x251px]]Concept maps are ''concepts'' (boxes) and ''propositions'' (arrow indicating the relationship between two boxes)<ref name=":19">Cañas, Alberto J., et al. "CmapTools: A knowledge modeling and sharing environment." (2004): 125-135. https://thomaseskridge.com/assets/pdf/Canas-2004.pdf</ref>. Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}</ref>. They can be built using specialised softwares (e.g. [https://cmap.ihmc.us/ Cmap])<ref name=":19" />. The "box and arrow" logic is similar to how knowledge is modelled on Wikidata : the equivalent of concepts is ''item'' and the equivalent of propositions are ''statements''. The difference between a softwares like Cmap and Wikidata is the underlying format of the data. ==== Thematic networks ==== [[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|447x447px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: based on Attride-Stirling 2001)]] A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}</ref>. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}</ref>. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data<ref name=":7" />. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes. Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes. However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not always specified. [[File:Adoption_CLD.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adoption_CLD.svg|thumb|421x421px|Causal loop diagram of ''Adoption'' model, used to demonstrate systems dynamics]] ==== Causal diagrams ==== The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}</ref>. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about "[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}</ref> Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can "feedback" (two variables can influence each other)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}</ref>. === Knowledge modelling in Wikidata === ==== Conceptual modelling ==== We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to model concepts in Wikidata. Scholars in management have called for more rigorous ways to define concepts. Definitions encompass various aspects such as the nature of the phenomenon, its characteristics, the links with prototypical cases or examples, the contrast with other concepts, the links with causes and consequences...<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}</ref>, and scholars have advised to take insight from philosophy to work on concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}</ref>. We thus read work in cognitive science which was summarizing approaches coming from psychology and philsosophy attempting to determine the content of concepts<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}</ref>. We summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them. * Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}... * Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. (The closer a phenomenon is to the prototype, the more likely it belong to the category). Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} (see discussion here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties). * Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}, {{P|1478}}, {{P|P9353}} (see discussions here : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en). * Essence: the content of a concept is "something" deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what its properties will be. * Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}. ==== Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} ==== To test concept modelling, we started by experimenting by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic : * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} We read each paper and used them as source to manually enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, Droubi et. Al stated "Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as reference (see screenshot below). The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&oldid=2495982191. [[File:Wikidata statement- energy democracy is an instance of ideal.png|915x915px|border]] We listed the difficulties encountered as we worked and we also asked the Wikidata community to give us feedback on our modelling on the item discussion page (https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Talk:Q14944319). ===== Contradictions ===== Wikidata contributor's feedback highlighted some apparent contradictions (The values in "does not have effect" seems contrary to what is listed in "has goal".) We would however argue this is not a problem because "statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}</ref>. Wikidata essentially supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}</ref>. In the case of goals versus effects statements, the discrepancy between the goals of energy democracy and what it actually achieves is precisely what some authors are critiquing<ref name=":20" />. Recommandations : Contradictions are allowed in Wikidata. ===== Precision ===== We also received feedbacks regarding a lack of precision in our statements (too many and too vague statements). We indeed noted that conceptual modelling requires an important degree of formalization and precision. This is a key advantage of Wikidata to be able to create links toward precise concepts which have their own identifiers. For example, we were able to create statements about specific laws and their unique identifiers in legal databases (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}} and its identifier in the EUR-Lex database). However, the sources we are working with are not always precise enough and when concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence "management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}</ref>, "choice" could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}}... We can see here that academic texts are using natural language and thus are using ambiguous terms. However, another reason why we ended up with very general statements is because we avoided the creation of new Wikidata items, while this could help make the statements more precise. Recommandations : If a concept is ambiguous it should not be included in the modelled statements. Create more precise relevant concepts if they do not exist in Wikidata. ===== Concision ===== Wikidata contributor's feedback indicated a lack of concision. Some of it coming from the fact that some values were "in the tree of another value". The rule we take from this feeback is a need of logical simplification. Two examples illustrate possible logical simplification : * We stated that {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} was an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q33104069}} and an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}}. But in that case, it is not necessary to state that it is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}}, because {{Wikidata entity link|Q33104069}} is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q131362181}}, which is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}} (see diagram on the right). Here, we have to keep only the more precise item. This reasonning is based on the assumption that {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} is transitive. It seems this reasonning could be generalized could potentially be automatized in Wikidata through a complex property constraint (we made a proposition in this sense here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata:WikiProject_Reasoning/Use_cases#Parcimonious_statement_constraints_based_on_subclass_of_(P279)_and_part_of_(P361)_transitivity<nowiki/>) * We stated that {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}. But if we consider that {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} of {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}, then the inclusion of {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} is implied. Here we could keep only the broader item. But unlike the reasonning above, we could not identify a way to generalize this reasonning. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}} can be a subclass of {{Wikidata entity link|Q43229}}, but using the former item is more informative than using the later. For the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, using a value that is too precise results in too many statements and using a value that is too general results in too trivial statements. [[File:Wikidata visualisation screenshot of subclasses relationships including the item political concept.png|thumb|298x298px|Subclass relationships between "concept" and "political concept".]]Recommandations : When possible, use logical simplification to make statements more parcimonious. ===== Quantification ===== The paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that "9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources". Modelling this sentence by adding a statement in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q177323}} would require creating a specific property for final energy consumption. There are such properties of this type in Wikidata : for example, for renewable energy subsidies, there is {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}}. This type of property is notably useful to display information about an item on Wikipedia through infoboxes (e.g. the population of a town). But the current informal rule on Wikidata property creation is to prefer the use of general properties and avoid the creation of specific properties. Thus an alternative way to model quantity is to create a specific item to represent what is quantified and use other properties to represent quantities (see example below). [[File:Wikidata screenshot of percentage modelling.png|border|783x783px]] But since data are usually stored elsewhere in more convenient formats, it may not be always relevant to include quantitative data into Wikidata. Instead, it might be more useful to link the item that is quantified to an external dataset about it. This can be done using the property {{Wikidata entity link|P1325}}. Recommandation : Use existing properties for the quantity if it exists. If it does not exist, create an item representing what is measured, link it toward external datasets and add relevant quantitative statements. ===== Ontology ===== Ultimately, several of our difficulties were linked to some ontology challenges reflecting the complexity of the concept we were working on. According to the litterature, {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} refer to multiple entities. It represents a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome (we reflected this with multiple {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} statements). We encountered struggles to model differences between process versus outcomes, ideal versus reality, discourses versus practices and phenomenon versus theory. The wikidata community recommands having different items for ''process and outcome'' (criterion "{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}"). For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork). However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes which are are ongoing and evolving without a clear ending. In an attempt to separate ''ideal versus reality,'' we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes attempting to reach it. It was difficult to separate ''phenomenon versus theory.'' For example, modelling the idea that the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Our sources suggested that energy democracy discourses and practices may have different causes, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movments promoting it, but this was not a very precise way to model this idea. The conclusion of our first attempt is that trying to include the multiple "natures" of energy democracy into a single item is not satisfactory. Implementing the modelling recommandations we identified above may not be sufficient to build more parcimonious statements. Creating new items to reflect the different aspects of energy democracy may here be necessary. But how should we split the different natures of the concept ? Here the definition of an {{Wikidata entity link|Q324254}} (formal representation) in WIkidata quickly escalate into questionning {{Wikidata entity link|Q44325}} (metaphysical reflexion on the nature of things), and especially {{Wikidata entity link|Q1713511}} (the nature of the social world). Critical realists posits that different things have different ways of being (modes of reality). They propose to classify entities in four categories : material entities (that can exist independently of humans), conceptual entities (concepts, discourses, ideas, meaning…), artefactual entities (human-made and combining conceptual and material elements) and social entities (that depends on human activity to exist)<ref>Fleetwood, S. (2004). An ontology for organisation and management studies. ''Critical Realist Applications in Organisation and Management Studies'', 27–53.</ref>. A complex concept like {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is concerned with all these types of entities. The energy system include many material entities such as oil fields, the sun, seas, trees... and artefacts such as energy production unit, power lines, home appliances, trucks... (Including conceptual entities such as the name of these artefacts or the knowledge to make them function.). There are the social entities in which they are encompassed (the enregy sectors, energy businesses, energy policies...). There are conceptual entities like normative/political discourses discussing how these artefact and social system should work and there are conceptual entities in the academic sphere building theories about how all this works or should work. Wikidata "supports multiple coexisting classification" and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.<ref name=":8" /> Current Wikidata ontology is structured with dischotomies such as {{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q4406616}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1970309}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q16686448}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q23958946}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q103940464}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q3799040}}... But its {{Wikidata entity link|Q1713511}} is unclear. The table below shows the possible root class entity for a few social entities, it is clear they fall under various root distinctions and do not belong to a common class. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Item ! Existing root class entity |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q190539}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q16686448}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q34770}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q9081}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q43229}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q49773}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}} |} Our next step would thus be to create new items to reflect the different facets of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} : the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it, the concrete initiatives implementing it, the litterature theorizing it, etc... And make sure the {{Wikidata entity link|Q3882785}} for these various entities is consistent. To do so we will align with a relevant existing standard (we opened the discussion about social ontology with the wikidata community here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata_talk:WikiProject_Ontology#Social_ontology). == 3. Data visualisation == The goal of this step is to test '''Hypothesis 3''' (SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs). At this stage we started to identify visualization use cases we would like to test, they are listed below. === Filter statements === * Visualize only statements using a specitic source in order to map the content of a single academic article. First test here: https://w.wiki/PFqH * Visualize only items which are part of the present project (all the academic items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}). === Properties visualisation === * Visualise the "tree" of a property used in an item : Wikidata graph builder seem to be the most user friendly, robust and versatile tool to visualise a graph of a single property (https://angryloki.github.io) === Concepts visualisation === * Map all statements related to a single item (e.g. Scholia request "topic in context" : [https://query.wikidata.org/#%23%20tool%3A%20scholia%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20PREFIX%20target%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ14944319%3E%0A%23defaultView%3AGraph%0APREFIX%20wd%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wdt%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fprop%2Fdirect%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wikibase%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwikiba.se%2Fontology%23%3E%0APREFIX%20rdf%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F1999%2F02%2F22-rdf-syntax-ns%23%3E%0A%0ASELECT%20%3Fnode%20%3FnodeLabel%20%3FnodeImage%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeLabel%20%3FchildNodeImage%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fnode%20%3FchildNode%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28target%3A%20AS%20%3Fnode%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fp%20%3Fi%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3Fi%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FP%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20UNION%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fnode%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28%22EFFBD8%22%20AS%20%3Frgb%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20target%3A%20%3Fp%20%3FchildNode%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3Fnodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fnodeclaim%20%3FnodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20%3FchildNodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%7D Example with Energy democracy]) * Map the statements that two items have in common to make comparisons. === Mapping sources consensus === * Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight in order to make consensual statements more visible. == 4. Writing == The goal of this step is to test '''Hypothesis 4''' (Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links). === Advantages of Wikiversity === Writing on a Wikiversity page offers some advantages to implement the principles of open linked data in text format. We could cite academic items using their Wikidata QID to generate the citations below (but if we use an URL to cite a paper, it does not automatically check if there is an existing QID for it), and also link toward Wikidata entities using a template ([[Template:Wikidata entity link|Wikidata entity link]]). Although we did not translate the present page for now, Wikiversity offers the possibility to translate a page in multiple languages (an interesting possibility in the context of the The FAIRisation of scholarly communication<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maryl|first=Maciej|last2=Blaszczyńska|first2=Marta|last3=Zalotyńska|first3=Agnieszka|last4=Taylor|first4=Laurence|last5=Avanço|first5=Karla|last6=Balula|first6=Ana|last7=Buchner|first7=Anna|last8=Caliman|first8=Lorena|last9=Clivaz|first9=Claire|date=2021-01|title=Future of Scholarly Communication|url=https://hal.science/hal-03277615}}</ref>). === The issue of text interoperability === A key issue we are encountering is the question of the interoperability of texts. While the interoperability of data is starting to be well discussed in the open science community, the interoperability of texts do not seem to benefit from the same level of discussion. We encountered several interoperability issues regarding our writing. First, copying texts written on a word processor software (e.g. microsoft word) into a wiki page (or the other way around) is relatively seamless in terms of formatting, except for the management of references. Reformatting references is very time consuming and a real barrier for text interoperability in academic context : it is difficult to copy text from an academic publication into a wiki text, and difficult to turn a wiki text into a publication. There are also uncertaineties regarding how to reuse texts published under creative common licences. Academic texts published under CC-BY-SA licences can in theory be remixed and reused. But academia does not have established practices regarding how this can be done. If we want to reuse a whole page, should we put it in quotation marks and simply cite the paper ? Should the original authors be listed as co-authors ? Will academic publisher accept such new writing practices while they usually require that publications contain mainly unpublished content ? The norms of what is appropriate remix and reuse practices in academia has yet to be decided... and we invite the open science community to discuss this issue. == Discussion == Our goal was to assess the potential of Wikidata and Wikiversity to build a living literature review method and tackle issues of information overload, knowledge synthesis and knowledge dissemination, following open science principles. By conducting a meta-review on just sustainability transition (that is a review of existing literature reviews), and experimenting with existing technical solutions, we were able to identify the strenghs and limitations of the Wikidata ecosystem. First Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations (Hypothesis 1 is verified). However, the technical barriers to do so are still high and the Wikidata database is too general to allow a community to work on a specific curated corpus of scientific items. Secondly, Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (Hypothesis 2 is verified). However, this requires developping and using a methodology regarding what is a rigorous modelling in social science, as well as building specific {{Wikidata entity link|Q324254}}. An unexpected finding is that the formalization necessary for knowledge modelling in wikidata invites to formalize the reasonning behind modelling choices, a process that is rarely done in qualitative analysis although such reasonning are likely present. This process also responds to calls in management sciences to engage in more systematic categorizing and avoir semantic confusion<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Thirdly, SPARQL-based queries can be used to vizualised scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs, but we cannot completely say they allow users to "navigate" it (Hypothesis 3 is partially verified). SPARQL-based queries are powerful but they require technical knowledge, especially now that the split between academic and non-academic items in Wikidata requires to write federated queries. To be able to "navigate" scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs on Wikidata, more user-friendly tools would be needed. Finally, we did see advantaged in using Wikiversity pages can be used to write collaboratively in text format augmented by hypertext links, but there are still important technical and instittional barriers (Hypothesis 3 is partially verified) : the interoperability of text is a key issue to reuse publications in wiki and classical formats. The main issues we encountered were the management of references and uncertainty regarding the relationships with classical publication processes. A potential solution to the issues encountered could be to develop a specialised literature review software that would allow researchers to build a specialised knowledge graph (for example Wikibase), but also to reuse Wikidata and contribute to Wikidata. This kind of tool should be user-friendly and indlude the missing tools we identified. In addition, it could include more advanced analysis functions such as logical reasonning based on the knowledge graph<ref name=":9" />. == Funding == This project is funded by the [[m:Grants:Programs/Wikimedia_Research_&_Technology_Fund/Wikimedia_Research_Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]], Grant ID: G-RS-2504-18935. The text of the initial research proposal is available here : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20760603. == Data == {| class="wikitable sortable" ! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title |- | [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review |- | [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review |- | [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter? |- | [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset. |- | [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies? |- | [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection |- | [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development |- | [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research |- | [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition |- | [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning |- | [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view |- | [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory |- | [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries |- | [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies |- | [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes |- | [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation |- | [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives |- | [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies |- | [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice? |- | [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review |- | [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research |- | [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape |- | [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models |- | [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review |- | [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation |- | [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings |- | [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework |- | [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende |- | [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa |- | [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities |- | [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion |- | [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review |- | [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights |- | [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review |- | [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations |- | [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance |- | [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions |- | [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review |- | [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice |- | [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice |- | [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review |- | [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review |- | [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions |- | [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition |- | [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy |- | [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends |- | [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience |} == References == {{References}} 96sar6oszeyx9cw8ngqalgqxdqd8mfs 2817323 2817322 2026-06-29T17:54:55Z Jeanne Noiraud 1366702 /* Advantages of Wikiversity */ adding advantages of wikiversity 2817323 wikitext text/x-wiki == Acknowledgements == The present text was originally written on a Wikiversity page, if you are reading it in another format, you can find this page here : [[Just sustainability transitions: a living review|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review]]. You are free to add your comments on the page discussion section. === Contributors === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Affiliation !ORCID !Contribution |- |Adélie Ranville |IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208) |https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135 |Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling, article writing |- |Amélie E. Pereira |Laboratoire DICEN IDF | |Meta-data enrichement, article writing |- |Finn Nielsen |Technical University of Denmark |https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6128-3356 |Data visualisation |} Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review == Introduction == Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}</ref>. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}</ref>. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}</ref><ref>Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. </ref>. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination. === The problem of academic information overload === Global scientific output doubles every nine years<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}</ref>. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily. === The problem of knowledge synthesis === The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable<ref>{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}</ref> and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews that can be updated dynamically with new knowledge (examples : <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia. === The problem of scientific results dissemination === There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}</ref>. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}</ref> and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}</ref>. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}</ref>, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow<ref name=":10">Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., & Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. <nowiki>http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf</nowiki> </ref>. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap<ref name=":10" />. Because of gender segregation in disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}</ref>, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}</ref>, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]]. == Toward a living review on just sustainability transition == === Just sustainability transition === Just sustainability transition transition is "a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society"<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}</ref>. The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions<ref name=":0" />. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions<ref name=":0" />. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}</ref> and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. Developping living reviews seem particularly relevant for the just transition literature: first, modeling knowledge and building graphs allows to take into account the complexity of sustainability transitions which involve multiple levels of analysis<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> and fragmented results coming from various disciplines<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>. Then, making literature reviews "living" would allow researchers to be less subject to information overload through a more systematic accumulation of knowledge. Finally, conducting this review with an open science philosophy aswers the challenge of knowledge dissemination, which is crucial in a context of socio-ecological emergency when decision-makers need to rapidely access reliable information on possible sustainability transition trajectories. === Living reviews === The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked<ref name="Why1">{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}</ref>. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4">{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}</ref>. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" />. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":2">https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/</ref>. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research<ref name="Why1" /><ref name=":6" />, such as just transition. Literature review methods are currently evolving with new technological possibilities. Generative artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT are expected to have a strong influence on literature review activities<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes<ref name=":12" />, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}</ref>. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are "on the rise" (2025), but not yet integrated into tested and validated methodologies<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}</ref>. Human validation stays notably necessary<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alshami|first=Ahmad|last2=Elsayed|first2=Moustafa|last3=Ali|first3=Eslam|last4=Eltoukhy|first4=Abdelrahman E. E.|last5=Zayed|first5=Tarek|date=2023-07-09|title=Harnessing the Power of ChatGPT for Automating Systematic Review Process: Methodology, Case Study, Limitations, and Future Directions|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/11/7/351|journal=Systems|language=en|volume=11|issue=7|pages=351|doi=10.3390/systems11070351|issn=2079-8954}}</ref>,<ref name=":13" />. While AI can appear as a solution for scaling literature reviews, we are in the present project exploring another possible scenario which is to use more crowdsourcing in the literature review process. === Wikimedia projects === Wikipedia is a successfull example of large-scaled crowdsourcing of reliable knowledge synthesis. That is why this project proposes to explore the potential of the Wikimedia ecosystem for conducting living reviews. Since Wikipedia does aim to host original research<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikipedia:No original research|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:No_original_research&oldid=1360514388|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>, we are working on two sister projects : Wikidata and Wikiversity. [[wikipedia:Wikidata|Wikidata]] is a "collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=April 26, 2013|title=Welcome to Wikidata! Now what?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|access-date=October 2, 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002152920/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|url-status=live}}</ref>"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikidata|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikidata&oldid=1360462340|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. "A [[wikidata:Q33002955|knowledge graph]] is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}</ref> A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}</ref> Such graphs have a strong potential to conduct knowledge synthesis<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Fotopoulou">{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.</ref><ref name=":18" />. They are especially usefull to build the ontologies (formal representations of concepts) that are necessary to organize and represent existing knowledge<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>. In complement to using Wikidata to model knowledge, we decided to use Wikiversity to report and write our research results. [[wikipedia:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] is another Wikimedia project hosting pedagogical content, original research, and even a publishing house ([[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]])<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Wikiversity|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity&oldid=1358552930|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. Wikiversity pages are editable by everyone, have a discussion tab and a history log tab. Our research question is : '''How can Wikimedia projects contribute to building a collaborative living review on just sustainability transition ?''' In this project, we aim to test 4 hypothesis : ●       '''Hypothesis 1:''' Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations. ●       '''Hypothesis 2:''' Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (e.g. conceptual typologies, cause-effect chains…). ●       '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs. ●       '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikimedia or Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data). We also have 2 assumptions : ●       '''Assumption 1:''' Wikimedia projects have to be integrated into validated scientific protocols in order to be a valuable research tool. ●       '''Assumption 2:''' Wikimedia project contribution has to be made interoperable with tools, methods and data types already used by researchers. == Methodology == Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, and other open-science infrastructures. The first step was to build and enrich the bibliographic metadata of the corpus of articles we selected in Wikidata. The second step was to model the content of the findings of these articles in Wikidata (e.g. causes-effects relationships...). The third step was to experiment relevant visualization of this content (e.g. causes-effects graphs). The las step was to write our report on aWikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, following a linked open data philosophy. == 1. Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata == The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''' (Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations), and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology. To build and enrich our academic corpus on Wikidata, we searched existing databases, selected the sample of articles we wanted to study, imported these articles metadata into Wikidata, enriched these metadata and finally reflected on the advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich academic corpus. === Database search === Doing a systematic review on all aspects of just transition would have resulted in too many articles to review. We thus decided to first explore one aspect of justice : procedural justice. Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions<ref name=":4" /> such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}</ref>. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures<ref name=":0" />. For our search, we selected keywords related to procedural justice (procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory) and keywords related to sustainability transition (sustainability OR energy OR climate) AND (transition OR transitions). We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Keywords search !Database !Search date !Filters !Number of results |- |(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) |Web of Science (all databases, all dates) |December 2025 |Document type: Review Article |362 |} === Article selection === Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were * Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...) * Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...) * Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions * Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy * Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973 === Importing selected articles into Wikidata === To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the "export to Wikidata QuickStatements" function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata. Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|"Merge" gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items. === Article classification through metadata enrichement === Metadatas are data describing other data. The metadata of academic items usually include title, author, publication outlet, publication date, pages, DOI, URL... and can be structured following specific standards (e.g. [[wikipedia:Dublin_Core|Dublin Core]]). In academic databases such as WOS or OpenAlex, the only metadata available regarding the content of an academic article are the abstract and sometimes keywords. However, researchers conducting literature reviews need more precise informations. An important part of literature review work can thus be about describing what the articles are about. For example, describing industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt)<ref name=":5" />. By metadata enrichment, we mean completing metadata to include additional information about the content of an academic piece. In Wikidata, each type of information is added using a specific property. A property is the edge that links two entities in the Wikidata knowledge graph. We selected three Wikidata properties to describe the content of our selected articles : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe the geographical scope of the study. We also worked on adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} ==== We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Main topic !Description |- |[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]] |acceptability |characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose |- |[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]] |accountability |concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making |- |[[d:Q421953|Q421953]] |actor–network theory |theory within social science |- |[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]] |affordability | |- |[[d:Q185836|Q185836]] |age of a person |time elapsed since a person was born |- |[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]] |animal studies |field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways |- |[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]] |awareness |state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns |- |[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]] |blue carbon |carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems |- |[[d:Q430460|Q430460]] |capability approach |economic theory |- |[[d:Q7569|Q7569]] |child |human between birth and puberty |- |[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]] |civic engagement |individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern |- |[[d:Q125928|Q125928]] |climate change |human-caused changes to climate on Earth |- |[[d:Q260607|Q260607]] |climate change adaptation |process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities |- |[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]] |climate justice |term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice |- |[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]] |co-creation |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]] |co-design |approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders |- |[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]] |coproduction |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q11024|Q11024]] |communication |act of conveying intended meaning |- |[[d:Q177634|Q177634]] |community |social unit of human organisms who share common values |- |[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]] |community choice aggregation |alternative energy supply system |- |[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]] |community energy |delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects |- |[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]] |community participation |The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community |- |[[d:Q188843|Q188843]] |cosmopolitanism |ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality |- |[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]] |decarbonization |change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions |- |[[d:Q284289|Q284289]] |deliberative democracy |form of democracy focusing on consensus |- |[[d:Q7174|Q7174]] |democracy |form of government |- |[[d:Q552284|Q552284]] |distributive justice |concept of the socially just allocation of goods |- |[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]] |diversity |concept in sociology and political studies |- |[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]] |ecological economics |research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems |- |[[d:Q8134|Q8134]] |economics |social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services |- |[[d:Q868575|Q868575]] |empowerment |providing increased autonomy |- |[[d:Q295865|Q295865]] |ecosystem service |benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems |- |[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]] |energy citizenship |involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions |- |[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&redirect=no Q131444737] |community energy |[redirection] |- |[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]] |energy consumption |amount of energy or power used |- |[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]] |senior |elderly person |- |[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]] |energy democracy |concept in environmental justice movement |- |[[d:Q192704|Q192704]] |energy efficiency |ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine |- |[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]] |energy modeling |process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them |- |[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]] |energy policy |policy addressing energy issues |- |[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]] |energy poverty |lack of access to modern energy services |- |[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]] |energy production |conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans |- |[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]] |energy justice |subconcept of economic equality |- |[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]] |energy renovation |building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used |- |[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]] |energy security |national security considerations of energy availability |- |[[d:Q837718|Q837718]] |energy storage |capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time |- |[[d:Q795757|Q795757]] |energy transition |long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems |- |[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]] |environmental justice |system of fairness |- |[[d:Q771773|Q771773]] |fairness |concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society |- |[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]] |farming system |method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics |- |[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]] |food system |all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population |- |[[d:Q4421|Q4421]] |forest |dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area |- |[[d:Q48277|Q48277]] |gender |social concept which distinguish the different gender categories |- |[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]] |governance |all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society |- |[[d:Q8458|Q8458]] |human rights |inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled |- |[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]] |human rights violation |act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights |- |[[d:Q103817|Q103817]] |indigenous people |first inhabitants of an area and their descendants |- |[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]] |indigenous science |indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method |- |[[d:Q770480|Q770480]] |injustice |quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes |- |[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]] |interactional justice |the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment |- |[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]] |intersectionnality |theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression |- |[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]] |just transition |Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy. |- |[[d:Q366139|Q366139]] |legitimation |the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group |- |[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]] |living lab |user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities |- |[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]] |low income |home with little money |- |[[d:Q43619|Q43619]] |natural environment |all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof |- |[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]] |nature-positive |global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030 |- |[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]] |non-human |organism not in the genus Homo |- |[[d:Q728646|Q728646]] |partnership |arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests |- |[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]] |policy making |the act of developing policy |- |[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]] |political theory |class of theory |- |[[d:Q265425|Q265425]] |postcolonialism |academic discipline |- |[[d:Q25107|Q25107]] |power |ability to influence the behavior of others |- |[[d:Q442100|Q442100]] |procedural justice |fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources |- |[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]] |project governance |management framework |- |[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]] |public engagement |Policy-making practice |- |[[d:Q541936|Q541936]] |public participation |participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes |- |[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]] |recognition justice |social philosophy theory |- |[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]] |renewable electricity |electricity from renweable sources |- |[[d:Q12705|Q12705]] |renewable energy |energy collected from renewable resources |- |[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]] |renewable energy policy | |- |[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]] |restorative justice |approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement |- |[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]] |rural population |inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural |- |[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]] |smart system |adaptive intelligent systems |- |[[d:Q187588|Q187588]] |social class |group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors |- |[[d:Q264892|Q264892]] |social justice |concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied |- |[[d:Q34749|Q34749]] |social science |academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society |- |[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]] |stakeholder participation |involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity |- |[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]] |sustainability transition | |- |[[d:Q219416|Q219416]] |sustainability |ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state |- |[[d:Q131201|Q131201]] |sustainable development |mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations |- |[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]] |Sustainable Development Goals |set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change |- |[[d:Q69883|Q69883]] |urban planning |technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment |- |[[d:Q920600|Q920600]] |urban renewal |program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay |- |[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]] |vulnerable population |group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent |- |[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]] |water-management | |- |[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]] |well-being |measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction |- |[[d:Q467|Q467]] |woman |female adult human |- |[[d:Q188867|Q188867]] |future studies |study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures |- |[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]] |participatory design |active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process |}Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} ==== Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&property=P279&mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved some of these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q101116078}} can have {{Wikidata entity link|Q653137}} as {{Wikidata entity link|P13391}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paré|first=Guy|last2=Trudel|first2=Marie-Claude|last3=Jaana|first3=Mirou|last4=Kitsiou|first4=Spyros|date=2015-03|title=Synthesizing information systems knowledge: A typology of literature reviews|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378720614001116|journal=Information & Management|language=en|volume=52|issue=2|pages=183–199|doi=10.1016/j.im.2014.08.008}}</ref>. The types of reviews were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Study type !Description |- |[[d:Q603441|Q603441]] |bibliometrics |statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles |- |[[d:Q472342|Q472342]] |scientometrics |study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation |- |[[d:Q815382|Q815382]] |meta-analysis |statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources |- |[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]] |systematic review |publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic |- |[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]] |literature review |process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic |- |[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]] |meta-regression |statistical tool used in meta-analyses |- |[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]] |realist evaluation |theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes |- |[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]] |combinatorial meta-analysis |study of the statistical properties of combinations of studies from a meta-analytic dataset |- |[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]] |network meta-analysis |meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions |- |[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]] |scoping review |search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |- |[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]] |conceptual review |academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature |- |[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]] |critical review |type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research |- |[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]] |integrative literature review |type of literature review |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |}For each article, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} ==== When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article "{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}" focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} ==== When scholarly metadata are imported into Wikidata, the name of authors are stored as a chain of characters and linked to the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2093}}. The property {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} allows to make a link with a Wikidata item representing the author. This avoids the problem of homonym authors by attributing a unique identifyer to authors in Wikidata and linking these identifiers to existing ones such as ORCID. We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages. === Advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich living academic corpus === To share the result of our work, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973. The data is also available directly in Wikidata. The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1'''(Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations)'''.''' ==== Advantages of Wikidata ==== Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative nature as well as its interoperability. Wikidata ontology (that is how the data are structured) is collaboratively defined and properties can be added if relevant (after validation by the community). Compared to global databases like WOS or OpenAlex, Wikidata allows to enter more detail about each academic articles and anyone can add data. Another notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, "energy transition" was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Contrary to institutional thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. The multilingual nature of Wikidata was also a strengh, some Wikidata contributors added labels for the concepts we used into different languages (For example, contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in Armenian and Slovenian, languages we do not speak at all). ==== Limitations of Wikidata ==== Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and does not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base, by taking notes and highlighting the content of the full texts. Wikidata is not connected to this process and there is a missing tool to facilitate the construction of graphs from the qualitative analysis of texts. In addition, when one is working on a specific corpus of item in Wikidata, it is also difficult to keep track of this corpus. We linked each academic item we were working on to our research project by adding a statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}, but it was still relatively difficult to "filter" the part of the knowledge graph we were working on. Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount o bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data congested queries on Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. ==== Future possbilities ==== A solution to the limitations would be to developp the links between Wikidata and other tools of the open science ecosystem. For example, developping and maintaining plugins or extensions for specialised softwares like Zotero, Wikibase, and Omeka could connect Wikidata with more specialised graphs. Such extensions could help building local graphs by allowing the reuse of wikidata item (eg. autocompletion), but also help contributing to Wikidata thanks to export features. Building corpus of more precise academic metadata on Wikidata could also ultimately improve the precision of catalogues such as OpenAlex. For example, Wikidata items could be used to tag articles in a more precise way instead of using keywords and crowdsourced corpus built in Wikidata could be used to train more precise taging algorythms. == 2.Modelling the content of litterature reviews == The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 2''' (Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference) by modelling the content of our selected articles into Wikidata. [[wikipedia:Knowledge_modeling|Knowledge modelling]] is the process of making a machine readable model of a knowledge. As we have a background in social sciences, we felt the need to question the relationship between this process and other methodologies such as concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks. === Concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks === ==== Concept maps ==== [[File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|thumb|Example conceptual diagram|251x251px]]Concept maps are ''concepts'' (boxes) and ''propositions'' (arrow indicating the relationship between two boxes)<ref name=":19">Cañas, Alberto J., et al. "CmapTools: A knowledge modeling and sharing environment." (2004): 125-135. https://thomaseskridge.com/assets/pdf/Canas-2004.pdf</ref>. Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}</ref>. They can be built using specialised softwares (e.g. [https://cmap.ihmc.us/ Cmap])<ref name=":19" />. The "box and arrow" logic is similar to how knowledge is modelled on Wikidata : the equivalent of concepts is ''item'' and the equivalent of propositions are ''statements''. The difference between a softwares like Cmap and Wikidata is the underlying format of the data. ==== Thematic networks ==== [[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|447x447px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: based on Attride-Stirling 2001)]] A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}</ref>. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}</ref>. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data<ref name=":7" />. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes. Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes. However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not always specified. [[File:Adoption_CLD.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adoption_CLD.svg|thumb|421x421px|Causal loop diagram of ''Adoption'' model, used to demonstrate systems dynamics]] ==== Causal diagrams ==== The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}</ref>. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about "[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}</ref> Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can "feedback" (two variables can influence each other)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}</ref>. === Knowledge modelling in Wikidata === ==== Conceptual modelling ==== We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to model concepts in Wikidata. Scholars in management have called for more rigorous ways to define concepts. Definitions encompass various aspects such as the nature of the phenomenon, its characteristics, the links with prototypical cases or examples, the contrast with other concepts, the links with causes and consequences...<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}</ref>, and scholars have advised to take insight from philosophy to work on concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}</ref>. We thus read work in cognitive science which was summarizing approaches coming from psychology and philsosophy attempting to determine the content of concepts<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}</ref>. We summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them. * Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}... * Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. (The closer a phenomenon is to the prototype, the more likely it belong to the category). Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} (see discussion here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties). * Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}, {{P|1478}}, {{P|P9353}} (see discussions here : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en). * Essence: the content of a concept is "something" deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what its properties will be. * Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}. ==== Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} ==== To test concept modelling, we started by experimenting by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic : * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} We read each paper and used them as source to manually enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, Droubi et. Al stated "Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as reference (see screenshot below). The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&oldid=2495982191. [[File:Wikidata statement- energy democracy is an instance of ideal.png|915x915px|border]] We listed the difficulties encountered as we worked and we also asked the Wikidata community to give us feedback on our modelling on the item discussion page (https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Talk:Q14944319). ===== Contradictions ===== Wikidata contributor's feedback highlighted some apparent contradictions (The values in "does not have effect" seems contrary to what is listed in "has goal".) We would however argue this is not a problem because "statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}</ref>. Wikidata essentially supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}</ref>. In the case of goals versus effects statements, the discrepancy between the goals of energy democracy and what it actually achieves is precisely what some authors are critiquing<ref name=":20" />. Recommandations : Contradictions are allowed in Wikidata. ===== Precision ===== We also received feedbacks regarding a lack of precision in our statements (too many and too vague statements). We indeed noted that conceptual modelling requires an important degree of formalization and precision. This is a key advantage of Wikidata to be able to create links toward precise concepts which have their own identifiers. For example, we were able to create statements about specific laws and their unique identifiers in legal databases (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}} and its identifier in the EUR-Lex database). However, the sources we are working with are not always precise enough and when concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence "management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}</ref>, "choice" could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}}... We can see here that academic texts are using natural language and thus are using ambiguous terms. However, another reason why we ended up with very general statements is because we avoided the creation of new Wikidata items, while this could help make the statements more precise. Recommandations : If a concept is ambiguous it should not be included in the modelled statements. Create more precise relevant concepts if they do not exist in Wikidata. ===== Concision ===== Wikidata contributor's feedback indicated a lack of concision. Some of it coming from the fact that some values were "in the tree of another value". The rule we take from this feeback is a need of logical simplification. Two examples illustrate possible logical simplification : * We stated that {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} was an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q33104069}} and an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}}. But in that case, it is not necessary to state that it is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}}, because {{Wikidata entity link|Q33104069}} is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q131362181}}, which is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}} (see diagram on the right). Here, we have to keep only the more precise item. This reasonning is based on the assumption that {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} is transitive. It seems this reasonning could be generalized could potentially be automatized in Wikidata through a complex property constraint (we made a proposition in this sense here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata:WikiProject_Reasoning/Use_cases#Parcimonious_statement_constraints_based_on_subclass_of_(P279)_and_part_of_(P361)_transitivity<nowiki/>) * We stated that {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}. But if we consider that {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} of {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}, then the inclusion of {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} is implied. Here we could keep only the broader item. But unlike the reasonning above, we could not identify a way to generalize this reasonning. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}} can be a subclass of {{Wikidata entity link|Q43229}}, but using the former item is more informative than using the later. For the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, using a value that is too precise results in too many statements and using a value that is too general results in too trivial statements. [[File:Wikidata visualisation screenshot of subclasses relationships including the item political concept.png|thumb|298x298px|Subclass relationships between "concept" and "political concept".]]Recommandations : When possible, use logical simplification to make statements more parcimonious. ===== Quantification ===== The paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that "9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources". Modelling this sentence by adding a statement in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q177323}} would require creating a specific property for final energy consumption. There are such properties of this type in Wikidata : for example, for renewable energy subsidies, there is {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}}. This type of property is notably useful to display information about an item on Wikipedia through infoboxes (e.g. the population of a town). But the current informal rule on Wikidata property creation is to prefer the use of general properties and avoid the creation of specific properties. Thus an alternative way to model quantity is to create a specific item to represent what is quantified and use other properties to represent quantities (see example below). [[File:Wikidata screenshot of percentage modelling.png|border|783x783px]] But since data are usually stored elsewhere in more convenient formats, it may not be always relevant to include quantitative data into Wikidata. Instead, it might be more useful to link the item that is quantified to an external dataset about it. This can be done using the property {{Wikidata entity link|P1325}}. Recommandation : Use existing properties for the quantity if it exists. If it does not exist, create an item representing what is measured, link it toward external datasets and add relevant quantitative statements. ===== Ontology ===== Ultimately, several of our difficulties were linked to some ontology challenges reflecting the complexity of the concept we were working on. According to the litterature, {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} refer to multiple entities. It represents a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome (we reflected this with multiple {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} statements). We encountered struggles to model differences between process versus outcomes, ideal versus reality, discourses versus practices and phenomenon versus theory. The wikidata community recommands having different items for ''process and outcome'' (criterion "{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}"). For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork). However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes which are are ongoing and evolving without a clear ending. In an attempt to separate ''ideal versus reality,'' we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes attempting to reach it. It was difficult to separate ''phenomenon versus theory.'' For example, modelling the idea that the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Our sources suggested that energy democracy discourses and practices may have different causes, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movments promoting it, but this was not a very precise way to model this idea. The conclusion of our first attempt is that trying to include the multiple "natures" of energy democracy into a single item is not satisfactory. Implementing the modelling recommandations we identified above may not be sufficient to build more parcimonious statements. Creating new items to reflect the different aspects of energy democracy may here be necessary. But how should we split the different natures of the concept ? Here the definition of an {{Wikidata entity link|Q324254}} (formal representation) in WIkidata quickly escalate into questionning {{Wikidata entity link|Q44325}} (metaphysical reflexion on the nature of things), and especially {{Wikidata entity link|Q1713511}} (the nature of the social world). Critical realists posits that different things have different ways of being (modes of reality). They propose to classify entities in four categories : material entities (that can exist independently of humans), conceptual entities (concepts, discourses, ideas, meaning…), artefactual entities (human-made and combining conceptual and material elements) and social entities (that depends on human activity to exist)<ref>Fleetwood, S. (2004). An ontology for organisation and management studies. ''Critical Realist Applications in Organisation and Management Studies'', 27–53.</ref>. A complex concept like {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is concerned with all these types of entities. The energy system include many material entities such as oil fields, the sun, seas, trees... and artefacts such as energy production unit, power lines, home appliances, trucks... (Including conceptual entities such as the name of these artefacts or the knowledge to make them function.). There are the social entities in which they are encompassed (the enregy sectors, energy businesses, energy policies...). There are conceptual entities like normative/political discourses discussing how these artefact and social system should work and there are conceptual entities in the academic sphere building theories about how all this works or should work. Wikidata "supports multiple coexisting classification" and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.<ref name=":8" /> Current Wikidata ontology is structured with dischotomies such as {{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q4406616}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1970309}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q16686448}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q23958946}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q103940464}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q3799040}}... But its {{Wikidata entity link|Q1713511}} is unclear. The table below shows the possible root class entity for a few social entities, it is clear they fall under various root distinctions and do not belong to a common class. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Item ! Existing root class entity |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q190539}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q16686448}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q34770}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q9081}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q43229}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q49773}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}} |} Our next step would thus be to create new items to reflect the different facets of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} : the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it, the concrete initiatives implementing it, the litterature theorizing it, etc... And make sure the {{Wikidata entity link|Q3882785}} for these various entities is consistent. To do so we will align with a relevant existing standard (we opened the discussion about social ontology with the wikidata community here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata_talk:WikiProject_Ontology#Social_ontology). == 3. Data visualisation == The goal of this step is to test '''Hypothesis 3''' (SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs). At this stage we started to identify visualization use cases we would like to test, they are listed below. === Filter statements === * Visualize only statements using a specitic source in order to map the content of a single academic article. First test here: https://w.wiki/PFqH * Visualize only items which are part of the present project (all the academic items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}). === Properties visualisation === * Visualise the "tree" of a property used in an item : Wikidata graph builder seem to be the most user friendly, robust and versatile tool to visualise a graph of a single property (https://angryloki.github.io) === Concepts visualisation === * Map all statements related to a single item (e.g. Scholia request "topic in context" : [https://query.wikidata.org/#%23%20tool%3A%20scholia%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20PREFIX%20target%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ14944319%3E%0A%23defaultView%3AGraph%0APREFIX%20wd%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wdt%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fprop%2Fdirect%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wikibase%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwikiba.se%2Fontology%23%3E%0APREFIX%20rdf%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F1999%2F02%2F22-rdf-syntax-ns%23%3E%0A%0ASELECT%20%3Fnode%20%3FnodeLabel%20%3FnodeImage%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeLabel%20%3FchildNodeImage%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fnode%20%3FchildNode%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28target%3A%20AS%20%3Fnode%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fp%20%3Fi%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3Fi%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FP%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20UNION%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fnode%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28%22EFFBD8%22%20AS%20%3Frgb%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20target%3A%20%3Fp%20%3FchildNode%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3Fnodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fnodeclaim%20%3FnodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20%3FchildNodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%7D Example with Energy democracy]) * Map the statements that two items have in common to make comparisons. === Mapping sources consensus === * Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight in order to make consensual statements more visible. == 4. Writing == The goal of this step is to test '''Hypothesis 4''' (Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links). === Advantages of Wikiversity === Writing on a Wikiversity page offers some advantages to implement the principles of open linked data in text format. We could cite academic items using their Wikidata QID to generate the citations below (but if we use an URL to cite a paper, it does not automatically check if there is an existing QID for it), and also link toward Wikidata entities using a template ([[Template:Wikidata entity link|Wikidata entity link]]). Although we did not translate the present page for now, Wikiversity offers the possibility to translate a page in multiple languages (an interesting possibility in the context of the The FAIRisation of scholarly communication<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maryl|first=Maciej|last2=Blaszczyńska|first2=Marta|last3=Zalotyńska|first3=Agnieszka|last4=Taylor|first4=Laurence|last5=Avanço|first5=Karla|last6=Balula|first6=Ana|last7=Buchner|first7=Anna|last8=Caliman|first8=Lorena|last9=Clivaz|first9=Claire|date=2021-01|title=Future of Scholarly Communication|url=https://hal.science/hal-03277615}}</ref>). The possibility to view the page history provide an exhaustive versionning of a paper, which could be interesting to study in itself to observe academic writing process (at first we do not commented the nature of our modifications but after thinking about this possibility we described it with more details). The contribution statistics also offers a new way to track author's contributions to a paper. === The issue of text interoperability === A key issue we are encountering is the question of the interoperability of texts. While the interoperability of data is starting to be well discussed in the open science community, the interoperability of texts do not seem to benefit from the same level of discussion. We encountered several interoperability issues regarding our writing. First, copying texts written on a word processor software (e.g. microsoft word) into a wiki page (or the other way around) is relatively seamless in terms of formatting, except for the management of references. Reformatting references is very time consuming and a real barrier for text interoperability in academic context : it is difficult to copy text from an academic publication into a wiki text, and difficult to turn a wiki text into a publication. There are also uncertaineties regarding how to reuse texts published under creative common licences. Academic texts published under CC-BY-SA licences can in theory be remixed and reused. But academia does not have established practices regarding how this can be done. If we want to reuse a whole page, should we put it in quotation marks and simply cite the paper ? Should the original authors be listed as co-authors ? Will academic publisher accept such new writing practices while they usually require that publications contain mainly unpublished content ? The norms of what is appropriate remix and reuse practices in academia has yet to be decided... and we invite the open science community to discuss this issue. == Discussion == Our goal was to assess the potential of Wikidata and Wikiversity to build a living literature review method and tackle issues of information overload, knowledge synthesis and knowledge dissemination, following open science principles. By conducting a meta-review on just sustainability transition (that is a review of existing literature reviews), and experimenting with existing technical solutions, we were able to identify the strenghs and limitations of the Wikidata ecosystem. First Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations (Hypothesis 1 is verified). However, the technical barriers to do so are still high and the Wikidata database is too general to allow a community to work on a specific curated corpus of scientific items. Secondly, Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (Hypothesis 2 is verified). However, this requires developping and using a methodology regarding what is a rigorous modelling in social science, as well as building specific {{Wikidata entity link|Q324254}}. An unexpected finding is that the formalization necessary for knowledge modelling in wikidata invites to formalize the reasonning behind modelling choices, a process that is rarely done in qualitative analysis although such reasonning are likely present. This process also responds to calls in management sciences to engage in more systematic categorizing and avoir semantic confusion<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Thirdly, SPARQL-based queries can be used to vizualised scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs, but we cannot completely say they allow users to "navigate" it (Hypothesis 3 is partially verified). SPARQL-based queries are powerful but they require technical knowledge, especially now that the split between academic and non-academic items in Wikidata requires to write federated queries. To be able to "navigate" scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs on Wikidata, more user-friendly tools would be needed. Finally, we did see advantaged in using Wikiversity pages can be used to write collaboratively in text format augmented by hypertext links, but there are still important technical and instittional barriers (Hypothesis 3 is partially verified) : the interoperability of text is a key issue to reuse publications in wiki and classical formats. The main issues we encountered were the management of references and uncertainty regarding the relationships with classical publication processes. A potential solution to the issues encountered could be to develop a specialised literature review software that would allow researchers to build a specialised knowledge graph (for example Wikibase), but also to reuse Wikidata and contribute to Wikidata. This kind of tool should be user-friendly and indlude the missing tools we identified. In addition, it could include more advanced analysis functions such as logical reasonning based on the knowledge graph<ref name=":9" />. == Funding == This project is funded by the [[m:Grants:Programs/Wikimedia_Research_&_Technology_Fund/Wikimedia_Research_Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]], Grant ID: G-RS-2504-18935. The text of the initial research proposal is available here : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20760603. == Data == {| class="wikitable sortable" ! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title |- | [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review |- | [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review |- | [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter? |- | [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset. |- | [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies? |- | [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection |- | [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development |- | [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research |- | [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition |- | [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning |- | [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view |- | [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory |- | [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries |- | [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies |- | [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes |- | [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation |- | [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives |- | [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies |- | [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice? |- | [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review |- | [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research |- | [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape |- | [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models |- | [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review |- | [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation |- | [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings |- | [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework |- | [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende |- | [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa |- | [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities |- | [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion |- | [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review |- | [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights |- | [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review |- | [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations |- | [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance |- | [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions |- | [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review |- | [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice |- | [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice |- | [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review |- | [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review |- | [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions |- | [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition |- | [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy |- | [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends |- | [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience |} == References == {{References}} hc3k3phtpm7nhi527h1u868crfu5uox 2817325 2817323 2026-06-29T18:38:09Z Jeanne Noiraud 1366702 Adding title of the conference at which the paper will be presented 2817325 wikitext text/x-wiki Utiliser Wikidata pour mettre en œuvre une méthode de revue de littérature vivante, Conférence pour les méthodes pour les sciences sociales et les humanités, 9 et 10 Juillet 2026 (Aubervilliers, France) == Acknowledgements == The present text was originally written on a Wikiversity page, if you are reading it in another format, you can find this page here : [[Just sustainability transitions: a living review|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review]]. You are free to add your comments on the page discussion section. === Contributors === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Affiliation !ORCID !Contribution |- |Adélie Ranville |IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208) |https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135 |Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling, article writing |- |Amélie E. Pereira |Laboratoire DICEN IDF | |Meta-data enrichement, article writing |- |Finn Nielsen |Technical University of Denmark |https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6128-3356 |Data visualisation |} Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review == Introduction == Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}</ref>. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}</ref>. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}</ref><ref>Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. </ref>. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination. === The problem of academic information overload === Global scientific output doubles every nine years<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}</ref>. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily. === The problem of knowledge synthesis === The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable<ref>{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}</ref> and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews that can be updated dynamically with new knowledge (examples : <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia. === The problem of scientific results dissemination === There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}</ref>. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}</ref> and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}</ref>. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}</ref>, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow<ref name=":10">Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., & Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. <nowiki>http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf</nowiki> </ref>. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap<ref name=":10" />. Because of gender segregation in disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}</ref>, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}</ref>, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]]. == Toward a living review on just sustainability transition == === Just sustainability transition === Just sustainability transition transition is "a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society"<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}</ref>. The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions<ref name=":0" />. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions<ref name=":0" />. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}</ref> and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. Developping living reviews seem particularly relevant for the just transition literature: first, modeling knowledge and building graphs allows to take into account the complexity of sustainability transitions which involve multiple levels of analysis<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> and fragmented results coming from various disciplines<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>. Then, making literature reviews "living" would allow researchers to be less subject to information overload through a more systematic accumulation of knowledge. Finally, conducting this review with an open science philosophy aswers the challenge of knowledge dissemination, which is crucial in a context of socio-ecological emergency when decision-makers need to rapidely access reliable information on possible sustainability transition trajectories. === Living reviews === The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked<ref name="Why1">{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}</ref>. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4">{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}</ref>. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" />. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":2">https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/</ref>. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research<ref name="Why1" /><ref name=":6" />, such as just transition. Literature review methods are currently evolving with new technological possibilities. Generative artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT are expected to have a strong influence on literature review activities<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes<ref name=":12" />, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}</ref>. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are "on the rise" (2025), but not yet integrated into tested and validated methodologies<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}</ref>. Human validation stays notably necessary<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alshami|first=Ahmad|last2=Elsayed|first2=Moustafa|last3=Ali|first3=Eslam|last4=Eltoukhy|first4=Abdelrahman E. E.|last5=Zayed|first5=Tarek|date=2023-07-09|title=Harnessing the Power of ChatGPT for Automating Systematic Review Process: Methodology, Case Study, Limitations, and Future Directions|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/11/7/351|journal=Systems|language=en|volume=11|issue=7|pages=351|doi=10.3390/systems11070351|issn=2079-8954}}</ref>,<ref name=":13" />. While AI can appear as a solution for scaling literature reviews, we are in the present project exploring another possible scenario which is to use more crowdsourcing in the literature review process. === Wikimedia projects === Wikipedia is a successfull example of large-scaled crowdsourcing of reliable knowledge synthesis. That is why this project proposes to explore the potential of the Wikimedia ecosystem for conducting living reviews. Since Wikipedia does aim to host original research<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikipedia:No original research|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:No_original_research&oldid=1360514388|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>, we are working on two sister projects : Wikidata and Wikiversity. [[wikipedia:Wikidata|Wikidata]] is a "collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=April 26, 2013|title=Welcome to Wikidata! Now what?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|access-date=October 2, 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002152920/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|url-status=live}}</ref>"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikidata|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikidata&oldid=1360462340|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. "A [[wikidata:Q33002955|knowledge graph]] is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}</ref> A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}</ref> Such graphs have a strong potential to conduct knowledge synthesis<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Fotopoulou">{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.</ref><ref name=":18" />. They are especially usefull to build the ontologies (formal representations of concepts) that are necessary to organize and represent existing knowledge<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>. In complement to using Wikidata to model knowledge, we decided to use Wikiversity to report and write our research results. [[wikipedia:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] is another Wikimedia project hosting pedagogical content, original research, and even a publishing house ([[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]])<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Wikiversity|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity&oldid=1358552930|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. Wikiversity pages are editable by everyone, have a discussion tab and a history log tab. Our research question is : '''How can Wikimedia projects contribute to building a collaborative living review on just sustainability transition ?''' In this project, we aim to test 4 hypothesis : ●       '''Hypothesis 1:''' Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations. ●       '''Hypothesis 2:''' Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (e.g. conceptual typologies, cause-effect chains…). ●       '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs. ●       '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikimedia or Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data). We also have 2 assumptions : ●       '''Assumption 1:''' Wikimedia projects have to be integrated into validated scientific protocols in order to be a valuable research tool. ●       '''Assumption 2:''' Wikimedia project contribution has to be made interoperable with tools, methods and data types already used by researchers. == Methodology == Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, and other open-science infrastructures. The first step was to build and enrich the bibliographic metadata of the corpus of articles we selected in Wikidata. The second step was to model the content of the findings of these articles in Wikidata (e.g. causes-effects relationships...). The third step was to experiment relevant visualization of this content (e.g. causes-effects graphs). The las step was to write our report on aWikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, following a linked open data philosophy. == 1. Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata == The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''' (Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations), and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology. To build and enrich our academic corpus on Wikidata, we searched existing databases, selected the sample of articles we wanted to study, imported these articles metadata into Wikidata, enriched these metadata and finally reflected on the advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich academic corpus. === Database search === Doing a systematic review on all aspects of just transition would have resulted in too many articles to review. We thus decided to first explore one aspect of justice : procedural justice. Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions<ref name=":4" /> such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}</ref>. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures<ref name=":0" />. For our search, we selected keywords related to procedural justice (procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory) and keywords related to sustainability transition (sustainability OR energy OR climate) AND (transition OR transitions). We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Keywords search !Database !Search date !Filters !Number of results |- |(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) |Web of Science (all databases, all dates) |December 2025 |Document type: Review Article |362 |} === Article selection === Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were * Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...) * Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...) * Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions * Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy * Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973 === Importing selected articles into Wikidata === To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the "export to Wikidata QuickStatements" function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata. Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|"Merge" gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items. === Article classification through metadata enrichement === Metadatas are data describing other data. The metadata of academic items usually include title, author, publication outlet, publication date, pages, DOI, URL... and can be structured following specific standards (e.g. [[wikipedia:Dublin_Core|Dublin Core]]). In academic databases such as WOS or OpenAlex, the only metadata available regarding the content of an academic article are the abstract and sometimes keywords. However, researchers conducting literature reviews need more precise informations. An important part of literature review work can thus be about describing what the articles are about. For example, describing industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt)<ref name=":5" />. By metadata enrichment, we mean completing metadata to include additional information about the content of an academic piece. In Wikidata, each type of information is added using a specific property. A property is the edge that links two entities in the Wikidata knowledge graph. We selected three Wikidata properties to describe the content of our selected articles : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe the geographical scope of the study. We also worked on adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} ==== We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Main topic !Description |- |[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]] |acceptability |characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose |- |[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]] |accountability |concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making |- |[[d:Q421953|Q421953]] |actor–network theory |theory within social science |- |[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]] |affordability | |- |[[d:Q185836|Q185836]] |age of a person |time elapsed since a person was born |- |[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]] |animal studies |field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways |- |[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]] |awareness |state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns |- |[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]] |blue carbon |carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems |- |[[d:Q430460|Q430460]] |capability approach |economic theory |- |[[d:Q7569|Q7569]] |child |human between birth and puberty |- |[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]] |civic engagement |individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern |- |[[d:Q125928|Q125928]] |climate change |human-caused changes to climate on Earth |- |[[d:Q260607|Q260607]] |climate change adaptation |process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities |- |[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]] |climate justice |term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice |- |[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]] |co-creation |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]] |co-design |approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders |- |[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]] |coproduction |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q11024|Q11024]] |communication |act of conveying intended meaning |- |[[d:Q177634|Q177634]] |community |social unit of human organisms who share common values |- |[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]] |community choice aggregation |alternative energy supply system |- |[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]] |community energy |delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects |- |[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]] |community participation |The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community |- |[[d:Q188843|Q188843]] |cosmopolitanism |ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality |- |[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]] |decarbonization |change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions |- |[[d:Q284289|Q284289]] |deliberative democracy |form of democracy focusing on consensus |- |[[d:Q7174|Q7174]] |democracy |form of government |- |[[d:Q552284|Q552284]] |distributive justice |concept of the socially just allocation of goods |- |[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]] |diversity |concept in sociology and political studies |- |[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]] |ecological economics |research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems |- |[[d:Q8134|Q8134]] |economics |social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services |- |[[d:Q868575|Q868575]] |empowerment |providing increased autonomy |- |[[d:Q295865|Q295865]] |ecosystem service |benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems |- |[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]] |energy citizenship |involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions |- |[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&redirect=no Q131444737] |community energy |[redirection] |- |[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]] |energy consumption |amount of energy or power used |- |[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]] |senior |elderly person |- |[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]] |energy democracy |concept in environmental justice movement |- |[[d:Q192704|Q192704]] |energy efficiency |ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine |- |[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]] |energy modeling |process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them |- |[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]] |energy policy |policy addressing energy issues |- |[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]] |energy poverty |lack of access to modern energy services |- |[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]] |energy production |conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans |- |[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]] |energy justice |subconcept of economic equality |- |[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]] |energy renovation |building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used |- |[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]] |energy security |national security considerations of energy availability |- |[[d:Q837718|Q837718]] |energy storage |capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time |- |[[d:Q795757|Q795757]] |energy transition |long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems |- |[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]] |environmental justice |system of fairness |- |[[d:Q771773|Q771773]] |fairness |concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society |- |[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]] |farming system |method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics |- |[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]] |food system |all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population |- |[[d:Q4421|Q4421]] |forest |dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area |- |[[d:Q48277|Q48277]] |gender |social concept which distinguish the different gender categories |- |[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]] |governance |all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society |- |[[d:Q8458|Q8458]] |human rights |inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled |- |[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]] |human rights violation |act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights |- |[[d:Q103817|Q103817]] |indigenous people |first inhabitants of an area and their descendants |- |[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]] |indigenous science |indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method |- |[[d:Q770480|Q770480]] |injustice |quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes |- |[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]] |interactional justice |the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment |- |[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]] |intersectionnality |theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression |- |[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]] |just transition |Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy. |- |[[d:Q366139|Q366139]] |legitimation |the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group |- |[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]] |living lab |user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities |- |[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]] |low income |home with little money |- |[[d:Q43619|Q43619]] |natural environment |all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof |- |[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]] |nature-positive |global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030 |- |[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]] |non-human |organism not in the genus Homo |- |[[d:Q728646|Q728646]] |partnership |arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests |- |[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]] |policy making |the act of developing policy |- |[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]] |political theory |class of theory |- |[[d:Q265425|Q265425]] |postcolonialism |academic discipline |- |[[d:Q25107|Q25107]] |power |ability to influence the behavior of others |- |[[d:Q442100|Q442100]] |procedural justice |fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources |- |[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]] |project governance |management framework |- |[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]] |public engagement |Policy-making practice |- |[[d:Q541936|Q541936]] |public participation |participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes |- |[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]] |recognition justice |social philosophy theory |- |[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]] |renewable electricity |electricity from renweable sources |- |[[d:Q12705|Q12705]] |renewable energy |energy collected from renewable resources |- |[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]] |renewable energy policy | |- |[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]] |restorative justice |approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement |- |[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]] |rural population |inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural |- |[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]] |smart system |adaptive intelligent systems |- |[[d:Q187588|Q187588]] |social class |group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors |- |[[d:Q264892|Q264892]] |social justice |concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied |- |[[d:Q34749|Q34749]] |social science |academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society |- |[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]] |stakeholder participation |involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity |- |[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]] |sustainability transition | |- |[[d:Q219416|Q219416]] |sustainability |ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state |- |[[d:Q131201|Q131201]] |sustainable development |mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations |- |[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]] |Sustainable Development Goals |set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change |- |[[d:Q69883|Q69883]] |urban planning |technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment |- |[[d:Q920600|Q920600]] |urban renewal |program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay |- |[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]] |vulnerable population |group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent |- |[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]] |water-management | |- |[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]] |well-being |measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction |- |[[d:Q467|Q467]] |woman |female adult human |- |[[d:Q188867|Q188867]] |future studies |study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures |- |[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]] |participatory design |active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process |}Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} ==== Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&property=P279&mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved some of these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q101116078}} can have {{Wikidata entity link|Q653137}} as {{Wikidata entity link|P13391}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paré|first=Guy|last2=Trudel|first2=Marie-Claude|last3=Jaana|first3=Mirou|last4=Kitsiou|first4=Spyros|date=2015-03|title=Synthesizing information systems knowledge: A typology of literature reviews|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378720614001116|journal=Information & Management|language=en|volume=52|issue=2|pages=183–199|doi=10.1016/j.im.2014.08.008}}</ref>. The types of reviews were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Study type !Description |- |[[d:Q603441|Q603441]] |bibliometrics |statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles |- |[[d:Q472342|Q472342]] |scientometrics |study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation |- |[[d:Q815382|Q815382]] |meta-analysis |statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources |- |[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]] |systematic review |publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic |- |[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]] |literature review |process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic |- |[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]] |meta-regression |statistical tool used in meta-analyses |- |[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]] |realist evaluation |theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes |- |[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]] |combinatorial meta-analysis |study of the statistical properties of combinations of studies from a meta-analytic dataset |- |[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]] |network meta-analysis |meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions |- |[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]] |scoping review |search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |- |[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]] |conceptual review |academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature |- |[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]] |critical review |type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research |- |[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]] |integrative literature review |type of literature review |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |}For each article, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} ==== When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article "{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}" focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} ==== When scholarly metadata are imported into Wikidata, the name of authors are stored as a chain of characters and linked to the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2093}}. The property {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} allows to make a link with a Wikidata item representing the author. This avoids the problem of homonym authors by attributing a unique identifyer to authors in Wikidata and linking these identifiers to existing ones such as ORCID. We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages. === Advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich living academic corpus === To share the result of our work, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973. The data is also available directly in Wikidata. The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1'''(Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations)'''.''' ==== Advantages of Wikidata ==== Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative nature as well as its interoperability. Wikidata ontology (that is how the data are structured) is collaboratively defined and properties can be added if relevant (after validation by the community). Compared to global databases like WOS or OpenAlex, Wikidata allows to enter more detail about each academic articles and anyone can add data. Another notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, "energy transition" was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Contrary to institutional thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. The multilingual nature of Wikidata was also a strengh, some Wikidata contributors added labels for the concepts we used into different languages (For example, contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in Armenian and Slovenian, languages we do not speak at all). ==== Limitations of Wikidata ==== Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and does not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base, by taking notes and highlighting the content of the full texts. Wikidata is not connected to this process and there is a missing tool to facilitate the construction of graphs from the qualitative analysis of texts. In addition, when one is working on a specific corpus of item in Wikidata, it is also difficult to keep track of this corpus. We linked each academic item we were working on to our research project by adding a statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}, but it was still relatively difficult to "filter" the part of the knowledge graph we were working on. Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount o bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data congested queries on Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. ==== Future possbilities ==== A solution to the limitations would be to developp the links between Wikidata and other tools of the open science ecosystem. For example, developping and maintaining plugins or extensions for specialised softwares like Zotero, Wikibase, and Omeka could connect Wikidata with more specialised graphs. Such extensions could help building local graphs by allowing the reuse of wikidata item (eg. autocompletion), but also help contributing to Wikidata thanks to export features. Building corpus of more precise academic metadata on Wikidata could also ultimately improve the precision of catalogues such as OpenAlex. For example, Wikidata items could be used to tag articles in a more precise way instead of using keywords and crowdsourced corpus built in Wikidata could be used to train more precise taging algorythms. == 2.Modelling the content of litterature reviews == The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 2''' (Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference) by modelling the content of our selected articles into Wikidata. [[wikipedia:Knowledge_modeling|Knowledge modelling]] is the process of making a machine readable model of a knowledge. As we have a background in social sciences, we felt the need to question the relationship between this process and other methodologies such as concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks. === Concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks === ==== Concept maps ==== [[File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|thumb|Example conceptual diagram|251x251px]]Concept maps are ''concepts'' (boxes) and ''propositions'' (arrow indicating the relationship between two boxes)<ref name=":19">Cañas, Alberto J., et al. "CmapTools: A knowledge modeling and sharing environment." (2004): 125-135. https://thomaseskridge.com/assets/pdf/Canas-2004.pdf</ref>. Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}</ref>. They can be built using specialised softwares (e.g. [https://cmap.ihmc.us/ Cmap])<ref name=":19" />. The "box and arrow" logic is similar to how knowledge is modelled on Wikidata : the equivalent of concepts is ''item'' and the equivalent of propositions are ''statements''. The difference between a softwares like Cmap and Wikidata is the underlying format of the data. ==== Thematic networks ==== [[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|447x447px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: based on Attride-Stirling 2001)]] A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}</ref>. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}</ref>. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data<ref name=":7" />. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes. Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes. However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not always specified. [[File:Adoption_CLD.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adoption_CLD.svg|thumb|421x421px|Causal loop diagram of ''Adoption'' model, used to demonstrate systems dynamics]] ==== Causal diagrams ==== The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}</ref>. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about "[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}</ref> Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can "feedback" (two variables can influence each other)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}</ref>. === Knowledge modelling in Wikidata === ==== Conceptual modelling ==== We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to model concepts in Wikidata. Scholars in management have called for more rigorous ways to define concepts. Definitions encompass various aspects such as the nature of the phenomenon, its characteristics, the links with prototypical cases or examples, the contrast with other concepts, the links with causes and consequences...<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}</ref>, and scholars have advised to take insight from philosophy to work on concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}</ref>. We thus read work in cognitive science which was summarizing approaches coming from psychology and philsosophy attempting to determine the content of concepts<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}</ref>. We summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them. * Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}... * Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. (The closer a phenomenon is to the prototype, the more likely it belong to the category). Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} (see discussion here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties). * Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}, {{P|1478}}, {{P|P9353}} (see discussions here : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en). * Essence: the content of a concept is "something" deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what its properties will be. * Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}. ==== Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} ==== To test concept modelling, we started by experimenting by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic : * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} We read each paper and used them as source to manually enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, Droubi et. Al stated "Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as reference (see screenshot below). The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&oldid=2495982191. [[File:Wikidata statement- energy democracy is an instance of ideal.png|915x915px|border]] We listed the difficulties encountered as we worked and we also asked the Wikidata community to give us feedback on our modelling on the item discussion page (https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Talk:Q14944319). ===== Contradictions ===== Wikidata contributor's feedback highlighted some apparent contradictions (The values in "does not have effect" seems contrary to what is listed in "has goal".) We would however argue this is not a problem because "statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}</ref>. Wikidata essentially supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}</ref>. In the case of goals versus effects statements, the discrepancy between the goals of energy democracy and what it actually achieves is precisely what some authors are critiquing<ref name=":20" />. Recommandations : Contradictions are allowed in Wikidata. ===== Precision ===== We also received feedbacks regarding a lack of precision in our statements (too many and too vague statements). We indeed noted that conceptual modelling requires an important degree of formalization and precision. This is a key advantage of Wikidata to be able to create links toward precise concepts which have their own identifiers. For example, we were able to create statements about specific laws and their unique identifiers in legal databases (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}} and its identifier in the EUR-Lex database). However, the sources we are working with are not always precise enough and when concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence "management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}</ref>, "choice" could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}}... We can see here that academic texts are using natural language and thus are using ambiguous terms. However, another reason why we ended up with very general statements is because we avoided the creation of new Wikidata items, while this could help make the statements more precise. Recommandations : If a concept is ambiguous it should not be included in the modelled statements. Create more precise relevant concepts if they do not exist in Wikidata. ===== Concision ===== Wikidata contributor's feedback indicated a lack of concision. Some of it coming from the fact that some values were "in the tree of another value". The rule we take from this feeback is a need of logical simplification. Two examples illustrate possible logical simplification : * We stated that {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} was an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q33104069}} and an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}}. But in that case, it is not necessary to state that it is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}}, because {{Wikidata entity link|Q33104069}} is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q131362181}}, which is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}} (see diagram on the right). Here, we have to keep only the more precise item. This reasonning is based on the assumption that {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} is transitive. It seems this reasonning could be generalized could potentially be automatized in Wikidata through a complex property constraint (we made a proposition in this sense here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata:WikiProject_Reasoning/Use_cases#Parcimonious_statement_constraints_based_on_subclass_of_(P279)_and_part_of_(P361)_transitivity<nowiki/>) * We stated that {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}. But if we consider that {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} of {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}, then the inclusion of {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} is implied. Here we could keep only the broader item. But unlike the reasonning above, we could not identify a way to generalize this reasonning. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}} can be a subclass of {{Wikidata entity link|Q43229}}, but using the former item is more informative than using the later. For the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, using a value that is too precise results in too many statements and using a value that is too general results in too trivial statements. [[File:Wikidata visualisation screenshot of subclasses relationships including the item political concept.png|thumb|298x298px|Subclass relationships between "concept" and "political concept".]]Recommandations : When possible, use logical simplification to make statements more parcimonious. ===== Quantification ===== The paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that "9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources". Modelling this sentence by adding a statement in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q177323}} would require creating a specific property for final energy consumption. There are such properties of this type in Wikidata : for example, for renewable energy subsidies, there is {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}}. This type of property is notably useful to display information about an item on Wikipedia through infoboxes (e.g. the population of a town). But the current informal rule on Wikidata property creation is to prefer the use of general properties and avoid the creation of specific properties. Thus an alternative way to model quantity is to create a specific item to represent what is quantified and use other properties to represent quantities (see example below). [[File:Wikidata screenshot of percentage modelling.png|border|783x783px]] But since data are usually stored elsewhere in more convenient formats, it may not be always relevant to include quantitative data into Wikidata. Instead, it might be more useful to link the item that is quantified to an external dataset about it. This can be done using the property {{Wikidata entity link|P1325}}. Recommandation : Use existing properties for the quantity if it exists. If it does not exist, create an item representing what is measured, link it toward external datasets and add relevant quantitative statements. ===== Ontology ===== Ultimately, several of our difficulties were linked to some ontology challenges reflecting the complexity of the concept we were working on. According to the litterature, {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} refer to multiple entities. It represents a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome (we reflected this with multiple {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} statements). We encountered struggles to model differences between process versus outcomes, ideal versus reality, discourses versus practices and phenomenon versus theory. The wikidata community recommands having different items for ''process and outcome'' (criterion "{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}"). For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork). However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes which are are ongoing and evolving without a clear ending. In an attempt to separate ''ideal versus reality,'' we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes attempting to reach it. It was difficult to separate ''phenomenon versus theory.'' For example, modelling the idea that the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Our sources suggested that energy democracy discourses and practices may have different causes, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movments promoting it, but this was not a very precise way to model this idea. The conclusion of our first attempt is that trying to include the multiple "natures" of energy democracy into a single item is not satisfactory. Implementing the modelling recommandations we identified above may not be sufficient to build more parcimonious statements. Creating new items to reflect the different aspects of energy democracy may here be necessary. But how should we split the different natures of the concept ? Here the definition of an {{Wikidata entity link|Q324254}} (formal representation) in WIkidata quickly escalate into questionning {{Wikidata entity link|Q44325}} (metaphysical reflexion on the nature of things), and especially {{Wikidata entity link|Q1713511}} (the nature of the social world). Critical realists posits that different things have different ways of being (modes of reality). They propose to classify entities in four categories : material entities (that can exist independently of humans), conceptual entities (concepts, discourses, ideas, meaning…), artefactual entities (human-made and combining conceptual and material elements) and social entities (that depends on human activity to exist)<ref>Fleetwood, S. (2004). An ontology for organisation and management studies. ''Critical Realist Applications in Organisation and Management Studies'', 27–53.</ref>. A complex concept like {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is concerned with all these types of entities. The energy system include many material entities such as oil fields, the sun, seas, trees... and artefacts such as energy production unit, power lines, home appliances, trucks... (Including conceptual entities such as the name of these artefacts or the knowledge to make them function.). There are the social entities in which they are encompassed (the enregy sectors, energy businesses, energy policies...). There are conceptual entities like normative/political discourses discussing how these artefact and social system should work and there are conceptual entities in the academic sphere building theories about how all this works or should work. Wikidata "supports multiple coexisting classification" and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.<ref name=":8" /> Current Wikidata ontology is structured with dischotomies such as {{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q4406616}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1970309}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q16686448}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q23958946}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q103940464}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q3799040}}... But its {{Wikidata entity link|Q1713511}} is unclear. The table below shows the possible root class entity for a few social entities, it is clear they fall under various root distinctions and do not belong to a common class. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Item ! Existing root class entity |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q190539}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q16686448}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q34770}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q9081}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q43229}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q49773}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}} |} Our next step would thus be to create new items to reflect the different facets of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} : the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it, the concrete initiatives implementing it, the litterature theorizing it, etc... And make sure the {{Wikidata entity link|Q3882785}} for these various entities is consistent. To do so we will align with a relevant existing standard (we opened the discussion about social ontology with the wikidata community here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata_talk:WikiProject_Ontology#Social_ontology). == 3. Data visualisation == The goal of this step is to test '''Hypothesis 3''' (SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs). At this stage we started to identify visualization use cases we would like to test, they are listed below. === Filter statements === * Visualize only statements using a specitic source in order to map the content of a single academic article. First test here: https://w.wiki/PFqH * Visualize only items which are part of the present project (all the academic items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}). === Properties visualisation === * Visualise the "tree" of a property used in an item : Wikidata graph builder seem to be the most user friendly, robust and versatile tool to visualise a graph of a single property (https://angryloki.github.io) === Concepts visualisation === * Map all statements related to a single item (e.g. Scholia request "topic in context" : [https://query.wikidata.org/#%23%20tool%3A%20scholia%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20PREFIX%20target%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ14944319%3E%0A%23defaultView%3AGraph%0APREFIX%20wd%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wdt%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fprop%2Fdirect%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wikibase%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwikiba.se%2Fontology%23%3E%0APREFIX%20rdf%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F1999%2F02%2F22-rdf-syntax-ns%23%3E%0A%0ASELECT%20%3Fnode%20%3FnodeLabel%20%3FnodeImage%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeLabel%20%3FchildNodeImage%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fnode%20%3FchildNode%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28target%3A%20AS%20%3Fnode%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fp%20%3Fi%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3Fi%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FP%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20UNION%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fnode%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28%22EFFBD8%22%20AS%20%3Frgb%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20target%3A%20%3Fp%20%3FchildNode%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3Fnodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fnodeclaim%20%3FnodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20%3FchildNodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%7D Example with Energy democracy]) * Map the statements that two items have in common to make comparisons. === Mapping sources consensus === * Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight in order to make consensual statements more visible. == 4. Writing == The goal of this step is to test '''Hypothesis 4''' (Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links). === Advantages of Wikiversity === Writing on a Wikiversity page offers some advantages to implement the principles of open linked data in text format. We could cite academic items using their Wikidata QID to generate the citations below (but if we use an URL to cite a paper, it does not automatically check if there is an existing QID for it), and also link toward Wikidata entities using a template ([[Template:Wikidata entity link|Wikidata entity link]]). Although we did not translate the present page for now, Wikiversity offers the possibility to translate a page in multiple languages (an interesting possibility in the context of the The FAIRisation of scholarly communication<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maryl|first=Maciej|last2=Blaszczyńska|first2=Marta|last3=Zalotyńska|first3=Agnieszka|last4=Taylor|first4=Laurence|last5=Avanço|first5=Karla|last6=Balula|first6=Ana|last7=Buchner|first7=Anna|last8=Caliman|first8=Lorena|last9=Clivaz|first9=Claire|date=2021-01|title=Future of Scholarly Communication|url=https://hal.science/hal-03277615}}</ref>). The possibility to view the page history provide an exhaustive versionning of a paper, which could be interesting to study in itself to observe academic writing process (at first we do not commented the nature of our modifications but after thinking about this possibility we described it with more details). The contribution statistics also offers a new way to track author's contributions to a paper. === The issue of text interoperability === A key issue we are encountering is the question of the interoperability of texts. While the interoperability of data is starting to be well discussed in the open science community, the interoperability of texts do not seem to benefit from the same level of discussion. We encountered several interoperability issues regarding our writing. First, copying texts written on a word processor software (e.g. microsoft word) into a wiki page (or the other way around) is relatively seamless in terms of formatting, except for the management of references. Reformatting references is very time consuming and a real barrier for text interoperability in academic context : it is difficult to copy text from an academic publication into a wiki text, and difficult to turn a wiki text into a publication. There are also uncertaineties regarding how to reuse texts published under creative common licences. Academic texts published under CC-BY-SA licences can in theory be remixed and reused. But academia does not have established practices regarding how this can be done. If we want to reuse a whole page, should we put it in quotation marks and simply cite the paper ? Should the original authors be listed as co-authors ? Will academic publisher accept such new writing practices while they usually require that publications contain mainly unpublished content ? The norms of what is appropriate remix and reuse practices in academia has yet to be decided... and we invite the open science community to discuss this issue. == Discussion == Our goal was to assess the potential of Wikidata and Wikiversity to build a living literature review method and tackle issues of information overload, knowledge synthesis and knowledge dissemination, following open science principles. By conducting a meta-review on just sustainability transition (that is a review of existing literature reviews), and experimenting with existing technical solutions, we were able to identify the strenghs and limitations of the Wikidata ecosystem. First Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations (Hypothesis 1 is verified). However, the technical barriers to do so are still high and the Wikidata database is too general to allow a community to work on a specific curated corpus of scientific items. Secondly, Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (Hypothesis 2 is verified). However, this requires developping and using a methodology regarding what is a rigorous modelling in social science, as well as building specific {{Wikidata entity link|Q324254}}. An unexpected finding is that the formalization necessary for knowledge modelling in wikidata invites to formalize the reasonning behind modelling choices, a process that is rarely done in qualitative analysis although such reasonning are likely present. This process also responds to calls in management sciences to engage in more systematic categorizing and avoir semantic confusion<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Thirdly, SPARQL-based queries can be used to vizualised scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs, but we cannot completely say they allow users to "navigate" it (Hypothesis 3 is partially verified). SPARQL-based queries are powerful but they require technical knowledge, especially now that the split between academic and non-academic items in Wikidata requires to write federated queries. To be able to "navigate" scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs on Wikidata, more user-friendly tools would be needed. Finally, we did see advantaged in using Wikiversity pages can be used to write collaboratively in text format augmented by hypertext links, but there are still important technical and instittional barriers (Hypothesis 3 is partially verified) : the interoperability of text is a key issue to reuse publications in wiki and classical formats. The main issues we encountered were the management of references and uncertainty regarding the relationships with classical publication processes. A potential solution to the issues encountered could be to develop a specialised literature review software that would allow researchers to build a specialised knowledge graph (for example Wikibase), but also to reuse Wikidata and contribute to Wikidata. This kind of tool should be user-friendly and indlude the missing tools we identified. In addition, it could include more advanced analysis functions such as logical reasonning based on the knowledge graph<ref name=":9" />. == Funding == This project is funded by the [[m:Grants:Programs/Wikimedia_Research_&_Technology_Fund/Wikimedia_Research_Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]], Grant ID: G-RS-2504-18935. The text of the initial research proposal is available here : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20760603. == Data == {| class="wikitable sortable" ! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title |- | [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review |- | [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review |- | [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter? |- | [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset. |- | [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies? |- | [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection |- | [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development |- | [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research |- | [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition |- | [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning |- | [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view |- | [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory |- | [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries |- | [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies |- | [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes |- | [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation |- | [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives |- | [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies |- | [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice? |- | [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review |- | [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research |- | [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape |- | [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models |- | [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review |- | [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation |- | [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings |- | [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework |- | [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende |- | [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa |- | [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities |- | [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion |- | [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review |- | [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights |- | [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review |- | [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations |- | [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance |- | [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions |- | [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review |- | [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice |- | [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice |- | [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review |- | [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review |- | [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions |- | [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition |- | [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy |- | [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends |- | [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience |} == References == {{References}} rcbiyl36i2iuzx7tbome1c0hxp589zh 2817326 2817325 2026-06-29T18:47:44Z Jeanne Noiraud 1366702 formatting and adding the title of the conference to which the paper will be presented 2817326 wikitext text/x-wiki == Utiliser Wikidata pour mettre en œuvre une méthode de revue de littérature vivante, Conférence pour les méthodes pour les sciences sociales et les humanités, 9 et 10 Juillet 2026 (Aubervilliers, France) == == Acknowledgements == The present text was originally written on a Wikiversity page, if you are reading it in another format, you can find this page here : [[Just sustainability transitions: a living review|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review]]. You are free to add your comments on the page discussion section. === Contributors === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Affiliation !ORCID !Contribution |- |Adélie Ranville |IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208) |https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135 |Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling, article writing |- |Amélie E. Pereira |Laboratoire DICEN IDF | |Meta-data enrichement, article writing |- |Finn Nielsen |Technical University of Denmark |https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6128-3356 |Data visualisation |} Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review == Introduction == Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}</ref>. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}</ref>. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}</ref><ref>Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. </ref>. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination. === The problem of academic information overload === Global scientific output doubles every nine years<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}</ref>. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily. === The problem of knowledge synthesis === The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable<ref>{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}</ref> and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews that can be updated dynamically with new knowledge (examples : <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia. === The problem of scientific results dissemination === There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}</ref>. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}</ref> and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}</ref>. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}</ref>, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow<ref name=":10">Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., & Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. <nowiki>http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf</nowiki> </ref>. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap<ref name=":10" />. Because of gender segregation in disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}</ref>, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}</ref>, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]]. == Toward a living review on just sustainability transition == === Just sustainability transition === Just sustainability transition transition is "a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society"<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}</ref>. The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions<ref name=":0" />. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions<ref name=":0" />. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}</ref> and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. Developping living reviews seem particularly relevant for the just transition literature: first, modeling knowledge and building graphs allows to take into account the complexity of sustainability transitions which involve multiple levels of analysis<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> and fragmented results coming from various disciplines<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>. Then, making literature reviews "living" would allow researchers to be less subject to information overload through a more systematic accumulation of knowledge. Finally, conducting this review with an open science philosophy aswers the challenge of knowledge dissemination, which is crucial in a context of socio-ecological emergency when decision-makers need to rapidely access reliable information on possible sustainability transition trajectories. === Living reviews === The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked<ref name="Why1">{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}</ref>. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4">{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}</ref>. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" />. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":2">https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/</ref>. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research<ref name="Why1" /><ref name=":6" />, such as just transition. Literature review methods are currently evolving with new technological possibilities. Generative artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT are expected to have a strong influence on literature review activities<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes<ref name=":12" />, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}</ref>. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are "on the rise" (2025), but not yet integrated into tested and validated methodologies<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}</ref>. Human validation stays notably necessary<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alshami|first=Ahmad|last2=Elsayed|first2=Moustafa|last3=Ali|first3=Eslam|last4=Eltoukhy|first4=Abdelrahman E. E.|last5=Zayed|first5=Tarek|date=2023-07-09|title=Harnessing the Power of ChatGPT for Automating Systematic Review Process: Methodology, Case Study, Limitations, and Future Directions|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/11/7/351|journal=Systems|language=en|volume=11|issue=7|pages=351|doi=10.3390/systems11070351|issn=2079-8954}}</ref>,<ref name=":13" />. While AI can appear as a solution for scaling literature reviews, we are in the present project exploring another possible scenario which is to use more crowdsourcing in the literature review process. === Wikimedia projects === Wikipedia is a successfull example of large-scaled crowdsourcing of reliable knowledge synthesis. That is why this project proposes to explore the potential of the Wikimedia ecosystem for conducting living reviews. Since Wikipedia does aim to host original research<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikipedia:No original research|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:No_original_research&oldid=1360514388|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>, we are working on two sister projects : Wikidata and Wikiversity. [[wikipedia:Wikidata|Wikidata]] is a "collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=April 26, 2013|title=Welcome to Wikidata! Now what?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|access-date=October 2, 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002152920/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|url-status=live}}</ref>"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikidata|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikidata&oldid=1360462340|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. "A [[wikidata:Q33002955|knowledge graph]] is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}</ref> A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}</ref> Such graphs have a strong potential to conduct knowledge synthesis<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Fotopoulou">{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.</ref><ref name=":18" />. They are especially usefull to build the ontologies (formal representations of concepts) that are necessary to organize and represent existing knowledge<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>. In complement to using Wikidata to model knowledge, we decided to use Wikiversity to report and write our research results. [[wikipedia:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] is another Wikimedia project hosting pedagogical content, original research, and even a publishing house ([[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]])<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Wikiversity|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity&oldid=1358552930|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. Wikiversity pages are editable by everyone, have a discussion tab and a history log tab. Our research question is : '''How can Wikimedia projects contribute to building a collaborative living review on just sustainability transition ?''' In this project, we aim to test 4 hypothesis : ● '''Hypothesis 1:''' Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations. ● '''Hypothesis 2:''' Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (e.g. conceptual typologies, cause-effect chains…). ● '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs. ● '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikimedia or Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data). We also have 2 assumptions : ● '''Assumption 1:''' Wikimedia projects have to be integrated into validated scientific protocols in order to be a valuable research tool. ● '''Assumption 2:''' Wikimedia project contribution has to be made interoperable with tools, methods and data types already used by researchers. == Methodology == Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, and other open-science infrastructures. The first step was to build and enrich the bibliographic metadata of the corpus of articles we selected in Wikidata. The second step was to model the content of the findings of these articles in Wikidata (e.g. causes-effects relationships...). The third step was to experiment relevant visualization of this content (e.g. causes-effects graphs). The las step was to write our report on aWikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, following a linked open data philosophy. == 1. Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata == The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''' (Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations), and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology. To build and enrich our academic corpus on Wikidata, we searched existing databases, selected the sample of articles we wanted to study, imported these articles metadata into Wikidata, enriched these metadata and finally reflected on the advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich academic corpus. === Database search === Doing a systematic review on all aspects of just transition would have resulted in too many articles to review. We thus decided to first explore one aspect of justice : procedural justice. Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions<ref name=":4" /> such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}</ref>. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures<ref name=":0" />. For our search, we selected keywords related to procedural justice (procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory) and keywords related to sustainability transition (sustainability OR energy OR climate) AND (transition OR transitions). We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Keywords search !Database !Search date !Filters !Number of results |- |(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) |Web of Science (all databases, all dates) |December 2025 |Document type: Review Article |362 |} === Article selection === Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were * Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...) * Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...) * Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions * Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy * Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973 === Importing selected articles into Wikidata === To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the "export to Wikidata QuickStatements" function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata. Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|"Merge" gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items. === Article classification through metadata enrichement === Metadatas are data describing other data. The metadata of academic items usually include title, author, publication outlet, publication date, pages, DOI, URL... and can be structured following specific standards (e.g. [[wikipedia:Dublin_Core|Dublin Core]]). In academic databases such as WOS or OpenAlex, the only metadata available regarding the content of an academic article are the abstract and sometimes keywords. However, researchers conducting literature reviews need more precise informations. An important part of literature review work can thus be about describing what the articles are about. For example, describing industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt)<ref name=":5" />. By metadata enrichment, we mean completing metadata to include additional information about the content of an academic piece. In Wikidata, each type of information is added using a specific property. A property is the edge that links two entities in the Wikidata knowledge graph. We selected three Wikidata properties to describe the content of our selected articles : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe the geographical scope of the study. We also worked on adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} ==== We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Main topic !Description |- |[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]] |acceptability |characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose |- |[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]] |accountability |concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making |- |[[d:Q421953|Q421953]] |actor–network theory |theory within social science |- |[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]] |affordability | |- |[[d:Q185836|Q185836]] |age of a person |time elapsed since a person was born |- |[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]] |animal studies |field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways |- |[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]] |awareness |state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns |- |[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]] |blue carbon |carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems |- |[[d:Q430460|Q430460]] |capability approach |economic theory |- |[[d:Q7569|Q7569]] |child |human between birth and puberty |- |[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]] |civic engagement |individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern |- |[[d:Q125928|Q125928]] |climate change |human-caused changes to climate on Earth |- |[[d:Q260607|Q260607]] |climate change adaptation |process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities |- |[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]] |climate justice |term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice |- |[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]] |co-creation |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]] |co-design |approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders |- |[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]] |coproduction |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q11024|Q11024]] |communication |act of conveying intended meaning |- |[[d:Q177634|Q177634]] |community |social unit of human organisms who share common values |- |[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]] |community choice aggregation |alternative energy supply system |- |[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]] |community energy |delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects |- |[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]] |community participation |The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community |- |[[d:Q188843|Q188843]] |cosmopolitanism |ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality |- |[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]] |decarbonization |change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions |- |[[d:Q284289|Q284289]] |deliberative democracy |form of democracy focusing on consensus |- |[[d:Q7174|Q7174]] |democracy |form of government |- |[[d:Q552284|Q552284]] |distributive justice |concept of the socially just allocation of goods |- |[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]] |diversity |concept in sociology and political studies |- |[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]] |ecological economics |research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems |- |[[d:Q8134|Q8134]] |economics |social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services |- |[[d:Q868575|Q868575]] |empowerment |providing increased autonomy |- |[[d:Q295865|Q295865]] |ecosystem service |benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems |- |[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]] |energy citizenship |involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions |- |[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&redirect=no Q131444737] |community energy |[redirection] |- |[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]] |energy consumption |amount of energy or power used |- |[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]] |senior |elderly person |- |[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]] |energy democracy |concept in environmental justice movement |- |[[d:Q192704|Q192704]] |energy efficiency |ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine |- |[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]] |energy modeling |process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them |- |[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]] |energy policy |policy addressing energy issues |- |[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]] |energy poverty |lack of access to modern energy services |- |[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]] |energy production |conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans |- |[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]] |energy justice |subconcept of economic equality |- |[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]] |energy renovation |building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used |- |[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]] |energy security |national security considerations of energy availability |- |[[d:Q837718|Q837718]] |energy storage |capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time |- |[[d:Q795757|Q795757]] |energy transition |long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems |- |[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]] |environmental justice |system of fairness |- |[[d:Q771773|Q771773]] |fairness |concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society |- |[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]] |farming system |method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics |- |[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]] |food system |all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population |- |[[d:Q4421|Q4421]] |forest |dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area |- |[[d:Q48277|Q48277]] |gender |social concept which distinguish the different gender categories |- |[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]] |governance |all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society |- |[[d:Q8458|Q8458]] |human rights |inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled |- |[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]] |human rights violation |act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights |- |[[d:Q103817|Q103817]] |indigenous people |first inhabitants of an area and their descendants |- |[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]] |indigenous science |indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method |- |[[d:Q770480|Q770480]] |injustice |quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes |- |[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]] |interactional justice |the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment |- |[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]] |intersectionnality |theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression |- |[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]] |just transition |Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy. |- |[[d:Q366139|Q366139]] |legitimation |the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group |- |[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]] |living lab |user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities |- |[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]] |low income |home with little money |- |[[d:Q43619|Q43619]] |natural environment |all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof |- |[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]] |nature-positive |global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030 |- |[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]] |non-human |organism not in the genus Homo |- |[[d:Q728646|Q728646]] |partnership |arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests |- |[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]] |policy making |the act of developing policy |- |[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]] |political theory |class of theory |- |[[d:Q265425|Q265425]] |postcolonialism |academic discipline |- |[[d:Q25107|Q25107]] |power |ability to influence the behavior of others |- |[[d:Q442100|Q442100]] |procedural justice |fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources |- |[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]] |project governance |management framework |- |[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]] |public engagement |Policy-making practice |- |[[d:Q541936|Q541936]] |public participation |participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes |- |[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]] |recognition justice |social philosophy theory |- |[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]] |renewable electricity |electricity from renweable sources |- |[[d:Q12705|Q12705]] |renewable energy |energy collected from renewable resources |- |[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]] |renewable energy policy | |- |[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]] |restorative justice |approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement |- |[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]] |rural population |inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural |- |[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]] |smart system |adaptive intelligent systems |- |[[d:Q187588|Q187588]] |social class |group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors |- |[[d:Q264892|Q264892]] |social justice |concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied |- |[[d:Q34749|Q34749]] |social science |academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society |- |[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]] |stakeholder participation |involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity |- |[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]] |sustainability transition | |- |[[d:Q219416|Q219416]] |sustainability |ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state |- |[[d:Q131201|Q131201]] |sustainable development |mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations |- |[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]] |Sustainable Development Goals |set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change |- |[[d:Q69883|Q69883]] |urban planning |technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment |- |[[d:Q920600|Q920600]] |urban renewal |program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay |- |[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]] |vulnerable population |group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent |- |[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]] |water-management | |- |[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]] |well-being |measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction |- |[[d:Q467|Q467]] |woman |female adult human |- |[[d:Q188867|Q188867]] |future studies |study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures |- |[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]] |participatory design |active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process |}Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} ==== Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&property=P279&mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved some of these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q101116078}} can have {{Wikidata entity link|Q653137}} as {{Wikidata entity link|P13391}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paré|first=Guy|last2=Trudel|first2=Marie-Claude|last3=Jaana|first3=Mirou|last4=Kitsiou|first4=Spyros|date=2015-03|title=Synthesizing information systems knowledge: A typology of literature reviews|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378720614001116|journal=Information & Management|language=en|volume=52|issue=2|pages=183–199|doi=10.1016/j.im.2014.08.008}}</ref>. The types of reviews were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Study type !Description |- |[[d:Q603441|Q603441]] |bibliometrics |statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles |- |[[d:Q472342|Q472342]] |scientometrics |study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation |- |[[d:Q815382|Q815382]] |meta-analysis |statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources |- |[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]] |systematic review |publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic |- |[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]] |literature review |process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic |- |[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]] |meta-regression |statistical tool used in meta-analyses |- |[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]] |realist evaluation |theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes |- |[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]] |combinatorial meta-analysis |study of the statistical properties of combinations of studies from a meta-analytic dataset |- |[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]] |network meta-analysis |meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions |- |[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]] |scoping review |search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |- |[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]] |conceptual review |academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature |- |[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]] |critical review |type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research |- |[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]] |integrative literature review |type of literature review |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |}For each article, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} ==== When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article "{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}" focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} ==== When scholarly metadata are imported into Wikidata, the name of authors are stored as a chain of characters and linked to the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2093}}. The property {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} allows to make a link with a Wikidata item representing the author. This avoids the problem of homonym authors by attributing a unique identifyer to authors in Wikidata and linking these identifiers to existing ones such as ORCID. We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages. === Advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich living academic corpus === To share the result of our work, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973. The data is also available directly in Wikidata. The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1''' (Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations)'''.''' ==== Advantages of Wikidata ==== Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative nature as well as its interoperability. Wikidata ontology (that is how the data are structured) is collaboratively defined and properties can be added if relevant (after validation by the community). Compared to global databases like WOS or OpenAlex, Wikidata allows to enter more detail about each academic articles and anyone can add data. Another notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, "energy transition" was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Contrary to institutional thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. The multilingual nature of Wikidata was also a strengh, some Wikidata contributors added labels for the concepts we used into different languages (For example, contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in Armenian and Slovenian, languages we do not speak at all). ==== Limitations of Wikidata ==== Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and does not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base, by taking notes and highlighting the content of the full texts. Wikidata is not connected to this process and there is a missing tool to facilitate the construction of graphs from the qualitative analysis of texts. In addition, when one is working on a specific corpus of item in Wikidata, it is also difficult to keep track of this corpus. We linked each academic item we were working on to our research project by adding a statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}, but it was still relatively difficult to "filter" the part of the knowledge graph we were working on. Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount o bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data congested queries on Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. ==== Future possbilities ==== A solution to the limitations would be to developp the links between Wikidata and other tools of the open science ecosystem. For example, developping and maintaining plugins or extensions for specialised softwares like Zotero, Wikibase, and Omeka could connect Wikidata with more specialised graphs. Such extensions could help building local graphs by allowing the reuse of wikidata item (eg. autocompletion), but also help contributing to Wikidata thanks to export features. Building corpus of more precise academic metadata on Wikidata could also ultimately improve the precision of catalogues such as OpenAlex. For example, Wikidata items could be used to tag articles in a more precise way instead of using keywords and crowdsourced corpus built in Wikidata could be used to train more precise taging algorythms. == 2.Modelling the content of litterature reviews == The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 2''' (Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference) by modelling the content of our selected articles into Wikidata. [[wikipedia:Knowledge_modeling|Knowledge modelling]] is the process of making a machine readable model of a knowledge. As we have a background in social sciences, we felt the need to question the relationship between this process and other methodologies such as concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks. === Concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks === ==== Concept maps ==== [[File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|thumb|Example conceptual diagram|251x251px]]Concept maps are ''concepts'' (boxes) and ''propositions'' (arrow indicating the relationship between two boxes)<ref name=":19">Cañas, Alberto J., et al. "CmapTools: A knowledge modeling and sharing environment." (2004): 125-135. https://thomaseskridge.com/assets/pdf/Canas-2004.pdf</ref>. Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}</ref>. They can be built using specialised softwares (e.g. [https://cmap.ihmc.us/ Cmap])<ref name=":19" />. The "box and arrow" logic is similar to how knowledge is modelled on Wikidata : the equivalent of concepts is ''item'' and the equivalent of propositions are ''statements''. The difference between a softwares like Cmap and Wikidata is the underlying format of the data. ==== Thematic networks ==== [[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|447x447px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: based on Attride-Stirling 2001)]] A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}</ref>. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}</ref>. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data<ref name=":7" />. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes. Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes. However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not always specified. [[File:Adoption_CLD.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adoption_CLD.svg|thumb|421x421px|Causal loop diagram of ''Adoption'' model, used to demonstrate systems dynamics]] ==== Causal diagrams ==== The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}</ref>. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about "[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}</ref> Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can "feedback" (two variables can influence each other)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}</ref>. === Knowledge modelling in Wikidata === ==== Conceptual modelling ==== We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to model concepts in Wikidata. Scholars in management have called for more rigorous ways to define concepts. Definitions encompass various aspects such as the nature of the phenomenon, its characteristics, the links with prototypical cases or examples, the contrast with other concepts, the links with causes and consequences...<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}</ref>, and scholars have advised to take insight from philosophy to work on concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}</ref>. We thus read work in cognitive science which was summarizing approaches coming from psychology and philsosophy attempting to determine the content of concepts<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}</ref>. We summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them. *Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}... *Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. (The closer a phenomenon is to the prototype, the more likely it belong to the category). Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} (see discussion here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties). *Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}, {{P|1478}}, {{P|P9353}} (see discussions here : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en). *Essence: the content of a concept is "something" deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what its properties will be. *Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}. ==== Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} ==== To test concept modelling, we started by experimenting by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic : *{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}} *{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} *{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}} *{{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}} *{{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}} *{{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} We read each paper and used them as source to manually enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, Droubi et. Al stated "Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as reference (see screenshot below). The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&oldid=2495982191. [[File:Wikidata statement- energy democracy is an instance of ideal.png|915x915px|border]] We listed the difficulties encountered as we worked and we also asked the Wikidata community to give us feedback on our modelling on the item discussion page (https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Talk:Q14944319). ===== Contradictions ===== Wikidata contributor's feedback highlighted some apparent contradictions (The values in "does not have effect" seems contrary to what is listed in "has goal".) We would however argue this is not a problem because "statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}</ref>. Wikidata essentially supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}</ref>. In the case of goals versus effects statements, the discrepancy between the goals of energy democracy and what it actually achieves is precisely what some authors are critiquing<ref name=":20" />. Recommandations : Contradictions are allowed in Wikidata. ===== Precision ===== We also received feedbacks regarding a lack of precision in our statements (too many and too vague statements). We indeed noted that conceptual modelling requires an important degree of formalization and precision. This is a key advantage of Wikidata to be able to create links toward precise concepts which have their own identifiers. For example, we were able to create statements about specific laws and their unique identifiers in legal databases (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}} and its identifier in the EUR-Lex database). However, the sources we are working with are not always precise enough and when concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence "management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}</ref>, "choice" could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}}... We can see here that academic texts are using natural language and thus are using ambiguous terms. However, another reason why we ended up with very general statements is because we avoided the creation of new Wikidata items, while this could help make the statements more precise. Recommandations : If a concept is ambiguous it should not be included in the modelled statements. Create more precise relevant concepts if they do not exist in Wikidata. [[File:Wikidata visualisation screenshot of subclasses relationships including the item political concept.png|thumb|298x298px|Subclass relationships between "concept" and "political concept".]] ===== Concision ===== Wikidata contributor's feedback indicated a lack of concision. Some of it coming from the fact that some values were "in the tree of another value". The rule we take from this feeback is a need of logical simplification. Two examples illustrate possible logical simplification : *We stated that {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} was an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q33104069}} and an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}}. But in that case, it is not necessary to state that it is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}}, because {{Wikidata entity link|Q33104069}} is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q131362181}}, which is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}} (see diagram on the right). Here, we have to keep only the more precise item. This reasonning is based on the assumption that {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} is transitive. It seems this reasonning could be generalized could potentially be automatized in Wikidata through a complex property constraint (we made a proposition in this sense here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata:WikiProject_Reasoning/Use_cases#Parcimonious_statement_constraints_based_on_subclass_of_(P279)_and_part_of_(P361)_transitivity<nowiki/>) *We stated that {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}} . But if we consider that {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} of {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}, then the inclusion of {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} is implied. Here we could keep only the broader item. But unlike the reasonning above, we could not identify a way to generalize this reasonning. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}} can be a subclass of {{Wikidata entity link|Q43229}}, but using the former item is more informative than using the later. For the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, using a value that is too precise results in too many statements and using a value that is too general results in too trivial statements. Recommandations : When possible, use logical simplification to make statements more parcimonious. ===== Quantification ===== The paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that "9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources". Modelling this sentence by adding a statement in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q177323}} would require creating a specific property for final energy consumption. There are such properties of this type in Wikidata : for example, for renewable energy subsidies, there is {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}}. This type of property is notably useful to display information about an item on Wikipedia through infoboxes (e.g. the population of a town). But the current informal rule on Wikidata property creation is to prefer the use of general properties and avoid the creation of specific properties. Thus an alternative way to model quantity is to create a specific item to represent what is quantified and use other properties to represent quantities (see example below). [[File:Wikidata screenshot of percentage modelling.png|border|783x783px]] But since data are usually stored elsewhere in more convenient formats, it may not be always relevant to include quantitative data into Wikidata. Instead, it might be more useful to link the item that is quantified to an external dataset about it. This can be done using the property {{Wikidata entity link|P1325}}. Recommandation : Use existing properties for the quantity if it exists. If it does not exist, create an item representing what is measured, link it toward external datasets and add relevant quantitative statements. ===== Ontology ===== Ultimately, several of our difficulties were linked to some ontology challenges reflecting the complexity of the concept we were working on. According to the litterature, {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} refer to multiple entities. It represents a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome (we reflected this with multiple {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} statements). We encountered struggles to model differences between process versus outcomes, ideal versus reality, discourses versus practices and phenomenon versus theory. The wikidata community recommands having different items for ''process and outcome'' (criterion "{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}"). For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork). However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes which are are ongoing and evolving without a clear ending. In an attempt to separate ''ideal versus reality,'' we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes attempting to reach it. It was difficult to separate ''phenomenon versus theory.'' For example, modelling the idea that the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Our sources suggested that energy democracy discourses and practices may have different causes, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movments promoting it, but this was not a very precise way to model this idea. The conclusion of our first attempt is that trying to include the multiple "natures" of energy democracy into a single item is not satisfactory. Implementing the modelling recommandations we identified above may not be sufficient to build more parcimonious statements. Creating new items to reflect the different aspects of energy democracy may here be necessary. But how should we split the different natures of the concept ? Here the definition of an {{Wikidata entity link|Q324254}} (formal representation) in WIkidata quickly escalate into questionning {{Wikidata entity link|Q44325}} (metaphysical reflexion on the nature of things), and especially {{Wikidata entity link|Q1713511}} (the nature of the social world). Critical realists posits that different things have different ways of being (modes of reality). They propose to classify entities in four categories : material entities (that can exist independently of humans), conceptual entities (concepts, discourses, ideas, meaning…), artefactual entities (human-made and combining conceptual and material elements) and social entities (that depends on human activity to exist)<ref>Fleetwood, S. (2004). An ontology for organisation and management studies. ''Critical Realist Applications in Organisation and Management Studies'', 27–53.</ref>. A complex concept like {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is concerned with all these types of entities. The energy system include many material entities such as oil fields, the sun, seas, trees... and artefacts such as energy production unit, power lines, home appliances, trucks... (Including conceptual entities such as the name of these artefacts or the knowledge to make them function.). There are the social entities in which they are encompassed (the enregy sectors, energy businesses, energy policies...). There are conceptual entities like normative/political discourses discussing how these artefact and social system should work and there are conceptual entities in the academic sphere building theories about how all this works or should work. Wikidata "supports multiple coexisting classification" and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.<ref name=":8" /> Current Wikidata ontology is structured with dischotomies such as {{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q4406616}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1970309}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q16686448}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q23958946}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q103940464}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q3799040}}... But its {{Wikidata entity link|Q1713511}} is unclear. The table below shows the possible root class entity for a few social entities, it is clear they fall under various root distinctions and do not belong to a common class. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Item !Existing root class entity |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q190539}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q16686448}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q34770}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q9081}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q43229}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}} |- |{{Wikidata entity link|Q49773}} |{{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}} |} Our next step would thus be to create new items to reflect the different facets of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} : the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it, the concrete initiatives implementing it, the litterature theorizing it, etc... And make sure the {{Wikidata entity link|Q3882785}} for these various entities is consistent. To do so we will align with a relevant existing standard (we opened the discussion about social ontology with the wikidata community here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata_talk:WikiProject_Ontology#Social_ontology). == 3. Data visualisation == The goal of this step is to test '''Hypothesis 3''' (SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs). At this stage we started to identify visualization use cases we would like to test, they are listed below. === Filter statements === *Visualize only statements using a specitic source in order to map the content of a single academic article. First test here: https://w.wiki/PFqH *Visualize only items which are part of the present project (all the academic items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}). === Properties visualisation === *Visualise the "tree" of a property used in an item : Wikidata graph builder seem to be the most user friendly, robust and versatile tool to visualise a graph of a single property (https://angryloki.github.io) === Concepts visualisation === *Map all statements related to a single item (e.g. [[d:Wikidata:Scholia|Scholia]] request "topic in context") *Map the statements that two items have in common to make comparisons. === Mapping sources consensus === *Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight in order to make consensual statements more visible. == 4. Writing == The goal of this step is to test '''Hypothesis 4''' (Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links). === Advantages of Wikiversity === Writing on a Wikiversity page offers some advantages to implement the principles of open linked data in text format. We could cite academic items using their Wikidata QID to generate the citations below (but if we use an URL to cite a paper, it does not automatically check if there is an existing QID for it), and also link toward Wikidata entities using a template ([[Template:Wikidata entity link|Wikidata entity link]]). Although we did not translate the present page for now, Wikiversity offers the possibility to translate a page in multiple languages (an interesting possibility in the context of the The FAIRisation of scholarly communication<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maryl|first=Maciej|last2=Blaszczyńska|first2=Marta|last3=Zalotyńska|first3=Agnieszka|last4=Taylor|first4=Laurence|last5=Avanço|first5=Karla|last6=Balula|first6=Ana|last7=Buchner|first7=Anna|last8=Caliman|first8=Lorena|last9=Clivaz|first9=Claire|date=2021-01|title=Future of Scholarly Communication|url=https://hal.science/hal-03277615}}</ref>). The possibility to view the page history provide an exhaustive versionning of a paper, which could be interesting to study in itself to observe academic writing process (at first we do not commented the nature of our modifications but after thinking about this possibility we described it with more details). The contribution statistics also offers a new way to track author's contributions to a paper. === The issue of text interoperability === A key issue we are encountering is the question of the interoperability of texts. While the interoperability of data is starting to be well discussed in the open science community, the interoperability of texts do not seem to benefit from the same level of discussion. We encountered several interoperability issues regarding our writing. First, copying texts written on a word processor software (e.g. microsoft word) into a wiki page (or the other way around) is relatively seamless in terms of formatting, except for the management of references. Reformatting references is very time consuming and a real barrier for text interoperability in academic context : it is difficult to copy text from an academic publication into a wiki text, and difficult to turn a wiki text into a publication. There are also uncertaineties regarding how to reuse texts published under creative common licences. Academic texts published under CC-BY-SA licences can in theory be remixed and reused. But academia does not have established practices regarding how this can be done. If we want to reuse a whole page, should we put it in quotation marks and simply cite the paper ? Should the original authors be listed as co-authors ? Will academic publisher accept such new writing practices while they usually require that publications contain mainly unpublished content ? The norms of what is appropriate remix and reuse practices in academia has yet to be decided... and we invite the open science community to discuss this issue. == Discussion == Our goal was to assess the potential of Wikidata and Wikiversity to build a living literature review method and tackle issues of information overload, knowledge synthesis and knowledge dissemination, following open science principles. By conducting a meta-review on just sustainability transition (that is a review of existing literature reviews), and experimenting with existing technical solutions, we were able to identify the strenghs and limitations of the Wikidata ecosystem. First Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations (Hypothesis 1 is verified). However, the technical barriers to do so are still high and the Wikidata database is too general to allow a community to work on a specific curated corpus of scientific items. Secondly, Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (Hypothesis 2 is verified). However, this requires developping and using a methodology regarding what is a rigorous modelling in social science, as well as building specific {{Wikidata entity link|Q324254}}. An unexpected finding is that the formalization necessary for knowledge modelling in wikidata invites to formalize the reasonning behind modelling choices, a process that is rarely done in qualitative analysis although such reasonning are likely present. This process also responds to calls in management sciences to engage in more systematic categorizing and avoir semantic confusion<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Thirdly, SPARQL-based queries can be used to vizualised scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs, but we cannot completely say they allow users to "navigate" it (Hypothesis 3 is partially verified). SPARQL-based queries are powerful but they require technical knowledge, especially now that the split between academic and non-academic items in Wikidata requires to write federated queries. To be able to "navigate" scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs on Wikidata, more user-friendly tools would be needed. Finally, we did see advantaged in using Wikiversity pages can be used to write collaboratively in text format augmented by hypertext links, but there are still important technical and instittional barriers (Hypothesis 3 is partially verified) : the interoperability of text is a key issue to reuse publications in wiki and classical formats. The main issues we encountered were the management of references and uncertainty regarding the relationships with classical publication processes. A potential solution to the issues encountered could be to develop a specialised literature review software that would allow researchers to build a specialised knowledge graph (for example Wikibase), but also to reuse Wikidata and contribute to Wikidata. This kind of tool should be user-friendly and indlude the missing tools we identified. In addition, it could include more advanced analysis functions such as logical reasonning based on the knowledge graph<ref name=":9" />. == Funding == This project is funded by the [[m:Grants:Programs/Wikimedia_Research_&_Technology_Fund/Wikimedia_Research_Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]], Grant ID: G-RS-2504-18935. The text of the initial research proposal is available here : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20760603. == Data == {| class="wikitable sortable" ! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title |- | [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review |- | [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review |- | [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter? |- | [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset. |- | [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies? |- | [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection |- | [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development |- | [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research |- | [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition |- | [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning |- | [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view |- | [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory |- | [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries |- | [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies |- | [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes |- | [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation |- | [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives |- | [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies |- | [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice? |- | [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review |- | [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research |- | [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape |- | [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models |- | [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review |- | [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation |- | [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings |- | [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework |- | [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende |- | [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa |- | [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities |- | [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion |- | [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review |- | [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights |- | [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review |- | [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations |- | [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance |- | [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions |- | [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review |- | [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice |- | [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice |- | [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review |- | [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review |- | [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions |- | [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition |- | [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy |- | [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends |- | [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience |} == References == {{References}} bzk1b600yzk2sa89i54midvupz6nyq8 0 326170 2817263 2792556 2026-06-29T16:13:00Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Credits */ 2817263 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activities == === Starting activity 1 === Think of a term or expression you encountered in a foreign language (e.g. ''monóxido de carbono'' in Spanish) * How did you learn this term? Was it through formal instruction (in classroom) or everyday life (e.g. travel, media)? * Did visual aids, context or repetition help you understand or remember it? * Did you compare it with your mother tongue (L1) or other languages you know? If so, what similarities or differences did you notice? * Was this comparison helpful for understanding or memorizing the term? Why or why not? === Starting Activity 2 === Multilingual Math Glossary Hunt. Find the equivalents of mathematical terms in the languages of your class. Compare similarities and differences! * Choose a key math term (e.g., fraction, derivative, theorem, billion). * Find translations in the languages spoken by classmates (e.g., Spanish, Romanian, Mandarin, Arabic, etc.). * Compare: Are words similar? (e.g., Romanian ''derivată'' → Italian ''derivata'', Spanish ''derivada''). Are they false friends? (e.g., English billion ≠ Spanish ''billón''). * Reflect: What can we learn about linguistic diversity through this activity? What surprised you during the activity? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to * Understand the role of terminology in plurilingual education * Locate and compare terminology across languages * Enhance metalinguistic awareness through cross-linguistic comparison * Use multilingual resources for teaching * Design activities that can integrate both terminology and plurilingualism (e.g. intercomprehension, translanguaging, etc.) == Keywords == Terminology; Plurilingual Education; Communicative Theory of Terminology; Linguistic variation == Table of Contents == # Introduction # History of the Concept # Definitions   # Take-Home Messages # Self-Assessment # Resources to go further # Bibliography == Introduction == At each educational level (primary, secondary and tertiary), terminology serves as the fundamental core of every subject and plays a crucial role in the progression of knowledge acquisition (Conceição & Zanola, 2020; Estopà, 2021). In this context, terminology and plurilingual education are interconnected, contributing to contemporary discussions on language teaching, communication, and inclusion. In today’s globalized and multicultural societies, where communication often transcends linguistic and cultural boundaries, these two domains can be observed in relation to one another. Learners may encounter plurilingual educational settings where the first points of comparison between languages often emerge at the lexical level, involving both common vocabulary and specialized terminology. Here, terminology is not just about studying terms within specific disciplines; it can become a key tool for facilitating communication across languages and cultures. Integrating terminology into plurilingual activities further enriches both language and content learning. Pedagogical approaches such as translanguaging or intercomprehension, can empower students to draw on all their linguistic resources while engaging with disciplinary content. This not only enhances their understanding of the subject matter but also encourages learners to view language as a dynamic and flexible tool for communication and learning. == History of the Concept == The interest in terminology, both as a theoretical and applied field of study, has historical roots. Since ancient times, scholars and professionals from various disciplines and linguistic backgrounds have coined and circulated specific lexical units to designate the concepts pertaining to their respective fields. These lexical units, commonly referred to as ''terminological units'' or ''terms'', were created to name objects, techniques, actions, or processes essential to specialised knowledge. However, the formalisation of terminology as a scientific discipline emerged in the 1930s, primarily due to the work of Eugen Wüster. Wüster’s studies led to the posthumous publication of his work on the ''General Theory of Terminology'' (''GTT'') by his student Helmut Felber in 1979. In this foundational work, terminology is defined as the discipline concerned with the study of concepts within specialised fields, their designations (terms), and the relationships among concepts. Wüster’s interest in technical terminology, shared by the scholars of the Vienna School he founded, was driven by his objective of establishing a precise and unambiguous language for specialised domains at an international level. Wüster’s approach to terminology was shaped by a pragmatic concern for effective communication in specialised domains. His work was underpinned by an idealistic belief in the willingness of people to adopt a harmonised technical language for the benefit of clear and unambiguous communication. As Temmerman (2000) pointed out, the origin of Wüster’s thoughts may be linked to his socio-linguistic context. Coming from Austria, he was aware of the linguistic and economic challenges faced by his country, especially in comparison with larger German-speaking regions. Having studied in Berlin, he recognised the potential disadvantages of linguistic fragmentation for industrial and technical communication. This awareness underscored the perceived need for terminological unification across Swiss, Austrian, and German contexts, as well as the importance of standardisation to ensure fair industrial competition. This approach to terminology found its most prominent application in the work of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), a worldwide federation aimed at establishing international agreed standards across a wide range of fields, including terminology. Wüster’s conceptualisation of terminology and univocal communication, possible through a one-to-one correspondence between concepts and terms, was grounded in processes such as standardisation and normalisation, which functioned not only as linguistic objectives but also as mechanisms to support international cooperation, industrial development, and economic competitiveness beyond national and linguistic borders. In this context, Wüster showed a clear preference for terminological units that could ensure international comprehensibility, often favouring terms constructed from Greek and Latin lexical roots, as these could be considered suitable for achieving cross-linguistic consistency in specialised communication. Although Wüster’s theory was not explicitly framed within an educational or plurilingual perspective, his emphasis on transparent and internationally shared elements can be interpreted as relevant to contemporary discussions on plurilingual education and plurilingual approaches. From this standpoint, terminological units based on shared classical roots may function as transparent elements that facilitate comprehension across languages, especially in contexts where learners are exposed to multiple linguistic systems. Such elements can support processes of comparison and transfer at the lexical level, enabling learners to recognise conceptual similarities across languages and disciplines. However, the objective of GTT to reduce linguistic variation in favor of a shared and standardised system may reveal a point of divergence from plurilingual education. Rather than seeking convergence toward a single linguistic system, plurilingual approaches emphasise learners’ ability to mobilise multiple languages and navigate flexibly between them, viewing linguistic diversity as a strategic resource rather than a barrier. As noted by the European Parliament (2009), “multilingualism is a resource for Europe and a shared commitment, fostering personal development, social cohesion, employability, and competitiveness.” In this sense, whereas terminological standardisation was historically associated with the creation of a shared technical language to support efficiency and competitiveness, plurilingual education focuses on developing plurilingual and intercultural competences, which involve the strategic use of an individual’s entire linguistic repertoire, fostering metalinguistic awareness and the ability to adapt their communication depending on the context and their communicative goals (cf. CEFR, 2001; Candelier ''et al.'', 2012; CEFR Companion Volume, 2020). Consequently, while the theorisation of a univocal terminology, including (but not limited to) transparent lexical items, may enhance international communication, it does not take into account the intralinguistic variation of languages. For this reason, alongside the need for a one-to-one correspondence between terms and concepts, later approaches to terminology soon began to address issues related to linguistic variation, which in this field primarily manifested through phenomena such as synonymy and polysemy. Reflections on these aspects of variation gave rise to new theoretical frameworks during the last decade of the 20^th century and the first years of the new Millennium, including ''Socioterminology'' (see Boulanger, 1995; Gaudin, 2003; 2005), Rita Temmerman’s sociocognitive approach to terminology (2000) and the ''Communicative Theory of Terminology'' (''CTT'') proposed by Maria Teresa Cabré (1998; 2005 [1999]). In particular, the CTT can provide a theoretical perspective that can align with plurilingual education, as it introduced a new, multidimensional perspective on terminology. The ''CTT'' aims to account for the multifaceted nature of terminological units, viewing them as lexical units shaped by linguistic, cognitive, and sociocultural dimensions (cf. Cabré, 1998; 2005 [1999]; 2008; 2009). The fundamental parameters of the theory include the interdisciplinary nature of terminology (linking language, knowledge, and communication); the conception of terminological units as non-autonomous entities, associated with the lexical units of natural language and characterized by a form and a meaning whose terminological value is activated depending on context and situation; semantic and denominative variation; and the conceptual structuring of specialized fields. Within this framework, linguistic variation is recognised as an inherent feature of terminology. In particular, the ''CTT'' acknowledges phenomena such as terminological adaptation and considers psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic factors. In doing so, it promotes a view of terminology as a discipline that accounts for the actual use of language in communicative contexts (cf. Cabré, 2005 [1999]). This perspective can be relevant in multilingual and educational contexts, where the use of terms cannot be separated from context, linguistic variation, and the communicative needs of learners. By comparing terms across languages, learners can access and engage with concepts more effectively, fostering a deeper understanding of both the subject matter and the languages involved. Such cross-linguistic comparison enhances metalinguistic awareness and supports language transfer skills. Encouraging learners to explore and compare terms in different languages not only helps them gain insight into the subject content but also strengthens their ability to transfer linguistic knowledge from one language to another. In this way, it aligns with the principles of plurilingual education, which aims to develop learners’ linguistic competences while also valuing their linguistic and cultural heritage (cf. CEFR, 2001; CEFR Companion Volume, 2020). == Definitions == Terminology is the discipline concerned with the study and management of specialised terms as they are used to construct and transmit knowledge within and across domains. In educational contexts, terminology emerges naturally in written and oral materials related to specific subjects and plays a crucial role in structuring disciplinary knowledge and supporting learner’s conceptual development. Although the initial terminological acquisition typically occurs in the language of instruction, there can be different educational and sociolinguistic factors which favor the introduction of multilingual terminology and cross-linguistic comparison at the lexical level. In this respect, multilingual terminological materials (such as multilingual vocabularies developed by cooperatives working on terminology like Realiter) can be suitable to support both teaching and learning as they provide teachers with resources for the preparation of didactic materials, and enable learners to resolve doubts, explore disciplinary content across languages, and engage with specialised knowledge through a plurilingual perspective (cf. Lorente, 2025 Enciclopaedia entry). By encouraging learners to compare terms and lexical units across languages, plurilingual education can promote metalinguistic reflection, strengthen the comprehension of the subject matter, and facilitate the transfer of knowledge and skills between languages. Such cross-linguistic comparison and reflection can be implemented for example through intercomprehension activities using the “seven sieves” methodology, which focuses on the analysis of related languages starting from  lexical transparencies, allowing learners to infer meaning and establish connection among languages (cf. McCann ''et al.'', 2002). This view is consistent with approaches to terminology in education that emphasise its role in fostering plurilingual education. Within this lesson, terminology is examined through the two major theoretical frameworks, the ''General Theory of Terminology'' (''GTT'') and the ''Communicative Theory of Terminology'' (''CTT''), which offer different perspectives on how terms and concepts function in specialised language. In the ''GTT'' framework, terms are linguistic units that refer to clearly defined concepts within a specific domain. Concepts are abstract representations of objects, actions, or processes that share common features (Wüster, 1979). The ''GTT'' emphasises: * A one-to-one correspondence between terms and concepts; * The importance of standardisation to establish consistent terminology across languages and fields; * The role of normalisation in harmonising variation to support standardisation. This approach seeks to ensure clarity, precision, and uniform communication, especially in technical and scientific fields. The ''CTT'' presents an alternative, more context-sensitive view. Here, terms are understood as lexical units that acquire meaning through their use in real communicative contexts and situations (cf. Cabré, 2005). Instead of rigid term-concept pairings, the focus is on how terms function in specific situations. The ''CTT'' reflects a more dynamic and discourse-oriented view of specialised language. This framework embraces linguistic variation, including: * Polysemy, where a single term may refer to multiple related concepts; * Synonymy, where multiple terms may represent the same concept depending on context or usage. == Some definitions in the field of terminology may include: == * Term: A lexical unit used in a specialized field to designate a specific concept. * Concept: An abstract unit of knowledge formed through the mental representation of a class of objects, actions, phenomena, or processes sharing common characteristics. * Standardisation: A formal process in which terms, definitions, and other elements of specialized language are systematically established to ensure uniformity and unambiguous communication across contexts, languages, and communities of practice. * Normalisation: A broader process than standardization, involving the harmonization and regulation of terminological resources to reduce variability and ambiguity. It often precedes or complements formal standardization. * Linguistic variation: The use of different language forms to express similar meanings, influenced by context, region, social group, or communicative situation. * Synonymy: A type of linguistic variation in which multiple terms are used to refer to the same concept within a specialized domain. * Polysemy: A phenomenon where a single term is associated with two or more related but distinct concepts. == Take-Home Messages == * '''Terminology acts as a gateway to both subject knowledge and language learning in plurilingual educational contexts.''' Lexical and terminological units are central to understanding content across disciplines by supporting a deeper understanding of subject matter. In plurilingual education, they also serve as points of connection between languages, enabling learners to access and compare concepts more effectively. * '''Multilingual terminological resources are valuable teaching tools.''' Resources like multilingual glossaries or databases support both teachers and learners: teachers can use them to create didactic materials, while learners can access content in multiple languages, promoting equal opportunities for knowledge acquisition in plurilingual educational context. * '''Integrating terminology into plurilingual activities enriches both language and content learning.''' Pedagogic approaches such as translanguaging, intercomprehension, or lexical comparison can help students draw on all their linguistic resources, even while engaging with disciplinary content. == Self-Assessment == ''A. When was terminology formalised as a scientific discipline?'' # In the 19^th century. # Mid-to-late 20^th century. # In ancient times. ''B. In the framework of the GTT, the process of standardisation is about'' # ensuring uniformity and unambiguity in communication. # providing an harmonisation of terminological resources. # facilitating good terms to use. ''C. In the framework of the CTT, terms are considered as'' # lexical units with a form and a meaning with a terminological value depending on context and communicative situation. # autonomous entities part of a specialised lexicon. # words with fixed meaning independent of context. ''D. How does CTT differ from Wüster’s GTT?'' # It focuses exclusively on technical fields. # It completely rejects standardisation. # It considers the real use of language in communicative contexts. ''E. Which of the following statements best describes the role of terminology in plurilingual education?'' # Terminology in education should avoid cross-linguistic comparisons to prevent confusion among learners. # Terminology serves as a gateway to disciplinary knowledge and facilitates learners’ cross-linguistic comparison, enhancing metalinguistic awareness and supporting the use of multiple languages in learning. # Terminology is only relevant for technical and scientific domains and has little impact on language learning. ''F. Which educational practice can support the integration of multilingual terminology into plurilingual education?'' # Providing learners with a monolingual glossary of technical terms in the language of instruction only. # Encouraging learners to memorise a list of terms without context. # Using multilingual terminological resources, such as glossaries or databases, to allow learners to compare lexical and terminological units across languages, fostering comprehension and transfer skills. ''Correct answers: A2; B1; C1; D3; E2; F3.'' == Resources to go further == * Cabré, M. T. & Lorente, M. (2021). Panorama teòric de la terminologia actual. ''Terminàlia, 24,'' 57-63. * FAO Term Portal - https://www.fao.org/faoterm * IATE – Interactive Terminology for Europe - https://iate.europa.eu/home * IULATERM: Léxico y tecnología - https://www.upf.edu/es/web/iulaterm * Lorente, M. (1998). Variació lèxica. De la idiosincràsia al tractament sistemàtic de la diversitat. ''Caplletra, 25'', 83-98. * Realiter - https://www.realiter.net/lessici-realiter * UNTERM – United Nations Multilingual Terminology Database - https://unterm.un.org/unterm2/en/ == Bibliography == Boulanger, J.-C. (1983). Synonymie, néonymie et normalisation en terminologie. In D. Duquet-Picard & M. Bugara-Adshead (Eds.), ''Problèmes de la définition et de la synonymie en terminologie : Actes du Colloque international de terminologie, Université Laval (Québec, 23–27 mai 1982)'' (pp. 311–327). GIRSTERM. Boulanger, J.-C. (1995). Présentation: Images et parcours de la socioterminologie. ''Meta, 40''(2), 194–205. Cabré, M. T. (1998). Elementos para una teoría de la terminología: Hacia un paradigma alternativo. ''El Lenguaraz. Revista académica del Colegio de Traductores Públicos de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires, 1''(1), 59–78. Cabré, M. T. (2005). ''La terminología: Representación y comunicación'' (Ed. orig. 1999). Institut Universitari de Lingüística Aplicada, Universitat Pompeu Fabra. Cabré, M. T. (2009). La Teoría Comunicativa de la Terminología, una aproximación lingüística a los términos. ''Revue Française de Linguistique Appliquée, 14''(2), 9–15. Candelier, M., Camilleri-Grima, A., Castellotti, V. de Pietro, J.-F., Lörincz, I., Meißner, F.-J., Schröder-Sura, A., Noguerol, A. & Molinié, M. (2012). ''Le CARAP — Un Cadre de Référence pour les Approches Plurielles des Langues et des Cultures – Compétences et ressources.'' Conseil de l’Europe. http://carap.ecml.at/   Conceição, M. C., & Zanola, M. T. (Eds.). (2020). ''Terminologia e mediação linguística: Métodos, práticas e atividades''. Universidade do Algarve Editora. Council of Europe. (2001). (CEFR) ''Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment''. Cambridge University Press. Council of Europe. (2020). (CEFR Companion Volume) ''Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment – Companion volume with new descriptors.'' Council of Europe Publishing. https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages Estopà, R. (2021). ''El diccionario escolar de ciencia: Un aliado en el aula''. McGraw-Hill. European Parliament. (2009). ''Multilingualism: an asset for Europe and a shared commitment'' (European Parliament resolution of 24 March 2009 on Multilingualism: an asset for Europe and a shared commitment, 2008/2225(INI)). Official Journal of the European Union. Felber, H. (1981). The Vienna School of Terminology, fundamentals and its theory. ''Infoterm'', 69–86. Gaudin, F. (2003). ''Socioterminologie: Une approche sociolinguistique de la terminologie''. De Boeck & Larcier. Gaudin, F. (2005). La socioterminologie. ''Langages, 1''(157), 80–92. McCann, W., J., Klein, H., G. & Stegmann, T., D. (2002). ''EuroComRom - The Seven Sieves: How to read all the Romance Languages right away''. Editiones EuroCom, 5. Shaker Verlag. Temmerman, R. (2000). ''Towards New Ways of Terminological Description. The sociocognitive approach''. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Wüster, E. (1979). ''Einführung in die allgemeine Terminologielehre und terminologische Lexikographie''. Springer. (Spanish translation and edition: Cabré, M. T. (Eds.). (1998). ''Introducción a la teoría general de la terminología y a la lexicografía terminológica''. Institut Universitari de Lingüística Aplicada, Universitat Pompeu Fabra. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Melissa Lamonaca (Università Roma Tre) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] k5xs8nedbgd4c3hf6qyzak57b1xwvz3 2817318 2817263 2026-06-29T17:25:07Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self-Assessment */ 2817318 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activities == === Starting activity 1 === Think of a term or expression you encountered in a foreign language (e.g. ''monóxido de carbono'' in Spanish) * How did you learn this term? Was it through formal instruction (in classroom) or everyday life (e.g. travel, media)? * Did visual aids, context or repetition help you understand or remember it? * Did you compare it with your mother tongue (L1) or other languages you know? If so, what similarities or differences did you notice? * Was this comparison helpful for understanding or memorizing the term? Why or why not? === Starting Activity 2 === Multilingual Math Glossary Hunt. Find the equivalents of mathematical terms in the languages of your class. Compare similarities and differences! * Choose a key math term (e.g., fraction, derivative, theorem, billion). * Find translations in the languages spoken by classmates (e.g., Spanish, Romanian, Mandarin, Arabic, etc.). * Compare: Are words similar? (e.g., Romanian ''derivată'' → Italian ''derivata'', Spanish ''derivada''). Are they false friends? (e.g., English billion ≠ Spanish ''billón''). * Reflect: What can we learn about linguistic diversity through this activity? What surprised you during the activity? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to * Understand the role of terminology in plurilingual education * Locate and compare terminology across languages * Enhance metalinguistic awareness through cross-linguistic comparison * Use multilingual resources for teaching * Design activities that can integrate both terminology and plurilingualism (e.g. intercomprehension, translanguaging, etc.) == Keywords == Terminology; Plurilingual Education; Communicative Theory of Terminology; Linguistic variation == Table of Contents == # Introduction # History of the Concept # Definitions   # Take-Home Messages # Self-Assessment # Resources to go further # Bibliography == Introduction == At each educational level (primary, secondary and tertiary), terminology serves as the fundamental core of every subject and plays a crucial role in the progression of knowledge acquisition (Conceição & Zanola, 2020; Estopà, 2021). In this context, terminology and plurilingual education are interconnected, contributing to contemporary discussions on language teaching, communication, and inclusion. In today’s globalized and multicultural societies, where communication often transcends linguistic and cultural boundaries, these two domains can be observed in relation to one another. Learners may encounter plurilingual educational settings where the first points of comparison between languages often emerge at the lexical level, involving both common vocabulary and specialized terminology. Here, terminology is not just about studying terms within specific disciplines; it can become a key tool for facilitating communication across languages and cultures. Integrating terminology into plurilingual activities further enriches both language and content learning. Pedagogical approaches such as translanguaging or intercomprehension, can empower students to draw on all their linguistic resources while engaging with disciplinary content. This not only enhances their understanding of the subject matter but also encourages learners to view language as a dynamic and flexible tool for communication and learning. == History of the Concept == The interest in terminology, both as a theoretical and applied field of study, has historical roots. Since ancient times, scholars and professionals from various disciplines and linguistic backgrounds have coined and circulated specific lexical units to designate the concepts pertaining to their respective fields. These lexical units, commonly referred to as ''terminological units'' or ''terms'', were created to name objects, techniques, actions, or processes essential to specialised knowledge. However, the formalisation of terminology as a scientific discipline emerged in the 1930s, primarily due to the work of Eugen Wüster. Wüster’s studies led to the posthumous publication of his work on the ''General Theory of Terminology'' (''GTT'') by his student Helmut Felber in 1979. In this foundational work, terminology is defined as the discipline concerned with the study of concepts within specialised fields, their designations (terms), and the relationships among concepts. Wüster’s interest in technical terminology, shared by the scholars of the Vienna School he founded, was driven by his objective of establishing a precise and unambiguous language for specialised domains at an international level. Wüster’s approach to terminology was shaped by a pragmatic concern for effective communication in specialised domains. His work was underpinned by an idealistic belief in the willingness of people to adopt a harmonised technical language for the benefit of clear and unambiguous communication. As Temmerman (2000) pointed out, the origin of Wüster’s thoughts may be linked to his socio-linguistic context. Coming from Austria, he was aware of the linguistic and economic challenges faced by his country, especially in comparison with larger German-speaking regions. Having studied in Berlin, he recognised the potential disadvantages of linguistic fragmentation for industrial and technical communication. This awareness underscored the perceived need for terminological unification across Swiss, Austrian, and German contexts, as well as the importance of standardisation to ensure fair industrial competition. This approach to terminology found its most prominent application in the work of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), a worldwide federation aimed at establishing international agreed standards across a wide range of fields, including terminology. Wüster’s conceptualisation of terminology and univocal communication, possible through a one-to-one correspondence between concepts and terms, was grounded in processes such as standardisation and normalisation, which functioned not only as linguistic objectives but also as mechanisms to support international cooperation, industrial development, and economic competitiveness beyond national and linguistic borders. In this context, Wüster showed a clear preference for terminological units that could ensure international comprehensibility, often favouring terms constructed from Greek and Latin lexical roots, as these could be considered suitable for achieving cross-linguistic consistency in specialised communication. Although Wüster’s theory was not explicitly framed within an educational or plurilingual perspective, his emphasis on transparent and internationally shared elements can be interpreted as relevant to contemporary discussions on plurilingual education and plurilingual approaches. From this standpoint, terminological units based on shared classical roots may function as transparent elements that facilitate comprehension across languages, especially in contexts where learners are exposed to multiple linguistic systems. Such elements can support processes of comparison and transfer at the lexical level, enabling learners to recognise conceptual similarities across languages and disciplines. However, the objective of GTT to reduce linguistic variation in favor of a shared and standardised system may reveal a point of divergence from plurilingual education. Rather than seeking convergence toward a single linguistic system, plurilingual approaches emphasise learners’ ability to mobilise multiple languages and navigate flexibly between them, viewing linguistic diversity as a strategic resource rather than a barrier. As noted by the European Parliament (2009), “multilingualism is a resource for Europe and a shared commitment, fostering personal development, social cohesion, employability, and competitiveness.” In this sense, whereas terminological standardisation was historically associated with the creation of a shared technical language to support efficiency and competitiveness, plurilingual education focuses on developing plurilingual and intercultural competences, which involve the strategic use of an individual’s entire linguistic repertoire, fostering metalinguistic awareness and the ability to adapt their communication depending on the context and their communicative goals (cf. CEFR, 2001; Candelier ''et al.'', 2012; CEFR Companion Volume, 2020). Consequently, while the theorisation of a univocal terminology, including (but not limited to) transparent lexical items, may enhance international communication, it does not take into account the intralinguistic variation of languages. For this reason, alongside the need for a one-to-one correspondence between terms and concepts, later approaches to terminology soon began to address issues related to linguistic variation, which in this field primarily manifested through phenomena such as synonymy and polysemy. Reflections on these aspects of variation gave rise to new theoretical frameworks during the last decade of the 20^th century and the first years of the new Millennium, including ''Socioterminology'' (see Boulanger, 1995; Gaudin, 2003; 2005), Rita Temmerman’s sociocognitive approach to terminology (2000) and the ''Communicative Theory of Terminology'' (''CTT'') proposed by Maria Teresa Cabré (1998; 2005 [1999]). In particular, the CTT can provide a theoretical perspective that can align with plurilingual education, as it introduced a new, multidimensional perspective on terminology. The ''CTT'' aims to account for the multifaceted nature of terminological units, viewing them as lexical units shaped by linguistic, cognitive, and sociocultural dimensions (cf. Cabré, 1998; 2005 [1999]; 2008; 2009). The fundamental parameters of the theory include the interdisciplinary nature of terminology (linking language, knowledge, and communication); the conception of terminological units as non-autonomous entities, associated with the lexical units of natural language and characterized by a form and a meaning whose terminological value is activated depending on context and situation; semantic and denominative variation; and the conceptual structuring of specialized fields. Within this framework, linguistic variation is recognised as an inherent feature of terminology. In particular, the ''CTT'' acknowledges phenomena such as terminological adaptation and considers psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic factors. In doing so, it promotes a view of terminology as a discipline that accounts for the actual use of language in communicative contexts (cf. Cabré, 2005 [1999]). This perspective can be relevant in multilingual and educational contexts, where the use of terms cannot be separated from context, linguistic variation, and the communicative needs of learners. By comparing terms across languages, learners can access and engage with concepts more effectively, fostering a deeper understanding of both the subject matter and the languages involved. Such cross-linguistic comparison enhances metalinguistic awareness and supports language transfer skills. Encouraging learners to explore and compare terms in different languages not only helps them gain insight into the subject content but also strengthens their ability to transfer linguistic knowledge from one language to another. In this way, it aligns with the principles of plurilingual education, which aims to develop learners’ linguistic competences while also valuing their linguistic and cultural heritage (cf. CEFR, 2001; CEFR Companion Volume, 2020). == Definitions == Terminology is the discipline concerned with the study and management of specialised terms as they are used to construct and transmit knowledge within and across domains. In educational contexts, terminology emerges naturally in written and oral materials related to specific subjects and plays a crucial role in structuring disciplinary knowledge and supporting learner’s conceptual development. Although the initial terminological acquisition typically occurs in the language of instruction, there can be different educational and sociolinguistic factors which favor the introduction of multilingual terminology and cross-linguistic comparison at the lexical level. In this respect, multilingual terminological materials (such as multilingual vocabularies developed by cooperatives working on terminology like Realiter) can be suitable to support both teaching and learning as they provide teachers with resources for the preparation of didactic materials, and enable learners to resolve doubts, explore disciplinary content across languages, and engage with specialised knowledge through a plurilingual perspective (cf. Lorente, 2025 Enciclopaedia entry). By encouraging learners to compare terms and lexical units across languages, plurilingual education can promote metalinguistic reflection, strengthen the comprehension of the subject matter, and facilitate the transfer of knowledge and skills between languages. Such cross-linguistic comparison and reflection can be implemented for example through intercomprehension activities using the “seven sieves” methodology, which focuses on the analysis of related languages starting from  lexical transparencies, allowing learners to infer meaning and establish connection among languages (cf. McCann ''et al.'', 2002). This view is consistent with approaches to terminology in education that emphasise its role in fostering plurilingual education. Within this lesson, terminology is examined through the two major theoretical frameworks, the ''General Theory of Terminology'' (''GTT'') and the ''Communicative Theory of Terminology'' (''CTT''), which offer different perspectives on how terms and concepts function in specialised language. In the ''GTT'' framework, terms are linguistic units that refer to clearly defined concepts within a specific domain. Concepts are abstract representations of objects, actions, or processes that share common features (Wüster, 1979). The ''GTT'' emphasises: * A one-to-one correspondence between terms and concepts; * The importance of standardisation to establish consistent terminology across languages and fields; * The role of normalisation in harmonising variation to support standardisation. This approach seeks to ensure clarity, precision, and uniform communication, especially in technical and scientific fields. The ''CTT'' presents an alternative, more context-sensitive view. Here, terms are understood as lexical units that acquire meaning through their use in real communicative contexts and situations (cf. Cabré, 2005). Instead of rigid term-concept pairings, the focus is on how terms function in specific situations. The ''CTT'' reflects a more dynamic and discourse-oriented view of specialised language. This framework embraces linguistic variation, including: * Polysemy, where a single term may refer to multiple related concepts; * Synonymy, where multiple terms may represent the same concept depending on context or usage. == Some definitions in the field of terminology may include: == * Term: A lexical unit used in a specialized field to designate a specific concept. * Concept: An abstract unit of knowledge formed through the mental representation of a class of objects, actions, phenomena, or processes sharing common characteristics. * Standardisation: A formal process in which terms, definitions, and other elements of specialized language are systematically established to ensure uniformity and unambiguous communication across contexts, languages, and communities of practice. * Normalisation: A broader process than standardization, involving the harmonization and regulation of terminological resources to reduce variability and ambiguity. It often precedes or complements formal standardization. * Linguistic variation: The use of different language forms to express similar meanings, influenced by context, region, social group, or communicative situation. * Synonymy: A type of linguistic variation in which multiple terms are used to refer to the same concept within a specialized domain. * Polysemy: A phenomenon where a single term is associated with two or more related but distinct concepts. == Take-Home Messages == * '''Terminology acts as a gateway to both subject knowledge and language learning in plurilingual educational contexts.''' Lexical and terminological units are central to understanding content across disciplines by supporting a deeper understanding of subject matter. In plurilingual education, they also serve as points of connection between languages, enabling learners to access and compare concepts more effectively. * '''Multilingual terminological resources are valuable teaching tools.''' Resources like multilingual glossaries or databases support both teachers and learners: teachers can use them to create didactic materials, while learners can access content in multiple languages, promoting equal opportunities for knowledge acquisition in plurilingual educational context. * '''Integrating terminology into plurilingual activities enriches both language and content learning.''' Pedagogic approaches such as translanguaging, intercomprehension, or lexical comparison can help students draw on all their linguistic resources, even while engaging with disciplinary content. == Self-Assessment == <quiz display=simple> {A. When was terminology formalised as a scientific discipline?} -In the 19^th century. +Mid-to-late 20^th century. -In ancient times. {B. In the framework of the GTT, the process of standardisation is about} +ensuring uniformity and unambiguity in communication. -providing an harmonisation of terminological resources. -facilitating good terms to use. {C. In the framework of the CTT, terms are considered as} +lexical units with a form and a meaning with a terminological value depending on context and communicative situation. -autonomous entities part of a specialised lexicon. -words with fixed meaning independent of context. {D. How does CTT differ from Wüster’s GTT?} -It focuses exclusively on technical fields. -It completely rejects standardisation. +It considers the real use of language in communicative contexts. {E. Which of the following statements best describes the role of terminology in plurilingual education?} -Terminology in education should avoid cross-linguistic comparisons to prevent confusion among learners. +Terminology serves as a gateway to disciplinary knowledge and facilitates learners’ cross-linguistic comparison, enhancing metalinguistic awareness and supporting the use of multiple languages in learning. -Terminology is only relevant for technical and scientific domains and has little impact on language learning. {F. Which educational practice can support the integration of multilingual terminology into plurilingual education?} -Providing learners with a monolingual glossary of technical terms in the language of instruction only. -Encouraging learners to memorise a list of terms without context. +Using multilingual terminological resources, such as glossaries or databases, to allow learners to compare lexical and terminological units across languages, fostering comprehension and transfer skills. </quiz> == Resources to go further == * Cabré, M. T. & Lorente, M. (2021). Panorama teòric de la terminologia actual. ''Terminàlia, 24,'' 57-63. * FAO Term Portal - https://www.fao.org/faoterm * IATE – Interactive Terminology for Europe - https://iate.europa.eu/home * IULATERM: Léxico y tecnología - https://www.upf.edu/es/web/iulaterm * Lorente, M. (1998). Variació lèxica. De la idiosincràsia al tractament sistemàtic de la diversitat. ''Caplletra, 25'', 83-98. * Realiter - https://www.realiter.net/lessici-realiter * UNTERM – United Nations Multilingual Terminology Database - https://unterm.un.org/unterm2/en/ == Bibliography == Boulanger, J.-C. (1983). Synonymie, néonymie et normalisation en terminologie. In D. Duquet-Picard & M. Bugara-Adshead (Eds.), ''Problèmes de la définition et de la synonymie en terminologie : Actes du Colloque international de terminologie, Université Laval (Québec, 23–27 mai 1982)'' (pp. 311–327). GIRSTERM. Boulanger, J.-C. (1995). Présentation: Images et parcours de la socioterminologie. ''Meta, 40''(2), 194–205. Cabré, M. T. (1998). Elementos para una teoría de la terminología: Hacia un paradigma alternativo. ''El Lenguaraz. Revista académica del Colegio de Traductores Públicos de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires, 1''(1), 59–78. Cabré, M. T. (2005). ''La terminología: Representación y comunicación'' (Ed. orig. 1999). Institut Universitari de Lingüística Aplicada, Universitat Pompeu Fabra. Cabré, M. T. (2009). La Teoría Comunicativa de la Terminología, una aproximación lingüística a los términos. ''Revue Française de Linguistique Appliquée, 14''(2), 9–15. Candelier, M., Camilleri-Grima, A., Castellotti, V. de Pietro, J.-F., Lörincz, I., Meißner, F.-J., Schröder-Sura, A., Noguerol, A. & Molinié, M. (2012). ''Le CARAP — Un Cadre de Référence pour les Approches Plurielles des Langues et des Cultures – Compétences et ressources.'' Conseil de l’Europe. http://carap.ecml.at/   Conceição, M. C., & Zanola, M. T. (Eds.). (2020). ''Terminologia e mediação linguística: Métodos, práticas e atividades''. Universidade do Algarve Editora. Council of Europe. (2001). (CEFR) ''Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment''. Cambridge University Press. Council of Europe. (2020). (CEFR Companion Volume) ''Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment – Companion volume with new descriptors.'' Council of Europe Publishing. https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages Estopà, R. (2021). ''El diccionario escolar de ciencia: Un aliado en el aula''. McGraw-Hill. European Parliament. (2009). ''Multilingualism: an asset for Europe and a shared commitment'' (European Parliament resolution of 24 March 2009 on Multilingualism: an asset for Europe and a shared commitment, 2008/2225(INI)). Official Journal of the European Union. Felber, H. (1981). The Vienna School of Terminology, fundamentals and its theory. ''Infoterm'', 69–86. Gaudin, F. (2003). ''Socioterminologie: Une approche sociolinguistique de la terminologie''. De Boeck & Larcier. Gaudin, F. (2005). La socioterminologie. ''Langages, 1''(157), 80–92. McCann, W., J., Klein, H., G. & Stegmann, T., D. (2002). ''EuroComRom - The Seven Sieves: How to read all the Romance Languages right away''. Editiones EuroCom, 5. Shaker Verlag. Temmerman, R. (2000). ''Towards New Ways of Terminological Description. The sociocognitive approach''. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Wüster, E. (1979). ''Einführung in die allgemeine Terminologielehre und terminologische Lexikographie''. Springer. (Spanish translation and edition: Cabré, M. T. (Eds.). (1998). ''Introducción a la teoría general de la terminología y a la lexicografía terminológica''. Institut Universitari de Lingüística Aplicada, Universitat Pompeu Fabra. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Melissa Lamonaca (Università Roma Tre) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] 8rplurd8p5ucyxhq6lk0g4f2glckemm 0 326171 2817265 2792557 2026-06-29T16:13:22Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Credits */ 2817265 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting Activity == Reflect on your own experiences as a language learner or teacher: * For you, what role does plurilingualism play in language learning? * Do you think teachers should integrate students' multiple linguistic resources into their teaching? Why or why not? * Have you ever encountered resistance (your own or others') to plurilingual education? What were the reasons behind it? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * Define teachers’ beliefs and their role in shaping pedagogical practices. * Understand the relationship between teachers’ cognition and plurilingual education. * Identify challenges and barriers that influence the implementation of plurilingual approaches in classrooms. * Explore possible solutions and strategies to bridge the gap between both positive and negative beliefs and real classroom practices. == Keywords == Teacher cognition, pedagogical beliefs, plurilingual education, language policy, multilingualism in education, language diversity, teaching practices. == Table of Contents == # Introduction # Definition and history of the concept # Results of empirical studies and practical examples # Take-home messages # Self-assessment # Resources to go further # Bibliography == '''Introduction''' == In recent decades, research has increasingly focused on teachers’ beliefs and cognition as key factors influencing language teaching practices. While linguistic and educational policies promote plurilingualism, at least in the European context, the actual implementation of plurilingual pedagogies in the classroom remains reduced and sporadic. In the literature, teachers' beliefs about multilingualism and plurilingualism, language learning and teaching, and language are said to directly affect their teaching methods, the way they interact with students, and their openness to integrating multiple languages in their classrooms. As summarised by Lundberg (2020, p. 26), “the idea that teacher cognition, consisting of teachers’ beliefs and knowledge, informs teachers’ perceptions, judgements, decision making and guides their behaviour or in other words drives their pedagogical actions is relatively uncontested in research”. Nevertheless, a direct correlation is difficult to establish (Wilken, 2020). If we think of beliefs about plurilingualism and plurilingual education, some (language) educators embrace plurilingual approaches and linguistic responsible practices, recognizing their cognitive and social benefits, while others hesitate to do it due to pedagogical concerns, institutional constraints, or personal beliefs. Some adopt plurilingual pedagogies, some others don’t. And indeed, despite widespread advocacy for multilingual education at policy levels (e.g., CEFR, European Commission language policies), the practical adoption of plurilingual approaches in classrooms varies significantly across contexts, potentially illustrating a mismatch between policies, practices and teachers’ beliefs. == '''Definition and history of the concept''' == The concept of “teachers’ beliefs” is considered a “messy construct” (Pajares, 1992), sometimes taken as synonym of or aggregated to other concepts, such as attitudes, perspectives, representations, ideologies, to name but a few. Despite difficulties in the definition and separation of these concepts, they are part of teachers’ cognition. Teachers’ cognition refers to the mental processes, knowledge, and beliefs that influence how teachers understand and approach their work (Borg, 2006). Research into language teachers' beliefs has a well-established history in the field of language education. This is reflected in the diverse terminology employed (Borg, 2003), along with the wide range of related themes and methodological approaches used to explore these beliefs, such as surveys, interviews, and visual techniques (Barkhuizen, 2019). Interest in teachers’ beliefs in language education gained prominence in the 1970s when researchers started examining learner-centered pedagogies. Initially, beliefs were seen as “methodological deviations” from standardized teaching approaches. However, from the 1990s onwards, teacher cognition (Borg, 2006) was increasingly recognized as a legitimate area of study in applied linguistics and language education research. Several studies have since explored the ways teachers’ perceptions, attitudes, and experiences, alongside specific content-knowledge, actually influence classroom practices. More recently, scholars have investigated how teacher training and professional development can reshape pedagogical beliefs, particularly concerning plurilingualism. Nevertheless, as acknowledged by Pajares (1992), “the difficulty in studying teachers’ beliefs has been caused by definitional problems, poor conceptualizations, and differing understandings of beliefs and belief structures”. == '''Results of empirical studies and practical examples''' == As stated in a narrative synthesis by Melo-Pfeifer & Schröder-Sura (2024, p. 495, our translation), “studies on language teachers' beliefs about multilingual approaches in foreign language teaching, with or without mention of pluralistic approaches, have become more frequent in recent years (see Araújo e Sá & Melo-Pfeifer, 2015; Barras et al, 2019; Haukås, 2016; Le Pape Racine & Brühwiler, 2020 ; Lundberg, 2019; Melo-Pfeifer, 2020 and 2018b; Pérez-Peitx & Sánchez-Quintana 2019; Portolés & Martí 2018). Despite differences in national contexts, professional experience, and subjects taught, these studies generally reveal consistent and comparable results and conclusions. The key findings of these studies can be summarized as follows, according to Melo-Pfeifer & Schröder-Sura” (2024, p. 496; our translation): * In-service and pre-service language teachers recognize the affective value of multilingual approaches in language teaching in terms of motivation and respectful recognition of learners' language repertoires. * Although they do not always fully accept this (e.g., due to fears of negative inter- or intralingual interference or the fossilization of errors), future teachers recognize the cognitive advantages of mobilizing language skills. * Future teachers contrast structural problems in curricula with the recognition of cognitive and affective advantages, such as continued monolingual assessment, the separation of school subjects, etc., as well as problems related to time and resource management. Teaching (inadequate textbooks, limited communication between teachers of different languages in schools) or even language management in the classroom, either because they fear losing their role as language experts or because they do not perceive themselves as “sufficiently multilingual.” * Language teachers often point to the contradictions between what they have observed or experienced in their language teaching (at school or university) and the challenges posed by multilingual teaching, and regard these as insurmountable tasks that threaten their identity as language teachers. All in all, studies on teachers' beliefs about multilingualism show that teachers “[...] generally consider multilingualism to be a resource and valuable, but are rather skeptical about its constructive integration into their teaching and do not feel sufficiently qualified or professional” (Huxel, 2018, p. 110). In 2025, results of a survey of the Erasmus Plus project PEP (Promotion de l’Education Plurilingue; see Cortés Velásquez, 2025, p. 9) showed that: * “teachers emphasize the cultural and societal benefits of plurilingualism, including intercultural dialogue, linguistic diversity, and social inclusion. * classroom practices often incorporate multiple languages for fostering comprehension, emotional engagement, and metalinguistic awareness. * plurilingual assessment practices remain limited, indicating a need for alignment between teaching and evaluation. * teachers report significant challenges in the implementation of plurilingual practices, including insufficient institutional support, resources, specific training, and time”. === Example 1: Teachers’ Conflicting Beliefs About Plurilingualism === A study by Haukås (2015) found that while many teachers support plurilingual education in theory, they often avoid implementing it due to concerns that multiple languages in the classroom might confuse students or hinder the development of the dominant language. === Example 2: Institutional Barriers and the "Monolingual Myth" === Even when teachers have positive attitudes toward plurilingual practices, they face structural challenges such as monolingual curricula, lack of pedagogical resources, and administrative pressure to teach in a single target language (Bredthauer & Engfer, 2016). === Example 3: Teachers Using Translanguaging as a Strategy === Despite challenges, some educators integrate translanguaging strategies—allowing students to use all their linguistic resources to support learning. For example, an English teacher in a multilingual classroom might encourage students to take notes in their home language before summarizing in English. === Example 4: Teacher Training Programs and Plurilingual Awareness === Research has shown that teachers who receive training on plurilingual pedagogies are more likely to implement them in their teaching (Burner & Carlsen, 2023). == '''Take-Home Messages''' == * Teachers' beliefs play a crucial role in the implementation of plurilingual education, even if a direct correlation between beliefs and practices is difficult to establish. * Many teachers might have positive beliefs about plurilingualism and plurilingual education and still be reluctant to adopt plurilingual approaches, due to institutional and structural barriers or to negative beliefs about their own self-efficacy, agency or perceived lack of education * Perceived lack of training and insufficient resources contribute to the gap between policy recommendations and classroom reality. == '''Self-Assessment''' == 1. Teachers’ actions are always consistent with their beliefs. # True # False 2. What is a common reason why teachers may hesitate to implement plurilingual approaches? # They believe that plurilingualism accelerates learning. # They feel that integrating multiple languages could hinder the development of the dominant or the target language. # They are required to exclusively use monolingual pedagogies. # They have no personal beliefs about language teaching. 3. According to research, what factor can increase the likelihood of teachers implementing plurilingual pedagogies? # Their personal experience as monolingual speakers. # The presence of language policies favoring strict monolingual instruction. # Their participation in training programs that focus on plurilingual teaching. # The lack of multilingual students in their classroom. ''Correct answers: 1) 2; 2) 2; 3) 3.'' == '''Resources to Go Further''' == * Council of Europe – Plurilingual Education: https://www.coe.int/en/web/language-policy/plurilingualism * Research on Teacher Cognition: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308502263_Teacher_cognition_and_language_teaching == '''Bibliography''' == Barkhuizen, G. (2019). ''Qualitative Research Topics in Language Teacher Education''. Routledge. Borg, S. (2006). ''Teacher Cognition and Language Education''. Continuum. Borg, S. (2003). Teacher cognition in language teaching: a review of research on what language teachers think, know, believe, and do. ''Language Teaching'' 36, 81–109. Bredthauer, S., & Engfer, H. (2016). Multilingualism is great – but is it really my business? ''Sustainable Multilingualism'', 9, 104–121. Burner, T., & Carlsen, C. (2023). Teachers' multilingual beliefs and practices in English classrooms: A scoping review. ''Review of Education'', 11. Cortés Velásquez, D., Strasser, M., Bogensperger, T., Hülsmann, C., & Zini, D. (coord.), Bonvino, E., Brinkmann, L.M., Capucho, F., Damaskou, E., Gaillat, T., Gerwers, F., Gkaintartzi, Kitsiou, R., Kratochwil, L., Lamonaca, M., Melo-Pfeifer, S., Ollivier, C., Vetter, E., & Wagner, P., (2025). ''Language use in secondary and higher education: Teachers’ beliefs and practices. Survey Report.'' PEP – Promoting Plurilingual Education. https://doi.org/10.25592/uhhfdm.16755. Haukås, Å. (2015). Teachers’ beliefs about multilingualism and a multilingual pedagogical approach. ''International Journal of Multilingualism'', 13(1), 1–18. Huxel, K. (2018). Lehrer*insein in der Migrationsgesellschaft. Professionalisierung in einem widersprüchlichen Feld. ''ZISU'' 7, 109–121. Lundberg, A. (2020). ''Viewpoints about educational language policies. Multilingualism in Sweden and Switzerland''. Malmö University. Melo-Pfeifer, S., & Schröder-Sura, A. (2024). Überzeugungen zu Pluralen Ansätzen – Zwei Untersuchungen in der ersten und dritten Phase der LehrerInnenbildung. In D. Reimann (Ed.), ''Geschichte und Gegenwart der romanistischen Fachdidaktik und Lehrerbildung in deutschsprachigen und romanophonen Kontexten'' (pp. 49-512). Narr Verlag. Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teachers’ Beliefs and Educational Research: Cleaning Up a Messy Construct. ''Review of Educational Research'', ''62''(3), 307-332. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543062003307 Wilken, A. (2020). ''Professionalisierung durch Schüler*innen-Mehrsprachigkeit? Englischlehrer*innen im Spannungsfeld zwischen Habitus und Norm''. PhD Thesis. Hamburg: Universität Hamburg. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Diego Cortes Velasquez (Università Roma Tre) * Sílvia Melo-Pfeifer (Universität Hamburg) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] olpz3qtw9vc23h07lrm7sd73cplamp0 2817319 2817265 2026-06-29T17:27:16Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self-Assessment */ 2817319 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting Activity == Reflect on your own experiences as a language learner or teacher: * For you, what role does plurilingualism play in language learning? * Do you think teachers should integrate students' multiple linguistic resources into their teaching? Why or why not? * Have you ever encountered resistance (your own or others') to plurilingual education? What were the reasons behind it? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * Define teachers’ beliefs and their role in shaping pedagogical practices. * Understand the relationship between teachers’ cognition and plurilingual education. * Identify challenges and barriers that influence the implementation of plurilingual approaches in classrooms. * Explore possible solutions and strategies to bridge the gap between both positive and negative beliefs and real classroom practices. == Keywords == Teacher cognition, pedagogical beliefs, plurilingual education, language policy, multilingualism in education, language diversity, teaching practices. == Table of Contents == # Introduction # Definition and history of the concept # Results of empirical studies and practical examples # Take-home messages # Self-assessment # Resources to go further # Bibliography == '''Introduction''' == In recent decades, research has increasingly focused on teachers’ beliefs and cognition as key factors influencing language teaching practices. While linguistic and educational policies promote plurilingualism, at least in the European context, the actual implementation of plurilingual pedagogies in the classroom remains reduced and sporadic. In the literature, teachers' beliefs about multilingualism and plurilingualism, language learning and teaching, and language are said to directly affect their teaching methods, the way they interact with students, and their openness to integrating multiple languages in their classrooms. As summarised by Lundberg (2020, p. 26), “the idea that teacher cognition, consisting of teachers’ beliefs and knowledge, informs teachers’ perceptions, judgements, decision making and guides their behaviour or in other words drives their pedagogical actions is relatively uncontested in research”. Nevertheless, a direct correlation is difficult to establish (Wilken, 2020). If we think of beliefs about plurilingualism and plurilingual education, some (language) educators embrace plurilingual approaches and linguistic responsible practices, recognizing their cognitive and social benefits, while others hesitate to do it due to pedagogical concerns, institutional constraints, or personal beliefs. Some adopt plurilingual pedagogies, some others don’t. And indeed, despite widespread advocacy for multilingual education at policy levels (e.g., CEFR, European Commission language policies), the practical adoption of plurilingual approaches in classrooms varies significantly across contexts, potentially illustrating a mismatch between policies, practices and teachers’ beliefs. == '''Definition and history of the concept''' == The concept of “teachers’ beliefs” is considered a “messy construct” (Pajares, 1992), sometimes taken as synonym of or aggregated to other concepts, such as attitudes, perspectives, representations, ideologies, to name but a few. Despite difficulties in the definition and separation of these concepts, they are part of teachers’ cognition. Teachers’ cognition refers to the mental processes, knowledge, and beliefs that influence how teachers understand and approach their work (Borg, 2006). Research into language teachers' beliefs has a well-established history in the field of language education. This is reflected in the diverse terminology employed (Borg, 2003), along with the wide range of related themes and methodological approaches used to explore these beliefs, such as surveys, interviews, and visual techniques (Barkhuizen, 2019). Interest in teachers’ beliefs in language education gained prominence in the 1970s when researchers started examining learner-centered pedagogies. Initially, beliefs were seen as “methodological deviations” from standardized teaching approaches. However, from the 1990s onwards, teacher cognition (Borg, 2006) was increasingly recognized as a legitimate area of study in applied linguistics and language education research. Several studies have since explored the ways teachers’ perceptions, attitudes, and experiences, alongside specific content-knowledge, actually influence classroom practices. More recently, scholars have investigated how teacher training and professional development can reshape pedagogical beliefs, particularly concerning plurilingualism. Nevertheless, as acknowledged by Pajares (1992), “the difficulty in studying teachers’ beliefs has been caused by definitional problems, poor conceptualizations, and differing understandings of beliefs and belief structures”. == '''Results of empirical studies and practical examples''' == As stated in a narrative synthesis by Melo-Pfeifer & Schröder-Sura (2024, p. 495, our translation), “studies on language teachers' beliefs about multilingual approaches in foreign language teaching, with or without mention of pluralistic approaches, have become more frequent in recent years (see Araújo e Sá & Melo-Pfeifer, 2015; Barras et al, 2019; Haukås, 2016; Le Pape Racine & Brühwiler, 2020 ; Lundberg, 2019; Melo-Pfeifer, 2020 and 2018b; Pérez-Peitx & Sánchez-Quintana 2019; Portolés & Martí 2018). Despite differences in national contexts, professional experience, and subjects taught, these studies generally reveal consistent and comparable results and conclusions. The key findings of these studies can be summarized as follows, according to Melo-Pfeifer & Schröder-Sura” (2024, p. 496; our translation): * In-service and pre-service language teachers recognize the affective value of multilingual approaches in language teaching in terms of motivation and respectful recognition of learners' language repertoires. * Although they do not always fully accept this (e.g., due to fears of negative inter- or intralingual interference or the fossilization of errors), future teachers recognize the cognitive advantages of mobilizing language skills. * Future teachers contrast structural problems in curricula with the recognition of cognitive and affective advantages, such as continued monolingual assessment, the separation of school subjects, etc., as well as problems related to time and resource management. Teaching (inadequate textbooks, limited communication between teachers of different languages in schools) or even language management in the classroom, either because they fear losing their role as language experts or because they do not perceive themselves as “sufficiently multilingual.” * Language teachers often point to the contradictions between what they have observed or experienced in their language teaching (at school or university) and the challenges posed by multilingual teaching, and regard these as insurmountable tasks that threaten their identity as language teachers. All in all, studies on teachers' beliefs about multilingualism show that teachers “[...] generally consider multilingualism to be a resource and valuable, but are rather skeptical about its constructive integration into their teaching and do not feel sufficiently qualified or professional” (Huxel, 2018, p. 110). In 2025, results of a survey of the Erasmus Plus project PEP (Promotion de l’Education Plurilingue; see Cortés Velásquez, 2025, p. 9) showed that: * “teachers emphasize the cultural and societal benefits of plurilingualism, including intercultural dialogue, linguistic diversity, and social inclusion. * classroom practices often incorporate multiple languages for fostering comprehension, emotional engagement, and metalinguistic awareness. * plurilingual assessment practices remain limited, indicating a need for alignment between teaching and evaluation. * teachers report significant challenges in the implementation of plurilingual practices, including insufficient institutional support, resources, specific training, and time”. === Example 1: Teachers’ Conflicting Beliefs About Plurilingualism === A study by Haukås (2015) found that while many teachers support plurilingual education in theory, they often avoid implementing it due to concerns that multiple languages in the classroom might confuse students or hinder the development of the dominant language. === Example 2: Institutional Barriers and the "Monolingual Myth" === Even when teachers have positive attitudes toward plurilingual practices, they face structural challenges such as monolingual curricula, lack of pedagogical resources, and administrative pressure to teach in a single target language (Bredthauer & Engfer, 2016). === Example 3: Teachers Using Translanguaging as a Strategy === Despite challenges, some educators integrate translanguaging strategies—allowing students to use all their linguistic resources to support learning. For example, an English teacher in a multilingual classroom might encourage students to take notes in their home language before summarizing in English. === Example 4: Teacher Training Programs and Plurilingual Awareness === Research has shown that teachers who receive training on plurilingual pedagogies are more likely to implement them in their teaching (Burner & Carlsen, 2023). == '''Take-Home Messages''' == * Teachers' beliefs play a crucial role in the implementation of plurilingual education, even if a direct correlation between beliefs and practices is difficult to establish. * Many teachers might have positive beliefs about plurilingualism and plurilingual education and still be reluctant to adopt plurilingual approaches, due to institutional and structural barriers or to negative beliefs about their own self-efficacy, agency or perceived lack of education * Perceived lack of training and insufficient resources contribute to the gap between policy recommendations and classroom reality. == '''Self-Assessment''' == <quiz display=simple> {Teachers’ actions are always consistent with their beliefs.} -True +False {What is a common reason why teachers may hesitate to implement plurilingual approaches?} -They believe that plurilingualism accelerates learning. +They feel that integrating multiple languages could hinder the development of the dominant or the target language. -They are required to exclusively use monolingual pedagogies. -They have no personal beliefs about language teaching. {According to research, what factor can increase the likelihood of teachers implementing plurilingual pedagogies?} -Their personal experience as monolingual speakers. -The presence of language policies favoring strict monolingual instruction. +Their participation in training programs that focus on plurilingual teaching. -The lack of multilingual students in their classroom. </quiz> == '''Resources to Go Further''' == * Council of Europe – Plurilingual Education: https://www.coe.int/en/web/language-policy/plurilingualism * Research on Teacher Cognition: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308502263_Teacher_cognition_and_language_teaching == '''Bibliography''' == Barkhuizen, G. (2019). ''Qualitative Research Topics in Language Teacher Education''. Routledge. Borg, S. (2006). ''Teacher Cognition and Language Education''. Continuum. Borg, S. (2003). Teacher cognition in language teaching: a review of research on what language teachers think, know, believe, and do. ''Language Teaching'' 36, 81–109. Bredthauer, S., & Engfer, H. (2016). Multilingualism is great – but is it really my business? ''Sustainable Multilingualism'', 9, 104–121. Burner, T., & Carlsen, C. (2023). Teachers' multilingual beliefs and practices in English classrooms: A scoping review. ''Review of Education'', 11. Cortés Velásquez, D., Strasser, M., Bogensperger, T., Hülsmann, C., & Zini, D. (coord.), Bonvino, E., Brinkmann, L.M., Capucho, F., Damaskou, E., Gaillat, T., Gerwers, F., Gkaintartzi, Kitsiou, R., Kratochwil, L., Lamonaca, M., Melo-Pfeifer, S., Ollivier, C., Vetter, E., & Wagner, P., (2025). ''Language use in secondary and higher education: Teachers’ beliefs and practices. Survey Report.'' PEP – Promoting Plurilingual Education. https://doi.org/10.25592/uhhfdm.16755. Haukås, Å. (2015). Teachers’ beliefs about multilingualism and a multilingual pedagogical approach. ''International Journal of Multilingualism'', 13(1), 1–18. Huxel, K. (2018). Lehrer*insein in der Migrationsgesellschaft. Professionalisierung in einem widersprüchlichen Feld. ''ZISU'' 7, 109–121. Lundberg, A. (2020). ''Viewpoints about educational language policies. Multilingualism in Sweden and Switzerland''. Malmö University. Melo-Pfeifer, S., & Schröder-Sura, A. (2024). Überzeugungen zu Pluralen Ansätzen – Zwei Untersuchungen in der ersten und dritten Phase der LehrerInnenbildung. In D. Reimann (Ed.), ''Geschichte und Gegenwart der romanistischen Fachdidaktik und Lehrerbildung in deutschsprachigen und romanophonen Kontexten'' (pp. 49-512). Narr Verlag. Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teachers’ Beliefs and Educational Research: Cleaning Up a Messy Construct. ''Review of Educational Research'', ''62''(3), 307-332. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543062003307 Wilken, A. (2020). ''Professionalisierung durch Schüler*innen-Mehrsprachigkeit? Englischlehrer*innen im Spannungsfeld zwischen Habitus und Norm''. PhD Thesis. Hamburg: Universität Hamburg. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Diego Cortes Velasquez (Università Roma Tre) * Sílvia Melo-Pfeifer (Universität Hamburg) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] 7oe4us72ejltfk9jtcmk504puf1xiq4 0 326172 2817253 2792547 2026-06-29T16:01:28Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Credits */ 2817253 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == ''Read the following short scenario:'' ''You teach English in a multilingual class in the first year of learning. A pupil introduces himself and says: ‘I have 10 years old.’ The pupil's mother tongue is Spanish and he is also learning French. You know that in many languages, such as Spanish or French, age is expressed with the verb ‘to have’ (e.g. ‘Tengo 20 años’ or ‘J'ai 20 ans’).'' * Why is it important to understand the differences in language structures when learning a new language? * How can you make targeted use of linguistic errors that arise from transfer from other languages to promote metalinguistic skills such as language awareness and an understanding of multilingualism among your learners – instead of simply correcting them? * What strategies can be used to help students transfer their knowledge from one language to another? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * clearly distinguish between ''metalinguistic awareness'', ''language awareness'', and ''meta-competence'', understanding their theoretical foundations and historical development. * recognize the importance of language awareness in multilingual contexts. * explore how metalinguistic and metacognitive processes support language acquisition, especially in multilingual contexts. * reflect on how multilingual learners may develop enhanced metalinguistic and metacognitive abilities, and how these can be leveraged pedagogically. == Key Words == metalinguistic knowledge, language reflection, language learning, language development, language skills, language identity, multilingualism, consciousness-raising, pragmatics == Table of contents == # Introduction # History of the concept # Practical Examples # Definition # Take-home messages # Self-assessment # Resources to go further # Bibliography == '''Introduction''' == The terms metalinguistic awareness, meta-skills (metacognition), and language awareness refer to distinct yet interconnected cognitive abilities and pedagogical approaches related to language and learning. While "meta-competence" broadly encompasses self-regulatory processes of thinking and learning, "metalinguistic awareness" and "language awareness" specifically delve into conscious knowledge and reflection about language itself. Understanding their historical development helps to clarify their nuanced meanings and applications across various fields, including language education, linguistics, psychology, and cognitive neuroscience. == '''History of the concept''' == The concepts of '''metalinguistic awareness, metacompetence''' (as part of metacognition), and '''language awareness''' describe different but interrelated cognitive abilities and pedagogical approaches in the field of language and learning. Their development has often followed a parallel or overlapping path. === A. Metalinguistic Awareness (MA) === Historically, scholars like '''Wilhelm von Humboldt''' and '''Otto Jespersen''' emphasized the importance of reflecting on language for deeper learning. Early research on bilingual children—such as '''Ronjat (1913)''' and '''Leopold (1939–1949)'''—suggested that bilingualism can enhance metalinguistic insight. '''Ianco-Worrall (1972)''' later provided experimental evidence showing that bilinguals often outperform monolinguals in tasks requiring metalinguistic reasoning. A widely accepted model by '''Bialystok and Ryan (1985)''' describes MA as having two core dimensions: * '''Analyzed knowledge''': the ability to explicitly describe language structures. * '''Cognitive control''': the capacity to monitor and reflect on language use. Recent studies (e.g., '''Kieseier et al., 2022''') further divide MA into four key areas: phonological, word, syntactic, and pragmatic awareness. Together, these skills support learners in navigating and understanding language more flexibly—especially in multilingual settings. === B. Meta-Competence (Metacognition) === The roots of meta-competence can be traced back to the work of Lev Vygotsky, who emphasized the importance of self-awareness and internal dialogue in cognitive development. Building on this foundation, researchers have identified several key components of meta-competence: * ''Meta-learning:'' Awareness and control of one’s own learning strategies and processes. * ''Meta-attention:'' The ability to consciously direct and sustain attention. * ''Meta-memory:'' Monitoring and managing memory functions, such as recalling information or recognizing when something has been forgotten. * ''Social metacognition:'' Understanding and anticipating the thoughts, knowledge, or misunderstandings of others—an essential skill in collaborative learning and communication. These metacognitive skills are particularly valuable in language learning, where learners must often reflect on their progress, identify gaps in understanding, and adjust their strategies accordingly. In multilingual contexts, meta-competence supports learners in navigating between languages, transferring knowledge, and developing greater autonomy and self-regulation in their learning journey. === C. Language Awareness (LA) === Language awareness emerged in the United Kingdom in the 1970s, particularly in response to educational challenges identified in the Bullock Report (1975), which called for greater integration of language knowledge across the curriculum. The concept gained momentum through the work of Eric Hawkins, who in the 1980s advocated for a more analytical and reflective approach to language learning. He proposed that learners should develop an understanding of how language works—not only in the target language but also in their mother tongue and other languages they may know. This comparative approach was seen as a way to foster curiosity, deepen linguistic understanding, and prepare learners for future language acquisition. The Association for Language Awareness (ALA), founded in 1994, defines LA as ''“explicit knowledge about language, and conscious perception and sensitivity in language learning, language teaching, and language use.”'' This definition highlights both the cognitive and affective dimensions of language awareness, including sensitivity to language variation, multilingualism, and the social implications of language use. Over time, the concept has evolved to include more critical perspectives: * ''Critical Language Awareness (CLA)'', developed by scholars such as Norman Fairclough and Ursula Clark, focuses on the relationship between language and power. It encourages learners to question how language shapes identity, reinforces social hierarchies, and reflects ideological positions. * ''Critical Multilingual Language Awareness (CMLA)'' builds on this by addressing how multilingual speakers, particularly those from minoritized backgrounds, are positioned within societal structures. It promotes an inclusive view of linguistic diversity and challenges deficit-oriented perspectives on non-standard or non-dominant language varieties. Today, language awareness is recognized as a key component of inclusive and reflective language education, especially in multilingual and multicultural classrooms. It empowers learners to become more conscious, critical, and confident users of language in diverse contexts. == '''Definitions''' == === A. Metalinguistic Awareness (MA) === '''Metalinguistic awareness''' is the ability to reflect on and discuss language as a system. It involves consciously thinking about how language works—its grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and use in context. This includes awareness of different linguistic levels, such as: * '''Phonological''' (sounds and sound patterns), * '''Morphological''' (word formation), * '''Syntactic''' (sentence structure), * '''Semantic''' (meaning), and * '''Pragmatic''' (language use in social situations). Ramirez et al. (2013) define metalinguistic awareness as the ability to ''“distance oneself from the content of speech in order to reflect upon and manipulate the structure of language.”'' In other words, it allows learners to step back from what is being said and focus on how it is being said. Metalinguistic awareness is often considered a '''subdomain of metacognition''', as it involves both reflection and control over language use. It enables learners to analyze linguistic forms, recognize patterns, and correct errors—skills that are essential for both first and additional language learning. Subcategories of metalinguistic awareness include: * '''Phonological awareness''' * '''Morphological and syntactic awareness''' * '''Semantic and pragmatic awareness''' This ability is particularly well-developed in '''bilingual and multilingual learners''', who are regularly exposed to multiple linguistic systems. Such exposure often enhances their sensitivity to language structure and their ability to compare and reflect on different languages. === B. Meta-Competence (Metacognition) === '''Meta-competence''' refers to a set of higher-order, overarching abilities that enable individuals to reflect on, monitor, and regulate their own thinking and learning processes. Closely linked to the broader field of '''metacognition''', it is often described as “knowledge about one’s own knowledge.” Meta-competence encompasses not only cognitive skills but also interpersonal and professional dimensions, supporting learners in becoming more autonomous, strategic, and reflective. According to Bogo et al. (2012), meta-competence includes the capacity for '''critical thinking''', '''self-reflection''', and '''strategic learning'''—skills that are essential for lifelong learning and professional development. Key components of meta-competence include: * '''Meta-learning''': Awareness and regulation of one’s own learning strategies * '''Meta-attention''': The ability to consciously direct and sustain attention * '''Meta-memory''': Monitoring and managing memory processes * '''Social metacognition''': Understanding and anticipating others’ cognitive perspectives These abilities are particularly relevant in '''language education''', where learners must reflect on their progress, evaluate their understanding, and adapt strategies to navigate between languages and contexts. Meta-competence thus plays a vital role in fostering '''self-regulated learning''' and enhancing learners’ ability to transfer knowledge across linguistic and cultural boundaries. === C. Language Awareness (LA) === Language awareness is a pedagogical and cognitive concept that emphasizes the conscious understanding of language, its structures, functions, and social dimensions. '''Language awareness (LA)''' refers to the '''explicit knowledge of language''' and the '''conscious perception and sensitivity''' in language learning, teaching, and use. It is both a '''mental attribute''' and a '''pedagogical approach'''. Modern definitions of LA highlight its '''active and reflective nature'''. Eichler and Nold (2007) stress that LA develops through conscious engagement with language, enabling learners to apply rules explicitly, reflect on grammar, and correct errors. It also supports '''implicit learning''' through intuitive language use. Environmental factors also play a role: children growing up in '''multilingual settings''' are more likely to notice linguistic diversity and engage in imitation, which enhances their sensitivity to language variation (Bailey & Osipova, 2016). A recent perspective (Marr & Collins, 2023) expands LA to include the ability to '''adapt language use to context''' and to recognize the presence of '''non-dominant languages''' in school environments—languages that learners may carry as part of their identity. It is crucial to recognize that the terms "language awareness," "metalinguistic awareness," and "knowledge about language (KAL)" have often been used interchangeably or as synonyms in the literature. Different research fields also adhere to different terminological traditions; for example, "language awareness" and "knowledge about language" are more common in language teaching and teacher education, while "metalinguistic awareness" or "metalinguistic knowledge" are more prevalent in linguistics. This inconsistency can lead to confusion, as the same terms may carry slightly different connotations for different researchers. For instance, "teacher metalinguistic awareness (TMA)" and "TLA" have been used to refer to the same aspect of teacher cognition (Roehr-Brackin, 2025). == Practical examples == * “Awakening to Languages" (AtL) and other pluralistic approaches can promote multilingual metalinguistic awareness by exposing learners to various languages. Through activities like comparing greetings, exploring alphabets, analyzing multilingual signs, and discussing word origins, students reflect on language structures and develop a deeper understanding of linguistic diversity. * Differentiated teaching approaches are essential for fostering language awareness and written expression across diverse learning contexts. Teachers can guide learners to reflect on linguistic structures and meanings by posing thought-provoking questions and drawing connections to literature, cultural knowledge, or contemporary media. For example, asking “Why does the author choose this expression?” or “What cultural significance does this reference hold?” encourages learners to critically examine language and use it more consciously. This approach supports both early language acquisition and advanced levels of education, and is effective in multilingual and intercultural learning environments. * The linguistic landscape – written languages visible in public spaces – serves as a valuable resource for language learning and raising language awareness. Examples include analyzing public signs that contain indirect speech acts, wordplay (like "La Supera" and "¡Somos la pera!" in Spanish, blending "super" with "pear" and implying "the bee's knees") or grammatical differences between languages. * Visual methods are increasingly used in applied language research to explore multilingual identities and language awareness. These methods, such as drawings and visual narratives, help learners reflect on past experiences, imagine future scenarios, and visualize their language use and identity construction, including perceptions of different languages. For instance, a student teacher's drawing showing "EFL as a key to the world" or a "multilingual and intercultural EFL classroom" illustrates emergent language teaching constellations. * Digital tools and social media offer new avenues for impacting language awareness. Features like written 'conversation' or the ability to revise text can promote explicit noticing of language features, recognition, and correction of errors, enhancing language awareness as a process. == '''Take home messages''' == * ''Fundamental to Language Development:'' Metalinguistic awareness is a crucial element in both first and second language acquisition and development, enabling conscious engagement with language structure and function. * ''Beyond "Language About Language":'' It is not merely language that talks ''about'' language; rather, metalinguistic activity actively creates, structures, and forms ongoing speech and discourse. * ''Multifaceted and Interconnected:'' Metalinguistic awareness is a complex construct with cognitive, affective, and social dimensions, influencing and being influenced by learning context and individual factors. * ''Strong Link to Literacy:'' There is a well-documented connection between metalinguistic awareness and the development of literacy skills, including reading comprehension, writing, and spelling. * ''Benefits of Multilingualism:'' Bilingualism and multilingualism are shown to enhance metalinguistic awareness, providing cognitive advantages such as stronger phonological awareness and a more explicit understanding of how language systems work. * ''Empowering Pedagogy:'' Language Awareness approaches in education foster independent and critical thinking about language, moving beyond traditional, rule-based instruction towards a more discovery-oriented learning process. * ''Addressing Inequality:'' These approaches can play a vital role in challenging linguistic inequalities and promoting inclusivity by validating learners' diverse linguistic repertoires, especially for speakers of minority languages == '''Self-assessment''' == A. What distinguishes metalinguistic awareness from general language use? # It focuses only on vocabulary acquisition. # It involves unconscious language processing. # It enables reflection on and manipulation of language structures. # It refers to the ability to speak multiple languages fluently. B. How did Eric Hawkins contribute to the development of Language Awareness? # He introduced phonetic transcription into schools. # He emphasized the importance of comparing L1 and foreign languages. # He developed a theory of bilingual advantage. # He focused on memory training for vocabulary learning. C. Which of the following best describes meta-competence? # The ability to memorize grammar rules. # The capacity to reflect on and regulate one’s own learning and thinking. # The skill of translating between languages. # The unconscious acquisition of language patterns. D. Why does growing up in a multilingual environment support the development of Language Awareness? # Because children in such environments are forced to learn grammar earlier. # Because multilingual settings reduce the need for formal language instruction. # Because children are more likely to notice linguistic diversity and imitate different language patterns. # Because multilingual children avoid making language-related mistakes. E. Why are the terms “language awareness,” “metalinguistic awareness,” and “knowledge about language (KAL)” sometimes confusing in research? # They refer to completely unrelated concepts. # They are used interchangeably across different disciplines. # They are only relevant in early childhood education. # They were all introduced by the same researcher. Correct answers: A3; B2; C2; D3; E2. == Resources to go further == Webinar by Heather Benucci about Discovering Grammar with Consciousness-raising Tasks (2013), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=15ykiMq-qW8 Association for Language Awareness (2025): https://languageawareness.org/ Finkbeiner, C., & White, J. (2017). Language awareness and multilingualism: A historical overview. In J. Cenoz, D. Gorter & S. May (Eds.), ''Language Awareness and Multilingualism'': Third Edition (3-18). Springer. Gürsoy, E. (2020). ''Language Awareness und Mehrsprachigkeit,'' https://www.uni-due.de/imperia/md/content/prodaz/la.pdf McConachy, T. (2022). Language Awareness and Intercultural Communicative Competence. In T. McConachy, I. Golubeva & M. Wagner (Eds.), ''Intercultural Learning in Language Education and Beyond: Evolving Concepts, Perspectives and Practices'' (22-40).  Multilingual Matters. Van den Broek, E., Oolbekkink-Marchand, H., van Kemenade, A., Meijera, P. & Unsworth, S. (2022). Stimulating language awareness in the foreign language classroom: Exploring EFL teaching practices. ''The Language Learning Journal'', ''50''(1), 59–73. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337171510_Stimulating_language_awareness_in_the_foreign_language_classroom_Exploring_EFL_teaching_practices Woll, N., & Paquet, P.-L. (2021). Developing crosslinguistic awareness through plurilingual consciousness-raising tasks. ''Language Teaching Research, 29''(1), 63-87. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211056544. == Bibliography == Bailey, A. L. & Osipova, A. V. (2016). ''Children’s multilingual development and education: Fostering linguistic resources in home and school contexts.'' Cambridge University Press. Bialystok, E., & Ryan, E. B. (1985). Toward a Definition of Metalinguistic Skill. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 31(3), 229–251. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23086295 Bogo, M., Katz, E., Regehr, C., Logie, C., Mylopoulos, M., & Tufford, L. (2012). Toward Understanding Meta-Competence: An Analysis of Students’ Reflection on their Simulated Interviews. Social Work Education, 32(2), 259–273. https://doi.org/10.1080/02615479.2012.738662 Eichler, W. & Nold, G. (2007). Sprachbewusstheit (Beltz-Pädagogik). In B. Beck & E. Klieme (Hrsg.), Sprachliche Kompetenzen: Konzepte und Messung: DESI-Studie (Deutsch Englisch Schülerleistungen International) (63–82). Beltz Verlag. Kieseier, T., Thoma, D., Vogelbacher, M., & Holger, H. (2022). Differential effects of metalinguistic awareness components in early foreign language acquisition of English vocabulary and grammar. Language Awareness, 31(4), 495–514. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658416.2022.2093888 Marr, T. & Collins, S. (2023). Language Awareness at School. A Practical Guide for Teachers and School Learners. Routledge. Roehr-Brackin, K. (2025). Measuring children’s metalinguistic awareness. ''Language Teaching,'' 58(1), 27-43. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Eftychia Damaskou (University of Thessaly) * Theresa Bogensperger (Paris Londron Universität Salzburg) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] gnezgoygebdco5iujf2blm1fhethmwe 2817300 2817253 2026-06-29T16:55:09Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self-assessment */ 2817300 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == ''Read the following short scenario:'' ''You teach English in a multilingual class in the first year of learning. A pupil introduces himself and says: ‘I have 10 years old.’ The pupil's mother tongue is Spanish and he is also learning French. You know that in many languages, such as Spanish or French, age is expressed with the verb ‘to have’ (e.g. ‘Tengo 20 años’ or ‘J'ai 20 ans’).'' * Why is it important to understand the differences in language structures when learning a new language? * How can you make targeted use of linguistic errors that arise from transfer from other languages to promote metalinguistic skills such as language awareness and an understanding of multilingualism among your learners – instead of simply correcting them? * What strategies can be used to help students transfer their knowledge from one language to another? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * clearly distinguish between ''metalinguistic awareness'', ''language awareness'', and ''meta-competence'', understanding their theoretical foundations and historical development. * recognize the importance of language awareness in multilingual contexts. * explore how metalinguistic and metacognitive processes support language acquisition, especially in multilingual contexts. * reflect on how multilingual learners may develop enhanced metalinguistic and metacognitive abilities, and how these can be leveraged pedagogically. == Key Words == metalinguistic knowledge, language reflection, language learning, language development, language skills, language identity, multilingualism, consciousness-raising, pragmatics == Table of contents == # Introduction # History of the concept # Practical Examples # Definition # Take-home messages # Self-assessment # Resources to go further # Bibliography == '''Introduction''' == The terms metalinguistic awareness, meta-skills (metacognition), and language awareness refer to distinct yet interconnected cognitive abilities and pedagogical approaches related to language and learning. While "meta-competence" broadly encompasses self-regulatory processes of thinking and learning, "metalinguistic awareness" and "language awareness" specifically delve into conscious knowledge and reflection about language itself. Understanding their historical development helps to clarify their nuanced meanings and applications across various fields, including language education, linguistics, psychology, and cognitive neuroscience. == '''History of the concept''' == The concepts of '''metalinguistic awareness, metacompetence''' (as part of metacognition), and '''language awareness''' describe different but interrelated cognitive abilities and pedagogical approaches in the field of language and learning. Their development has often followed a parallel or overlapping path. === A. Metalinguistic Awareness (MA) === Historically, scholars like '''Wilhelm von Humboldt''' and '''Otto Jespersen''' emphasized the importance of reflecting on language for deeper learning. Early research on bilingual children—such as '''Ronjat (1913)''' and '''Leopold (1939–1949)'''—suggested that bilingualism can enhance metalinguistic insight. '''Ianco-Worrall (1972)''' later provided experimental evidence showing that bilinguals often outperform monolinguals in tasks requiring metalinguistic reasoning. A widely accepted model by '''Bialystok and Ryan (1985)''' describes MA as having two core dimensions: * '''Analyzed knowledge''': the ability to explicitly describe language structures. * '''Cognitive control''': the capacity to monitor and reflect on language use. Recent studies (e.g., '''Kieseier et al., 2022''') further divide MA into four key areas: phonological, word, syntactic, and pragmatic awareness. Together, these skills support learners in navigating and understanding language more flexibly—especially in multilingual settings. === B. Meta-Competence (Metacognition) === The roots of meta-competence can be traced back to the work of Lev Vygotsky, who emphasized the importance of self-awareness and internal dialogue in cognitive development. Building on this foundation, researchers have identified several key components of meta-competence: * ''Meta-learning:'' Awareness and control of one’s own learning strategies and processes. * ''Meta-attention:'' The ability to consciously direct and sustain attention. * ''Meta-memory:'' Monitoring and managing memory functions, such as recalling information or recognizing when something has been forgotten. * ''Social metacognition:'' Understanding and anticipating the thoughts, knowledge, or misunderstandings of others—an essential skill in collaborative learning and communication. These metacognitive skills are particularly valuable in language learning, where learners must often reflect on their progress, identify gaps in understanding, and adjust their strategies accordingly. In multilingual contexts, meta-competence supports learners in navigating between languages, transferring knowledge, and developing greater autonomy and self-regulation in their learning journey. === C. Language Awareness (LA) === Language awareness emerged in the United Kingdom in the 1970s, particularly in response to educational challenges identified in the Bullock Report (1975), which called for greater integration of language knowledge across the curriculum. The concept gained momentum through the work of Eric Hawkins, who in the 1980s advocated for a more analytical and reflective approach to language learning. He proposed that learners should develop an understanding of how language works—not only in the target language but also in their mother tongue and other languages they may know. This comparative approach was seen as a way to foster curiosity, deepen linguistic understanding, and prepare learners for future language acquisition. The Association for Language Awareness (ALA), founded in 1994, defines LA as ''“explicit knowledge about language, and conscious perception and sensitivity in language learning, language teaching, and language use.”'' This definition highlights both the cognitive and affective dimensions of language awareness, including sensitivity to language variation, multilingualism, and the social implications of language use. Over time, the concept has evolved to include more critical perspectives: * ''Critical Language Awareness (CLA)'', developed by scholars such as Norman Fairclough and Ursula Clark, focuses on the relationship between language and power. It encourages learners to question how language shapes identity, reinforces social hierarchies, and reflects ideological positions. * ''Critical Multilingual Language Awareness (CMLA)'' builds on this by addressing how multilingual speakers, particularly those from minoritized backgrounds, are positioned within societal structures. It promotes an inclusive view of linguistic diversity and challenges deficit-oriented perspectives on non-standard or non-dominant language varieties. Today, language awareness is recognized as a key component of inclusive and reflective language education, especially in multilingual and multicultural classrooms. It empowers learners to become more conscious, critical, and confident users of language in diverse contexts. == '''Definitions''' == === A. Metalinguistic Awareness (MA) === '''Metalinguistic awareness''' is the ability to reflect on and discuss language as a system. It involves consciously thinking about how language works—its grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and use in context. This includes awareness of different linguistic levels, such as: * '''Phonological''' (sounds and sound patterns), * '''Morphological''' (word formation), * '''Syntactic''' (sentence structure), * '''Semantic''' (meaning), and * '''Pragmatic''' (language use in social situations). Ramirez et al. (2013) define metalinguistic awareness as the ability to ''“distance oneself from the content of speech in order to reflect upon and manipulate the structure of language.”'' In other words, it allows learners to step back from what is being said and focus on how it is being said. Metalinguistic awareness is often considered a '''subdomain of metacognition''', as it involves both reflection and control over language use. It enables learners to analyze linguistic forms, recognize patterns, and correct errors—skills that are essential for both first and additional language learning. Subcategories of metalinguistic awareness include: * '''Phonological awareness''' * '''Morphological and syntactic awareness''' * '''Semantic and pragmatic awareness''' This ability is particularly well-developed in '''bilingual and multilingual learners''', who are regularly exposed to multiple linguistic systems. Such exposure often enhances their sensitivity to language structure and their ability to compare and reflect on different languages. === B. Meta-Competence (Metacognition) === '''Meta-competence''' refers to a set of higher-order, overarching abilities that enable individuals to reflect on, monitor, and regulate their own thinking and learning processes. Closely linked to the broader field of '''metacognition''', it is often described as “knowledge about one’s own knowledge.” Meta-competence encompasses not only cognitive skills but also interpersonal and professional dimensions, supporting learners in becoming more autonomous, strategic, and reflective. According to Bogo et al. (2012), meta-competence includes the capacity for '''critical thinking''', '''self-reflection''', and '''strategic learning'''—skills that are essential for lifelong learning and professional development. Key components of meta-competence include: * '''Meta-learning''': Awareness and regulation of one’s own learning strategies * '''Meta-attention''': The ability to consciously direct and sustain attention * '''Meta-memory''': Monitoring and managing memory processes * '''Social metacognition''': Understanding and anticipating others’ cognitive perspectives These abilities are particularly relevant in '''language education''', where learners must reflect on their progress, evaluate their understanding, and adapt strategies to navigate between languages and contexts. Meta-competence thus plays a vital role in fostering '''self-regulated learning''' and enhancing learners’ ability to transfer knowledge across linguistic and cultural boundaries. === C. Language Awareness (LA) === Language awareness is a pedagogical and cognitive concept that emphasizes the conscious understanding of language, its structures, functions, and social dimensions. '''Language awareness (LA)''' refers to the '''explicit knowledge of language''' and the '''conscious perception and sensitivity''' in language learning, teaching, and use. It is both a '''mental attribute''' and a '''pedagogical approach'''. Modern definitions of LA highlight its '''active and reflective nature'''. Eichler and Nold (2007) stress that LA develops through conscious engagement with language, enabling learners to apply rules explicitly, reflect on grammar, and correct errors. It also supports '''implicit learning''' through intuitive language use. Environmental factors also play a role: children growing up in '''multilingual settings''' are more likely to notice linguistic diversity and engage in imitation, which enhances their sensitivity to language variation (Bailey & Osipova, 2016). A recent perspective (Marr & Collins, 2023) expands LA to include the ability to '''adapt language use to context''' and to recognize the presence of '''non-dominant languages''' in school environments—languages that learners may carry as part of their identity. It is crucial to recognize that the terms "language awareness," "metalinguistic awareness," and "knowledge about language (KAL)" have often been used interchangeably or as synonyms in the literature. Different research fields also adhere to different terminological traditions; for example, "language awareness" and "knowledge about language" are more common in language teaching and teacher education, while "metalinguistic awareness" or "metalinguistic knowledge" are more prevalent in linguistics. This inconsistency can lead to confusion, as the same terms may carry slightly different connotations for different researchers. For instance, "teacher metalinguistic awareness (TMA)" and "TLA" have been used to refer to the same aspect of teacher cognition (Roehr-Brackin, 2025). == Practical examples == * “Awakening to Languages" (AtL) and other pluralistic approaches can promote multilingual metalinguistic awareness by exposing learners to various languages. Through activities like comparing greetings, exploring alphabets, analyzing multilingual signs, and discussing word origins, students reflect on language structures and develop a deeper understanding of linguistic diversity. * Differentiated teaching approaches are essential for fostering language awareness and written expression across diverse learning contexts. Teachers can guide learners to reflect on linguistic structures and meanings by posing thought-provoking questions and drawing connections to literature, cultural knowledge, or contemporary media. For example, asking “Why does the author choose this expression?” or “What cultural significance does this reference hold?” encourages learners to critically examine language and use it more consciously. This approach supports both early language acquisition and advanced levels of education, and is effective in multilingual and intercultural learning environments. * The linguistic landscape – written languages visible in public spaces – serves as a valuable resource for language learning and raising language awareness. Examples include analyzing public signs that contain indirect speech acts, wordplay (like "La Supera" and "¡Somos la pera!" in Spanish, blending "super" with "pear" and implying "the bee's knees") or grammatical differences between languages. * Visual methods are increasingly used in applied language research to explore multilingual identities and language awareness. These methods, such as drawings and visual narratives, help learners reflect on past experiences, imagine future scenarios, and visualize their language use and identity construction, including perceptions of different languages. For instance, a student teacher's drawing showing "EFL as a key to the world" or a "multilingual and intercultural EFL classroom" illustrates emergent language teaching constellations. * Digital tools and social media offer new avenues for impacting language awareness. Features like written 'conversation' or the ability to revise text can promote explicit noticing of language features, recognition, and correction of errors, enhancing language awareness as a process. == '''Take home messages''' == * ''Fundamental to Language Development:'' Metalinguistic awareness is a crucial element in both first and second language acquisition and development, enabling conscious engagement with language structure and function. * ''Beyond "Language About Language":'' It is not merely language that talks ''about'' language; rather, metalinguistic activity actively creates, structures, and forms ongoing speech and discourse. * ''Multifaceted and Interconnected:'' Metalinguistic awareness is a complex construct with cognitive, affective, and social dimensions, influencing and being influenced by learning context and individual factors. * ''Strong Link to Literacy:'' There is a well-documented connection between metalinguistic awareness and the development of literacy skills, including reading comprehension, writing, and spelling. * ''Benefits of Multilingualism:'' Bilingualism and multilingualism are shown to enhance metalinguistic awareness, providing cognitive advantages such as stronger phonological awareness and a more explicit understanding of how language systems work. * ''Empowering Pedagogy:'' Language Awareness approaches in education foster independent and critical thinking about language, moving beyond traditional, rule-based instruction towards a more discovery-oriented learning process. * ''Addressing Inequality:'' These approaches can play a vital role in challenging linguistic inequalities and promoting inclusivity by validating learners' diverse linguistic repertoires, especially for speakers of minority languages == '''Self-assessment''' == <quiz display=simple> {What distinguishes metalinguistic awareness from general language use?} -It focuses only on vocabulary acquisition. -It involves unconscious language processing. +It enables reflection on and manipulation of language structures. -It refers to the ability to speak multiple languages fluently. {How did Eric Hawkins contribute to the development of Language Awareness?} -He introduced phonetic transcription into schools. +He emphasized the importance of comparing L1 and foreign languages. -He developed a theory of bilingual advantage. -He focused on memory training for vocabulary learning. {Which of the following best describes meta-competence?} -The ability to memorize grammar rules. +The capacity to reflect on and regulate one’s own learning and thinking. -The skill of translating between languages. -The unconscious acquisition of language patterns. {Why does growing up in a multilingual environment support the development of Language Awareness?} -Because children in such environments are forced to learn grammar earlier. -Because multilingual settings reduce the need for formal language instruction. +Because children are more likely to notice linguistic diversity and imitate different language patterns. -Because multilingual children avoid making language-related mistakes. {Why are the terms “language awareness,” “metalinguistic awareness,” and “knowledge about language (KAL)” sometimes confusing in research?} -They refer to completely unrelated concepts. +They are used interchangeably across different disciplines. -They are only relevant in early childhood education. -They were all introduced by the same researcher. </quiz> == Resources to go further == Webinar by Heather Benucci about Discovering Grammar with Consciousness-raising Tasks (2013), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=15ykiMq-qW8 Association for Language Awareness (2025): https://languageawareness.org/ Finkbeiner, C., & White, J. (2017). Language awareness and multilingualism: A historical overview. In J. Cenoz, D. Gorter & S. May (Eds.), ''Language Awareness and Multilingualism'': Third Edition (3-18). Springer. Gürsoy, E. (2020). ''Language Awareness und Mehrsprachigkeit,'' https://www.uni-due.de/imperia/md/content/prodaz/la.pdf McConachy, T. (2022). Language Awareness and Intercultural Communicative Competence. In T. McConachy, I. Golubeva & M. Wagner (Eds.), ''Intercultural Learning in Language Education and Beyond: Evolving Concepts, Perspectives and Practices'' (22-40).  Multilingual Matters. Van den Broek, E., Oolbekkink-Marchand, H., van Kemenade, A., Meijera, P. & Unsworth, S. (2022). Stimulating language awareness in the foreign language classroom: Exploring EFL teaching practices. ''The Language Learning Journal'', ''50''(1), 59–73. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337171510_Stimulating_language_awareness_in_the_foreign_language_classroom_Exploring_EFL_teaching_practices Woll, N., & Paquet, P.-L. (2021). Developing crosslinguistic awareness through plurilingual consciousness-raising tasks. ''Language Teaching Research, 29''(1), 63-87. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211056544. == Bibliography == Bailey, A. L. & Osipova, A. V. (2016). ''Children’s multilingual development and education: Fostering linguistic resources in home and school contexts.'' Cambridge University Press. Bialystok, E., & Ryan, E. B. (1985). Toward a Definition of Metalinguistic Skill. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 31(3), 229–251. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23086295 Bogo, M., Katz, E., Regehr, C., Logie, C., Mylopoulos, M., & Tufford, L. (2012). Toward Understanding Meta-Competence: An Analysis of Students’ Reflection on their Simulated Interviews. Social Work Education, 32(2), 259–273. https://doi.org/10.1080/02615479.2012.738662 Eichler, W. & Nold, G. (2007). Sprachbewusstheit (Beltz-Pädagogik). In B. Beck & E. Klieme (Hrsg.), Sprachliche Kompetenzen: Konzepte und Messung: DESI-Studie (Deutsch Englisch Schülerleistungen International) (63–82). Beltz Verlag. Kieseier, T., Thoma, D., Vogelbacher, M., & Holger, H. (2022). Differential effects of metalinguistic awareness components in early foreign language acquisition of English vocabulary and grammar. Language Awareness, 31(4), 495–514. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658416.2022.2093888 Marr, T. & Collins, S. (2023). Language Awareness at School. A Practical Guide for Teachers and School Learners. Routledge. Roehr-Brackin, K. (2025). Measuring children’s metalinguistic awareness. ''Language Teaching,'' 58(1), 27-43. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Eftychia Damaskou (University of Thessaly) * Theresa Bogensperger (Paris Londron Universität Salzburg) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] 3jesdvkpijavbn784hivis30uiqdior 0 326173 2817251 2817205 2026-06-29T16:00:30Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Credits */ 2817251 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting Activity == Imagine you are a teacher arriving at a school in a city you are unfamiliar with. As you walk through the city, in your new neighborhood or on your way to school, you notice many public signs, advertisements and posters in multiple languages, some of which you can recognize while others not. You start to wonder how this could be used and integrated into education. Some of the signs you see could be: [[File:Road signs bilingual Breton in Quimper.jpg|alt=Signs in both Breton and French in Quimper, Brittany.|thumb|Signs in both Breton and French in Quimper, Brittany. Wikimedia Commons]] [[File:Photo taken by Anastasia Gkaintarzi.jpg|alt=Sign in Leopold Park in Brussels|thumb|Sign in Leopold Park in Brussels (by Anastasia Gkaintarzi)]] [[File:Photo taken by Anastasia Gkaintartzi.jpg|alt=Graffiti in Brussels|thumb|Graffiti in Brussels (by Anastasia Gkaintarzi)]] You start thinking: * How can you describe the signs you see? * Which languages do you identify? Are there languages that you do not identify? * What is the relationship between the diverse multimodal resources?   == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe the concept of the LL and other -scapes such as schoolscape) * Understand how the LL can be studied * Connect the LL to education * Make use of the LL as a pedagogical resource == Key words == Linguistic Llandscape, schoolscape, educationscape, language policies, critical language awareness   == Table of contents == # Introduction # History of the concept # Definition # Linguistic landscapes for education: inside and outside institutions # Take-home messages # Self-assessment # Resources to go further # Bibliography == Introduction == The Linguistic Landscape (henceforth LL) is a dynamic fast developing field in applied linguistics and sociolinguistics, expanding to various research methodologies and epistemological perspectives. Research into LL began as an investigation into the presence, visibility and prominence of languages represented on signs and texts in public spaces. The seminal work of Landry and Bourhis (1997) is widely acknowledged as the beginning of LL research. Research now goes far beyond documenting language and other semiotic signs ( = any signs that communicate meaning) on the streets, in advertising, in street names, shops, graffiti, images, etc., and focuses more on examining LL in terms of power, ideology, activism and the willingness to change the space. In this lesson, the LL is introduced as an area of research in and for education. == '''History of the concept''' == The LL broadly refers to the visibility and use of language in public spaces. LL research explores public spaces as “arenas of language use, representation, and controversy” (Shohamy, 2017, p. 44). The origins of LL research go back to studies of public signs in the 1970s and 1980s. However, the field began to grow more rapidly in the 1990s, alongside increased interest in LLs and ethnolinguistic vitality. Early LL studies were often quantitative. Researchers focused on documenting language diversity by counting signs and distinguishing between ''top-down'' signs (created by authorities) and ''bottom-up'' signs (created by individuals or unofficial groups). Shohamy (2017, pp. 45–61) refers to this first phase as “Documenting Diversity.” In the second phase, LL broadened its focus beyond language to include “images, sounds, drawings and movement, in line with current theories about multimodality” in public and semi-public spaces (Shohamy, 2011, p. 538). This gave rise to related concepts such as skinscapes, smellscapes, soundscapes etc.. The third phase of LL research centers on challenging the idea of cities as homogenous spaces. It examines the many ways people use elements of the linguistic landscape to make diversity—linguistic and otherwise—visible and recognized. In the fourth phase, researchers focus on smaller units such as neighborhoods, quarters, ghettos, villages, enclaves, parishes, or streets. This allows for a more detailed understanding of the context in which signs appear. Shohamy describes the fifth and last phase as “Engagement in Diversity: Critical Awareness and Activism” and highlights the growing number of LL studies in education. To sum up the historical overview, LL research has evolved from focusing on linguistic signs to examining multimodal signs. Methodologically, it has shifted from a primarily quantitative approach to more qualitative and ethnographically oriented methods. Moreover, multimodal signs are now more explicitly situated within their historical and sociocultural contexts. == '''Definition''' == The historical overview has shown that the understanding of the LL has evolved significantly over the past few decades. We will now examine a presentation on LL and relate its content to the historical development of this field of research. {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Reflection: What “is” the Linguistic Landscape?''' |- |[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hPjzI_4pNug In this video] the LL and sociolinguistics researcher Jacki Lou talks about the concept of LL. * How does Jackie Lou define LL? * What differs from other possible definitions? Is her understanding more broad or narrow? * How would you describe the LL visible in the short video? |} === '''LL for Education - inside and outside institutions''' === LL research in education covers the entire spectrum of the research perspectives outlined above. LL has a multifaceted contribution to education, from promoting language learning and supporting critical language awareness to questioning existing language hierarchies (Vetter 2022). To explore LL in the context of plurilingual education, we will first consider how it appears within schools, and then examine its role outside formal educational institutions. The concept of the ''schoolscape'' was first introduced by Brown. It refers to the symbolic and physical environment of a school, where the curriculum is enacted and specific messages and values are officially endorsed and socially reinforced (Brown, 2005, p. 79). These school environments are filled with texts and images that help to construct, reproduce, and potentially transform language ideologies (Brown, 2012, p. 282). The study of schoolscapes—''schoolscaping''—involves analyzing the “school-based environment where place and text, both written (graphic) and oral, constitute, reproduce, and transform language ideologies” (Brown, 2012, p. 282). For the context of kindergartens, Brown (2018, p. 17) introduced the term ''kinderscape'', which refers to the LL found in early childhood education settings. As we will see in practical examples, schoolscapes are powerful tools for making language policy visible and accessible in educational settings. Along with the schoolscape, the LL offers rich opportunities for educational purposes such as early literacy development, raising critical language awareness, and supporting language learning. Two main approaches have been proposed for integrating LL into education: a) Learning ''in the LL,'' beyond the classroom, situating learning /teaching into the public space through walking, reflecting on and interacting with LLs (Malinowski et al., 2020). The focus is rather ethnographic, involving observing, documenting and analyzing the ‘secret life of languages around us’ (Malinowski et al., 2020) and, b) Learning ''through the LL,'' which takes place inside the classroom, bringing the public space into the classroom and reframing it as a classroom resource through multimodal transposition (Brinkmann et al., 2022). This approach involves developing educational materials and resources based on the documentation of the LL. The development and design of LL activities can follow the steps below (Malinowski, 2015) : (1) observing and recording the LL by visiting locations and photographing signs (perceived space); (2) analyzing or creating texts by examining different viewpoints and media  representations of the area (conceived space); and (3) investigating how local people or others respond to signage, including students’ own reactions (lived space). Using these three perspectives to explore the linguistic landscape can significantly enrich students' learning experiences (Gorter & Cenoz, 2024). === '''Practical examples''' === A growing body of research highlights the important role of linguistic landscapes (LL)—both inside and outside educational institutions—for plurilingual education. These studies are also notable for their creative and diverse methodological and practical approaches. One key area is the treatment of minoritised languages and language varieties. In this regard, Brown’s research on Võro culture and language (2001–2003, 2013–2014) is particularly significant. Her work is remarkable not only for introducing the concept of the “schoolscape” and using a diachronic methodology, but also for offering deep insights into how schools evolved over more than a decade. Based on intensive ethnographic research in rural Southeastern Estonia, Brown’s study included Võro language classes, interviews with Võro-language teachers, and an in-depth case study of a single school, using observation and photography across various spaces within the school. For example, she found that regional and local artifacts were stored in peripheral, hard-to-access areas, often disorganized and dusty. In contrast, artifacts linked to Estonia and Europe were displayed prominently and in good condition. From this initial research period, Brown concluded that regional language, culture, and identity were marginalized within the Estonian education system. She argued that this stark asymmetry poses a serious threat to efforts aimed at revitalising the Võro language. Roughly ten years later, Brown returned to the same school and kindergarten settings, photographing visible signs of the regional language and interviewing the same teachers. Based on this new data, she identified three key forces—referred to as "engines" (Brown 2018: 15)—that drove change: (1) the availability of institutionally appropriate, familiar forms of materials in the regional language (e.g. Võro calendars), (2) the increasing market appeal of regional language and culture and (3) teachers’  commitment to immersion pedagogy. Another practical example, this time in the context of urban diversity, also demonstrates the link between schoolscapes and language education policy. Menken et al. (2018) conducted a qualitative study of 23 schools involved in the CUNY-NYSIEB initiative, which supports multilingualism and professional development in multilingual contexts. Their research found that transforming the schoolscape acted as a “language policy mechanism” (Menken et al. 2018: 123): students’ languages were incorporated visually and orally into classroom activities and signage, and the prevailing language ideologies shifted toward plurilingualism and plurilingual practices. One of their main conclusions is that “transforming the physical LL by making students’ languages visible served as a stepping stone for many schools to make further changes” (Menken et al. 2018: 122). Studies of schoolscapes—and of LL beyond schools—also offer valuable methodological insights. Collaborative approaches, visual ethnography, and multi-method research are common. Specific techniques such as “walking tours” and the “tourist guide technique” have proven especially useful (Biró 2016; Szabó 2015). == '''Take home messages''' == * LL  is concerned with multimodal semiotic signs that communicate meaning. * LL is closely linked to issues of language policy, power and ideology. * LL research has evolved from using primarily quantitative methods to adopting ethnographic and multi-method approaches. * The contextualisation of signs—understanding them within their social, cultural, and historical settings—has become increasingly important. * LL can be used as a valuable education resource and tool with multiple benefits. * Schoolscapes can function as a powerful mechanism for reflecting, implementing and transforming language policy. == '''Self''' '''assessment''' == === '''Test''' === ''Choose the appropriate answers from the options provided to answer the questions  (there may be more than one appropriate answers to some questions).'' '''1. What does the term ''linguistic landscape'' refer to?''' A. The number of languages spoken in a country B. The visual display of languages in public spaces C. The study of grammar and syntax D. The official languages of a country 2. Which of the following best describes a ''top-down'' sign? A. An advertisement or a billboard B. A sign made by individuals C. A sign issued by authorities or government institutions D. A graffiti or mural '''3. Today, LL research methodology is mostly concerned with''' A. Ethnography – observing and understanding how people use and interpret signs in their daily lives. B. Quantitative methods – counting languages on public signs. C. Multimethod research – combining different research approaches to get a fuller picture. D. Documenting signs – taking photos of and analysing signs found in public spaces. '''4. For what purpose can the LL be used in education?''' A. Promoting critical language awareness B. Informing about the numbers of speakers of each language in the environment C. Supporting language learning D. Engaging in discussions about language ideologies E. Reduce the number of languages used in class ''Correct answers: 1B; 2 C; 3 A; 4 A, C, D.'' === '''Open Activity: LL Observation''' === Choose a specific place—such as a section of a street near a school—and analyze the linguistic landscape. Look at: * The context of a sign: ** where is it placed? ** who might have implemented it? ** who might have responded to it? ** what languages/varieties and other multimodal resources can be traced? ** how do they interrelate? * In which ways is the sign informative about social or linguistic debates and power issues? '''Now, imagine how you could use this activity in your classroom. For example:''' * Let students take photos and discuss the signs they find * Reflect on which languages are visible and which are not, and why * Use the signs as a starting point to address issues of language diversity and power relations * Create multilingual signs together with students and have them manifested in the school/classroom This activity could lead to a more long-term project on belonging, citizenship and inclusion. == Further ressources == Linguistic Landscapes. Learning and Teaching with Urban and Linguistic Landscapes talk at Columbia University Talk given by Elana Shohamy. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J9CjoCxRLsc == Bibliography == Biró, E. (2016). Learning schoolscapes in a minority setting. Acta Universitatis Sapientiae, Philologica, 8(2), 109–21. Brinkmann, L. M., MacMonagle, S., & Melo-Pfeifer, S. (Eds.) (2022). ''Guidelines for introducing linguistic landscapes in (foreign) language learning and teacher education''. Erasmus +. https://doi.org/10.25592/uhhfdm.10241 Gorter, D. & Cenoz, J. (2024). ''A Panorama of Linguistic Landscape Studies''. Bristol, Blue Ridge Summit: Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781800417151 Brown, K. D. (2005). Estonian schoolscapes and the marginalization of regional identity in education. European Education, 37(3), 78–79. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108669771.034 Published online by Cambridge University Press Brown, K. D. (2012). The linguistic landscape of educational spaces: Language revital- ization and schools in southeastern Estonia. In D. Gorter, H. F. Marten, & L. Van Mensel, eds., Minority Languages in the Linguistic Landscape (pp. 281–298). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 281–98. Brown, K. D. (2018). Shifts and stability in schoolscapes: Diachronic considerations of southeastern Estonian schools. Linguistics and Education, 44, 12–19. Malinowski, D., Maxim, H., & Dubreil, S. (Eds.). (2020). ''Language teaching in the linguistic landscape.'' ''Mobilizing pedagogy in public space''. Springer.  http://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55761-4 Malinowski, D. (2015). Opening spaces of learning in the linguistic landscape. ''Linguistic Landscape 1'' (1), 95–113. https://doi.org/10.1075/ll.1.1-2.06mal Menken, K., Pérez Rosario, V., & Guzmán Valerio, L. A. (2018). Increasing multilingualism in schoolscapes. New scenery and language education policies. ''Linguistic Landscape: An International Journal, 4(2), 101–27.'' Shohamy, E. (2017). Linguistic landscape: Interpreting and expanding lan- guage diversities. In A. De Fina, D. Ikizoglu, & J. Wegner, (eds.), ''Diversity and Super-Diversity: Sociocultural Linguistic Perspectives.'' Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, pp. 37–63. Szabó, T. P. (2015). The management of diversity in schoolscapes: An analy- sis of Hungarian practices. A''pples – Journal of Applied Language Studies, 9''(1), 23–51 Vetter E. (2022). Linguistic Landscapes in School. In: Stavans A, Jessner U, eds. ''The Cambridge Handbook of Childhood Multilingualism''. Cambridge Handbooks in Language and Linguistics. Cambridge University Press; 2022:623-648. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-handbook-of-childhood-multilingualism/linguistic-landscapes-in-school/81EE504F04C963390CE1F8C86DC290BF ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Anastasia Gkaintartzi (University of Thessaly) * Eva Vetter (Universität Wien) * Paulina Wagner (Universität Wien) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] 8wbqr90pare8429o4jfmtxhsrud5af4 2817298 2817251 2026-06-29T16:50:26Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Test */ 2817298 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting Activity == Imagine you are a teacher arriving at a school in a city you are unfamiliar with. As you walk through the city, in your new neighborhood or on your way to school, you notice many public signs, advertisements and posters in multiple languages, some of which you can recognize while others not. You start to wonder how this could be used and integrated into education. Some of the signs you see could be: [[File:Road signs bilingual Breton in Quimper.jpg|alt=Signs in both Breton and French in Quimper, Brittany.|thumb|Signs in both Breton and French in Quimper, Brittany. Wikimedia Commons]] [[File:Photo taken by Anastasia Gkaintarzi.jpg|alt=Sign in Leopold Park in Brussels|thumb|Sign in Leopold Park in Brussels (by Anastasia Gkaintarzi)]] [[File:Photo taken by Anastasia Gkaintartzi.jpg|alt=Graffiti in Brussels|thumb|Graffiti in Brussels (by Anastasia Gkaintarzi)]] You start thinking: * How can you describe the signs you see? * Which languages do you identify? Are there languages that you do not identify? * What is the relationship between the diverse multimodal resources?   == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe the concept of the LL and other -scapes such as schoolscape) * Understand how the LL can be studied * Connect the LL to education * Make use of the LL as a pedagogical resource == Key words == Linguistic Llandscape, schoolscape, educationscape, language policies, critical language awareness   == Table of contents == # Introduction # History of the concept # Definition # Linguistic landscapes for education: inside and outside institutions # Take-home messages # Self-assessment # Resources to go further # Bibliography == Introduction == The Linguistic Landscape (henceforth LL) is a dynamic fast developing field in applied linguistics and sociolinguistics, expanding to various research methodologies and epistemological perspectives. Research into LL began as an investigation into the presence, visibility and prominence of languages represented on signs and texts in public spaces. The seminal work of Landry and Bourhis (1997) is widely acknowledged as the beginning of LL research. Research now goes far beyond documenting language and other semiotic signs ( = any signs that communicate meaning) on the streets, in advertising, in street names, shops, graffiti, images, etc., and focuses more on examining LL in terms of power, ideology, activism and the willingness to change the space. In this lesson, the LL is introduced as an area of research in and for education. == '''History of the concept''' == The LL broadly refers to the visibility and use of language in public spaces. LL research explores public spaces as “arenas of language use, representation, and controversy” (Shohamy, 2017, p. 44). The origins of LL research go back to studies of public signs in the 1970s and 1980s. However, the field began to grow more rapidly in the 1990s, alongside increased interest in LLs and ethnolinguistic vitality. Early LL studies were often quantitative. Researchers focused on documenting language diversity by counting signs and distinguishing between ''top-down'' signs (created by authorities) and ''bottom-up'' signs (created by individuals or unofficial groups). Shohamy (2017, pp. 45–61) refers to this first phase as “Documenting Diversity.” In the second phase, LL broadened its focus beyond language to include “images, sounds, drawings and movement, in line with current theories about multimodality” in public and semi-public spaces (Shohamy, 2011, p. 538). This gave rise to related concepts such as skinscapes, smellscapes, soundscapes etc.. The third phase of LL research centers on challenging the idea of cities as homogenous spaces. It examines the many ways people use elements of the linguistic landscape to make diversity—linguistic and otherwise—visible and recognized. In the fourth phase, researchers focus on smaller units such as neighborhoods, quarters, ghettos, villages, enclaves, parishes, or streets. This allows for a more detailed understanding of the context in which signs appear. Shohamy describes the fifth and last phase as “Engagement in Diversity: Critical Awareness and Activism” and highlights the growing number of LL studies in education. To sum up the historical overview, LL research has evolved from focusing on linguistic signs to examining multimodal signs. Methodologically, it has shifted from a primarily quantitative approach to more qualitative and ethnographically oriented methods. Moreover, multimodal signs are now more explicitly situated within their historical and sociocultural contexts. == '''Definition''' == The historical overview has shown that the understanding of the LL has evolved significantly over the past few decades. We will now examine a presentation on LL and relate its content to the historical development of this field of research. {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Reflection: What “is” the Linguistic Landscape?''' |- |[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hPjzI_4pNug In this video] the LL and sociolinguistics researcher Jacki Lou talks about the concept of LL. * How does Jackie Lou define LL? * What differs from other possible definitions? Is her understanding more broad or narrow? * How would you describe the LL visible in the short video? |} === '''LL for Education - inside and outside institutions''' === LL research in education covers the entire spectrum of the research perspectives outlined above. LL has a multifaceted contribution to education, from promoting language learning and supporting critical language awareness to questioning existing language hierarchies (Vetter 2022). To explore LL in the context of plurilingual education, we will first consider how it appears within schools, and then examine its role outside formal educational institutions. The concept of the ''schoolscape'' was first introduced by Brown. It refers to the symbolic and physical environment of a school, where the curriculum is enacted and specific messages and values are officially endorsed and socially reinforced (Brown, 2005, p. 79). These school environments are filled with texts and images that help to construct, reproduce, and potentially transform language ideologies (Brown, 2012, p. 282). The study of schoolscapes—''schoolscaping''—involves analyzing the “school-based environment where place and text, both written (graphic) and oral, constitute, reproduce, and transform language ideologies” (Brown, 2012, p. 282). For the context of kindergartens, Brown (2018, p. 17) introduced the term ''kinderscape'', which refers to the LL found in early childhood education settings. As we will see in practical examples, schoolscapes are powerful tools for making language policy visible and accessible in educational settings. Along with the schoolscape, the LL offers rich opportunities for educational purposes such as early literacy development, raising critical language awareness, and supporting language learning. Two main approaches have been proposed for integrating LL into education: a) Learning ''in the LL,'' beyond the classroom, situating learning /teaching into the public space through walking, reflecting on and interacting with LLs (Malinowski et al., 2020). The focus is rather ethnographic, involving observing, documenting and analyzing the ‘secret life of languages around us’ (Malinowski et al., 2020) and, b) Learning ''through the LL,'' which takes place inside the classroom, bringing the public space into the classroom and reframing it as a classroom resource through multimodal transposition (Brinkmann et al., 2022). This approach involves developing educational materials and resources based on the documentation of the LL. The development and design of LL activities can follow the steps below (Malinowski, 2015) : (1) observing and recording the LL by visiting locations and photographing signs (perceived space); (2) analyzing or creating texts by examining different viewpoints and media  representations of the area (conceived space); and (3) investigating how local people or others respond to signage, including students’ own reactions (lived space). Using these three perspectives to explore the linguistic landscape can significantly enrich students' learning experiences (Gorter & Cenoz, 2024). === '''Practical examples''' === A growing body of research highlights the important role of linguistic landscapes (LL)—both inside and outside educational institutions—for plurilingual education. These studies are also notable for their creative and diverse methodological and practical approaches. One key area is the treatment of minoritised languages and language varieties. In this regard, Brown’s research on Võro culture and language (2001–2003, 2013–2014) is particularly significant. Her work is remarkable not only for introducing the concept of the “schoolscape” and using a diachronic methodology, but also for offering deep insights into how schools evolved over more than a decade. Based on intensive ethnographic research in rural Southeastern Estonia, Brown’s study included Võro language classes, interviews with Võro-language teachers, and an in-depth case study of a single school, using observation and photography across various spaces within the school. For example, she found that regional and local artifacts were stored in peripheral, hard-to-access areas, often disorganized and dusty. In contrast, artifacts linked to Estonia and Europe were displayed prominently and in good condition. From this initial research period, Brown concluded that regional language, culture, and identity were marginalized within the Estonian education system. She argued that this stark asymmetry poses a serious threat to efforts aimed at revitalising the Võro language. Roughly ten years later, Brown returned to the same school and kindergarten settings, photographing visible signs of the regional language and interviewing the same teachers. Based on this new data, she identified three key forces—referred to as "engines" (Brown 2018: 15)—that drove change: (1) the availability of institutionally appropriate, familiar forms of materials in the regional language (e.g. Võro calendars), (2) the increasing market appeal of regional language and culture and (3) teachers’  commitment to immersion pedagogy. Another practical example, this time in the context of urban diversity, also demonstrates the link between schoolscapes and language education policy. Menken et al. (2018) conducted a qualitative study of 23 schools involved in the CUNY-NYSIEB initiative, which supports multilingualism and professional development in multilingual contexts. Their research found that transforming the schoolscape acted as a “language policy mechanism” (Menken et al. 2018: 123): students’ languages were incorporated visually and orally into classroom activities and signage, and the prevailing language ideologies shifted toward plurilingualism and plurilingual practices. One of their main conclusions is that “transforming the physical LL by making students’ languages visible served as a stepping stone for many schools to make further changes” (Menken et al. 2018: 122). Studies of schoolscapes—and of LL beyond schools—also offer valuable methodological insights. Collaborative approaches, visual ethnography, and multi-method research are common. Specific techniques such as “walking tours” and the “tourist guide technique” have proven especially useful (Biró 2016; Szabó 2015). == '''Take home messages''' == * LL  is concerned with multimodal semiotic signs that communicate meaning. * LL is closely linked to issues of language policy, power and ideology. * LL research has evolved from using primarily quantitative methods to adopting ethnographic and multi-method approaches. * The contextualisation of signs—understanding them within their social, cultural, and historical settings—has become increasingly important. * LL can be used as a valuable education resource and tool with multiple benefits. * Schoolscapes can function as a powerful mechanism for reflecting, implementing and transforming language policy. == '''Self''' '''assessment''' == === '''Test''' === ''Choose the appropriate answers from the options provided to answer the questions  (there may be more than one appropriate answers to some questions).'' <quiz display=simple> {What does the term ''linguistic landscape'' refer to?} -A. The number of languages spoken in a country +B. The visual display of languages in public spaces -C. The study of grammar and syntax -D. The official languages of a country {Which of the following best describes a ''top-down'' sign?} -A. An advertisement or a billboard -B. A sign made by individuals +C. A sign issued by authorities or government institutions -D. A graffiti or mural {Today, LL research methodology is mostly concerned with} +A. Ethnography – observing and understanding how people use and interpret signs in their daily lives. -B. Quantitative methods – counting languages on public signs. -C. Multimethod research – combining different research approaches to get a fuller picture. -D. Documenting signs – taking photos of and analysing signs found in public spaces. {For what purposes can the LL be used in education?} +A. Promoting critical language awareness -B. Informing about the numbers of speakers of each language in the environment +C. Supporting language learning +D. Engaging in discussions about language ideologies E. Reduce the number of languages used in class </quiz> === '''Open Activity: LL Observation''' === Choose a specific place—such as a section of a street near a school—and analyze the linguistic landscape. Look at: * The context of a sign: ** where is it placed? ** who might have implemented it? ** who might have responded to it? ** what languages/varieties and other multimodal resources can be traced? ** how do they interrelate? * In which ways is the sign informative about social or linguistic debates and power issues? '''Now, imagine how you could use this activity in your classroom. For example:''' * Let students take photos and discuss the signs they find * Reflect on which languages are visible and which are not, and why * Use the signs as a starting point to address issues of language diversity and power relations * Create multilingual signs together with students and have them manifested in the school/classroom This activity could lead to a more long-term project on belonging, citizenship and inclusion. == Further ressources == Linguistic Landscapes. Learning and Teaching with Urban and Linguistic Landscapes talk at Columbia University Talk given by Elana Shohamy. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J9CjoCxRLsc == Bibliography == Biró, E. (2016). Learning schoolscapes in a minority setting. Acta Universitatis Sapientiae, Philologica, 8(2), 109–21. Brinkmann, L. M., MacMonagle, S., & Melo-Pfeifer, S. (Eds.) (2022). ''Guidelines for introducing linguistic landscapes in (foreign) language learning and teacher education''. Erasmus +. https://doi.org/10.25592/uhhfdm.10241 Gorter, D. & Cenoz, J. (2024). ''A Panorama of Linguistic Landscape Studies''. Bristol, Blue Ridge Summit: Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781800417151 Brown, K. D. (2005). Estonian schoolscapes and the marginalization of regional identity in education. European Education, 37(3), 78–79. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108669771.034 Published online by Cambridge University Press Brown, K. D. (2012). The linguistic landscape of educational spaces: Language revital- ization and schools in southeastern Estonia. In D. Gorter, H. F. Marten, & L. Van Mensel, eds., Minority Languages in the Linguistic Landscape (pp. 281–298). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 281–98. Brown, K. D. (2018). Shifts and stability in schoolscapes: Diachronic considerations of southeastern Estonian schools. Linguistics and Education, 44, 12–19. Malinowski, D., Maxim, H., & Dubreil, S. (Eds.). (2020). ''Language teaching in the linguistic landscape.'' ''Mobilizing pedagogy in public space''. Springer.  http://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55761-4 Malinowski, D. (2015). Opening spaces of learning in the linguistic landscape. ''Linguistic Landscape 1'' (1), 95–113. https://doi.org/10.1075/ll.1.1-2.06mal Menken, K., Pérez Rosario, V., & Guzmán Valerio, L. A. (2018). Increasing multilingualism in schoolscapes. New scenery and language education policies. ''Linguistic Landscape: An International Journal, 4(2), 101–27.'' Shohamy, E. (2017). Linguistic landscape: Interpreting and expanding lan- guage diversities. In A. De Fina, D. Ikizoglu, & J. Wegner, (eds.), ''Diversity and Super-Diversity: Sociocultural Linguistic Perspectives.'' Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, pp. 37–63. Szabó, T. P. (2015). The management of diversity in schoolscapes: An analy- sis of Hungarian practices. A''pples – Journal of Applied Language Studies, 9''(1), 23–51 Vetter E. (2022). Linguistic Landscapes in School. In: Stavans A, Jessner U, eds. ''The Cambridge Handbook of Childhood Multilingualism''. Cambridge Handbooks in Language and Linguistics. Cambridge University Press; 2022:623-648. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-handbook-of-childhood-multilingualism/linguistic-landscapes-in-school/81EE504F04C963390CE1F8C86DC290BF ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Anastasia Gkaintartzi (University of Thessaly) * Eva Vetter (Universität Wien) * Paulina Wagner (Universität Wien) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] 0z6kgtbn4rowv9b3fbhove6wgzkfm75 0 326174 2817261 2792554 2026-06-29T16:11:57Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Credits */ 2817261 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == Think about the following questions: * What languages were used in schools in your country 100 years ago? Why do you think those languages were chosen? * Can you think of a time when speaking more than one language was seen as a problem in education? Why might that have been the case? * How do you think colonisation or migration has influenced the languages spoken in schools around the world? * Have you ever experienced or heard of a situation where a student was not allowed to speak their home language at school? What might have been the reason? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe the historical development of societal multilingualism in ancient and modern societies * Evaluate the impact of language policies on multilingualism and plurilingual education * Critically reflect on the developments in language education   * Explore and compare regional and global perspectives on multilingualism and plurilingual education == Key words == societal multilingualism - plurilingual education - historical development - language contact - language policy == Contents == # Introduction # History of multilingualism ## Historical examples of multilingualism ## Ancient civilizations ## Medieval Europe ## The Early Modern period ## The Habsburg Empire ## Multilingualism beyond Europe # History of plurilingual education ## The rise of nation-states and the monolingual paradigm in education ## Shifting perspectives in the mid-20th century ## Plurilingual competence and the “Multilingual Turn” # Self-assessment # Resources to go further # Bibliography == Introduction == Societal multilingualism is by no means a new phenomenon; it has existed throughout human history. Franceschini describes it as a "human potentiality which can be developed when circumstances permit it anywhere and at any time throughout human evolution" (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2526). This contribution explores key aspects of multilingualism, focusing on its historical development, societal influences, and the challenges of its study. == History of multilingualism == The circumstances under which societal multilingualism develops are diverse. Some of the most significant factors are (Franceschini, 2013; Mende, 2022b): * Language contact and trade: Language contact, often driven by trade, has historically been a major catalyst for multilingualism (Braunmüller, 2018; Franceschini, 2013). Cities, as hubs of commerce and migration, have long been hotspots of linguistic diversity (Roelcke, 2022, p. 6; Mende, 2022a, pp. 122–124). * Migration: The movement of people across regions has brought languages into contact, fostering linguistic exchange and diversity. * Language policy: The recognition and promotion of certain languages as official or educational languages have had a profound impact on societal multilingualism. Language policies determine which languages are used, preserved, or marginalized. * Education: Closely linked to this is the influence of the education system, as language policy decisions determine which languages are taught, and whether and how students' home languages, minority languages, and others are supported and included in the curriculum. The languages considered to be academic languages/languages of science have also changed over the centuries and have had a significant impact on societal multilingualism. * Colonialism: Colonial systems often imposed the languages of the colonizers on indigenous populations, leading to the suppression or extinction of local languages. Romaine (2013, p. 44) highlights the power dynamics in such contexts, where dominant groups often imposed their languages on less powerful communities. * Administration: Multilingualism has been shaped by institutional frameworks such as religious practices, and administrative policies. For example, imperial systems often required plurilingual competence for governance and trade. === Historical examples of multilingualism === The study of historical multilingualism is often constrained by the availability of written records. Regions with a strong tradition of written documentation have been studied more comprehensively in terms of historical multilingualism than regions with predominantly oral traditions. However, these well-documented areas and societies are not necessarily those with the most widespread multilingualism (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2525–2526). Researchers often rely on direct and indirect evidence, such as loanwords or multilingual inscriptions, to reconstruct historical language contact (Boschung & Riehl, 2011, p. iii). === Ancient civilizations === The earliest evidence of multilingualism dates back to around 2600 BC and comes from the Sumerians: multilingual grammars and word lists on clay tablets were used in administration (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2). Further evidence of multilingualism comes from the Hittites, with clay tablets in Hittite, Sumerian and Akkadian, along with other languages (Dardano, 2011); or from the Egyptians, with multilingual steles in ancient Egypt. West Anatolia in the 2nd millennium BCE shows evidence of language contact between Greek and Anatolian languages (Ramón, 2022). === The Roman Empire === The linguistic situation during the Roman Empire has been relatively well researched. A large part of the population must have been multilingual – there is ample evidence of contact between Latin and other languages, partly due to the high mobility of groups such as the military, administrative staff, traders and slaves. Latin served as the official and educational language, while Greek held a special status. Those who did not have Latin as their first language (L1) had to learn either Greek or Latin. Important institutions such as the army were multilingual, and knowledge of Greek and Latin was also necessary for members of the imperial aristocracy. Although there was no explicit language policy, there was a certain need to learn Latin, which was apparently widely accepted by non-Latin speakers and large sections of the population (Adams, 2003; Adams et al., 2002; Franceschini, 2013, p. 2527; Mende, 2022b, p. 133). In the Roman Empire, Latin functioned as a lingua franca, learned by many as a second or third language for communication, trade, and military purposes. These multilingual speakers acquired Latin at varying levels of proficiency, similar to modern L2 learners. Over time, as native Latin speakers declined, learner-driven changes in the language led to the emergence of regional vernaculars known as ‘Vulgar Latin’ (Braunmüller, 2018, p. 300). === Medieval Europe === Medieval Europe was also characterised by multilingualism due to the demands of everyday life and work. This was particularly evident in spoken language, where there were no uniform standards, encouraging linguistic variation and flexibility. The gradual transformation of spoken Latin, for example, influenced by regional variations and non-native usage, laid the groundwork for the emergence of the Romance languages in the Middle Ages (Smith, 2007, p. 22–24). Knowledge of several languages was considered useful. In trade, in particular, it was common to spend time in another city (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2528–2529; Mende, 2022b, p. 133). Receptive multilingualism/intercomprehension  [link: intercomprehension and other concepts] was widespread, especially in Scandinavia, where conversation partners spoke different languages but understood each other due to the genetic relationship between the languages. This practice was later pejoratively described by Haugen (1966) as 'semi-communication' (Braunmüller, 2007). Plurilingual competences were necessary in specific areas, such as church networks, education (where Latin was the language of instruction) and governance (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2528–2529). With Latin, a common lingua franca was established for the first time in the Middle Ages and, at the same time, it was influenced by intensive contact with other languages (Smith, 2007). === The Early Modern period === The rise of nation-states in the early modern period brought a shift toward monolingualism and the codification of regional languages. Plurilingualism became less of a common practice and more of an elite skill or a sign of socially excluded minorities and was therefore not held in high regard. With the Enlightenment, language learning also came into focus; grammars of individual languages were developed. However, mixed-language texts persisted, as various examples show: Riehl (2023) examines the mixing of languages in texts from the 16^th and 17^th centuries, including Luther's “Tischreden” (table talks) [link: <nowiki>https://www.projekt-gutenberg.org/luther/tischred/index.html</nowiki>], in which he switched between German and Latin, the language of education. The switches partly imitate oral language use, e.g. switching to German to express emotions, but also to introduce and explain technical terms from the language of education, Latin. # Ich wolt gern, das sie unternumen wurden # ''propter Epicureismum et quia multa venena'' # ''inserta sunt''. Er hat viel umb leib und leben und # die seel bracht. Er ist ein ursach der # sacramentirer. ''Quantum promovit grammaticam,'' # ''tantum nocuit evangelio''. # # Er ist ein schentlicher mensch gewest. Zwinglius # ist durch in vorfurt; Egranum hat er auch bekert, # der glaubet eben so viel, als er. Er starb auch # dahin ''sine crux et sine lux''. # Wenn ich jung were, so wolt ich ''Graecam'' # ''linguam perfecte'' studirn, so das ichs kundte, und # wollte andere ''annotationes'' drein machen. Example analysis of the Tischreden (Luther's comments on Erasmus' Annotationes (WA 5, 5670)), cited in Riehl (2023, p. 61), with Latin passages highlighted as in the original source. Lüdi (2023), on the other hand, uses the correspondence between the Basel mathematician and natural scientist Daniel Bernoulli and Leonhard Euler in the 18^th century to show how the two scientists used several languages to create, communicate and disseminate knowledge (‘plurilanguaging’). Working in multilingual and culturally diverse teams fostered creativity and scientific progress. === The Habsburg Empire === An exception to the increasing monolingualisation in modern times was the Habsburg Empire, which maintained a pluralistic language policy for much of its history. German served as a supra-regional lingua franca, but was not the national language. Instead, the Habsburg Empire pursued a language policy aimed at linguistic autonomy: the 1867 Constitution guaranteed the equal rights of all languages in the crown lands; language coercion was prohibited (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2530–2531; Goebl, 1997). The Habsburg Empire also stood out in terms of its education system: Maria Theresa's school reform of 1774 introduced the so-called utraquism model, in which pupils were taught in their mother tongue and a second, more widely spoken language (e.g. German, Italian or Polish). However, also in the Habsburg Empire, a monolingual language policy gradually prevailed; at the same time, the regional differences ultimately led to considerable tensions (Goebl, 1997; Schjerve-Rindler & Vetter, 2007). === Multilingualism beyond Europe === * '''South America''': Pre-colonial South America was linguistically diverse, but colonization introduced European languages, often at the expense of indigenous ones. Assimilation policies led to the extinction of many local languages, and colonial languages like Spanish and Portuguese retained dominance even after independence (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2531–2532). * '''China''': Evidence of early multilingualism in China is sparse: There is no evidence of multilingualism in the area that is now China until 221 BC. This does not necessarily mean that the area was not multilingual prior to this time. Although there are traces of language contact, written sources from 1200 to 200 BC only provide information about the Chinese language. This changed with the non-Chinese Qing dynasty. From the 18th century onwards, there is also evidence of multilingual dictionaries (Boltz, 2018; Mende, 2022b). * '''South Asia''': Multilingualism has been a central feature of the South Asian region. It is primarily the result of contact over more than 3.000 years, during which time several language groups came into contact with each other. This led to the emergence of common linguistic features and the merging of language families. Sanskrit, Persian and English were particularly important as contact languages. Today, India has 23 official languages, and the 2011 census recorded 211 languages in total. The Ethnologue database lists 424 living indigenous languages (Bhatia & Ritchie, 2013; Kulkarni-Joshi, 2019). == History of plurilingual education == The history of plurilingual education is closely linked to the development of societal multilingualism. Factors such as migration flows, nationalist movements, colonial policies and the multilingual realities of work and everyday life have all shaped how educational systems respond to linguistic diversity. These influences are reflected in educational policies, as well as in approaches to language learning and teaching practices. === '''The rise of nation-states and the monolingual paradigm in education''' === Historically, prestigious languages such as Latin, Greek, and French were central to European education, while vernacular languages were often marginalized (Gogolin, 2021). The establishment of public education systems in Europe during the 18^th and 19^th centuries coincided with the creation of nation-states. These systems were designed to promote a monolingual national identity, with the national language seen as essential for social cohesion and education (Gogolin, 2021, p. 297–298). This "monolingual habitus" (Gogolin, 1994) became deeply ingrained, with the assumption that all learning should occur in the national language. The rise of nationalism, industrialization, and colonialism in the 19^th and early 20^th centuries further reinforced monolingual ideologies. Regional and minority languages were suppressed, and linguistic homogeneity was prioritized. This shift was described as a form of "cultural violence" (Galtung, 1990), leading to the devaluation of regional, minority, and migrant languages. Dominant national languages were imposed at the expense of linguistic diversity. For example, in New Zealand, English-only education policies caused the percentage of Māori-speaking children to drop from 90% in 1913 to less than 5% by 1975. Similarly, in the United States, societal pressure and restrictive language policies gradually reduced the language rights of immigrants, reflecting the dominance of English (García, 2014, p. 85). === Shifting perspectives in the mid-20^th century === The mid-20th century marked a turning point in plurilingual education. Ethnic revival movements of the 1960s and the Civil Rights Era in the United States highlighted the failures of monolingual education for language-minority students. Bilingual education programmes began to emerge, such as the “Bilingual Education Act” of 1968 in the USA and Welsh- and Gaelic-medium schools in the UK. However, these programmes often prioritised the rapid acquisition of the dominant language rather than fostering true bilingualism (García, 2014, p. 86–87). Traditional bilingual education frequently treated languages as separate entities, emphasizing strict separation to avoid "cross-contamination." This approach, known as ‘parallel monolingualism’ (Heller, 1999), viewed bilingualism as two distinct monolingual systems. In this context, Lambert (1981) distinguishes between two key types of bilingualism: subtractive bilingualism, where the dominant language gradually replaces the minority language, leading to the erosion of the latter, and additive bilingualism, which promotes the coexistence of both languages, valuing them equally and fostering their parallel development (García and Wei, 2014, p. 49–50). In Europe, efforts to address the needs of migrant children began in the 1960s, with programmes offering supplementary mother-tongue instruction. However, these initiatives were often voluntary, limited in scope, and focused on preparing children for potential return to their home countries rather than integrating plurilingualism into mainstream education (Fürstenau, 2011). Support for minority languages remained inconsistent, and many plurilingual children relied on private community initiatives to maintain their heritage languages (Meissner, 2019, p. 225) [link heritage languages]. === '''Plurilingual competence and the “Multilingual Turn”''' === In recent decades, globalization and migration have driven a more positive interpretation of plurilingualism. International frameworks, such as the UN “Declaration on the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities” (1993), emphasized the importance of preserving and valuing linguistic diversity (Meißner, 2019, p. 221; García, 2014, p. 86–87). The Council of Europe and the European Union have also played a key role in promoting plurilingual education. Initiatives such as the “European Charter for regional or minority languages” (1992), the publication of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages with the concept of plurilingual competence (Council of Europe, 2001, 2018), and numerous recommendations have emphasized the value of multilingualism and plurilingual and intercultural education (e.g. “Key competences for lifelong learning”; European Commission - Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, 2019;  “Council recommendation on a comprehensive approach to the teaching and learning of languages”; Official Journal of the European Union (2019/C 189/03); Recommendation CM/Rec(2022)1 and explanatory memorandum). At the same time, language teaching approaches have emerged that seek to integrate all of a student's linguistic and cultural resources (e.g. pluralistic approaches [Link]) and translanguaging [Link]) to promote more inclusive and effective plurilingual education, recognising the fluidity and dynamism of language use. This shift in perspective is often referred to as the “Multilingual Turn” [link] in education (Conteh & Meier, 2014; May, 2013). == Self-assessment == === Reflexion (1) === * What are some of the challenges researchers face when studying historical multilingualism? * Why might plurilingualism have been more accepted or even necessary in medieval Europe compared to later periods? * How did the rise of nation-states in the Early Modern period affect the status of societal multilingualism and plurilingual education? Consider both the political and educational implications. === '''Selt test''' === '''1. Which of the following factors contributed most to the development of societal multilingualism, according to the text?''' A. Climate change B. Language contact and trade C. Technological innovation D. Religious conversion '''Correct answer: B''' '''2. What does the term ‘parallel monolingualism’ refer to in bilingual education?''' A. Teaching two languages with full integration B. Using one language at school and another at home C. Treating bilingualism as two separate monolingual systems D. Promoting only the dominant language '''Correct answers:''' 1. B; 2C === '''Reflexion (2)''' === Reflect on the concept of "monolingual habitus" in education. How do you think this concept has influenced the way languages are taught and valued in your country’s education system? == Resources to go further == Braunmüller, K. (2018). Historical multilingualism. In ''Twelve lectures on multilingualism'' (pp. 299–328). Franceschini, R. (2013). History of multilingualism. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), ''The encyclopedia of applied linguistics. 4 En-Ho'' (pp. 2526–2534). Wiley-Blackwell. Mende, J.-K. (2022a). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Deutschland. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 107–130). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Mende, J.-K. (2022b). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Europa und in der Welt. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' ( pp. 131–152). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 == Bibliography == Adams, J. N. (2003). ''Bilingualism and the Latin language''. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511482960 Adams, J. N., Janse, M., & Swain, S. (Eds). (2002). ''Bilingualism in ancient society: Language contact and the written text''. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199245062.001.0001 Bhatia, T. K., & Ritchie, W. C. (2013). Bilingualism and multilingualism in South Asia. In T. K. Bhatia & W. C. Ritchie (Eds), ''The handbook of bilingualism and multilingualism'' (Second edition, pp. 843–870). Wiley-Blackwell. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118332382 Boltz, W. G. (2018). Multilingualism and Lingua Franca in the ancient Chinese world. In J. E. Braarvig & M. J. Geller (Eds), ''Multilingualism, lingua franca and lingua sacra'' (pp. 401–426). Pro BUSINESS. Boschung, D., & Riehl, C. M. (2011). Einleitung: Historische Mehrsprachigkeit. In D. Boschung & C. M. Riehl (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Workshop des Zentrums für Antike Kulturen des Mittelmeerraumes (ZaKMiRa) und des Zentrums Sprachenvielfalt und Mehrsprachigkeit (ZSM) an der Universität Köln, Juli 2008'' (pp. iii–viii). Shaker. Braunmüller, K. (2007). Receptive multilingualism in Northern Europe in the Middle Ages: A description of a scenario. In L. Zeevaert & J. D. ten Thije (Eds), ''Receptive multilingualism'' (Vol. 6, pp. 25–47). John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/hsm.6.04bra Braunmüller, K. (2018). Historical multilingualism. In ''Twelve lectures on multilingualism'' (pp. 299–328). Conteh, J., & Meier, G. (2014). ''The multilingual turn in languages education: Opportunities and challenges''. Buffalo. https://doi.org/10.21832/978178309224<nowiki/>6 Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers. (2022). ''Recommendation of the Committee of Ministers to member States on the importance of plurilingual and intercultural education for democratic culture. Recommendation CM/Rec(2022)1 and explanatory memorandum''. https://rm.coe.int/prems-013522-gbr-2508-cmrec-2022-1-et-expose-motifs-couv-a5-bat-web/1680a967b4ECML Dardano, P. (2011). Mehrsprachigkeit im hethitischen Reich: Die Beziehungen zwischen dem Hethitischen und dem Akkadischen. In D. Boschung & C. M. Riehl (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Workshop des Zentrums für Antike Kulturen des Mittelmeerraumes (ZaKMiRa) und des Zentrums Sprachenvielfalt und Mehrsprachigkeit (ZSM) an der Universität Köln, Juli 2008'' (pp. 47–60). Shaker. European Commission. Directorate General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture. (2019). ''Key competences for lifelong learning''. Publications Office. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/569540 Franceschini, R. (2013). History of multilingualism. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), ''The encyclopedia of applied linguistics. 4 En-Ho'' (pp. 2526–2534). Wiley-Blackwell. Fürstenau, S. (2011). Mehrsprachigkeit als Voraussetzung und Ziel schulischer Bildung. In S. Fürstenau & M. Gomolla (Eds), ''Migration und schulischer Wandel. Leistungsbeurteilung'' (pp. 25–50). VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften/GWV Fachverlage. Galtung, J. (1990). Cultural violence. ''Journal of Peace Research'', ''27''(3), 291–305. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343390027003005 García, O. (2014). Multilingualism and language education. In C. Leung & B. V. Street (Eds), ''The Routledge companion to English studies'' (pp. 84–99). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315852515 García, O., & Wei, L. (2014). ''Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism and education''. Palgrave Macmillan UK, London. Goebl, H. (1997). Le rappel de l’ histoire: Le plurilinguisme dans la vieille monarchie habsbourgeoise. ''Sociolinguistica'', ''11'', 109–122. Gogolin, I. (1994). ''Der monolinguale Habitus der multilingualen Schule''. Waxmann. Gogolin, I. (2021). Multilingualism: A threat to public education or a resource in public education? – European histories and realities. ''European Educational Research Journal EERJ'', ''20''(3), 297–310. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474904120981507 Haugen, E. (1966). Semicommunication: The language gap in Scandinavia. ''Sociological Inquiry'', ''36''(2), 280–297. Heller, M. (1999). ''Linguistic minorities and modernity: A sociolinguistic ethnography''. Longman. Kulkarni-Joshi, S. (2019). Linguistic history and language diversity in India: Views and counterviews. ''Journal of Biosciences'', ''44''(3), 62. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12038-019-9879-1 Lambert, W. E. (1981). Bilingualism: Its nature and significance. In W. E. Lambert, C. E. Snow, B. A. Goldfield, A. U. Chamot, & S. R. Cahir (Eds), ''Faces and facets of bilingualism.'' (pp. 1–6). Center for Applied Linguistics, P. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED216530 Lüdi, G. (2023). Mehrsprachigkeit in der Wissenschaft im 18. Jahrhundert am Beispiel der Basler Mathematiker und Naturwissenschaftler Daniel Bernoulli und Leonhard Euler. In R. Franceschini, M. Hüning, & P. Maitz (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Europäische Perspektiven'' (pp. 337–352). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111338668 May, S. (2013). ''The multilingual turn: Implications for SLA, TESOL and bilingual education''. Routledge. Meissner, F.-J. (2019). Plurilingual education. In C. Fäcke & F.-J. Meissner (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeits- und Mehrkulturalitätsdidaktik'' (pp. 2017–2235). Narr Francke Attempto. Mende, J.-K. (2022a). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Deutschland. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 107–130). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Mende, J.-K. (2022b). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Europa und in der Welt. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 131–152). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Official Journal of the European Union, C 189, 22 May 2019, No. 2019/C 189/03 (22 2018). https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=oj:JOC_2019_189_R_0003 Ramón, J. L. G. (2022). Sprachen in Kontakt in Griechenland und Kleinasien im 2. Jahrtausend v. Chr. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 23–46). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Riehl, C. M. (2023). Sprachmischung in historischen Texten – eine Herausforderung an die kontaktlinguistische Theoriebildung? In R. Franceschini, M. Hüning, & P. Maitz (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Europäische Perspektiven'' (pp. 57–76). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111338668 Roelcke, T. (2022). Viel- und Mehrsprachigkeit. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Hrsg.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (Bd. 22, S. 3–28). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Romaine, S. (2013). The bilingual and multilingual community. In T. K. Bhatia & W. C. Ritchie (Eds), ''The handbook of bilingualism and multilingualism'' (Second edition, pp. 445–465). Wiley-Blackwell. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118332382 Schjerve-Rindler, R., & Vetter, E. (2007). Linguistic diversity in Habsburg Austria as a model for modern European language policy. In J. D. ten Thije & L. Zeevaert (Eds), ''Receptive Multilingualism'' (Vol. 6, pp. 49–70). John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/hsm.6.05sch Smith, J. M. H. (2007). Speaking and writing. In J. M. H. Smith (Ed.), ''Europe after Rome: A new cultural history 500-1000'' (pp. 12–50). Oxford University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780192892638.001.0001 UN General Assembly (1993). ''Declaration on the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities''. A/RES/48/138, 20 December 1993. https://www.refworld.org/legal/resolution/unga/1993/en/11497 ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Margareta Strasser (Paris Lodron Universität Salzburg) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] rc3pli0g6vh34tyx1foe87rdwu227ai 2817313 2817261 2026-06-29T17:08:26Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Selt test */ 2817313 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == Think about the following questions: * What languages were used in schools in your country 100 years ago? Why do you think those languages were chosen? * Can you think of a time when speaking more than one language was seen as a problem in education? Why might that have been the case? * How do you think colonisation or migration has influenced the languages spoken in schools around the world? * Have you ever experienced or heard of a situation where a student was not allowed to speak their home language at school? What might have been the reason? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe the historical development of societal multilingualism in ancient and modern societies * Evaluate the impact of language policies on multilingualism and plurilingual education * Critically reflect on the developments in language education   * Explore and compare regional and global perspectives on multilingualism and plurilingual education == Key words == societal multilingualism - plurilingual education - historical development - language contact - language policy == Contents == # Introduction # History of multilingualism ## Historical examples of multilingualism ## Ancient civilizations ## Medieval Europe ## The Early Modern period ## The Habsburg Empire ## Multilingualism beyond Europe # History of plurilingual education ## The rise of nation-states and the monolingual paradigm in education ## Shifting perspectives in the mid-20th century ## Plurilingual competence and the “Multilingual Turn” # Self-assessment # Resources to go further # Bibliography == Introduction == Societal multilingualism is by no means a new phenomenon; it has existed throughout human history. Franceschini describes it as a "human potentiality which can be developed when circumstances permit it anywhere and at any time throughout human evolution" (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2526). This contribution explores key aspects of multilingualism, focusing on its historical development, societal influences, and the challenges of its study. == History of multilingualism == The circumstances under which societal multilingualism develops are diverse. Some of the most significant factors are (Franceschini, 2013; Mende, 2022b): * Language contact and trade: Language contact, often driven by trade, has historically been a major catalyst for multilingualism (Braunmüller, 2018; Franceschini, 2013). Cities, as hubs of commerce and migration, have long been hotspots of linguistic diversity (Roelcke, 2022, p. 6; Mende, 2022a, pp. 122–124). * Migration: The movement of people across regions has brought languages into contact, fostering linguistic exchange and diversity. * Language policy: The recognition and promotion of certain languages as official or educational languages have had a profound impact on societal multilingualism. Language policies determine which languages are used, preserved, or marginalized. * Education: Closely linked to this is the influence of the education system, as language policy decisions determine which languages are taught, and whether and how students' home languages, minority languages, and others are supported and included in the curriculum. The languages considered to be academic languages/languages of science have also changed over the centuries and have had a significant impact on societal multilingualism. * Colonialism: Colonial systems often imposed the languages of the colonizers on indigenous populations, leading to the suppression or extinction of local languages. Romaine (2013, p. 44) highlights the power dynamics in such contexts, where dominant groups often imposed their languages on less powerful communities. * Administration: Multilingualism has been shaped by institutional frameworks such as religious practices, and administrative policies. For example, imperial systems often required plurilingual competence for governance and trade. === Historical examples of multilingualism === The study of historical multilingualism is often constrained by the availability of written records. Regions with a strong tradition of written documentation have been studied more comprehensively in terms of historical multilingualism than regions with predominantly oral traditions. However, these well-documented areas and societies are not necessarily those with the most widespread multilingualism (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2525–2526). Researchers often rely on direct and indirect evidence, such as loanwords or multilingual inscriptions, to reconstruct historical language contact (Boschung & Riehl, 2011, p. iii). === Ancient civilizations === The earliest evidence of multilingualism dates back to around 2600 BC and comes from the Sumerians: multilingual grammars and word lists on clay tablets were used in administration (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2). Further evidence of multilingualism comes from the Hittites, with clay tablets in Hittite, Sumerian and Akkadian, along with other languages (Dardano, 2011); or from the Egyptians, with multilingual steles in ancient Egypt. West Anatolia in the 2nd millennium BCE shows evidence of language contact between Greek and Anatolian languages (Ramón, 2022). === The Roman Empire === The linguistic situation during the Roman Empire has been relatively well researched. A large part of the population must have been multilingual – there is ample evidence of contact between Latin and other languages, partly due to the high mobility of groups such as the military, administrative staff, traders and slaves. Latin served as the official and educational language, while Greek held a special status. Those who did not have Latin as their first language (L1) had to learn either Greek or Latin. Important institutions such as the army were multilingual, and knowledge of Greek and Latin was also necessary for members of the imperial aristocracy. Although there was no explicit language policy, there was a certain need to learn Latin, which was apparently widely accepted by non-Latin speakers and large sections of the population (Adams, 2003; Adams et al., 2002; Franceschini, 2013, p. 2527; Mende, 2022b, p. 133). In the Roman Empire, Latin functioned as a lingua franca, learned by many as a second or third language for communication, trade, and military purposes. These multilingual speakers acquired Latin at varying levels of proficiency, similar to modern L2 learners. Over time, as native Latin speakers declined, learner-driven changes in the language led to the emergence of regional vernaculars known as ‘Vulgar Latin’ (Braunmüller, 2018, p. 300). === Medieval Europe === Medieval Europe was also characterised by multilingualism due to the demands of everyday life and work. This was particularly evident in spoken language, where there were no uniform standards, encouraging linguistic variation and flexibility. The gradual transformation of spoken Latin, for example, influenced by regional variations and non-native usage, laid the groundwork for the emergence of the Romance languages in the Middle Ages (Smith, 2007, p. 22–24). Knowledge of several languages was considered useful. In trade, in particular, it was common to spend time in another city (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2528–2529; Mende, 2022b, p. 133). Receptive multilingualism/intercomprehension  [link: intercomprehension and other concepts] was widespread, especially in Scandinavia, where conversation partners spoke different languages but understood each other due to the genetic relationship between the languages. This practice was later pejoratively described by Haugen (1966) as 'semi-communication' (Braunmüller, 2007). Plurilingual competences were necessary in specific areas, such as church networks, education (where Latin was the language of instruction) and governance (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2528–2529). With Latin, a common lingua franca was established for the first time in the Middle Ages and, at the same time, it was influenced by intensive contact with other languages (Smith, 2007). === The Early Modern period === The rise of nation-states in the early modern period brought a shift toward monolingualism and the codification of regional languages. Plurilingualism became less of a common practice and more of an elite skill or a sign of socially excluded minorities and was therefore not held in high regard. With the Enlightenment, language learning also came into focus; grammars of individual languages were developed. However, mixed-language texts persisted, as various examples show: Riehl (2023) examines the mixing of languages in texts from the 16^th and 17^th centuries, including Luther's “Tischreden” (table talks) [link: <nowiki>https://www.projekt-gutenberg.org/luther/tischred/index.html</nowiki>], in which he switched between German and Latin, the language of education. The switches partly imitate oral language use, e.g. switching to German to express emotions, but also to introduce and explain technical terms from the language of education, Latin. # Ich wolt gern, das sie unternumen wurden # ''propter Epicureismum et quia multa venena'' # ''inserta sunt''. Er hat viel umb leib und leben und # die seel bracht. Er ist ein ursach der # sacramentirer. ''Quantum promovit grammaticam,'' # ''tantum nocuit evangelio''. # # Er ist ein schentlicher mensch gewest. Zwinglius # ist durch in vorfurt; Egranum hat er auch bekert, # der glaubet eben so viel, als er. Er starb auch # dahin ''sine crux et sine lux''. # Wenn ich jung were, so wolt ich ''Graecam'' # ''linguam perfecte'' studirn, so das ichs kundte, und # wollte andere ''annotationes'' drein machen. Example analysis of the Tischreden (Luther's comments on Erasmus' Annotationes (WA 5, 5670)), cited in Riehl (2023, p. 61), with Latin passages highlighted as in the original source. Lüdi (2023), on the other hand, uses the correspondence between the Basel mathematician and natural scientist Daniel Bernoulli and Leonhard Euler in the 18^th century to show how the two scientists used several languages to create, communicate and disseminate knowledge (‘plurilanguaging’). Working in multilingual and culturally diverse teams fostered creativity and scientific progress. === The Habsburg Empire === An exception to the increasing monolingualisation in modern times was the Habsburg Empire, which maintained a pluralistic language policy for much of its history. German served as a supra-regional lingua franca, but was not the national language. Instead, the Habsburg Empire pursued a language policy aimed at linguistic autonomy: the 1867 Constitution guaranteed the equal rights of all languages in the crown lands; language coercion was prohibited (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2530–2531; Goebl, 1997). The Habsburg Empire also stood out in terms of its education system: Maria Theresa's school reform of 1774 introduced the so-called utraquism model, in which pupils were taught in their mother tongue and a second, more widely spoken language (e.g. German, Italian or Polish). However, also in the Habsburg Empire, a monolingual language policy gradually prevailed; at the same time, the regional differences ultimately led to considerable tensions (Goebl, 1997; Schjerve-Rindler & Vetter, 2007). === Multilingualism beyond Europe === * '''South America''': Pre-colonial South America was linguistically diverse, but colonization introduced European languages, often at the expense of indigenous ones. Assimilation policies led to the extinction of many local languages, and colonial languages like Spanish and Portuguese retained dominance even after independence (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2531–2532). * '''China''': Evidence of early multilingualism in China is sparse: There is no evidence of multilingualism in the area that is now China until 221 BC. This does not necessarily mean that the area was not multilingual prior to this time. Although there are traces of language contact, written sources from 1200 to 200 BC only provide information about the Chinese language. This changed with the non-Chinese Qing dynasty. From the 18th century onwards, there is also evidence of multilingual dictionaries (Boltz, 2018; Mende, 2022b). * '''South Asia''': Multilingualism has been a central feature of the South Asian region. It is primarily the result of contact over more than 3.000 years, during which time several language groups came into contact with each other. This led to the emergence of common linguistic features and the merging of language families. Sanskrit, Persian and English were particularly important as contact languages. Today, India has 23 official languages, and the 2011 census recorded 211 languages in total. The Ethnologue database lists 424 living indigenous languages (Bhatia & Ritchie, 2013; Kulkarni-Joshi, 2019). == History of plurilingual education == The history of plurilingual education is closely linked to the development of societal multilingualism. Factors such as migration flows, nationalist movements, colonial policies and the multilingual realities of work and everyday life have all shaped how educational systems respond to linguistic diversity. These influences are reflected in educational policies, as well as in approaches to language learning and teaching practices. === '''The rise of nation-states and the monolingual paradigm in education''' === Historically, prestigious languages such as Latin, Greek, and French were central to European education, while vernacular languages were often marginalized (Gogolin, 2021). The establishment of public education systems in Europe during the 18^th and 19^th centuries coincided with the creation of nation-states. These systems were designed to promote a monolingual national identity, with the national language seen as essential for social cohesion and education (Gogolin, 2021, p. 297–298). This "monolingual habitus" (Gogolin, 1994) became deeply ingrained, with the assumption that all learning should occur in the national language. The rise of nationalism, industrialization, and colonialism in the 19^th and early 20^th centuries further reinforced monolingual ideologies. Regional and minority languages were suppressed, and linguistic homogeneity was prioritized. This shift was described as a form of "cultural violence" (Galtung, 1990), leading to the devaluation of regional, minority, and migrant languages. Dominant national languages were imposed at the expense of linguistic diversity. For example, in New Zealand, English-only education policies caused the percentage of Māori-speaking children to drop from 90% in 1913 to less than 5% by 1975. Similarly, in the United States, societal pressure and restrictive language policies gradually reduced the language rights of immigrants, reflecting the dominance of English (García, 2014, p. 85). === Shifting perspectives in the mid-20^th century === The mid-20th century marked a turning point in plurilingual education. Ethnic revival movements of the 1960s and the Civil Rights Era in the United States highlighted the failures of monolingual education for language-minority students. Bilingual education programmes began to emerge, such as the “Bilingual Education Act” of 1968 in the USA and Welsh- and Gaelic-medium schools in the UK. However, these programmes often prioritised the rapid acquisition of the dominant language rather than fostering true bilingualism (García, 2014, p. 86–87). Traditional bilingual education frequently treated languages as separate entities, emphasizing strict separation to avoid "cross-contamination." This approach, known as ‘parallel monolingualism’ (Heller, 1999), viewed bilingualism as two distinct monolingual systems. In this context, Lambert (1981) distinguishes between two key types of bilingualism: subtractive bilingualism, where the dominant language gradually replaces the minority language, leading to the erosion of the latter, and additive bilingualism, which promotes the coexistence of both languages, valuing them equally and fostering their parallel development (García and Wei, 2014, p. 49–50). In Europe, efforts to address the needs of migrant children began in the 1960s, with programmes offering supplementary mother-tongue instruction. However, these initiatives were often voluntary, limited in scope, and focused on preparing children for potential return to their home countries rather than integrating plurilingualism into mainstream education (Fürstenau, 2011). Support for minority languages remained inconsistent, and many plurilingual children relied on private community initiatives to maintain their heritage languages (Meissner, 2019, p. 225) [link heritage languages]. === '''Plurilingual competence and the “Multilingual Turn”''' === In recent decades, globalization and migration have driven a more positive interpretation of plurilingualism. International frameworks, such as the UN “Declaration on the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities” (1993), emphasized the importance of preserving and valuing linguistic diversity (Meißner, 2019, p. 221; García, 2014, p. 86–87). The Council of Europe and the European Union have also played a key role in promoting plurilingual education. Initiatives such as the “European Charter for regional or minority languages” (1992), the publication of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages with the concept of plurilingual competence (Council of Europe, 2001, 2018), and numerous recommendations have emphasized the value of multilingualism and plurilingual and intercultural education (e.g. “Key competences for lifelong learning”; European Commission - Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, 2019;  “Council recommendation on a comprehensive approach to the teaching and learning of languages”; Official Journal of the European Union (2019/C 189/03); Recommendation CM/Rec(2022)1 and explanatory memorandum). At the same time, language teaching approaches have emerged that seek to integrate all of a student's linguistic and cultural resources (e.g. pluralistic approaches [Link]) and translanguaging [Link]) to promote more inclusive and effective plurilingual education, recognising the fluidity and dynamism of language use. This shift in perspective is often referred to as the “Multilingual Turn” [link] in education (Conteh & Meier, 2014; May, 2013). == Self-assessment == === Reflexion (1) === * What are some of the challenges researchers face when studying historical multilingualism? * Why might plurilingualism have been more accepted or even necessary in medieval Europe compared to later periods? * How did the rise of nation-states in the Early Modern period affect the status of societal multilingualism and plurilingual education? Consider both the political and educational implications. === '''Selt test''' === <quiz display=simple> {Which of the following factors contributed most to the development of societal multilingualism, according to the text?} -A. Climate change +B. Language contact and trade -C. Technological innovation -D. Religious conversion {What does the term ‘parallel monolingualism’ refer to in bilingual education?} -A. Teaching two languages with full integration -B. Using one language at school and another at home +C. Treating bilingualism as two separate monolingual systems -D. Promoting only the dominant language === '''Reflexion (2)''' === Reflect on the concept of "monolingual habitus" in education. How do you think this concept has influenced the way languages are taught and valued in your country’s education system? == Resources to go further == Braunmüller, K. (2018). Historical multilingualism. In ''Twelve lectures on multilingualism'' (pp. 299–328). Franceschini, R. (2013). History of multilingualism. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), ''The encyclopedia of applied linguistics. 4 En-Ho'' (pp. 2526–2534). Wiley-Blackwell. Mende, J.-K. (2022a). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Deutschland. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 107–130). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Mende, J.-K. (2022b). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Europa und in der Welt. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' ( pp. 131–152). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 == Bibliography == Adams, J. N. (2003). ''Bilingualism and the Latin language''. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511482960 Adams, J. N., Janse, M., & Swain, S. (Eds). (2002). ''Bilingualism in ancient society: Language contact and the written text''. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199245062.001.0001 Bhatia, T. K., & Ritchie, W. C. (2013). Bilingualism and multilingualism in South Asia. In T. K. Bhatia & W. C. Ritchie (Eds), ''The handbook of bilingualism and multilingualism'' (Second edition, pp. 843–870). Wiley-Blackwell. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118332382 Boltz, W. G. (2018). Multilingualism and Lingua Franca in the ancient Chinese world. In J. E. Braarvig & M. J. Geller (Eds), ''Multilingualism, lingua franca and lingua sacra'' (pp. 401–426). Pro BUSINESS. Boschung, D., & Riehl, C. M. (2011). Einleitung: Historische Mehrsprachigkeit. In D. Boschung & C. M. Riehl (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Workshop des Zentrums für Antike Kulturen des Mittelmeerraumes (ZaKMiRa) und des Zentrums Sprachenvielfalt und Mehrsprachigkeit (ZSM) an der Universität Köln, Juli 2008'' (pp. iii–viii). Shaker. Braunmüller, K. (2007). Receptive multilingualism in Northern Europe in the Middle Ages: A description of a scenario. In L. Zeevaert & J. D. ten Thije (Eds), ''Receptive multilingualism'' (Vol. 6, pp. 25–47). John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/hsm.6.04bra Braunmüller, K. (2018). Historical multilingualism. In ''Twelve lectures on multilingualism'' (pp. 299–328). Conteh, J., & Meier, G. (2014). ''The multilingual turn in languages education: Opportunities and challenges''. Buffalo. https://doi.org/10.21832/978178309224<nowiki/>6 Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers. (2022). ''Recommendation of the Committee of Ministers to member States on the importance of plurilingual and intercultural education for democratic culture. Recommendation CM/Rec(2022)1 and explanatory memorandum''. https://rm.coe.int/prems-013522-gbr-2508-cmrec-2022-1-et-expose-motifs-couv-a5-bat-web/1680a967b4ECML Dardano, P. (2011). Mehrsprachigkeit im hethitischen Reich: Die Beziehungen zwischen dem Hethitischen und dem Akkadischen. In D. Boschung & C. M. Riehl (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Workshop des Zentrums für Antike Kulturen des Mittelmeerraumes (ZaKMiRa) und des Zentrums Sprachenvielfalt und Mehrsprachigkeit (ZSM) an der Universität Köln, Juli 2008'' (pp. 47–60). Shaker. European Commission. Directorate General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture. (2019). ''Key competences for lifelong learning''. Publications Office. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/569540 Franceschini, R. (2013). History of multilingualism. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), ''The encyclopedia of applied linguistics. 4 En-Ho'' (pp. 2526–2534). Wiley-Blackwell. Fürstenau, S. (2011). Mehrsprachigkeit als Voraussetzung und Ziel schulischer Bildung. In S. Fürstenau & M. Gomolla (Eds), ''Migration und schulischer Wandel. Leistungsbeurteilung'' (pp. 25–50). VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften/GWV Fachverlage. Galtung, J. (1990). Cultural violence. ''Journal of Peace Research'', ''27''(3), 291–305. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343390027003005 García, O. (2014). Multilingualism and language education. In C. Leung & B. V. Street (Eds), ''The Routledge companion to English studies'' (pp. 84–99). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315852515 García, O., & Wei, L. (2014). ''Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism and education''. Palgrave Macmillan UK, London. Goebl, H. (1997). Le rappel de l’ histoire: Le plurilinguisme dans la vieille monarchie habsbourgeoise. ''Sociolinguistica'', ''11'', 109–122. Gogolin, I. (1994). ''Der monolinguale Habitus der multilingualen Schule''. Waxmann. Gogolin, I. (2021). Multilingualism: A threat to public education or a resource in public education? – European histories and realities. ''European Educational Research Journal EERJ'', ''20''(3), 297–310. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474904120981507 Haugen, E. (1966). Semicommunication: The language gap in Scandinavia. ''Sociological Inquiry'', ''36''(2), 280–297. Heller, M. (1999). ''Linguistic minorities and modernity: A sociolinguistic ethnography''. Longman. Kulkarni-Joshi, S. (2019). Linguistic history and language diversity in India: Views and counterviews. ''Journal of Biosciences'', ''44''(3), 62. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12038-019-9879-1 Lambert, W. E. (1981). Bilingualism: Its nature and significance. In W. E. Lambert, C. E. Snow, B. A. Goldfield, A. U. Chamot, & S. R. Cahir (Eds), ''Faces and facets of bilingualism.'' (pp. 1–6). Center for Applied Linguistics, P. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED216530 Lüdi, G. (2023). Mehrsprachigkeit in der Wissenschaft im 18. Jahrhundert am Beispiel der Basler Mathematiker und Naturwissenschaftler Daniel Bernoulli und Leonhard Euler. In R. Franceschini, M. Hüning, & P. Maitz (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Europäische Perspektiven'' (pp. 337–352). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111338668 May, S. (2013). ''The multilingual turn: Implications for SLA, TESOL and bilingual education''. Routledge. Meissner, F.-J. (2019). Plurilingual education. In C. Fäcke & F.-J. Meissner (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeits- und Mehrkulturalitätsdidaktik'' (pp. 2017–2235). Narr Francke Attempto. Mende, J.-K. (2022a). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Deutschland. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 107–130). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Mende, J.-K. (2022b). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Europa und in der Welt. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 131–152). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Official Journal of the European Union, C 189, 22 May 2019, No. 2019/C 189/03 (22 2018). https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=oj:JOC_2019_189_R_0003 Ramón, J. L. G. (2022). Sprachen in Kontakt in Griechenland und Kleinasien im 2. Jahrtausend v. Chr. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 23–46). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Riehl, C. M. (2023). Sprachmischung in historischen Texten – eine Herausforderung an die kontaktlinguistische Theoriebildung? In R. Franceschini, M. Hüning, & P. Maitz (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Europäische Perspektiven'' (pp. 57–76). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111338668 Roelcke, T. (2022). Viel- und Mehrsprachigkeit. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Hrsg.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (Bd. 22, S. 3–28). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Romaine, S. (2013). The bilingual and multilingual community. In T. K. Bhatia & W. C. Ritchie (Eds), ''The handbook of bilingualism and multilingualism'' (Second edition, pp. 445–465). Wiley-Blackwell. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118332382 Schjerve-Rindler, R., & Vetter, E. (2007). Linguistic diversity in Habsburg Austria as a model for modern European language policy. In J. D. ten Thije & L. Zeevaert (Eds), ''Receptive Multilingualism'' (Vol. 6, pp. 49–70). John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/hsm.6.05sch Smith, J. M. H. (2007). Speaking and writing. In J. M. H. Smith (Ed.), ''Europe after Rome: A new cultural history 500-1000'' (pp. 12–50). Oxford University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780192892638.001.0001 UN General Assembly (1993). ''Declaration on the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities''. A/RES/48/138, 20 December 1993. https://www.refworld.org/legal/resolution/unga/1993/en/11497 ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Margareta Strasser (Paris Lodron Universität Salzburg) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] nmlga5l4272add9j2oa63su2unvbdj8 2817314 2817313 2026-06-29T17:08:42Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Selt test */ 2817314 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == Think about the following questions: * What languages were used in schools in your country 100 years ago? Why do you think those languages were chosen? * Can you think of a time when speaking more than one language was seen as a problem in education? Why might that have been the case? * How do you think colonisation or migration has influenced the languages spoken in schools around the world? * Have you ever experienced or heard of a situation where a student was not allowed to speak their home language at school? What might have been the reason? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe the historical development of societal multilingualism in ancient and modern societies * Evaluate the impact of language policies on multilingualism and plurilingual education * Critically reflect on the developments in language education   * Explore and compare regional and global perspectives on multilingualism and plurilingual education == Key words == societal multilingualism - plurilingual education - historical development - language contact - language policy == Contents == # Introduction # History of multilingualism ## Historical examples of multilingualism ## Ancient civilizations ## Medieval Europe ## The Early Modern period ## The Habsburg Empire ## Multilingualism beyond Europe # History of plurilingual education ## The rise of nation-states and the monolingual paradigm in education ## Shifting perspectives in the mid-20th century ## Plurilingual competence and the “Multilingual Turn” # Self-assessment # Resources to go further # Bibliography == Introduction == Societal multilingualism is by no means a new phenomenon; it has existed throughout human history. Franceschini describes it as a "human potentiality which can be developed when circumstances permit it anywhere and at any time throughout human evolution" (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2526). This contribution explores key aspects of multilingualism, focusing on its historical development, societal influences, and the challenges of its study. == History of multilingualism == The circumstances under which societal multilingualism develops are diverse. Some of the most significant factors are (Franceschini, 2013; Mende, 2022b): * Language contact and trade: Language contact, often driven by trade, has historically been a major catalyst for multilingualism (Braunmüller, 2018; Franceschini, 2013). Cities, as hubs of commerce and migration, have long been hotspots of linguistic diversity (Roelcke, 2022, p. 6; Mende, 2022a, pp. 122–124). * Migration: The movement of people across regions has brought languages into contact, fostering linguistic exchange and diversity. * Language policy: The recognition and promotion of certain languages as official or educational languages have had a profound impact on societal multilingualism. Language policies determine which languages are used, preserved, or marginalized. * Education: Closely linked to this is the influence of the education system, as language policy decisions determine which languages are taught, and whether and how students' home languages, minority languages, and others are supported and included in the curriculum. The languages considered to be academic languages/languages of science have also changed over the centuries and have had a significant impact on societal multilingualism. * Colonialism: Colonial systems often imposed the languages of the colonizers on indigenous populations, leading to the suppression or extinction of local languages. Romaine (2013, p. 44) highlights the power dynamics in such contexts, where dominant groups often imposed their languages on less powerful communities. * Administration: Multilingualism has been shaped by institutional frameworks such as religious practices, and administrative policies. For example, imperial systems often required plurilingual competence for governance and trade. === Historical examples of multilingualism === The study of historical multilingualism is often constrained by the availability of written records. Regions with a strong tradition of written documentation have been studied more comprehensively in terms of historical multilingualism than regions with predominantly oral traditions. However, these well-documented areas and societies are not necessarily those with the most widespread multilingualism (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2525–2526). Researchers often rely on direct and indirect evidence, such as loanwords or multilingual inscriptions, to reconstruct historical language contact (Boschung & Riehl, 2011, p. iii). === Ancient civilizations === The earliest evidence of multilingualism dates back to around 2600 BC and comes from the Sumerians: multilingual grammars and word lists on clay tablets were used in administration (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2). Further evidence of multilingualism comes from the Hittites, with clay tablets in Hittite, Sumerian and Akkadian, along with other languages (Dardano, 2011); or from the Egyptians, with multilingual steles in ancient Egypt. West Anatolia in the 2nd millennium BCE shows evidence of language contact between Greek and Anatolian languages (Ramón, 2022). === The Roman Empire === The linguistic situation during the Roman Empire has been relatively well researched. A large part of the population must have been multilingual – there is ample evidence of contact between Latin and other languages, partly due to the high mobility of groups such as the military, administrative staff, traders and slaves. Latin served as the official and educational language, while Greek held a special status. Those who did not have Latin as their first language (L1) had to learn either Greek or Latin. Important institutions such as the army were multilingual, and knowledge of Greek and Latin was also necessary for members of the imperial aristocracy. Although there was no explicit language policy, there was a certain need to learn Latin, which was apparently widely accepted by non-Latin speakers and large sections of the population (Adams, 2003; Adams et al., 2002; Franceschini, 2013, p. 2527; Mende, 2022b, p. 133). In the Roman Empire, Latin functioned as a lingua franca, learned by many as a second or third language for communication, trade, and military purposes. These multilingual speakers acquired Latin at varying levels of proficiency, similar to modern L2 learners. Over time, as native Latin speakers declined, learner-driven changes in the language led to the emergence of regional vernaculars known as ‘Vulgar Latin’ (Braunmüller, 2018, p. 300). === Medieval Europe === Medieval Europe was also characterised by multilingualism due to the demands of everyday life and work. This was particularly evident in spoken language, where there were no uniform standards, encouraging linguistic variation and flexibility. The gradual transformation of spoken Latin, for example, influenced by regional variations and non-native usage, laid the groundwork for the emergence of the Romance languages in the Middle Ages (Smith, 2007, p. 22–24). Knowledge of several languages was considered useful. In trade, in particular, it was common to spend time in another city (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2528–2529; Mende, 2022b, p. 133). Receptive multilingualism/intercomprehension  [link: intercomprehension and other concepts] was widespread, especially in Scandinavia, where conversation partners spoke different languages but understood each other due to the genetic relationship between the languages. This practice was later pejoratively described by Haugen (1966) as 'semi-communication' (Braunmüller, 2007). Plurilingual competences were necessary in specific areas, such as church networks, education (where Latin was the language of instruction) and governance (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2528–2529). With Latin, a common lingua franca was established for the first time in the Middle Ages and, at the same time, it was influenced by intensive contact with other languages (Smith, 2007). === The Early Modern period === The rise of nation-states in the early modern period brought a shift toward monolingualism and the codification of regional languages. Plurilingualism became less of a common practice and more of an elite skill or a sign of socially excluded minorities and was therefore not held in high regard. With the Enlightenment, language learning also came into focus; grammars of individual languages were developed. However, mixed-language texts persisted, as various examples show: Riehl (2023) examines the mixing of languages in texts from the 16^th and 17^th centuries, including Luther's “Tischreden” (table talks) [link: <nowiki>https://www.projekt-gutenberg.org/luther/tischred/index.html</nowiki>], in which he switched between German and Latin, the language of education. The switches partly imitate oral language use, e.g. switching to German to express emotions, but also to introduce and explain technical terms from the language of education, Latin. # Ich wolt gern, das sie unternumen wurden # ''propter Epicureismum et quia multa venena'' # ''inserta sunt''. Er hat viel umb leib und leben und # die seel bracht. Er ist ein ursach der # sacramentirer. ''Quantum promovit grammaticam,'' # ''tantum nocuit evangelio''. # # Er ist ein schentlicher mensch gewest. Zwinglius # ist durch in vorfurt; Egranum hat er auch bekert, # der glaubet eben so viel, als er. Er starb auch # dahin ''sine crux et sine lux''. # Wenn ich jung were, so wolt ich ''Graecam'' # ''linguam perfecte'' studirn, so das ichs kundte, und # wollte andere ''annotationes'' drein machen. Example analysis of the Tischreden (Luther's comments on Erasmus' Annotationes (WA 5, 5670)), cited in Riehl (2023, p. 61), with Latin passages highlighted as in the original source. Lüdi (2023), on the other hand, uses the correspondence between the Basel mathematician and natural scientist Daniel Bernoulli and Leonhard Euler in the 18^th century to show how the two scientists used several languages to create, communicate and disseminate knowledge (‘plurilanguaging’). Working in multilingual and culturally diverse teams fostered creativity and scientific progress. === The Habsburg Empire === An exception to the increasing monolingualisation in modern times was the Habsburg Empire, which maintained a pluralistic language policy for much of its history. German served as a supra-regional lingua franca, but was not the national language. Instead, the Habsburg Empire pursued a language policy aimed at linguistic autonomy: the 1867 Constitution guaranteed the equal rights of all languages in the crown lands; language coercion was prohibited (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2530–2531; Goebl, 1997). The Habsburg Empire also stood out in terms of its education system: Maria Theresa's school reform of 1774 introduced the so-called utraquism model, in which pupils were taught in their mother tongue and a second, more widely spoken language (e.g. German, Italian or Polish). However, also in the Habsburg Empire, a monolingual language policy gradually prevailed; at the same time, the regional differences ultimately led to considerable tensions (Goebl, 1997; Schjerve-Rindler & Vetter, 2007). === Multilingualism beyond Europe === * '''South America''': Pre-colonial South America was linguistically diverse, but colonization introduced European languages, often at the expense of indigenous ones. Assimilation policies led to the extinction of many local languages, and colonial languages like Spanish and Portuguese retained dominance even after independence (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2531–2532). * '''China''': Evidence of early multilingualism in China is sparse: There is no evidence of multilingualism in the area that is now China until 221 BC. This does not necessarily mean that the area was not multilingual prior to this time. Although there are traces of language contact, written sources from 1200 to 200 BC only provide information about the Chinese language. This changed with the non-Chinese Qing dynasty. From the 18th century onwards, there is also evidence of multilingual dictionaries (Boltz, 2018; Mende, 2022b). * '''South Asia''': Multilingualism has been a central feature of the South Asian region. It is primarily the result of contact over more than 3.000 years, during which time several language groups came into contact with each other. This led to the emergence of common linguistic features and the merging of language families. Sanskrit, Persian and English were particularly important as contact languages. Today, India has 23 official languages, and the 2011 census recorded 211 languages in total. The Ethnologue database lists 424 living indigenous languages (Bhatia & Ritchie, 2013; Kulkarni-Joshi, 2019). == History of plurilingual education == The history of plurilingual education is closely linked to the development of societal multilingualism. Factors such as migration flows, nationalist movements, colonial policies and the multilingual realities of work and everyday life have all shaped how educational systems respond to linguistic diversity. These influences are reflected in educational policies, as well as in approaches to language learning and teaching practices. === '''The rise of nation-states and the monolingual paradigm in education''' === Historically, prestigious languages such as Latin, Greek, and French were central to European education, while vernacular languages were often marginalized (Gogolin, 2021). The establishment of public education systems in Europe during the 18^th and 19^th centuries coincided with the creation of nation-states. These systems were designed to promote a monolingual national identity, with the national language seen as essential for social cohesion and education (Gogolin, 2021, p. 297–298). This "monolingual habitus" (Gogolin, 1994) became deeply ingrained, with the assumption that all learning should occur in the national language. The rise of nationalism, industrialization, and colonialism in the 19^th and early 20^th centuries further reinforced monolingual ideologies. Regional and minority languages were suppressed, and linguistic homogeneity was prioritized. This shift was described as a form of "cultural violence" (Galtung, 1990), leading to the devaluation of regional, minority, and migrant languages. Dominant national languages were imposed at the expense of linguistic diversity. For example, in New Zealand, English-only education policies caused the percentage of Māori-speaking children to drop from 90% in 1913 to less than 5% by 1975. Similarly, in the United States, societal pressure and restrictive language policies gradually reduced the language rights of immigrants, reflecting the dominance of English (García, 2014, p. 85). === Shifting perspectives in the mid-20^th century === The mid-20th century marked a turning point in plurilingual education. Ethnic revival movements of the 1960s and the Civil Rights Era in the United States highlighted the failures of monolingual education for language-minority students. Bilingual education programmes began to emerge, such as the “Bilingual Education Act” of 1968 in the USA and Welsh- and Gaelic-medium schools in the UK. However, these programmes often prioritised the rapid acquisition of the dominant language rather than fostering true bilingualism (García, 2014, p. 86–87). Traditional bilingual education frequently treated languages as separate entities, emphasizing strict separation to avoid "cross-contamination." This approach, known as ‘parallel monolingualism’ (Heller, 1999), viewed bilingualism as two distinct monolingual systems. In this context, Lambert (1981) distinguishes between two key types of bilingualism: subtractive bilingualism, where the dominant language gradually replaces the minority language, leading to the erosion of the latter, and additive bilingualism, which promotes the coexistence of both languages, valuing them equally and fostering their parallel development (García and Wei, 2014, p. 49–50). In Europe, efforts to address the needs of migrant children began in the 1960s, with programmes offering supplementary mother-tongue instruction. However, these initiatives were often voluntary, limited in scope, and focused on preparing children for potential return to their home countries rather than integrating plurilingualism into mainstream education (Fürstenau, 2011). Support for minority languages remained inconsistent, and many plurilingual children relied on private community initiatives to maintain their heritage languages (Meissner, 2019, p. 225) [link heritage languages]. === '''Plurilingual competence and the “Multilingual Turn”''' === In recent decades, globalization and migration have driven a more positive interpretation of plurilingualism. International frameworks, such as the UN “Declaration on the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities” (1993), emphasized the importance of preserving and valuing linguistic diversity (Meißner, 2019, p. 221; García, 2014, p. 86–87). The Council of Europe and the European Union have also played a key role in promoting plurilingual education. Initiatives such as the “European Charter for regional or minority languages” (1992), the publication of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages with the concept of plurilingual competence (Council of Europe, 2001, 2018), and numerous recommendations have emphasized the value of multilingualism and plurilingual and intercultural education (e.g. “Key competences for lifelong learning”; European Commission - Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, 2019;  “Council recommendation on a comprehensive approach to the teaching and learning of languages”; Official Journal of the European Union (2019/C 189/03); Recommendation CM/Rec(2022)1 and explanatory memorandum). At the same time, language teaching approaches have emerged that seek to integrate all of a student's linguistic and cultural resources (e.g. pluralistic approaches [Link]) and translanguaging [Link]) to promote more inclusive and effective plurilingual education, recognising the fluidity and dynamism of language use. This shift in perspective is often referred to as the “Multilingual Turn” [link] in education (Conteh & Meier, 2014; May, 2013). == Self-assessment == === Reflexion (1) === * What are some of the challenges researchers face when studying historical multilingualism? * Why might plurilingualism have been more accepted or even necessary in medieval Europe compared to later periods? * How did the rise of nation-states in the Early Modern period affect the status of societal multilingualism and plurilingual education? Consider both the political and educational implications. === '''Selt test''' === <quiz display=simple> {Which of the following factors contributed most to the development of societal multilingualism, according to the text?} -A. Climate change +B. Language contact and trade -C. Technological innovation -D. Religious conversion {What does the term ‘parallel monolingualism’ refer to in bilingual education?} -A. Teaching two languages with full integration -B. Using one language at school and another at home +C. Treating bilingualism as two separate monolingual systems -D. Promoting only the dominant language </quiz> === '''Reflexion (2)''' === Reflect on the concept of "monolingual habitus" in education. How do you think this concept has influenced the way languages are taught and valued in your country’s education system? == Resources to go further == Braunmüller, K. (2018). Historical multilingualism. In ''Twelve lectures on multilingualism'' (pp. 299–328). Franceschini, R. (2013). History of multilingualism. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), ''The encyclopedia of applied linguistics. 4 En-Ho'' (pp. 2526–2534). Wiley-Blackwell. Mende, J.-K. (2022a). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Deutschland. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 107–130). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Mende, J.-K. (2022b). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Europa und in der Welt. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' ( pp. 131–152). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 == Bibliography == Adams, J. N. (2003). ''Bilingualism and the Latin language''. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511482960 Adams, J. N., Janse, M., & Swain, S. (Eds). (2002). ''Bilingualism in ancient society: Language contact and the written text''. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199245062.001.0001 Bhatia, T. K., & Ritchie, W. C. (2013). Bilingualism and multilingualism in South Asia. In T. K. Bhatia & W. C. Ritchie (Eds), ''The handbook of bilingualism and multilingualism'' (Second edition, pp. 843–870). Wiley-Blackwell. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118332382 Boltz, W. G. (2018). Multilingualism and Lingua Franca in the ancient Chinese world. In J. E. Braarvig & M. J. Geller (Eds), ''Multilingualism, lingua franca and lingua sacra'' (pp. 401–426). Pro BUSINESS. Boschung, D., & Riehl, C. M. (2011). Einleitung: Historische Mehrsprachigkeit. In D. Boschung & C. M. Riehl (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Workshop des Zentrums für Antike Kulturen des Mittelmeerraumes (ZaKMiRa) und des Zentrums Sprachenvielfalt und Mehrsprachigkeit (ZSM) an der Universität Köln, Juli 2008'' (pp. iii–viii). Shaker. Braunmüller, K. (2007). Receptive multilingualism in Northern Europe in the Middle Ages: A description of a scenario. In L. Zeevaert & J. D. ten Thije (Eds), ''Receptive multilingualism'' (Vol. 6, pp. 25–47). John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/hsm.6.04bra Braunmüller, K. (2018). Historical multilingualism. In ''Twelve lectures on multilingualism'' (pp. 299–328). Conteh, J., & Meier, G. (2014). ''The multilingual turn in languages education: Opportunities and challenges''. Buffalo. https://doi.org/10.21832/978178309224<nowiki/>6 Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers. (2022). ''Recommendation of the Committee of Ministers to member States on the importance of plurilingual and intercultural education for democratic culture. Recommendation CM/Rec(2022)1 and explanatory memorandum''. https://rm.coe.int/prems-013522-gbr-2508-cmrec-2022-1-et-expose-motifs-couv-a5-bat-web/1680a967b4ECML Dardano, P. (2011). Mehrsprachigkeit im hethitischen Reich: Die Beziehungen zwischen dem Hethitischen und dem Akkadischen. In D. Boschung & C. M. Riehl (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Workshop des Zentrums für Antike Kulturen des Mittelmeerraumes (ZaKMiRa) und des Zentrums Sprachenvielfalt und Mehrsprachigkeit (ZSM) an der Universität Köln, Juli 2008'' (pp. 47–60). Shaker. European Commission. Directorate General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture. (2019). ''Key competences for lifelong learning''. Publications Office. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/569540 Franceschini, R. (2013). History of multilingualism. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), ''The encyclopedia of applied linguistics. 4 En-Ho'' (pp. 2526–2534). Wiley-Blackwell. Fürstenau, S. (2011). Mehrsprachigkeit als Voraussetzung und Ziel schulischer Bildung. In S. Fürstenau & M. Gomolla (Eds), ''Migration und schulischer Wandel. Leistungsbeurteilung'' (pp. 25–50). VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften/GWV Fachverlage. Galtung, J. (1990). Cultural violence. ''Journal of Peace Research'', ''27''(3), 291–305. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343390027003005 García, O. (2014). Multilingualism and language education. In C. Leung & B. V. Street (Eds), ''The Routledge companion to English studies'' (pp. 84–99). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315852515 García, O., & Wei, L. (2014). ''Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism and education''. Palgrave Macmillan UK, London. Goebl, H. (1997). Le rappel de l’ histoire: Le plurilinguisme dans la vieille monarchie habsbourgeoise. ''Sociolinguistica'', ''11'', 109–122. Gogolin, I. (1994). ''Der monolinguale Habitus der multilingualen Schule''. Waxmann. Gogolin, I. (2021). Multilingualism: A threat to public education or a resource in public education? – European histories and realities. ''European Educational Research Journal EERJ'', ''20''(3), 297–310. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474904120981507 Haugen, E. (1966). Semicommunication: The language gap in Scandinavia. ''Sociological Inquiry'', ''36''(2), 280–297. Heller, M. (1999). ''Linguistic minorities and modernity: A sociolinguistic ethnography''. Longman. Kulkarni-Joshi, S. (2019). Linguistic history and language diversity in India: Views and counterviews. ''Journal of Biosciences'', ''44''(3), 62. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12038-019-9879-1 Lambert, W. E. (1981). Bilingualism: Its nature and significance. In W. E. Lambert, C. E. Snow, B. A. Goldfield, A. U. Chamot, & S. R. Cahir (Eds), ''Faces and facets of bilingualism.'' (pp. 1–6). Center for Applied Linguistics, P. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED216530 Lüdi, G. (2023). Mehrsprachigkeit in der Wissenschaft im 18. Jahrhundert am Beispiel der Basler Mathematiker und Naturwissenschaftler Daniel Bernoulli und Leonhard Euler. In R. Franceschini, M. Hüning, & P. Maitz (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Europäische Perspektiven'' (pp. 337–352). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111338668 May, S. (2013). ''The multilingual turn: Implications for SLA, TESOL and bilingual education''. Routledge. Meissner, F.-J. (2019). Plurilingual education. In C. Fäcke & F.-J. Meissner (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeits- und Mehrkulturalitätsdidaktik'' (pp. 2017–2235). Narr Francke Attempto. Mende, J.-K. (2022a). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Deutschland. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 107–130). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Mende, J.-K. (2022b). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Europa und in der Welt. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 131–152). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Official Journal of the European Union, C 189, 22 May 2019, No. 2019/C 189/03 (22 2018). https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=oj:JOC_2019_189_R_0003 Ramón, J. L. G. (2022). Sprachen in Kontakt in Griechenland und Kleinasien im 2. Jahrtausend v. Chr. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 23–46). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Riehl, C. M. (2023). Sprachmischung in historischen Texten – eine Herausforderung an die kontaktlinguistische Theoriebildung? In R. Franceschini, M. Hüning, & P. Maitz (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Europäische Perspektiven'' (pp. 57–76). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111338668 Roelcke, T. (2022). Viel- und Mehrsprachigkeit. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Hrsg.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (Bd. 22, S. 3–28). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Romaine, S. (2013). The bilingual and multilingual community. In T. K. Bhatia & W. C. Ritchie (Eds), ''The handbook of bilingualism and multilingualism'' (Second edition, pp. 445–465). Wiley-Blackwell. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118332382 Schjerve-Rindler, R., & Vetter, E. (2007). Linguistic diversity in Habsburg Austria as a model for modern European language policy. In J. D. ten Thije & L. Zeevaert (Eds), ''Receptive Multilingualism'' (Vol. 6, pp. 49–70). John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/hsm.6.05sch Smith, J. M. H. (2007). Speaking and writing. In J. M. H. Smith (Ed.), ''Europe after Rome: A new cultural history 500-1000'' (pp. 12–50). Oxford University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780192892638.001.0001 UN General Assembly (1993). ''Declaration on the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities''. A/RES/48/138, 20 December 1993. https://www.refworld.org/legal/resolution/unga/1993/en/11497 ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Margareta Strasser (Paris Lodron Universität Salzburg) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] hgi4473do586eeu9dicmtgxj3wpbwrw 2817378 2817314 2026-06-30T11:07:21Z ~2026-37432-69 3097899 2817378 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == Think about the following questions: * What languages were used in schools in your country 100 years ago? Why do you think those languages were chosen? * Can you think of a time when speaking more than one language was seen as a problem in education? Why might that have been the case? * How do you think colonisation or migration has influenced the languages spoken in schools around the world? * Have you ever experienced or heard of a situation where a student was not allowed to speak their home language at school? What might have been the reason? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe the historical development of societal multilingualism in ancient and modern societies * Evaluate the impact of language policies on multilingualism and plurilingual education * Critically reflect on the developments in language education   * Explore and compare regional and global perspectives on multilingualism and plurilingual education == Key words == societal multilingualism - plurilingual education - historical development - language contact - language policy == Contents == # Introduction # History of multilingualism ## Historical examples of multilingualism ## Ancient civilizations ## Medieval Europe ## The Early Modern period ## The Habsburg Empire ## Multilingualism beyond Europe # History of plurilingual education ## The rise of nation-states and the monolingual paradigm in education ## Shifting perspectives in the mid-20th century ## Plurilingual competence and the “Multilingual Turn” # Self-assessment # Resources to go further # Bibliography == Introduction == Societal multilingualism is by no means a new phenomenon; it has existed throughout human history. Franceschini describes it as a "human potentiality which can be developed when circumstances permit it anywhere and at any time throughout human evolution" (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2526). This contribution explores key aspects of multilingualism, focusing on its historical development, societal influences, and the challenges of its study. == History of multilingualism == The circumstances under which societal multilingualism develops are diverse. Some of the most significant factors are (Franceschini, 2013; Mende, 2022b): * Language contact and trade: Language contact, often driven by trade, has historically been a major catalyst for multilingualism (Braunmüller, 2018; Franceschini, 2013). Cities, as hubs of commerce and migration, have long been hotspots of linguistic diversity (Roelcke, 2022, p. 6; Mende, 2022a, pp. 122–124). * Migration: The movement of people across regions has brought languages into contact, fostering linguistic exchange and diversity. * Language policy: The recognition and promotion of certain languages as official or educational languages have had a profound impact on societal multilingualism. Language policies determine which languages are used, preserved, or marginalized. * Education: Closely linked to this is the influence of the education system, as language policy decisions determine which languages are taught, and whether and how students' home languages, minority languages, and others are supported and included in the curriculum. The languages considered to be academic languages/languages of science have also changed over the centuries and have had a significant impact on societal multilingualism. * Colonialism: Colonial systems often imposed the languages of the colonizers on indigenous populations, leading to the suppression or extinction of local languages. Romaine (2013, p. 44) highlights the power dynamics in such contexts, where dominant groups often imposed their languages on less powerful communities. * Administration: Multilingualism has been shaped by institutional frameworks such as religious practices, and administrative policies. For example, imperial systems often required plurilingual competence for governance and trade. === Historical examples of multilingualism === The study of historical multilingualism is often constrained by the availability of written records. Regions with a strong tradition of written documentation have been studied more comprehensively in terms of historical multilingualism than regions with predominantly oral traditions. However, these well-documented areas and societies are not necessarily those with the most widespread multilingualism (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2525–2526). Researchers often rely on direct and indirect evidence, such as loanwords or multilingual inscriptions, to reconstruct historical language contact (Boschung & Riehl, 2011, p. iii). === Ancient civilizations === The earliest evidence of multilingualism dates back to around 2600 BC and comes from the Sumerians: multilingual grammars and word lists on clay tablets were used in administration (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2). Further evidence of multilingualism comes from the Hittites, with clay tablets in Hittite, Sumerian and Akkadian, along with other languages (Dardano, 2011); or from the Egyptians, with multilingual steles in ancient Egypt. West Anatolia in the 2nd millennium BCE shows evidence of language contact between Greek and Anatolian languages (Ramón, 2022). === The Roman Empire === The linguistic situation during the Roman Empire has been relatively well researched. A large part of the population must have been multilingual – there is ample evidence of contact between Latin and other languages, partly due to the high mobility of groups such as the military, administrative staff, traders and slaves. Latin served as the official and educational language, while Greek held a special status. Those who did not have Latin as their first language (L1) had to learn either Greek or Latin. Important institutions such as the army were multilingual, and knowledge of Greek and Latin was also necessary for members of the imperial aristocracy. Although there was no explicit language policy, there was a certain need to learn Latin, which was apparently widely accepted by non-Latin speakers and large sections of the population (Adams, 2003; Adams et al., 2002; Franceschini, 2013, p. 2527; Mende, 2022b, p. 133). In the Roman Empire, Latin functioned as a lingua franca, learned by many as a second or third language for communication, trade, and military purposes. These multilingual speakers acquired Latin at varying levels of proficiency, similar to modern L2 learners. Over time, as native Latin speakers declined, learner-driven changes in the language led to the emergence of regional vernaculars known as ‘Vulgar Latin’ (Braunmüller, 2018, p. 300). === Medieval Europe === Medieval Europe was also characterised by multilingualism due to the demands of everyday life and work. This was particularly evident in spoken language, where there were no uniform standards, encouraging linguistic variation and flexibility. The gradual transformation of spoken Latin, for example, influenced by regional variations and non-native usage, laid the groundwork for the emergence of the Romance languages in the Middle Ages (Smith, 2007, p. 22–24). Knowledge of several languages was considered useful. In trade, in particular, it was common to spend time in another city (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2528–2529; Mende, 2022b, p. 133). Receptive multilingualism/[[intercomprehension]] was widespread, especially in Scandinavia, where conversation partners spoke different languages but understood each other due to the genetic relationship between the languages. This practice was later pejoratively described by Haugen (1966) as 'semi-communication' (Braunmüller, 2007). Plurilingual competences were necessary in specific areas, such as church networks, education (where Latin was the language of instruction) and governance (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2528–2529). With Latin, a common lingua franca was established for the first time in the Middle Ages and, at the same time, it was influenced by intensive contact with other languages (Smith, 2007). === The Early Modern period === The rise of nation-states in the early modern period brought a shift toward monolingualism and the codification of regional languages. Plurilingualism became less of a common practice and more of an elite skill or a sign of socially excluded minorities and was therefore not held in high regard. With the Enlightenment, language learning also came into focus; grammars of individual languages were developed. However, mixed-language texts persisted, as various examples show: Riehl (2023) examines the mixing of languages in texts from the 16^th and 17^th centuries, including [https://www.projekt-gutenberg.org/luther/tischred/index.html Luther's “Tischreden”] (table talks), in which he switched between German and Latin, the language of education. The switches partly imitate oral language use, e.g. switching to German to express emotions, but also to introduce and explain technical terms from the language of education, Latin. # Ich wolt gern, das sie unternumen wurden # ''propter Epicureismum et quia multa venena'' # ''inserta sunt''. Er hat viel umb leib und leben und # die seel bracht. Er ist ein ursach der # sacramentirer. ''Quantum promovit grammaticam,'' # ''tantum nocuit evangelio''. # # Er ist ein schentlicher mensch gewest. Zwinglius # ist durch in vorfurt; Egranum hat er auch bekert, # der glaubet eben so viel, als er. Er starb auch # dahin ''sine crux et sine lux''. # Wenn ich jung were, so wolt ich ''Graecam'' # ''linguam perfecte'' studirn, so das ichs kundte, und # wollte andere ''annotationes'' drein machen. Example analysis of the Tischreden (Luther's comments on Erasmus' Annotationes (WA 5, 5670)), cited in Riehl (2023, p. 61), with Latin passages highlighted as in the original source. Lüdi (2023), on the other hand, uses the correspondence between the Basel mathematician and natural scientist Daniel Bernoulli and Leonhard Euler in the 18^th century to show how the two scientists used several languages to create, communicate and disseminate knowledge (‘plurilanguaging’). Working in multilingual and culturally diverse teams fostered creativity and scientific progress. === The Habsburg Empire === An exception to the increasing monolingualisation in modern times was the Habsburg Empire, which maintained a pluralistic language policy for much of its history. German served as a supra-regional lingua franca, but was not the national language. Instead, the Habsburg Empire pursued a language policy aimed at linguistic autonomy: the 1867 Constitution guaranteed the equal rights of all languages in the crown lands; language coercion was prohibited (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2530–2531; Goebl, 1997). The Habsburg Empire also stood out in terms of its education system: Maria Theresa's school reform of 1774 introduced the so-called utraquism model, in which pupils were taught in their mother tongue and a second, more widely spoken language (e.g. German, Italian or Polish). However, also in the Habsburg Empire, a monolingual language policy gradually prevailed; at the same time, the regional differences ultimately led to considerable tensions (Goebl, 1997; Schjerve-Rindler & Vetter, 2007). === Multilingualism beyond Europe === * '''South America''': Pre-colonial South America was linguistically diverse, but colonization introduced European languages, often at the expense of indigenous ones. Assimilation policies led to the extinction of many local languages, and colonial languages like Spanish and Portuguese retained dominance even after independence (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2531–2532). * '''China''': Evidence of early multilingualism in China is sparse: There is no evidence of multilingualism in the area that is now China until 221 BC. This does not necessarily mean that the area was not multilingual prior to this time. Although there are traces of language contact, written sources from 1200 to 200 BC only provide information about the Chinese language. This changed with the non-Chinese Qing dynasty. From the 18th century onwards, there is also evidence of multilingual dictionaries (Boltz, 2018; Mende, 2022b). * '''South Asia''': Multilingualism has been a central feature of the South Asian region. It is primarily the result of contact over more than 3.000 years, during which time several language groups came into contact with each other. This led to the emergence of common linguistic features and the merging of language families. Sanskrit, Persian and English were particularly important as contact languages. Today, India has 23 official languages, and the 2011 census recorded 211 languages in total. The Ethnologue database lists 424 living indigenous languages (Bhatia & Ritchie, 2013; Kulkarni-Joshi, 2019). == History of plurilingual education == The history of plurilingual education is closely linked to the development of societal multilingualism. Factors such as migration flows, nationalist movements, colonial policies and the multilingual realities of work and everyday life have all shaped how educational systems respond to linguistic diversity. These influences are reflected in educational policies, as well as in approaches to language learning and teaching practices. === '''The rise of nation-states and the monolingual paradigm in education''' === Historically, prestigious languages such as Latin, Greek, and French were central to European education, while vernacular languages were often marginalized (Gogolin, 2021). The establishment of public education systems in Europe during the 18^th and 19^th centuries coincided with the creation of nation-states. These systems were designed to promote a monolingual national identity, with the national language seen as essential for social cohesion and education (Gogolin, 2021, p. 297–298). This "monolingual habitus" (Gogolin, 1994) became deeply ingrained, with the assumption that all learning should occur in the national language. The rise of nationalism, industrialization, and colonialism in the 19^th and early 20^th centuries further reinforced monolingual ideologies. Regional and minority languages were suppressed, and linguistic homogeneity was prioritized. This shift was described as a form of "cultural violence" (Galtung, 1990), leading to the devaluation of regional, minority, and migrant languages. Dominant national languages were imposed at the expense of linguistic diversity. For example, in New Zealand, English-only education policies caused the percentage of Māori-speaking children to drop from 90% in 1913 to less than 5% by 1975. Similarly, in the United States, societal pressure and restrictive language policies gradually reduced the language rights of immigrants, reflecting the dominance of English (García, 2014, p. 85). === Shifting perspectives in the mid-20^th century === The mid-20th century marked a turning point in plurilingual education. Ethnic revival movements of the 1960s and the Civil Rights Era in the United States highlighted the failures of monolingual education for language-minority students. Bilingual education programmes began to emerge, such as the “Bilingual Education Act” of 1968 in the USA and Welsh- and Gaelic-medium schools in the UK. However, these programmes often prioritised the rapid acquisition of the dominant language rather than fostering true bilingualism (García, 2014, p. 86–87). Traditional bilingual education frequently treated languages as separate entities, emphasizing strict separation to avoid "cross-contamination." This approach, known as ‘parallel monolingualism’ (Heller, 1999), viewed bilingualism as two distinct monolingual systems. In this context, Lambert (1981) distinguishes between two key types of bilingualism: subtractive bilingualism, where the dominant language gradually replaces the minority language, leading to the erosion of the latter, and additive bilingualism, which promotes the coexistence of both languages, valuing them equally and fostering their parallel development (García and Wei, 2014, p. 49–50). In Europe, efforts to address the needs of migrant children began in the 1960s, with programmes offering supplementary mother-tongue instruction. However, these initiatives were often voluntary, limited in scope, and focused on preparing children for potential return to their home countries rather than integrating plurilingualism into mainstream education (Fürstenau, 2011). Support for minority languages remained inconsistent, and many plurilingual children relied on private community initiatives to maintain their [[Heritage Language|heritage languages]] (Meissner, 2019, p. 225). === '''Plurilingual competence and the “Multilingual Turn”''' === In recent decades, globalization and migration have driven a more positive interpretation of plurilingualism. International frameworks, such as the UN “Declaration on the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities” (1993), emphasized the importance of preserving and valuing linguistic diversity (Meißner, 2019, p. 221; García, 2014, p. 86–87). The Council of Europe and the European Union have also played a key role in promoting plurilingual education. Initiatives such as the “European Charter for regional or minority languages” (1992), the publication of the ''Common European Framework of Reference for Languages'' with the concept of plurilingual competence (Council of Europe, 2001, 2018), and numerous recommendations have emphasized the value of multilingualism and plurilingual and intercultural education (e.g. “Key competences for lifelong learning”; European Commission - Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, 2019;  “Council recommendation on a comprehensive approach to the teaching and learning of languages”; Official Journal of the European Union (2019/C 189/03); Recommendation CM/Rec(2022)1 and explanatory memorandum). At the same time, language teaching approaches have emerged that seek to integrate all of a student's linguistic and cultural resources (e.g. pluralistic approaches [Link]) and translanguaging [Link]) to promote more inclusive and effective plurilingual education, recognising the fluidity and dynamism of language use. This shift in perspective is often referred to as the “[[Multulingual turn|Multilingual Turn]]” in education (Conteh & Meier, 2014; May, 2013). == Self-assessment == === Reflexion (1) === * What are some of the challenges researchers face when studying historical multilingualism? * Why might plurilingualism have been more accepted or even necessary in medieval Europe compared to later periods? * How did the rise of nation-states in the Early Modern period affect the status of societal multilingualism and plurilingual education? Consider both the political and educational implications. === '''Selt test''' === <quiz display=simple> {Which of the following factors contributed most to the development of societal multilingualism, according to the text?} -A. Climate change +B. Language contact and trade -C. Technological innovation -D. Religious conversion {What does the term ‘parallel monolingualism’ refer to in bilingual education?} -A. Teaching two languages with full integration -B. Using one language at school and another at home +C. Treating bilingualism as two separate monolingual systems -D. Promoting only the dominant language </quiz> === '''Reflexion (2)''' === Reflect on the concept of "monolingual habitus" in education. How do you think this concept has influenced the way languages are taught and valued in your country’s education system? == Resources to go further == Braunmüller, K. (2018). Historical multilingualism. In ''Twelve lectures on multilingualism'' (pp. 299–328). Franceschini, R. (2013). History of multilingualism. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), ''The encyclopedia of applied linguistics. 4 En-Ho'' (pp. 2526–2534). Wiley-Blackwell. Mende, J.-K. (2022a). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Deutschland. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 107–130). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Mende, J.-K. (2022b). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Europa und in der Welt. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' ( pp. 131–152). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 == Bibliography == Adams, J. N. (2003). ''Bilingualism and the Latin language''. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511482960 Adams, J. N., Janse, M., & Swain, S. (Eds). (2002). ''Bilingualism in ancient society: Language contact and the written text''. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199245062.001.0001 Bhatia, T. K., & Ritchie, W. C. (2013). Bilingualism and multilingualism in South Asia. In T. K. Bhatia & W. C. Ritchie (Eds), ''The handbook of bilingualism and multilingualism'' (Second edition, pp. 843–870). Wiley-Blackwell. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118332382 Boltz, W. G. (2018). Multilingualism and Lingua Franca in the ancient Chinese world. In J. E. Braarvig & M. J. Geller (Eds), ''Multilingualism, lingua franca and lingua sacra'' (pp. 401–426). Pro BUSINESS. Boschung, D., & Riehl, C. M. (2011). Einleitung: Historische Mehrsprachigkeit. In D. Boschung & C. M. Riehl (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Workshop des Zentrums für Antike Kulturen des Mittelmeerraumes (ZaKMiRa) und des Zentrums Sprachenvielfalt und Mehrsprachigkeit (ZSM) an der Universität Köln, Juli 2008'' (pp. iii–viii). Shaker. Braunmüller, K. (2007). Receptive multilingualism in Northern Europe in the Middle Ages: A description of a scenario. In L. Zeevaert & J. D. ten Thije (Eds), ''Receptive multilingualism'' (Vol. 6, pp. 25–47). John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/hsm.6.04bra Braunmüller, K. (2018). Historical multilingualism. In ''Twelve lectures on multilingualism'' (pp. 299–328). Conteh, J., & Meier, G. (2014). ''The multilingual turn in languages education: Opportunities and challenges''. Buffalo. https://doi.org/10.21832/978178309224<nowiki/>6 Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers. (2022). ''Recommendation of the Committee of Ministers to member States on the importance of plurilingual and intercultural education for democratic culture. Recommendation CM/Rec(2022)1 and explanatory memorandum''. https://rm.coe.int/prems-013522-gbr-2508-cmrec-2022-1-et-expose-motifs-couv-a5-bat-web/1680a967b4ECML Dardano, P. (2011). Mehrsprachigkeit im hethitischen Reich: Die Beziehungen zwischen dem Hethitischen und dem Akkadischen. In D. Boschung & C. M. Riehl (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Workshop des Zentrums für Antike Kulturen des Mittelmeerraumes (ZaKMiRa) und des Zentrums Sprachenvielfalt und Mehrsprachigkeit (ZSM) an der Universität Köln, Juli 2008'' (pp. 47–60). Shaker. European Commission. Directorate General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture. (2019). ''Key competences for lifelong learning''. Publications Office. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/569540 Franceschini, R. (2013). History of multilingualism. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), ''The encyclopedia of applied linguistics. 4 En-Ho'' (pp. 2526–2534). Wiley-Blackwell. Fürstenau, S. (2011). Mehrsprachigkeit als Voraussetzung und Ziel schulischer Bildung. In S. Fürstenau & M. Gomolla (Eds), ''Migration und schulischer Wandel. Leistungsbeurteilung'' (pp. 25–50). VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften/GWV Fachverlage. Galtung, J. (1990). Cultural violence. ''Journal of Peace Research'', ''27''(3), 291–305. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343390027003005 García, O. (2014). Multilingualism and language education. In C. Leung & B. V. Street (Eds), ''The Routledge companion to English studies'' (pp. 84–99). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315852515 García, O., & Wei, L. (2014). ''Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism and education''. Palgrave Macmillan UK, London. Goebl, H. (1997). Le rappel de l’ histoire: Le plurilinguisme dans la vieille monarchie habsbourgeoise. ''Sociolinguistica'', ''11'', 109–122. Gogolin, I. (1994). ''Der monolinguale Habitus der multilingualen Schule''. Waxmann. Gogolin, I. (2021). Multilingualism: A threat to public education or a resource in public education? – European histories and realities. ''European Educational Research Journal EERJ'', ''20''(3), 297–310. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474904120981507 Haugen, E. (1966). Semicommunication: The language gap in Scandinavia. ''Sociological Inquiry'', ''36''(2), 280–297. Heller, M. (1999). ''Linguistic minorities and modernity: A sociolinguistic ethnography''. Longman. Kulkarni-Joshi, S. (2019). Linguistic history and language diversity in India: Views and counterviews. ''Journal of Biosciences'', ''44''(3), 62. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12038-019-9879-1 Lambert, W. E. (1981). Bilingualism: Its nature and significance. In W. E. Lambert, C. E. Snow, B. A. Goldfield, A. U. Chamot, & S. R. Cahir (Eds), ''Faces and facets of bilingualism.'' (pp. 1–6). Center for Applied Linguistics, P. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED216530 Lüdi, G. (2023). Mehrsprachigkeit in der Wissenschaft im 18. Jahrhundert am Beispiel der Basler Mathematiker und Naturwissenschaftler Daniel Bernoulli und Leonhard Euler. In R. Franceschini, M. Hüning, & P. Maitz (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Europäische Perspektiven'' (pp. 337–352). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111338668 May, S. (2013). ''The multilingual turn: Implications for SLA, TESOL and bilingual education''. Routledge. Meissner, F.-J. (2019). Plurilingual education. In C. Fäcke & F.-J. Meissner (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeits- und Mehrkulturalitätsdidaktik'' (pp. 2017–2235). Narr Francke Attempto. Mende, J.-K. (2022a). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Deutschland. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 107–130). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Mende, J.-K. (2022b). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Europa und in der Welt. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 131–152). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Official Journal of the European Union, C 189, 22 May 2019, No. 2019/C 189/03 (22 2018). https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=oj:JOC_2019_189_R_0003 Ramón, J. L. G. (2022). Sprachen in Kontakt in Griechenland und Kleinasien im 2. Jahrtausend v. Chr. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 23–46). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Riehl, C. M. (2023). Sprachmischung in historischen Texten – eine Herausforderung an die kontaktlinguistische Theoriebildung? In R. Franceschini, M. Hüning, & P. Maitz (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Europäische Perspektiven'' (pp. 57–76). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111338668 Roelcke, T. (2022). Viel- und Mehrsprachigkeit. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Hrsg.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (Bd. 22, S. 3–28). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Romaine, S. (2013). The bilingual and multilingual community. In T. K. Bhatia & W. C. Ritchie (Eds), ''The handbook of bilingualism and multilingualism'' (Second edition, pp. 445–465). Wiley-Blackwell. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118332382 Schjerve-Rindler, R., & Vetter, E. (2007). Linguistic diversity in Habsburg Austria as a model for modern European language policy. In J. D. ten Thije & L. Zeevaert (Eds), ''Receptive Multilingualism'' (Vol. 6, pp. 49–70). John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/hsm.6.05sch Smith, J. M. H. (2007). Speaking and writing. In J. M. H. Smith (Ed.), ''Europe after Rome: A new cultural history 500-1000'' (pp. 12–50). Oxford University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780192892638.001.0001 UN General Assembly (1993). ''Declaration on the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities''. A/RES/48/138, 20 December 1993. https://www.refworld.org/legal/resolution/unga/1993/en/11497 ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Margareta Strasser (Paris Lodron Universität Salzburg) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] 8zfkl4m1tcvu2sid0oo3on24b4iuoju 2817379 2817378 2026-06-30T11:08:32Z ~2026-37432-69 3097899 2817379 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == Think about the following questions: * What languages were used in schools in your country 100 years ago? Why do you think those languages were chosen? * Can you think of a time when speaking more than one language was seen as a problem in education? Why might that have been the case? * How do you think colonisation or migration has influenced the languages spoken in schools around the world? * Have you ever experienced or heard of a situation where a student was not allowed to speak their home language at school? What might have been the reason? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe the historical development of societal multilingualism in ancient and modern societies * Evaluate the impact of language policies on multilingualism and plurilingual education * Critically reflect on the developments in language education   * Explore and compare regional and global perspectives on multilingualism and plurilingual education == Key words == societal multilingualism - plurilingual education - historical development - language contact - language policy == Contents == # Introduction # History of multilingualism ## Historical examples of multilingualism ## Ancient civilizations ## Medieval Europe ## The Early Modern period ## The Habsburg Empire ## Multilingualism beyond Europe # History of plurilingual education ## The rise of nation-states and the monolingual paradigm in education ## Shifting perspectives in the mid-20th century ## Plurilingual competence and the “Multilingual Turn” # Self-assessment # Resources to go further # Bibliography == Introduction == Societal multilingualism is by no means a new phenomenon; it has existed throughout human history. Franceschini describes it as a "human potentiality which can be developed when circumstances permit it anywhere and at any time throughout human evolution" (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2526). This contribution explores key aspects of multilingualism, focusing on its historical development, societal influences, and the challenges of its study. == History of multilingualism == The circumstances under which societal multilingualism develops are diverse. Some of the most significant factors are (Franceschini, 2013; Mende, 2022b): * Language contact and trade: Language contact, often driven by trade, has historically been a major catalyst for multilingualism (Braunmüller, 2018; Franceschini, 2013). Cities, as hubs of commerce and migration, have long been hotspots of linguistic diversity (Roelcke, 2022, p. 6; Mende, 2022a, pp. 122–124). * Migration: The movement of people across regions has brought languages into contact, fostering linguistic exchange and diversity. * Language policy: The recognition and promotion of certain languages as official or educational languages have had a profound impact on societal multilingualism. Language policies determine which languages are used, preserved, or marginalized. * Education: Closely linked to this is the influence of the education system, as language policy decisions determine which languages are taught, and whether and how students' home languages, minority languages, and others are supported and included in the curriculum. The languages considered to be academic languages/languages of science have also changed over the centuries and have had a significant impact on societal multilingualism. * Colonialism: Colonial systems often imposed the languages of the colonizers on indigenous populations, leading to the suppression or extinction of local languages. Romaine (2013, p. 44) highlights the power dynamics in such contexts, where dominant groups often imposed their languages on less powerful communities. * Administration: Multilingualism has been shaped by institutional frameworks such as religious practices, and administrative policies. For example, imperial systems often required plurilingual competence for governance and trade. === Historical examples of multilingualism === The study of historical multilingualism is often constrained by the availability of written records. Regions with a strong tradition of written documentation have been studied more comprehensively in terms of historical multilingualism than regions with predominantly oral traditions. However, these well-documented areas and societies are not necessarily those with the most widespread multilingualism (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2525–2526). Researchers often rely on direct and indirect evidence, such as loanwords or multilingual inscriptions, to reconstruct historical language contact (Boschung & Riehl, 2011, p. iii). === Ancient civilizations === The earliest evidence of multilingualism dates back to around 2600 BC and comes from the Sumerians: multilingual grammars and word lists on clay tablets were used in administration (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2). Further evidence of multilingualism comes from the Hittites, with clay tablets in Hittite, Sumerian and Akkadian, along with other languages (Dardano, 2011); or from the Egyptians, with multilingual steles in ancient Egypt. West Anatolia in the 2nd millennium BCE shows evidence of language contact between Greek and Anatolian languages (Ramón, 2022). === The Roman Empire === The linguistic situation during the Roman Empire has been relatively well researched. A large part of the population must have been multilingual – there is ample evidence of contact between Latin and other languages, partly due to the high mobility of groups such as the military, administrative staff, traders and slaves. Latin served as the official and educational language, while Greek held a special status. Those who did not have Latin as their first language (L1) had to learn either Greek or Latin. Important institutions such as the army were multilingual, and knowledge of Greek and Latin was also necessary for members of the imperial aristocracy. Although there was no explicit language policy, there was a certain need to learn Latin, which was apparently widely accepted by non-Latin speakers and large sections of the population (Adams, 2003; Adams et al., 2002; Franceschini, 2013, p. 2527; Mende, 2022b, p. 133). In the Roman Empire, Latin functioned as a lingua franca, learned by many as a second or third language for communication, trade, and military purposes. These multilingual speakers acquired Latin at varying levels of proficiency, similar to modern L2 learners. Over time, as native Latin speakers declined, learner-driven changes in the language led to the emergence of regional vernaculars known as ‘Vulgar Latin’ (Braunmüller, 2018, p. 300). === Medieval Europe === Medieval Europe was also characterised by multilingualism due to the demands of everyday life and work. This was particularly evident in spoken language, where there were no uniform standards, encouraging linguistic variation and flexibility. The gradual transformation of spoken Latin, for example, influenced by regional variations and non-native usage, laid the groundwork for the emergence of the Romance languages in the Middle Ages (Smith, 2007, p. 22–24). Knowledge of several languages was considered useful. In trade, in particular, it was common to spend time in another city (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2528–2529; Mende, 2022b, p. 133). Receptive multilingualism/[[intercomprehension]] was widespread, especially in Scandinavia, where conversation partners spoke different languages but understood each other due to the genetic relationship between the languages. This practice was later pejoratively described by Haugen (1966) as 'semi-communication' (Braunmüller, 2007). Plurilingual competences were necessary in specific areas, such as church networks, education (where Latin was the language of instruction) and governance (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2528–2529). With Latin, a common lingua franca was established for the first time in the Middle Ages and, at the same time, it was influenced by intensive contact with other languages (Smith, 2007). === The Early Modern period === The rise of nation-states in the early modern period brought a shift toward monolingualism and the codification of regional languages. Plurilingualism became less of a common practice and more of an elite skill or a sign of socially excluded minorities and was therefore not held in high regard. With the Enlightenment, language learning also came into focus; grammars of individual languages were developed. However, mixed-language texts persisted, as various examples show: Riehl (2023) examines the mixing of languages in texts from the 16^th and 17^th centuries, including [https://www.projekt-gutenberg.org/luther/tischred/index.html Luther's “Tischreden”] (table talks), in which he switched between German and Latin, the language of education. The switches partly imitate oral language use, e.g. switching to German to express emotions, but also to introduce and explain technical terms from the language of education, Latin. # Ich wolt gern, das sie unternumen wurden # ''propter Epicureismum et quia multa venena'' # ''inserta sunt''. Er hat viel umb leib und leben und # die seel bracht. Er ist ein ursach der # sacramentirer. ''Quantum promovit grammaticam,'' # ''tantum nocuit evangelio''. # # Er ist ein schentlicher mensch gewest. Zwinglius # ist durch in vorfurt; Egranum hat er auch bekert, # der glaubet eben so viel, als er. Er starb auch # dahin ''sine crux et sine lux''. # Wenn ich jung were, so wolt ich ''Graecam'' # ''linguam perfecte'' studirn, so das ichs kundte, und # wollte andere ''annotationes'' drein machen. Example analysis of the Tischreden (Luther's comments on Erasmus' Annotationes (WA 5, 5670)), cited in Riehl (2023, p. 61), with Latin passages highlighted as in the original source. Lüdi (2023), on the other hand, uses the correspondence between the Basel mathematician and natural scientist Daniel Bernoulli and Leonhard Euler in the 18^th century to show how the two scientists used several languages to create, communicate and disseminate knowledge (‘plurilanguaging’). Working in multilingual and culturally diverse teams fostered creativity and scientific progress. === The Habsburg Empire === An exception to the increasing monolingualisation in modern times was the Habsburg Empire, which maintained a pluralistic language policy for much of its history. German served as a supra-regional lingua franca, but was not the national language. Instead, the Habsburg Empire pursued a language policy aimed at linguistic autonomy: the 1867 Constitution guaranteed the equal rights of all languages in the crown lands; language coercion was prohibited (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2530–2531; Goebl, 1997). The Habsburg Empire also stood out in terms of its education system: Maria Theresa's school reform of 1774 introduced the so-called utraquism model, in which pupils were taught in their mother tongue and a second, more widely spoken language (e.g. German, Italian or Polish). However, also in the Habsburg Empire, a monolingual language policy gradually prevailed; at the same time, the regional differences ultimately led to considerable tensions (Goebl, 1997; Schjerve-Rindler & Vetter, 2007). === Multilingualism beyond Europe === * '''South America''': Pre-colonial South America was linguistically diverse, but colonization introduced European languages, often at the expense of indigenous ones. Assimilation policies led to the extinction of many local languages, and colonial languages like Spanish and Portuguese retained dominance even after independence (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2531–2532). * '''China''': Evidence of early multilingualism in China is sparse: There is no evidence of multilingualism in the area that is now China until 221 BC. This does not necessarily mean that the area was not multilingual prior to this time. Although there are traces of language contact, written sources from 1200 to 200 BC only provide information about the Chinese language. This changed with the non-Chinese Qing dynasty. From the 18th century onwards, there is also evidence of multilingual dictionaries (Boltz, 2018; Mende, 2022b). * '''South Asia''': Multilingualism has been a central feature of the South Asian region. It is primarily the result of contact over more than 3.000 years, during which time several language groups came into contact with each other. This led to the emergence of common linguistic features and the merging of language families. Sanskrit, Persian and English were particularly important as contact languages. Today, India has 23 official languages, and the 2011 census recorded 211 languages in total. The Ethnologue database lists 424 living indigenous languages (Bhatia & Ritchie, 2013; Kulkarni-Joshi, 2019). == History of plurilingual education == The history of plurilingual education is closely linked to the development of societal multilingualism. Factors such as migration flows, nationalist movements, colonial policies and the multilingual realities of work and everyday life have all shaped how educational systems respond to linguistic diversity. These influences are reflected in educational policies, as well as in approaches to language learning and teaching practices. === '''The rise of nation-states and the monolingual paradigm in education''' === Historically, prestigious languages such as Latin, Greek, and French were central to European education, while vernacular languages were often marginalized (Gogolin, 2021). The establishment of public education systems in Europe during the 18^th and 19^th centuries coincided with the creation of nation-states. These systems were designed to promote a monolingual national identity, with the national language seen as essential for social cohesion and education (Gogolin, 2021, p. 297–298). This "monolingual habitus" (Gogolin, 1994) became deeply ingrained, with the assumption that all learning should occur in the national language. The rise of nationalism, industrialization, and colonialism in the 19^th and early 20^th centuries further reinforced monolingual ideologies. Regional and minority languages were suppressed, and linguistic homogeneity was prioritized. This shift was described as a form of "cultural violence" (Galtung, 1990), leading to the devaluation of regional, minority, and migrant languages. Dominant national languages were imposed at the expense of linguistic diversity. For example, in New Zealand, English-only education policies caused the percentage of Māori-speaking children to drop from 90% in 1913 to less than 5% by 1975. Similarly, in the United States, societal pressure and restrictive language policies gradually reduced the language rights of immigrants, reflecting the dominance of English (García, 2014, p. 85). === Shifting perspectives in the mid-20^th century === The mid-20th century marked a turning point in plurilingual education. Ethnic revival movements of the 1960s and the Civil Rights Era in the United States highlighted the failures of monolingual education for language-minority students. Bilingual education programmes began to emerge, such as the “Bilingual Education Act” of 1968 in the USA and Welsh- and Gaelic-medium schools in the UK. However, these programmes often prioritised the rapid acquisition of the dominant language rather than fostering true bilingualism (García, 2014, p. 86–87). Traditional bilingual education frequently treated languages as separate entities, emphasizing strict separation to avoid "cross-contamination." This approach, known as ‘parallel monolingualism’ (Heller, 1999), viewed bilingualism as two distinct monolingual systems. In this context, Lambert (1981) distinguishes between two key types of bilingualism: subtractive bilingualism, where the dominant language gradually replaces the minority language, leading to the erosion of the latter, and additive bilingualism, which promotes the coexistence of both languages, valuing them equally and fostering their parallel development (García and Wei, 2014, p. 49–50). In Europe, efforts to address the needs of migrant children began in the 1960s, with programmes offering supplementary mother-tongue instruction. However, these initiatives were often voluntary, limited in scope, and focused on preparing children for potential return to their home countries rather than integrating plurilingualism into mainstream education (Fürstenau, 2011). Support for minority languages remained inconsistent, and many plurilingual children relied on private community initiatives to maintain their [[Heritage Language|heritage languages]] (Meissner, 2019, p. 225). === '''Plurilingual competence and the “Multilingual Turn”''' === In recent decades, globalization and migration have driven a more positive interpretation of plurilingualism. International frameworks, such as the UN “Declaration on the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities” (1993), emphasized the importance of preserving and valuing linguistic diversity (Meißner, 2019, p. 221; García, 2014, p. 86–87). The Council of Europe and the European Union have also played a key role in promoting plurilingual education. Initiatives such as the “European Charter for regional or minority languages” (1992), the publication of the ''Common European Framework of Reference for Languages'' with the concept of plurilingual competence (Council of Europe, 2001, 2018), and numerous recommendations have emphasized the value of multilingualism and plurilingual and intercultural education (e.g. “Key competences for lifelong learning”; European Commission - Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, 2019;  “Council recommendation on a comprehensive approach to the teaching and learning of languages”; Official Journal of the European Union (2019/C 189/03); Recommendation CM/Rec(2022)1 and explanatory memorandum). At the same time, language teaching approaches have emerged that seek to integrate all of a student's linguistic and cultural resources (e.g. pluralistic approaches [Link]) and translanguaging [Link]) to promote more inclusive and effective plurilingual education, recognising the fluidity and dynamism of language use. This shift in perspective is often referred to as the “[[Multulingual turn|Multilingual Turn]]” in education (Conteh & Meier, 2014; May, 2013). == Self-assessment == === Reflexion (1) === * What are some of the challenges researchers face when studying historical multilingualism? * Why might plurilingualism have been more accepted or even necessary in medieval Europe compared to later periods? * How did the rise of nation-states in the Early Modern period affect the status of societal multilingualism and plurilingual education? Consider both the political and educational implications. === '''Self assessment''' === <quiz display=simple> {Which of the following factors contributed most to the development of societal multilingualism, according to the text?} -A. Climate change +B. Language contact and trade -C. Technological innovation -D. Religious conversion {What does the term ‘parallel monolingualism’ refer to in bilingual education?} -A. Teaching two languages with full integration -B. Using one language at school and another at home +C. Treating bilingualism as two separate monolingual systems -D. Promoting only the dominant language </quiz> === '''Reflexion (2)''' === Reflect on the concept of "monolingual habitus" in education. How do you think this concept has influenced the way languages are taught and valued in your country’s education system? == Resources to go further == Braunmüller, K. (2018). Historical multilingualism. In ''Twelve lectures on multilingualism'' (pp. 299–328). Franceschini, R. (2013). History of multilingualism. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), ''The encyclopedia of applied linguistics. 4 En-Ho'' (pp. 2526–2534). Wiley-Blackwell. Mende, J.-K. (2022a). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Deutschland. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 107–130). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Mende, J.-K. (2022b). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Europa und in der Welt. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' ( pp. 131–152). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 == Bibliography == Adams, J. N. (2003). ''Bilingualism and the Latin language''. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511482960 Adams, J. N., Janse, M., & Swain, S. (Eds). (2002). ''Bilingualism in ancient society: Language contact and the written text''. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199245062.001.0001 Bhatia, T. K., & Ritchie, W. C. (2013). Bilingualism and multilingualism in South Asia. In T. K. Bhatia & W. C. Ritchie (Eds), ''The handbook of bilingualism and multilingualism'' (Second edition, pp. 843–870). Wiley-Blackwell. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118332382 Boltz, W. G. (2018). Multilingualism and Lingua Franca in the ancient Chinese world. In J. E. Braarvig & M. J. Geller (Eds), ''Multilingualism, lingua franca and lingua sacra'' (pp. 401–426). Pro BUSINESS. Boschung, D., & Riehl, C. M. (2011). Einleitung: Historische Mehrsprachigkeit. In D. Boschung & C. M. Riehl (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Workshop des Zentrums für Antike Kulturen des Mittelmeerraumes (ZaKMiRa) und des Zentrums Sprachenvielfalt und Mehrsprachigkeit (ZSM) an der Universität Köln, Juli 2008'' (pp. iii–viii). Shaker. Braunmüller, K. (2007). Receptive multilingualism in Northern Europe in the Middle Ages: A description of a scenario. In L. Zeevaert & J. D. ten Thije (Eds), ''Receptive multilingualism'' (Vol. 6, pp. 25–47). John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/hsm.6.04bra Braunmüller, K. (2018). Historical multilingualism. In ''Twelve lectures on multilingualism'' (pp. 299–328). Conteh, J., & Meier, G. (2014). ''The multilingual turn in languages education: Opportunities and challenges''. Buffalo. https://doi.org/10.21832/978178309224<nowiki/>6 Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers. (2022). ''Recommendation of the Committee of Ministers to member States on the importance of plurilingual and intercultural education for democratic culture. Recommendation CM/Rec(2022)1 and explanatory memorandum''. https://rm.coe.int/prems-013522-gbr-2508-cmrec-2022-1-et-expose-motifs-couv-a5-bat-web/1680a967b4ECML Dardano, P. (2011). Mehrsprachigkeit im hethitischen Reich: Die Beziehungen zwischen dem Hethitischen und dem Akkadischen. In D. Boschung & C. M. Riehl (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Workshop des Zentrums für Antike Kulturen des Mittelmeerraumes (ZaKMiRa) und des Zentrums Sprachenvielfalt und Mehrsprachigkeit (ZSM) an der Universität Köln, Juli 2008'' (pp. 47–60). Shaker. European Commission. Directorate General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture. (2019). ''Key competences for lifelong learning''. Publications Office. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/569540 Franceschini, R. (2013). History of multilingualism. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), ''The encyclopedia of applied linguistics. 4 En-Ho'' (pp. 2526–2534). Wiley-Blackwell. Fürstenau, S. (2011). Mehrsprachigkeit als Voraussetzung und Ziel schulischer Bildung. In S. Fürstenau & M. Gomolla (Eds), ''Migration und schulischer Wandel. Leistungsbeurteilung'' (pp. 25–50). VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften/GWV Fachverlage. Galtung, J. (1990). Cultural violence. ''Journal of Peace Research'', ''27''(3), 291–305. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343390027003005 García, O. (2014). Multilingualism and language education. In C. Leung & B. V. Street (Eds), ''The Routledge companion to English studies'' (pp. 84–99). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315852515 García, O., & Wei, L. (2014). ''Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism and education''. Palgrave Macmillan UK, London. Goebl, H. (1997). Le rappel de l’ histoire: Le plurilinguisme dans la vieille monarchie habsbourgeoise. ''Sociolinguistica'', ''11'', 109–122. Gogolin, I. (1994). ''Der monolinguale Habitus der multilingualen Schule''. Waxmann. Gogolin, I. (2021). Multilingualism: A threat to public education or a resource in public education? – European histories and realities. ''European Educational Research Journal EERJ'', ''20''(3), 297–310. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474904120981507 Haugen, E. (1966). Semicommunication: The language gap in Scandinavia. ''Sociological Inquiry'', ''36''(2), 280–297. Heller, M. (1999). ''Linguistic minorities and modernity: A sociolinguistic ethnography''. Longman. Kulkarni-Joshi, S. (2019). Linguistic history and language diversity in India: Views and counterviews. ''Journal of Biosciences'', ''44''(3), 62. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12038-019-9879-1 Lambert, W. E. (1981). Bilingualism: Its nature and significance. In W. E. Lambert, C. E. Snow, B. A. Goldfield, A. U. Chamot, & S. R. Cahir (Eds), ''Faces and facets of bilingualism.'' (pp. 1–6). Center for Applied Linguistics, P. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED216530 Lüdi, G. (2023). Mehrsprachigkeit in der Wissenschaft im 18. Jahrhundert am Beispiel der Basler Mathematiker und Naturwissenschaftler Daniel Bernoulli und Leonhard Euler. In R. Franceschini, M. Hüning, & P. Maitz (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Europäische Perspektiven'' (pp. 337–352). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111338668 May, S. (2013). ''The multilingual turn: Implications for SLA, TESOL and bilingual education''. Routledge. Meissner, F.-J. (2019). Plurilingual education. In C. Fäcke & F.-J. Meissner (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeits- und Mehrkulturalitätsdidaktik'' (pp. 2017–2235). Narr Francke Attempto. Mende, J.-K. (2022a). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Deutschland. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 107–130). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Mende, J.-K. (2022b). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Europa und in der Welt. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 131–152). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Official Journal of the European Union, C 189, 22 May 2019, No. 2019/C 189/03 (22 2018). https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=oj:JOC_2019_189_R_0003 Ramón, J. L. G. (2022). Sprachen in Kontakt in Griechenland und Kleinasien im 2. Jahrtausend v. Chr. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 23–46). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Riehl, C. M. (2023). Sprachmischung in historischen Texten – eine Herausforderung an die kontaktlinguistische Theoriebildung? In R. Franceschini, M. Hüning, & P. Maitz (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Europäische Perspektiven'' (pp. 57–76). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111338668 Roelcke, T. (2022). Viel- und Mehrsprachigkeit. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Hrsg.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (Bd. 22, S. 3–28). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Romaine, S. (2013). The bilingual and multilingual community. In T. K. Bhatia & W. C. Ritchie (Eds), ''The handbook of bilingualism and multilingualism'' (Second edition, pp. 445–465). Wiley-Blackwell. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118332382 Schjerve-Rindler, R., & Vetter, E. (2007). Linguistic diversity in Habsburg Austria as a model for modern European language policy. In J. D. ten Thije & L. Zeevaert (Eds), ''Receptive Multilingualism'' (Vol. 6, pp. 49–70). John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/hsm.6.05sch Smith, J. M. H. (2007). Speaking and writing. In J. M. H. Smith (Ed.), ''Europe after Rome: A new cultural history 500-1000'' (pp. 12–50). Oxford University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780192892638.001.0001 UN General Assembly (1993). ''Declaration on the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities''. A/RES/48/138, 20 December 1993. https://www.refworld.org/legal/resolution/unga/1993/en/11497 ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Margareta Strasser (Paris Lodron Universität Salzburg) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] tf9igkn0ucdsrsgzv7dylavpzl6vdmm 2817380 2817379 2026-06-30T11:09:05Z ~2026-37432-69 3097899 /* Reflexion (2) */ 2817380 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == Think about the following questions: * What languages were used in schools in your country 100 years ago? Why do you think those languages were chosen? * Can you think of a time when speaking more than one language was seen as a problem in education? Why might that have been the case? * How do you think colonisation or migration has influenced the languages spoken in schools around the world? * Have you ever experienced or heard of a situation where a student was not allowed to speak their home language at school? What might have been the reason? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe the historical development of societal multilingualism in ancient and modern societies * Evaluate the impact of language policies on multilingualism and plurilingual education * Critically reflect on the developments in language education   * Explore and compare regional and global perspectives on multilingualism and plurilingual education == Key words == societal multilingualism - plurilingual education - historical development - language contact - language policy == Contents == # Introduction # History of multilingualism ## Historical examples of multilingualism ## Ancient civilizations ## Medieval Europe ## The Early Modern period ## The Habsburg Empire ## Multilingualism beyond Europe # History of plurilingual education ## The rise of nation-states and the monolingual paradigm in education ## Shifting perspectives in the mid-20th century ## Plurilingual competence and the “Multilingual Turn” # Self-assessment # Resources to go further # Bibliography == Introduction == Societal multilingualism is by no means a new phenomenon; it has existed throughout human history. Franceschini describes it as a "human potentiality which can be developed when circumstances permit it anywhere and at any time throughout human evolution" (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2526). This contribution explores key aspects of multilingualism, focusing on its historical development, societal influences, and the challenges of its study. == History of multilingualism == The circumstances under which societal multilingualism develops are diverse. Some of the most significant factors are (Franceschini, 2013; Mende, 2022b): * Language contact and trade: Language contact, often driven by trade, has historically been a major catalyst for multilingualism (Braunmüller, 2018; Franceschini, 2013). Cities, as hubs of commerce and migration, have long been hotspots of linguistic diversity (Roelcke, 2022, p. 6; Mende, 2022a, pp. 122–124). * Migration: The movement of people across regions has brought languages into contact, fostering linguistic exchange and diversity. * Language policy: The recognition and promotion of certain languages as official or educational languages have had a profound impact on societal multilingualism. Language policies determine which languages are used, preserved, or marginalized. * Education: Closely linked to this is the influence of the education system, as language policy decisions determine which languages are taught, and whether and how students' home languages, minority languages, and others are supported and included in the curriculum. The languages considered to be academic languages/languages of science have also changed over the centuries and have had a significant impact on societal multilingualism. * Colonialism: Colonial systems often imposed the languages of the colonizers on indigenous populations, leading to the suppression or extinction of local languages. Romaine (2013, p. 44) highlights the power dynamics in such contexts, where dominant groups often imposed their languages on less powerful communities. * Administration: Multilingualism has been shaped by institutional frameworks such as religious practices, and administrative policies. For example, imperial systems often required plurilingual competence for governance and trade. === Historical examples of multilingualism === The study of historical multilingualism is often constrained by the availability of written records. Regions with a strong tradition of written documentation have been studied more comprehensively in terms of historical multilingualism than regions with predominantly oral traditions. However, these well-documented areas and societies are not necessarily those with the most widespread multilingualism (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2525–2526). Researchers often rely on direct and indirect evidence, such as loanwords or multilingual inscriptions, to reconstruct historical language contact (Boschung & Riehl, 2011, p. iii). === Ancient civilizations === The earliest evidence of multilingualism dates back to around 2600 BC and comes from the Sumerians: multilingual grammars and word lists on clay tablets were used in administration (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2). Further evidence of multilingualism comes from the Hittites, with clay tablets in Hittite, Sumerian and Akkadian, along with other languages (Dardano, 2011); or from the Egyptians, with multilingual steles in ancient Egypt. West Anatolia in the 2nd millennium BCE shows evidence of language contact between Greek and Anatolian languages (Ramón, 2022). === The Roman Empire === The linguistic situation during the Roman Empire has been relatively well researched. A large part of the population must have been multilingual – there is ample evidence of contact between Latin and other languages, partly due to the high mobility of groups such as the military, administrative staff, traders and slaves. Latin served as the official and educational language, while Greek held a special status. Those who did not have Latin as their first language (L1) had to learn either Greek or Latin. Important institutions such as the army were multilingual, and knowledge of Greek and Latin was also necessary for members of the imperial aristocracy. Although there was no explicit language policy, there was a certain need to learn Latin, which was apparently widely accepted by non-Latin speakers and large sections of the population (Adams, 2003; Adams et al., 2002; Franceschini, 2013, p. 2527; Mende, 2022b, p. 133). In the Roman Empire, Latin functioned as a lingua franca, learned by many as a second or third language for communication, trade, and military purposes. These multilingual speakers acquired Latin at varying levels of proficiency, similar to modern L2 learners. Over time, as native Latin speakers declined, learner-driven changes in the language led to the emergence of regional vernaculars known as ‘Vulgar Latin’ (Braunmüller, 2018, p. 300). === Medieval Europe === Medieval Europe was also characterised by multilingualism due to the demands of everyday life and work. This was particularly evident in spoken language, where there were no uniform standards, encouraging linguistic variation and flexibility. The gradual transformation of spoken Latin, for example, influenced by regional variations and non-native usage, laid the groundwork for the emergence of the Romance languages in the Middle Ages (Smith, 2007, p. 22–24). Knowledge of several languages was considered useful. In trade, in particular, it was common to spend time in another city (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2528–2529; Mende, 2022b, p. 133). Receptive multilingualism/[[intercomprehension]] was widespread, especially in Scandinavia, where conversation partners spoke different languages but understood each other due to the genetic relationship between the languages. This practice was later pejoratively described by Haugen (1966) as 'semi-communication' (Braunmüller, 2007). Plurilingual competences were necessary in specific areas, such as church networks, education (where Latin was the language of instruction) and governance (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2528–2529). With Latin, a common lingua franca was established for the first time in the Middle Ages and, at the same time, it was influenced by intensive contact with other languages (Smith, 2007). === The Early Modern period === The rise of nation-states in the early modern period brought a shift toward monolingualism and the codification of regional languages. Plurilingualism became less of a common practice and more of an elite skill or a sign of socially excluded minorities and was therefore not held in high regard. With the Enlightenment, language learning also came into focus; grammars of individual languages were developed. However, mixed-language texts persisted, as various examples show: Riehl (2023) examines the mixing of languages in texts from the 16^th and 17^th centuries, including [https://www.projekt-gutenberg.org/luther/tischred/index.html Luther's “Tischreden”] (table talks), in which he switched between German and Latin, the language of education. The switches partly imitate oral language use, e.g. switching to German to express emotions, but also to introduce and explain technical terms from the language of education, Latin. # Ich wolt gern, das sie unternumen wurden # ''propter Epicureismum et quia multa venena'' # ''inserta sunt''. Er hat viel umb leib und leben und # die seel bracht. Er ist ein ursach der # sacramentirer. ''Quantum promovit grammaticam,'' # ''tantum nocuit evangelio''. # # Er ist ein schentlicher mensch gewest. Zwinglius # ist durch in vorfurt; Egranum hat er auch bekert, # der glaubet eben so viel, als er. Er starb auch # dahin ''sine crux et sine lux''. # Wenn ich jung were, so wolt ich ''Graecam'' # ''linguam perfecte'' studirn, so das ichs kundte, und # wollte andere ''annotationes'' drein machen. Example analysis of the Tischreden (Luther's comments on Erasmus' Annotationes (WA 5, 5670)), cited in Riehl (2023, p. 61), with Latin passages highlighted as in the original source. Lüdi (2023), on the other hand, uses the correspondence between the Basel mathematician and natural scientist Daniel Bernoulli and Leonhard Euler in the 18^th century to show how the two scientists used several languages to create, communicate and disseminate knowledge (‘plurilanguaging’). Working in multilingual and culturally diverse teams fostered creativity and scientific progress. === The Habsburg Empire === An exception to the increasing monolingualisation in modern times was the Habsburg Empire, which maintained a pluralistic language policy for much of its history. German served as a supra-regional lingua franca, but was not the national language. Instead, the Habsburg Empire pursued a language policy aimed at linguistic autonomy: the 1867 Constitution guaranteed the equal rights of all languages in the crown lands; language coercion was prohibited (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2530–2531; Goebl, 1997). The Habsburg Empire also stood out in terms of its education system: Maria Theresa's school reform of 1774 introduced the so-called utraquism model, in which pupils were taught in their mother tongue and a second, more widely spoken language (e.g. German, Italian or Polish). However, also in the Habsburg Empire, a monolingual language policy gradually prevailed; at the same time, the regional differences ultimately led to considerable tensions (Goebl, 1997; Schjerve-Rindler & Vetter, 2007). === Multilingualism beyond Europe === * '''South America''': Pre-colonial South America was linguistically diverse, but colonization introduced European languages, often at the expense of indigenous ones. Assimilation policies led to the extinction of many local languages, and colonial languages like Spanish and Portuguese retained dominance even after independence (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2531–2532). * '''China''': Evidence of early multilingualism in China is sparse: There is no evidence of multilingualism in the area that is now China until 221 BC. This does not necessarily mean that the area was not multilingual prior to this time. Although there are traces of language contact, written sources from 1200 to 200 BC only provide information about the Chinese language. This changed with the non-Chinese Qing dynasty. From the 18th century onwards, there is also evidence of multilingual dictionaries (Boltz, 2018; Mende, 2022b). * '''South Asia''': Multilingualism has been a central feature of the South Asian region. It is primarily the result of contact over more than 3.000 years, during which time several language groups came into contact with each other. This led to the emergence of common linguistic features and the merging of language families. Sanskrit, Persian and English were particularly important as contact languages. Today, India has 23 official languages, and the 2011 census recorded 211 languages in total. The Ethnologue database lists 424 living indigenous languages (Bhatia & Ritchie, 2013; Kulkarni-Joshi, 2019). == History of plurilingual education == The history of plurilingual education is closely linked to the development of societal multilingualism. Factors such as migration flows, nationalist movements, colonial policies and the multilingual realities of work and everyday life have all shaped how educational systems respond to linguistic diversity. These influences are reflected in educational policies, as well as in approaches to language learning and teaching practices. === '''The rise of nation-states and the monolingual paradigm in education''' === Historically, prestigious languages such as Latin, Greek, and French were central to European education, while vernacular languages were often marginalized (Gogolin, 2021). The establishment of public education systems in Europe during the 18^th and 19^th centuries coincided with the creation of nation-states. These systems were designed to promote a monolingual national identity, with the national language seen as essential for social cohesion and education (Gogolin, 2021, p. 297–298). This "monolingual habitus" (Gogolin, 1994) became deeply ingrained, with the assumption that all learning should occur in the national language. The rise of nationalism, industrialization, and colonialism in the 19^th and early 20^th centuries further reinforced monolingual ideologies. Regional and minority languages were suppressed, and linguistic homogeneity was prioritized. This shift was described as a form of "cultural violence" (Galtung, 1990), leading to the devaluation of regional, minority, and migrant languages. Dominant national languages were imposed at the expense of linguistic diversity. For example, in New Zealand, English-only education policies caused the percentage of Māori-speaking children to drop from 90% in 1913 to less than 5% by 1975. Similarly, in the United States, societal pressure and restrictive language policies gradually reduced the language rights of immigrants, reflecting the dominance of English (García, 2014, p. 85). === Shifting perspectives in the mid-20^th century === The mid-20th century marked a turning point in plurilingual education. Ethnic revival movements of the 1960s and the Civil Rights Era in the United States highlighted the failures of monolingual education for language-minority students. Bilingual education programmes began to emerge, such as the “Bilingual Education Act” of 1968 in the USA and Welsh- and Gaelic-medium schools in the UK. However, these programmes often prioritised the rapid acquisition of the dominant language rather than fostering true bilingualism (García, 2014, p. 86–87). Traditional bilingual education frequently treated languages as separate entities, emphasizing strict separation to avoid "cross-contamination." This approach, known as ‘parallel monolingualism’ (Heller, 1999), viewed bilingualism as two distinct monolingual systems. In this context, Lambert (1981) distinguishes between two key types of bilingualism: subtractive bilingualism, where the dominant language gradually replaces the minority language, leading to the erosion of the latter, and additive bilingualism, which promotes the coexistence of both languages, valuing them equally and fostering their parallel development (García and Wei, 2014, p. 49–50). In Europe, efforts to address the needs of migrant children began in the 1960s, with programmes offering supplementary mother-tongue instruction. However, these initiatives were often voluntary, limited in scope, and focused on preparing children for potential return to their home countries rather than integrating plurilingualism into mainstream education (Fürstenau, 2011). Support for minority languages remained inconsistent, and many plurilingual children relied on private community initiatives to maintain their [[Heritage Language|heritage languages]] (Meissner, 2019, p. 225). === '''Plurilingual competence and the “Multilingual Turn”''' === In recent decades, globalization and migration have driven a more positive interpretation of plurilingualism. International frameworks, such as the UN “Declaration on the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities” (1993), emphasized the importance of preserving and valuing linguistic diversity (Meißner, 2019, p. 221; García, 2014, p. 86–87). The Council of Europe and the European Union have also played a key role in promoting plurilingual education. Initiatives such as the “European Charter for regional or minority languages” (1992), the publication of the ''Common European Framework of Reference for Languages'' with the concept of plurilingual competence (Council of Europe, 2001, 2018), and numerous recommendations have emphasized the value of multilingualism and plurilingual and intercultural education (e.g. “Key competences for lifelong learning”; European Commission - Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, 2019;  “Council recommendation on a comprehensive approach to the teaching and learning of languages”; Official Journal of the European Union (2019/C 189/03); Recommendation CM/Rec(2022)1 and explanatory memorandum). At the same time, language teaching approaches have emerged that seek to integrate all of a student's linguistic and cultural resources (e.g. pluralistic approaches [Link]) and translanguaging [Link]) to promote more inclusive and effective plurilingual education, recognising the fluidity and dynamism of language use. This shift in perspective is often referred to as the “[[Multulingual turn|Multilingual Turn]]” in education (Conteh & Meier, 2014; May, 2013). == Self-assessment == === Reflexion (1) === * What are some of the challenges researchers face when studying historical multilingualism? * Why might plurilingualism have been more accepted or even necessary in medieval Europe compared to later periods? * How did the rise of nation-states in the Early Modern period affect the status of societal multilingualism and plurilingual education? Consider both the political and educational implications. === '''Self assessment''' === <quiz display=simple> {Which of the following factors contributed most to the development of societal multilingualism, according to the text?} -A. Climate change +B. Language contact and trade -C. Technological innovation -D. Religious conversion {What does the term ‘parallel monolingualism’ refer to in bilingual education?} -A. Teaching two languages with full integration -B. Using one language at school and another at home +C. Treating bilingualism as two separate monolingual systems -D. Promoting only the dominant language </quiz> === '''Reflexion''' === Reflect on the concept of "monolingual habitus" in education. How do you think this concept has influenced the way languages are taught and valued in your country’s education system? == Resources to go further == Braunmüller, K. (2018). Historical multilingualism. In ''Twelve lectures on multilingualism'' (pp. 299–328). Franceschini, R. (2013). History of multilingualism. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), ''The encyclopedia of applied linguistics. 4 En-Ho'' (pp. 2526–2534). Wiley-Blackwell. Mende, J.-K. (2022a). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Deutschland. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 107–130). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Mende, J.-K. (2022b). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Europa und in der Welt. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' ( pp. 131–152). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 == Bibliography == Adams, J. N. (2003). ''Bilingualism and the Latin language''. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511482960 Adams, J. N., Janse, M., & Swain, S. (Eds). (2002). ''Bilingualism in ancient society: Language contact and the written text''. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199245062.001.0001 Bhatia, T. K., & Ritchie, W. C. (2013). Bilingualism and multilingualism in South Asia. In T. K. Bhatia & W. C. Ritchie (Eds), ''The handbook of bilingualism and multilingualism'' (Second edition, pp. 843–870). Wiley-Blackwell. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118332382 Boltz, W. G. (2018). Multilingualism and Lingua Franca in the ancient Chinese world. In J. E. Braarvig & M. J. Geller (Eds), ''Multilingualism, lingua franca and lingua sacra'' (pp. 401–426). Pro BUSINESS. Boschung, D., & Riehl, C. M. (2011). Einleitung: Historische Mehrsprachigkeit. In D. Boschung & C. M. Riehl (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Workshop des Zentrums für Antike Kulturen des Mittelmeerraumes (ZaKMiRa) und des Zentrums Sprachenvielfalt und Mehrsprachigkeit (ZSM) an der Universität Köln, Juli 2008'' (pp. iii–viii). Shaker. Braunmüller, K. (2007). Receptive multilingualism in Northern Europe in the Middle Ages: A description of a scenario. In L. Zeevaert & J. D. ten Thije (Eds), ''Receptive multilingualism'' (Vol. 6, pp. 25–47). John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/hsm.6.04bra Braunmüller, K. (2018). Historical multilingualism. In ''Twelve lectures on multilingualism'' (pp. 299–328). Conteh, J., & Meier, G. (2014). ''The multilingual turn in languages education: Opportunities and challenges''. Buffalo. https://doi.org/10.21832/978178309224<nowiki/>6 Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers. (2022). ''Recommendation of the Committee of Ministers to member States on the importance of plurilingual and intercultural education for democratic culture. Recommendation CM/Rec(2022)1 and explanatory memorandum''. https://rm.coe.int/prems-013522-gbr-2508-cmrec-2022-1-et-expose-motifs-couv-a5-bat-web/1680a967b4ECML Dardano, P. (2011). Mehrsprachigkeit im hethitischen Reich: Die Beziehungen zwischen dem Hethitischen und dem Akkadischen. In D. Boschung & C. M. Riehl (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Workshop des Zentrums für Antike Kulturen des Mittelmeerraumes (ZaKMiRa) und des Zentrums Sprachenvielfalt und Mehrsprachigkeit (ZSM) an der Universität Köln, Juli 2008'' (pp. 47–60). Shaker. European Commission. Directorate General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture. (2019). ''Key competences for lifelong learning''. Publications Office. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/569540 Franceschini, R. (2013). History of multilingualism. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), ''The encyclopedia of applied linguistics. 4 En-Ho'' (pp. 2526–2534). Wiley-Blackwell. Fürstenau, S. (2011). Mehrsprachigkeit als Voraussetzung und Ziel schulischer Bildung. In S. Fürstenau & M. Gomolla (Eds), ''Migration und schulischer Wandel. Leistungsbeurteilung'' (pp. 25–50). VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften/GWV Fachverlage. Galtung, J. (1990). Cultural violence. ''Journal of Peace Research'', ''27''(3), 291–305. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343390027003005 García, O. (2014). Multilingualism and language education. In C. Leung & B. V. Street (Eds), ''The Routledge companion to English studies'' (pp. 84–99). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315852515 García, O., & Wei, L. (2014). ''Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism and education''. Palgrave Macmillan UK, London. Goebl, H. (1997). Le rappel de l’ histoire: Le plurilinguisme dans la vieille monarchie habsbourgeoise. ''Sociolinguistica'', ''11'', 109–122. Gogolin, I. (1994). ''Der monolinguale Habitus der multilingualen Schule''. Waxmann. Gogolin, I. (2021). Multilingualism: A threat to public education or a resource in public education? – European histories and realities. ''European Educational Research Journal EERJ'', ''20''(3), 297–310. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474904120981507 Haugen, E. (1966). Semicommunication: The language gap in Scandinavia. ''Sociological Inquiry'', ''36''(2), 280–297. Heller, M. (1999). ''Linguistic minorities and modernity: A sociolinguistic ethnography''. Longman. Kulkarni-Joshi, S. (2019). Linguistic history and language diversity in India: Views and counterviews. ''Journal of Biosciences'', ''44''(3), 62. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12038-019-9879-1 Lambert, W. E. (1981). Bilingualism: Its nature and significance. In W. E. Lambert, C. E. Snow, B. A. Goldfield, A. U. Chamot, & S. R. Cahir (Eds), ''Faces and facets of bilingualism.'' (pp. 1–6). Center for Applied Linguistics, P. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED216530 Lüdi, G. (2023). Mehrsprachigkeit in der Wissenschaft im 18. Jahrhundert am Beispiel der Basler Mathematiker und Naturwissenschaftler Daniel Bernoulli und Leonhard Euler. In R. Franceschini, M. Hüning, & P. Maitz (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Europäische Perspektiven'' (pp. 337–352). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111338668 May, S. (2013). ''The multilingual turn: Implications for SLA, TESOL and bilingual education''. Routledge. Meissner, F.-J. (2019). Plurilingual education. In C. Fäcke & F.-J. Meissner (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeits- und Mehrkulturalitätsdidaktik'' (pp. 2017–2235). Narr Francke Attempto. Mende, J.-K. (2022a). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Deutschland. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 107–130). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Mende, J.-K. (2022b). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Europa und in der Welt. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 131–152). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Official Journal of the European Union, C 189, 22 May 2019, No. 2019/C 189/03 (22 2018). https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=oj:JOC_2019_189_R_0003 Ramón, J. L. G. (2022). Sprachen in Kontakt in Griechenland und Kleinasien im 2. Jahrtausend v. Chr. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 23–46). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Riehl, C. M. (2023). Sprachmischung in historischen Texten – eine Herausforderung an die kontaktlinguistische Theoriebildung? In R. Franceschini, M. Hüning, & P. Maitz (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Europäische Perspektiven'' (pp. 57–76). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111338668 Roelcke, T. (2022). Viel- und Mehrsprachigkeit. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Hrsg.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (Bd. 22, S. 3–28). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Romaine, S. (2013). The bilingual and multilingual community. In T. K. Bhatia & W. C. Ritchie (Eds), ''The handbook of bilingualism and multilingualism'' (Second edition, pp. 445–465). Wiley-Blackwell. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118332382 Schjerve-Rindler, R., & Vetter, E. (2007). Linguistic diversity in Habsburg Austria as a model for modern European language policy. In J. D. ten Thije & L. Zeevaert (Eds), ''Receptive Multilingualism'' (Vol. 6, pp. 49–70). John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/hsm.6.05sch Smith, J. M. H. (2007). Speaking and writing. In J. M. H. Smith (Ed.), ''Europe after Rome: A new cultural history 500-1000'' (pp. 12–50). Oxford University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780192892638.001.0001 UN General Assembly (1993). ''Declaration on the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities''. A/RES/48/138, 20 December 1993. https://www.refworld.org/legal/resolution/unga/1993/en/11497 ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Margareta Strasser (Paris Lodron Universität Salzburg) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] omx8pos962o02y0zbq6gcu3xuc86r2u 2817381 2817380 2026-06-30T11:09:39Z ~2026-37432-69 3097899 2817381 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == Think about the following questions: * What languages were used in schools in your country 100 years ago? Why do you think those languages were chosen? * Can you think of a time when speaking more than one language was seen as a problem in education? Why might that have been the case? * How do you think colonisation or migration has influenced the languages spoken in schools around the world? * Have you ever experienced or heard of a situation where a student was not allowed to speak their home language at school? What might have been the reason? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe the historical development of societal multilingualism in ancient and modern societies * Evaluate the impact of language policies on multilingualism and plurilingual education * Critically reflect on the developments in language education   * Explore and compare regional and global perspectives on multilingualism and plurilingual education == Key words == societal multilingualism - plurilingual education - historical development - language contact - language policy == Contents == # Introduction # History of multilingualism ## Historical examples of multilingualism ## Ancient civilizations ## Medieval Europe ## The Early Modern period ## The Habsburg Empire ## Multilingualism beyond Europe # History of plurilingual education ## The rise of nation-states and the monolingual paradigm in education ## Shifting perspectives in the mid-20th century ## Plurilingual competence and the “Multilingual Turn” # Self-assessment # Resources to go further # Bibliography == Introduction == Societal multilingualism is by no means a new phenomenon; it has existed throughout human history. Franceschini describes it as a "human potentiality which can be developed when circumstances permit it anywhere and at any time throughout human evolution" (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2526). This contribution explores key aspects of multilingualism, focusing on its historical development, societal influences, and the challenges of its study. == History of multilingualism == The circumstances under which societal multilingualism develops are diverse. Some of the most significant factors are (Franceschini, 2013; Mende, 2022b): * Language contact and trade: Language contact, often driven by trade, has historically been a major catalyst for multilingualism (Braunmüller, 2018; Franceschini, 2013). Cities, as hubs of commerce and migration, have long been hotspots of linguistic diversity (Roelcke, 2022, p. 6; Mende, 2022a, pp. 122–124). * Migration: The movement of people across regions has brought languages into contact, fostering linguistic exchange and diversity. * Language policy: The recognition and promotion of certain languages as official or educational languages have had a profound impact on societal multilingualism. Language policies determine which languages are used, preserved, or marginalized. * Education: Closely linked to this is the influence of the education system, as language policy decisions determine which languages are taught, and whether and how students' home languages, minority languages, and others are supported and included in the curriculum. The languages considered to be academic languages/languages of science have also changed over the centuries and have had a significant impact on societal multilingualism. * Colonialism: Colonial systems often imposed the languages of the colonizers on indigenous populations, leading to the suppression or extinction of local languages. Romaine (2013, p. 44) highlights the power dynamics in such contexts, where dominant groups often imposed their languages on less powerful communities. * Administration: Multilingualism has been shaped by institutional frameworks such as religious practices, and administrative policies. For example, imperial systems often required plurilingual competence for governance and trade. === Historical examples of multilingualism === The study of historical multilingualism is often constrained by the availability of written records. Regions with a strong tradition of written documentation have been studied more comprehensively in terms of historical multilingualism than regions with predominantly oral traditions. However, these well-documented areas and societies are not necessarily those with the most widespread multilingualism (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2525–2526). Researchers often rely on direct and indirect evidence, such as loanwords or multilingual inscriptions, to reconstruct historical language contact (Boschung & Riehl, 2011, p. iii). === Ancient civilizations === The earliest evidence of multilingualism dates back to around 2600 BC and comes from the Sumerians: multilingual grammars and word lists on clay tablets were used in administration (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2). Further evidence of multilingualism comes from the Hittites, with clay tablets in Hittite, Sumerian and Akkadian, along with other languages (Dardano, 2011); or from the Egyptians, with multilingual steles in ancient Egypt. West Anatolia in the 2nd millennium BCE shows evidence of language contact between Greek and Anatolian languages (Ramón, 2022). === The Roman Empire === The linguistic situation during the Roman Empire has been relatively well researched. A large part of the population must have been multilingual – there is ample evidence of contact between Latin and other languages, partly due to the high mobility of groups such as the military, administrative staff, traders and slaves. Latin served as the official and educational language, while Greek held a special status. Those who did not have Latin as their first language (L1) had to learn either Greek or Latin. Important institutions such as the army were multilingual, and knowledge of Greek and Latin was also necessary for members of the imperial aristocracy. Although there was no explicit language policy, there was a certain need to learn Latin, which was apparently widely accepted by non-Latin speakers and large sections of the population (Adams, 2003; Adams et al., 2002; Franceschini, 2013, p. 2527; Mende, 2022b, p. 133). In the Roman Empire, Latin functioned as a lingua franca, learned by many as a second or third language for communication, trade, and military purposes. These multilingual speakers acquired Latin at varying levels of proficiency, similar to modern L2 learners. Over time, as native Latin speakers declined, learner-driven changes in the language led to the emergence of regional vernaculars known as ‘Vulgar Latin’ (Braunmüller, 2018, p. 300). === Medieval Europe === Medieval Europe was also characterised by multilingualism due to the demands of everyday life and work. This was particularly evident in spoken language, where there were no uniform standards, encouraging linguistic variation and flexibility. The gradual transformation of spoken Latin, for example, influenced by regional variations and non-native usage, laid the groundwork for the emergence of the Romance languages in the Middle Ages (Smith, 2007, p. 22–24). Knowledge of several languages was considered useful. In trade, in particular, it was common to spend time in another city (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2528–2529; Mende, 2022b, p. 133). Receptive multilingualism/[[intercomprehension]] was widespread, especially in Scandinavia, where conversation partners spoke different languages but understood each other due to the genetic relationship between the languages. This practice was later pejoratively described by Haugen (1966) as 'semi-communication' (Braunmüller, 2007). Plurilingual competences were necessary in specific areas, such as church networks, education (where Latin was the language of instruction) and governance (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2528–2529). With Latin, a common lingua franca was established for the first time in the Middle Ages and, at the same time, it was influenced by intensive contact with other languages (Smith, 2007). === The Early Modern period === The rise of nation-states in the early modern period brought a shift toward monolingualism and the codification of regional languages. Plurilingualism became less of a common practice and more of an elite skill or a sign of socially excluded minorities and was therefore not held in high regard. With the Enlightenment, language learning also came into focus; grammars of individual languages were developed. However, mixed-language texts persisted, as various examples show: Riehl (2023) examines the mixing of languages in texts from the 16^th and 17^th centuries, including [https://www.projekt-gutenberg.org/luther/tischred/index.html Luther's “Tischreden”] (table talks), in which he switched between German and Latin, the language of education. The switches partly imitate oral language use, e.g. switching to German to express emotions, but also to introduce and explain technical terms from the language of education, Latin. # Ich wolt gern, das sie unternumen wurden # ''propter Epicureismum et quia multa venena'' # ''inserta sunt''. Er hat viel umb leib und leben und # die seel bracht. Er ist ein ursach der # sacramentirer. ''Quantum promovit grammaticam,'' # ''tantum nocuit evangelio''. # # Er ist ein schentlicher mensch gewest. Zwinglius # ist durch in vorfurt; Egranum hat er auch bekert, # der glaubet eben so viel, als er. Er starb auch # dahin ''sine crux et sine lux''. # Wenn ich jung were, so wolt ich ''Graecam'' # ''linguam perfecte'' studirn, so das ichs kundte, und # wollte andere ''annotationes'' drein machen. Example analysis of the Tischreden (Luther's comments on Erasmus' Annotationes (WA 5, 5670)), cited in Riehl (2023, p. 61), with Latin passages highlighted as in the original source. Lüdi (2023), on the other hand, uses the correspondence between the Basel mathematician and natural scientist Daniel Bernoulli and Leonhard Euler in the 18^th century to show how the two scientists used several languages to create, communicate and disseminate knowledge (‘plurilanguaging’). Working in multilingual and culturally diverse teams fostered creativity and scientific progress. === The Habsburg Empire === An exception to the increasing monolingualisation in modern times was the Habsburg Empire, which maintained a pluralistic language policy for much of its history. German served as a supra-regional lingua franca, but was not the national language. Instead, the Habsburg Empire pursued a language policy aimed at linguistic autonomy: the 1867 Constitution guaranteed the equal rights of all languages in the crown lands; language coercion was prohibited (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2530–2531; Goebl, 1997). The Habsburg Empire also stood out in terms of its education system: Maria Theresa's school reform of 1774 introduced the so-called utraquism model, in which pupils were taught in their mother tongue and a second, more widely spoken language (e.g. German, Italian or Polish). However, also in the Habsburg Empire, a monolingual language policy gradually prevailed; at the same time, the regional differences ultimately led to considerable tensions (Goebl, 1997; Schjerve-Rindler & Vetter, 2007). === Multilingualism beyond Europe === * '''South America''': Pre-colonial South America was linguistically diverse, but colonization introduced European languages, often at the expense of indigenous ones. Assimilation policies led to the extinction of many local languages, and colonial languages like Spanish and Portuguese retained dominance even after independence (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2531–2532). * '''China''': Evidence of early multilingualism in China is sparse: There is no evidence of multilingualism in the area that is now China until 221 BC. This does not necessarily mean that the area was not multilingual prior to this time. Although there are traces of language contact, written sources from 1200 to 200 BC only provide information about the Chinese language. This changed with the non-Chinese Qing dynasty. From the 18th century onwards, there is also evidence of multilingual dictionaries (Boltz, 2018; Mende, 2022b). * '''South Asia''': Multilingualism has been a central feature of the South Asian region. It is primarily the result of contact over more than 3.000 years, during which time several language groups came into contact with each other. This led to the emergence of common linguistic features and the merging of language families. Sanskrit, Persian and English were particularly important as contact languages. Today, India has 23 official languages, and the 2011 census recorded 211 languages in total. The Ethnologue database lists 424 living indigenous languages (Bhatia & Ritchie, 2013; Kulkarni-Joshi, 2019). == History of plurilingual education == The history of plurilingual education is closely linked to the development of societal multilingualism. Factors such as migration flows, nationalist movements, colonial policies and the multilingual realities of work and everyday life have all shaped how educational systems respond to linguistic diversity. These influences are reflected in educational policies, as well as in approaches to language learning and teaching practices. === '''The rise of nation-states and the monolingual paradigm in education''' === Historically, prestigious languages such as Latin, Greek, and French were central to European education, while vernacular languages were often marginalized (Gogolin, 2021). The establishment of public education systems in Europe during the 18^th and 19^th centuries coincided with the creation of nation-states. These systems were designed to promote a monolingual national identity, with the national language seen as essential for social cohesion and education (Gogolin, 2021, p. 297–298). This "monolingual habitus" (Gogolin, 1994) became deeply ingrained, with the assumption that all learning should occur in the national language. The rise of nationalism, industrialization, and colonialism in the 19^th and early 20^th centuries further reinforced monolingual ideologies. Regional and minority languages were suppressed, and linguistic homogeneity was prioritized. This shift was described as a form of "cultural violence" (Galtung, 1990), leading to the devaluation of regional, minority, and migrant languages. Dominant national languages were imposed at the expense of linguistic diversity. For example, in New Zealand, English-only education policies caused the percentage of Māori-speaking children to drop from 90% in 1913 to less than 5% by 1975. Similarly, in the United States, societal pressure and restrictive language policies gradually reduced the language rights of immigrants, reflecting the dominance of English (García, 2014, p. 85). === Shifting perspectives in the mid-20^th century === The mid-20th century marked a turning point in plurilingual education. Ethnic revival movements of the 1960s and the Civil Rights Era in the United States highlighted the failures of monolingual education for language-minority students. Bilingual education programmes began to emerge, such as the “Bilingual Education Act” of 1968 in the USA and Welsh- and Gaelic-medium schools in the UK. However, these programmes often prioritised the rapid acquisition of the dominant language rather than fostering true bilingualism (García, 2014, p. 86–87). Traditional bilingual education frequently treated languages as separate entities, emphasizing strict separation to avoid "cross-contamination." This approach, known as ‘parallel monolingualism’ (Heller, 1999), viewed bilingualism as two distinct monolingual systems. In this context, Lambert (1981) distinguishes between two key types of bilingualism: subtractive bilingualism, where the dominant language gradually replaces the minority language, leading to the erosion of the latter, and additive bilingualism, which promotes the coexistence of both languages, valuing them equally and fostering their parallel development (García and Wei, 2014, p. 49–50). In Europe, efforts to address the needs of migrant children began in the 1960s, with programmes offering supplementary mother-tongue instruction. However, these initiatives were often voluntary, limited in scope, and focused on preparing children for potential return to their home countries rather than integrating plurilingualism into mainstream education (Fürstenau, 2011). Support for minority languages remained inconsistent, and many plurilingual children relied on private community initiatives to maintain their [[Heritage Language|heritage languages]] (Meissner, 2019, p. 225). === '''Plurilingual competence and the “Multilingual Turn”''' === In recent decades, globalization and migration have driven a more positive interpretation of plurilingualism. International frameworks, such as the UN “Declaration on the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities” (1993), emphasized the importance of preserving and valuing linguistic diversity (Meißner, 2019, p. 221; García, 2014, p. 86–87). The Council of Europe and the European Union have also played a key role in promoting plurilingual education. Initiatives such as the “European Charter for regional or minority languages” (1992), the publication of the ''Common European Framework of Reference for Languages'' with the concept of plurilingual competence (Council of Europe, 2001, 2018), and numerous recommendations have emphasized the value of multilingualism and plurilingual and intercultural education (e.g. “Key competences for lifelong learning”; European Commission - Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, 2019;  “Council recommendation on a comprehensive approach to the teaching and learning of languages”; Official Journal of the European Union (2019/C 189/03); Recommendation CM/Rec(2022)1 and explanatory memorandum). At the same time, language teaching approaches have emerged that seek to integrate all of a student's linguistic and cultural resources (e.g. pluralistic approaches [Link]) and translanguaging [Link]) to promote more inclusive and effective plurilingual education, recognising the fluidity and dynamism of language use. This shift in perspective is often referred to as the “[[Multulingual turn|Multilingual Turn]]” in education (Conteh & Meier, 2014; May, 2013). == Self-assessment == === Reflexion (1) === * What are some of the challenges researchers face when studying historical multilingualism? * Why might plurilingualism have been more accepted or even necessary in medieval Europe compared to later periods? * How did the rise of nation-states in the Early Modern period affect the status of societal multilingualism and plurilingual education? Consider both the political and educational implications. === '''Self assessment''' === <quiz display=simple> {Which of the following factors contributed most to the development of societal multilingualism, according to the text?} -A. Climate change +B. Language contact and trade -C. Technological innovation -D. Religious conversion {What does the term ‘parallel monolingualism’ refer to in bilingual education?} -A. Teaching two languages with full integration -B. Using one language at school and another at home +C. Treating bilingualism as two separate monolingual systems -D. Promoting only the dominant language </quiz> === '''Reflexion''' === Reflect on the concept of "monolingual habitus" in education. How do you think this concept has influenced the way languages are taught and valued in your country’s education system? == Resources to go further == Braunmüller, K. (2018). Historical multilingualism. In ''Twelve lectures on multilingualism'' (pp. 299–328). Franceschini, R. (2013). History of multilingualism. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), ''The encyclopedia of applied linguistics. 4 En-Ho'' (pp. 2526–2534). Wiley-Blackwell. Mende, J.-K. (2022a). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Deutschland. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 107–130). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Mende, J.-K. (2022b). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Europa und in der Welt. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' ( pp. 131–152). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 == Bibliography == Adams, J. N. (2003). ''Bilingualism and the Latin language''. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511482960 Adams, J. N., Janse, M., & Swain, S. (Eds). (2002). ''Bilingualism in ancient society: Language contact and the written text''. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199245062.001.0001 Bhatia, T. K., & Ritchie, W. C. (2013). Bilingualism and multilingualism in South Asia. In T. K. Bhatia & W. C. Ritchie (Eds), ''The handbook of bilingualism and multilingualism'' (Second edition, pp. 843–870). Wiley-Blackwell. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118332382 Boltz, W. G. (2018). Multilingualism and Lingua Franca in the ancient Chinese world. In J. E. Braarvig & M. J. Geller (Eds), ''Multilingualism, lingua franca and lingua sacra'' (pp. 401–426). Pro BUSINESS. Boschung, D., & Riehl, C. M. (2011). Einleitung: Historische Mehrsprachigkeit. In D. Boschung & C. M. Riehl (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Workshop des Zentrums für Antike Kulturen des Mittelmeerraumes (ZaKMiRa) und des Zentrums Sprachenvielfalt und Mehrsprachigkeit (ZSM) an der Universität Köln, Juli 2008'' (pp. iii–viii). Shaker. Braunmüller, K. (2007). Receptive multilingualism in Northern Europe in the Middle Ages: A description of a scenario. In L. Zeevaert & J. D. ten Thije (Eds), ''Receptive multilingualism'' (Vol. 6, pp. 25–47). John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/hsm.6.04bra Braunmüller, K. (2018). Historical multilingualism. In ''Twelve lectures on multilingualism'' (pp. 299–328). Conteh, J., & Meier, G. (2014). ''The multilingual turn in languages education: Opportunities and challenges''. Buffalo. https://doi.org/10.21832/978178309224<nowiki/>6 Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers. (2022). ''Recommendation of the Committee of Ministers to member States on the importance of plurilingual and intercultural education for democratic culture. Recommendation CM/Rec(2022)1 and explanatory memorandum''. https://rm.coe.int/prems-013522-gbr-2508-cmrec-2022-1-et-expose-motifs-couv-a5-bat-web/1680a967b4ECML Dardano, P. (2011). Mehrsprachigkeit im hethitischen Reich: Die Beziehungen zwischen dem Hethitischen und dem Akkadischen. In D. Boschung & C. M. Riehl (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Workshop des Zentrums für Antike Kulturen des Mittelmeerraumes (ZaKMiRa) und des Zentrums Sprachenvielfalt und Mehrsprachigkeit (ZSM) an der Universität Köln, Juli 2008'' (pp. 47–60). Shaker. European Commission. Directorate General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture. (2019). ''Key competences for lifelong learning''. Publications Office. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/569540 Franceschini, R. (2013). History of multilingualism. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), ''The encyclopedia of applied linguistics. 4 En-Ho'' (pp. 2526–2534). Wiley-Blackwell. Fürstenau, S. (2011). Mehrsprachigkeit als Voraussetzung und Ziel schulischer Bildung. In S. Fürstenau & M. Gomolla (Eds), ''Migration und schulischer Wandel. Leistungsbeurteilung'' (pp. 25–50). VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften/GWV Fachverlage. Galtung, J. (1990). Cultural violence. ''Journal of Peace Research'', ''27''(3), 291–305. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343390027003005 García, O. (2014). Multilingualism and language education. In C. Leung & B. V. Street (Eds), ''The Routledge companion to English studies'' (pp. 84–99). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315852515 García, O., & Wei, L. (2014). ''Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism and education''. Palgrave Macmillan UK, London. Goebl, H. (1997). Le rappel de l’ histoire: Le plurilinguisme dans la vieille monarchie habsbourgeoise. ''Sociolinguistica'', ''11'', 109–122. Gogolin, I. (1994). ''Der monolinguale Habitus der multilingualen Schule''. Waxmann. Gogolin, I. (2021). Multilingualism: A threat to public education or a resource in public education? – European histories and realities. ''European Educational Research Journal EERJ'', ''20''(3), 297–310. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474904120981507 Haugen, E. (1966). Semicommunication: The language gap in Scandinavia. ''Sociological Inquiry'', ''36''(2), 280–297. Heller, M. (1999). ''Linguistic minorities and modernity: A sociolinguistic ethnography''. Longman. Kulkarni-Joshi, S. (2019). Linguistic history and language diversity in India: Views and counterviews. ''Journal of Biosciences'', ''44''(3), 62. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12038-019-9879-1 Lambert, W. E. (1981). Bilingualism: Its nature and significance. In W. E. Lambert, C. E. Snow, B. A. Goldfield, A. U. Chamot, & S. R. Cahir (Eds), ''Faces and facets of bilingualism.'' (pp. 1–6). Center for Applied Linguistics, P. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED216530 Lüdi, G. (2023). Mehrsprachigkeit in der Wissenschaft im 18. Jahrhundert am Beispiel der Basler Mathematiker und Naturwissenschaftler Daniel Bernoulli und Leonhard Euler. In R. Franceschini, M. Hüning, & P. Maitz (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Europäische Perspektiven'' (pp. 337–352). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111338668 May, S. (2013). ''The multilingual turn: Implications for SLA, TESOL and bilingual education''. Routledge. Meissner, F.-J. (2019). Plurilingual education. In C. Fäcke & F.-J. Meissner (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeits- und Mehrkulturalitätsdidaktik'' (pp. 2017–2235). Narr Francke Attempto. Mende, J.-K. (2022a). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Deutschland. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 107–130). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Mende, J.-K. (2022b). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Europa und in der Welt. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 131–152). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Official Journal of the European Union, C 189, 22 May 2019, No. 2019/C 189/03 (22 2018). https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=oj:JOC_2019_189_R_0003 Ramón, J. L. G. (2022). Sprachen in Kontakt in Griechenland und Kleinasien im 2. Jahrtausend v. Chr. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 23–46). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Riehl, C. M. (2023). Sprachmischung in historischen Texten – eine Herausforderung an die kontaktlinguistische Theoriebildung? In R. Franceschini, M. Hüning, & P. Maitz (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Europäische Perspektiven'' (pp. 57–76). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111338668 Roelcke, T. (2022). Viel- und Mehrsprachigkeit. In C. Földes & T. Roelcke (Hrsg.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (Bd. 22, S. 3–28). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 Romaine, S. (2013). The bilingual and multilingual community. In T. K. Bhatia & W. C. Ritchie (Eds), ''The handbook of bilingualism and multilingualism'' (Second edition, pp. 445–465). Wiley-Blackwell. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118332382 Schjerve-Rindler, R., & Vetter, E. (2007). Linguistic diversity in Habsburg Austria as a model for modern European language policy. In J. D. ten Thije & L. Zeevaert (Eds), ''Receptive Multilingualism'' (Vol. 6, pp. 49–70). John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/hsm.6.05sch Smith, J. M. H. (2007). Speaking and writing. In J. M. H. Smith (Ed.), ''Europe after Rome: A new cultural history 500-1000'' (pp. 12–50). Oxford University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780192892638.001.0001 UN General Assembly (1993). ''Declaration on the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities''. A/RES/48/138, 20 December 1993. https://www.refworld.org/legal/resolution/unga/1993/en/11497 ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Margareta Strasser (Universität Salzburg) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] d3eigwipo0471k3bko4fy5p53nxfwvx 0 326175 2817256 2792549 2026-06-29T16:06:02Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Credits */ 2817256 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == Try to remember your experiences over the last few weeks. * In which situations were you confronted with more than one language? * Please describe the circumstances in which these situations occurred (for example, at work, in your free time, at school/university, etc.). * Which languages were involved, and how were they used? Have you ever been faced with multiple languages in one or more of the following situations? * When watching films, listening to podcasts, etc * When using apps/programmes * On platforms such as LinkedIn, Instagram, Reddit, etc. * In professional situations (meetings, etc.) How did you handle/react in these situations? (Switch to another language, subtitles, GoogleTrad, ChatGPT) What did you learn from these experiences? * Individual words or phrases in other languages * Special features of the language (language and/or writing system, structure of texts, etc.) * Other aspects == Objectives == At the end of this section, you should: * know the concepts and characteristics of formal, non-formal and informal learning; * be able to identify their specific features within various educational and social contexts. * understand how formal, non-formal and informal learning interact and complement each other in diverse learning contexts; * understand how non-formal and informal learning contribute to lifelong learning, enhance transversal skills and support personal development. * understand the importance of different forms of learning for developing multilingual competence. == Key words == Informal learning, non-formal learning, learning environments == Table of content == # Introduction # History of the concept # Definition(s) # Formal, informal and non-formal learning within the education system ## Recognition of non-formal and informal learning ## Digital language education and informal/non-formal learning ''' ''' ## Plurilingualism and informal/non-formal learning # Take Home Messages # Self-Assessment # Further resources # Bibliography == Introduction == The concepts of informal and non-formal emphasise that learning takes place not only in institutions such as schools, universities and adult education centres within a clearly defined framework, but also and to a large extent outside the classroom, in everyday life, etc., and plays an important role in the development of a person throughout his or her life. In plurilingual approaches, especially in Europe (e.g., CEFR)  these experiences are not just supplementary but are central to a holistic understanding of learners’ language resources. == History of the concept == The term 'informal education' was coined by the American philosopher and educator John Dewey (1859–1952) during his lectures at the University of Chicago. A transcript of one of these lectures was published by Reginald D. Archambault in 1966. Dewey attributes the same effectiveness to informal education as to learning in the classroom, arguing that it must be based on social relationships outside the classroom (Archambault, 1966, as cited in Rohs, 2016, p. 7). The American philosopher Mary Parker Follett (1868-1933) also emphasised the importance of non-institutional education and lifelong learning, without explicitly referring to the term ‘informal education/learning’. That education is a continuous process is a truism. […] Life and education must never be separated. We must have more life in our universities, more education in our life. (Follett, 1918, p. 369) The term ‘informal learning’ was first used by Eduard Lindeman, a pioneer in adult education, in an unpublished manuscript 1925 (as cited in Jarvis, 1987, p. 122). Like John Dewey, Lindeman believed that learning is closely linked to real-life experiences, and that education should not be confined to formal institutions. Despite these early references, the concept of informal learning was not widely explored within academia. From the 1970s onwards, however, international organisations began to recognise its importance. A significant milestone was the 1972 UNESCO report (Faure et al., 1972), which argued that rapid scientific and technological developments required a new perspective on education — one that included lifelong and informal learning as essential components. Coombs and Ahmed (1974) investigated how non-formal education could be used to combat rural poverty for the World Bank. By the 1990s, the concept had evolved significantly, with multiple definitions emerging, each highlighting different aspects of informal learning. Institutions such as the United Nations, the European Union and the Council of Europe published policy papers and position statements acknowledging the value of informal and non-formal learning in terms of personal development, social inclusion and employability (Harring et al., 2018; Johnson & Majewska, 2022; Overwien, 2005; Rohs, 2016) == Definitions: Overview and critical discussion == There is no universally accepted definition of informal and non-formal learning. Informal and non-formal learning are usually described in contrast to formal learning, based on certain criteria, such as learning taking place outside of educational institutions without leading to certification (e.g. COM(2001) 678 final, p. 32). Informal learning is often characterised by taking place outside formal learning environments. It is usually driven by intrinsic motivation rather than the pursuit of specific goals and often associated with leisure time, family life, or even working life. Non-formal learning is a type of learning that falls between formal and informal learning. It is typically defined by intentionality, intrinsic motivation, and learning objectives. Unlike formal learning, it does not take place in traditional institutional environments or lead to certification. Non-formal learning can also take place within educational institutions and may be based on a curriculum. However, it always involves a voluntary dimension. Formal learning is structured, guided and usually follows a curriculum. Learning takes place in educational institutions and leads to certification (Johnson & Majewska, 2022; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development - Education Policy Committee & Werquin, 2007, pp. 22–25). An overview of the possible criteria for distinguishing between different types of learning is provided by Johnson & Majewska (2022, pp. 4–5). {| class="wikitable" |'''Formal learning''' |'''Non-formal learning''' | colspan="2" |'''Informal learning''' |- |Learning is structured (e.g., linear objectives) |Learning '''may be''' structured | colspan="2" |Learning is not structured |- |Learning is promoted through direct teaching behaviours | colspan="3" |Learning is promoted through indirect teaching behaviours |- |Learning is intended (by educator and learner) |Learning is intended by the '''learner''' | colspan="2" |Learning may not be intended by the learner |- |Learning is recognised by the learner and educator |Learning is recognised by the '''learner''' | colspan="2" |Learning may not be recognised by the learner |- | colspan="2" |Motivation for learning may be extrinsic to the learner | colspan="2" |Motivation for learning is intrinsic to the learner |- |Learning takes place in educational institutions |Learning '''can''' take place in educational institutions | colspan="2" |Learning can take place anywhere |- |Learning has a mandated dimension | colspan="3" |Learning has a voluntary dimension |- | colspan="2" |Learning may be recognised or measured through qualifications | colspan="2" |Learning is not recognised or measured through qualifications |- |Learning may primarily focus on propositional knowledge | colspan="3" |Learning may focus on both propositional and procedural knowledge |- |Learning tends to have a cognitive emphasis | colspan="3" |Learning involves cognitive, emotional, social and behavioural elements |- |Curriculum is written down | colspan="2" |Curriculum '''may be''' written down |Curriculum is not written down |- |Learning process is ‘top down’, focusing on developing specific knowledge and skills | colspan="3" |Learning process is ‘bottom up’, focusing on the learner and their needs |- |Learning follows formal curriculum | colspan="3" |Learning may complement formal curricula |- | colspan="3" |Learning may not be linked to socialisation |Learning is often linked to socialisation |} (Johnson & Majewska, 2022, p. 4–5.) What recent definitions have in common is that learning is viewed from a holistic perspective, i.e. in the context of a person's entire environment and throughout their entire lifetime (Harring et al., 2018). == Formal, informal and non-formal learning within the education system == In contemporary education and labour markets, the recognition of learning acquired outside formal institutions – through work, volunteering, online learning, or community engagement  – has become increasingly significant. Informal and non-formal learning contribute substantially to individuals’ competencies, yet these achievements often remain invisible in traditional qualification systems. === Recognition of non-formal and informal learning === To address this gap, several international organizations have developed frameworks and guidelines to support the validation of such learning. The European Union, for instance, has published the “European guidelines for validating non-formal and informal learning” (Cedefop, 2015), which provide a comprehensive framework for member states to implement validation systems that are accessible, fair, and learner-centered. Similarly, UNESCO has advanced the “Guidelines for the recognition, validation and accreditation (RVA) of the outcomes of non-formal and informal learning (UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning, 2012), developed in collaboration with 42 member states. These guidelines aim to promote inclusive education systems and support lifelong learning by enabling individuals to receive formal recognition for diverse learning experiences 2 By integrating these international frameworks into national policies, education systems can become more inclusive, flexible, and responsive to the realities of learners’ lives. Recognizing informal and non-formal learning not only enhances individual empowerment and employability but also contributes to social cohesion and economic innovation. As a possible framework for describing language learning outside formal education and training, Benson (2011) proposes a model encompassing location, formality, pedagogy, and locus of control. Each of these aspects can be viewed as a pole on a scale. The model recognises that the increased range of language learning opportunities has brought about significant changes to learners' environments and that the boundaries between formal and informal learning are becoming increasingly blurred. === Digital language education and informal/non-formal learning   === Some examples of wider and emerging research fields especially in digital informal and non-formal learning are learning in the digital wilds and learning with AI based tools. Since the 2000s, digital technology has opened up many opportunities to use languages outside the classroom. Informal learning is now a focus of language teaching and research. Sauro and Zourou (2017, p. 186) define 'language learning in the digital wilds' as 'informal language learning that takes place in digital spaces, communities, and networks that are independent of formal instructional contexts'. Similar expressions such as 'online informal learning of English (OILE)' (Sockett, 2014) or 'informal digital learning of English (IDLE)' (Lee & Dressman, 2018) also refer to digital learning environments. Recently, AI-based tools such as large language models (LLMs) have added a new dimension to informal and non-formal language learning. Learners increasingly interact with AI chatbots (e.g., ChatGPT) outside of institutional settings in order to practise writing, rehearse dialogues, clarify vocabulary, or simulate real-life communication scenarios. These interactions often happen spontaneously, driven by learners' curiosity or needs, and blend characteristics of both informal and non-formal learning (Guan et al., 2024) Furthermore, outside digital learning environments, social developments such as an increasingly multilingual society are creating more opportunities for informal 'language learning beyond the classroom” (Nunan & Richards, 2015), an expression often used instead of “informal language learning”. === Plurilingualism and informal / non-formal learning === The expansion of learning environments offers more opportunities to use languages in all modes: reception, production, interaction and mediation. Online resources such as podcasts and films offer a wide range of opportunities to experience language authentically. Multilingual practices are particularly popular on digital platforms, with users adopting them for specific purposes (e.g. Androutsopoulos, 2015; Lee, 2017; Ndlangamandla, 2020). Physical environments also provide many ways to expand one's linguistic repertoire. These can be used to specifically integrate non-formal learning opportunities or encourage informal learning in formal settings. Various projects have demonstrated such potential, e.g. the Lingu@num project [ <nowiki>https://www.linguanum.eu/productions-products</nowiki>] for digital tasks. Examples of raising awareness of multilingualism can be seen in the LingusSnapp citizen science project [ <nowiki>http://www.linguasnapp.manchester.ac.uk/</nowiki>], which documents the multilingual landscape of Manchester. The Linguistic Risk-Taking Initiative is a pedagogical approach that promotes the use of the target language in daily situations outside of formal settings of instruction (Slavkov, 2023; Slavkov, 2020; Slavkov & Séror, 2019). Language learners are encouraged to take linguistic risks, which are defined as “authentic everyday communicative acts that take place outside of the language classroom and involve spontaneous and meaningful second language use” (Slavkov & Séror, 2019, p. 259). Since the Linguistic Risk-Taking Initiative is introduced to language learners in the classroom, but focuses on their target language use in everyday life, it can be considered a link between formal and informal learning (Cajka et al., 2023; Griffiths & Slavkov, 2021). == Take home messages == * Learning happens everywhere: Education is not limited to schools or universities. Informal and non-formal learning occur in everyday life, through digital media, social interactions, and community engagement. * Blurred boundaries: The lines between formal, non-formal, and informal learning are increasingly fluid, especially in language education. * Plurilingualism is a resource: Using multiple languages in various contexts (e.g., online platforms, work, leisure) enhances language competencies and cultural awareness. * Digital environments matter: Informal digital learning (e.g., through podcasts, games, social media) plays a growing role in language acquisition. * Recognition is key: International frameworks (e.g., from the EU and UNESCO) aim to validate and recognize learning that happens outside formal education. == Self-assessment == 1. What best describes informal language learning? A) It is structured and leads to certification. B) It happens during everyday activities, often spontaneously and unintended. C) It is always guided by a teacher. D) It only occurs in formal institutions. 2. Which of the following is an example of non-formal learning? A) Watching a movie in another language at home. B) Attending a language conversation group outside school. C) Learning a language through family conversations. D) Reading a textbook in school. 3. What is the main goal of the EU and UNESCO guidelines on informal/non-formal learning? A) To replace formal education systems. B) To foster self-directed learning. C) To validate and recognise learning outside formal institutions. D) To standardise learning in European education systems. ''Correct answers: 1B; 2B; 3C'' == Further resources == * Lingu@num project: https://www.linguanum.eu/productions-products * LinguaSnapp citizen science project: http://www.linguasnapp.manchester.ac.uk/ * Recognition of further learning in Europe: https://education.ec.europa.eu/news/recognition-of-prior-learning-in-europe * Europass: https://europass.europa.eu/en/validation-non-formal-and-informal-learning * UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning: Recognition, validation and accreditation of non-formal and informal Learning: https://www.uil.unesco.org/en/lifelong-learning/recognition-validation-accreditation == Bibliography == Androutsopoulos, J. (2015). Networked multilingualism: Some language practices on Facebook and their implications. ''International Journal of Bilingualism'', ''19''(2), 185–205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1367006913489198 Benson, P. (2011). Language learning and teaching beyond the classroom: An introduction to the field. In P. Benson & H. Reinders, Hayo (Eds.), ''Beyond the language classroom'' (pp. 7–16). Palgrave Macmillan. Cajka, Stefanie; Ed, Griffiths, Nikolay Slavkov & Eva Vetter. 2023. Linguistic risk-taking and informal language learning in Canada and Austria. In Denyze Toffoli, Geoffrey Sockett & Meryl Kusyk (eds.), ''Language Learning and Leisure: Informal Language Learning in the Digital Age'' (Studies on Language Acquisition [SOLA] 66), 207-237. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. Cedefop. (2015). ''European guidelines for validating non-formal and informal learning''. Publications Office. http://dx.doi.org/10.2801/378817 Coombs, P. H., Ahmed, M., International Council for Educational Development., & World Bank. (1974). ''Attacking rural poverty; how nonformal education can help''. Johns Hopkins University Press. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/656871468326130937/pdf/multi-page.pdf Faure, E., Herrera, F., Kaddoura, A.-R., Lopes, H., Petrovsky, A. V., Rahnema, M., & Champion Ward, F. (1972). ''Learning to be: The world of education today and tomorrow.'' United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Follett, M. P. (with Cornell University Library). (1918). ''The new state, group organization the solution of popular government''. Longmans, Green and co. http://archive.org/details/cu31924016856209 Griffiths, Ed & Nikolay Slavkov. 2021. Linguistic risk-taking: A bridge between the classroom and the outside world. ''Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics'' 24(2). 127-158. Guan, L., Li, S., & Gu, M. M. (2024). AI in informal digital English learning: A meta-analysis of its effectiveness on proficiency, motivation, and self-regulation. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 7, 100323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100323 Harring, M., Witte, M. D., & Burger, T. (2018). Informelles Lernen—Eine Einführung. In M. Harring, M. D. Witte, & T. Burger (Eds.), ''Handbuch informelles Lernen: Interdisziplinäre und internationale Perspektiven'' (pp. 12–25). Beltz Juventa. Jarvis, P. (Ed.). (1987). Eduard Lindeman. In S. Brookfield, ''Twentieth century thinkers in adult & continuing education'' (pp. 119–143). Croom Helm. Johnson, M., & Majewska, D. (2022, September 1). ''Formal, non-formal, and informal learning: What are they, and how can we research them?'' Cambridge University Press & Assessment. https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/371731 Lee, M.-K. (2017). To be autonomous or not to be: Issues of subsuming self-determination theory into research on language learner autonomy. ''TESOL Quarterly'', ''51''(1), 220–228. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.343 Lee, J. S., & Dressman, M. (2018). When IDLE hands make an English workshop: Informal digital learning of English and language proficiency. ''TESOL Quarterly'', ''52''(2), 435–445. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.422 Lindeman, E. (1926). ''The meaning of adult education''. New Republic, inc. Ndlangamandla, S. (2020). Language alternation in online forums: English monolingual normativity and multilingual practices. ''Scrutiny2'', ''25''(1), 43–63. https://doi.org/10.1080/18125441.2020.1802504 Nunan, D., & Richards, J. C. (Eds.). (2015). ''Language learning beyond the classroom'' (1. publ.). Routledge. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development - Education Policy Committee, & Werquin, P. (2007, September 19). ''Terms, concepts and models for analysing the value of recognition programme''. https://one.oecd.org/document/EDU/EDPC(2007)24/en/pdf Overwien, B. (2005). Stichwort: Informelles lernen. ''Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft'', ''8''(3), 339–355. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11618-005-0144-z Rohs, M. (2016). Genese informellen Lernens. In M. D. Witte, T. Burger, & M. Harring (Eds.), ''Handbuch informelles Lernen: Interdisziplinäre und internationale Perspektiven'' (pp. 3–38). Beltz Juventa. Sauro, S., & Zourou, K. (2017). Call for Papers for CALL in the Digital Wilds Special Issue. ''CALL in the Digital Wilds'', ''21''(1). https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/items/c9da50ba-1f65-41d9-a3d3-f6ebad8c37ce Slavkov, N. (2020). Where the magic happens: Fostering language learning, bilingualism and multilingualism through linguistic risk-taking. In T. Tinnefeld (Ed.), The magic of language: Productivity in linguistics and language teaching (pp. 47–70). COD. https://d-nb.info/1241778841/04 Slavkov, N. (2023). Linguistic risk-taking: A new pedagogical approach and a research program. Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 26(2), 32–59. https://doi.org/10.37213/cjal.2023.33038 Slavkov, N., & Séror, J. (2019). The development of the linguistic risk-taking initiative at the University of Ottawa. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 75(3), 254–272. https://doi.org/10.3138/cmlr.2018-0202 Sockett, G. (2014). ''The online informal learning of English''. Palgrave Macmillan UK. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137414885 UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning. (2012). ''UNESCO Guidelines for the recognition, validation and accreditation of the outcomes of non-formal and informal learning''. UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL). http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002163/216360e.pdf ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Margareta Strasser (Paris Lodron Universität Salzburg) * Paulina Wagner (Universität Wien) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] rubs9282cij2d0nj8ys9qti0axqdraq 2817304 2817256 2026-06-29T16:57:43Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self-assessment */ 2817304 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == Try to remember your experiences over the last few weeks. * In which situations were you confronted with more than one language? * Please describe the circumstances in which these situations occurred (for example, at work, in your free time, at school/university, etc.). * Which languages were involved, and how were they used? Have you ever been faced with multiple languages in one or more of the following situations? * When watching films, listening to podcasts, etc * When using apps/programmes * On platforms such as LinkedIn, Instagram, Reddit, etc. * In professional situations (meetings, etc.) How did you handle/react in these situations? (Switch to another language, subtitles, GoogleTrad, ChatGPT) What did you learn from these experiences? * Individual words or phrases in other languages * Special features of the language (language and/or writing system, structure of texts, etc.) * Other aspects == Objectives == At the end of this section, you should: * know the concepts and characteristics of formal, non-formal and informal learning; * be able to identify their specific features within various educational and social contexts. * understand how formal, non-formal and informal learning interact and complement each other in diverse learning contexts; * understand how non-formal and informal learning contribute to lifelong learning, enhance transversal skills and support personal development. * understand the importance of different forms of learning for developing multilingual competence. == Key words == Informal learning, non-formal learning, learning environments == Table of content == # Introduction # History of the concept # Definition(s) # Formal, informal and non-formal learning within the education system ## Recognition of non-formal and informal learning ## Digital language education and informal/non-formal learning ''' ''' ## Plurilingualism and informal/non-formal learning # Take Home Messages # Self-Assessment # Further resources # Bibliography == Introduction == The concepts of informal and non-formal emphasise that learning takes place not only in institutions such as schools, universities and adult education centres within a clearly defined framework, but also and to a large extent outside the classroom, in everyday life, etc., and plays an important role in the development of a person throughout his or her life. In plurilingual approaches, especially in Europe (e.g., CEFR)  these experiences are not just supplementary but are central to a holistic understanding of learners’ language resources. == History of the concept == The term 'informal education' was coined by the American philosopher and educator John Dewey (1859–1952) during his lectures at the University of Chicago. A transcript of one of these lectures was published by Reginald D. Archambault in 1966. Dewey attributes the same effectiveness to informal education as to learning in the classroom, arguing that it must be based on social relationships outside the classroom (Archambault, 1966, as cited in Rohs, 2016, p. 7). The American philosopher Mary Parker Follett (1868-1933) also emphasised the importance of non-institutional education and lifelong learning, without explicitly referring to the term ‘informal education/learning’. That education is a continuous process is a truism. […] Life and education must never be separated. We must have more life in our universities, more education in our life. (Follett, 1918, p. 369) The term ‘informal learning’ was first used by Eduard Lindeman, a pioneer in adult education, in an unpublished manuscript 1925 (as cited in Jarvis, 1987, p. 122). Like John Dewey, Lindeman believed that learning is closely linked to real-life experiences, and that education should not be confined to formal institutions. Despite these early references, the concept of informal learning was not widely explored within academia. From the 1970s onwards, however, international organisations began to recognise its importance. A significant milestone was the 1972 UNESCO report (Faure et al., 1972), which argued that rapid scientific and technological developments required a new perspective on education — one that included lifelong and informal learning as essential components. Coombs and Ahmed (1974) investigated how non-formal education could be used to combat rural poverty for the World Bank. By the 1990s, the concept had evolved significantly, with multiple definitions emerging, each highlighting different aspects of informal learning. Institutions such as the United Nations, the European Union and the Council of Europe published policy papers and position statements acknowledging the value of informal and non-formal learning in terms of personal development, social inclusion and employability (Harring et al., 2018; Johnson & Majewska, 2022; Overwien, 2005; Rohs, 2016) == Definitions: Overview and critical discussion == There is no universally accepted definition of informal and non-formal learning. Informal and non-formal learning are usually described in contrast to formal learning, based on certain criteria, such as learning taking place outside of educational institutions without leading to certification (e.g. COM(2001) 678 final, p. 32). Informal learning is often characterised by taking place outside formal learning environments. It is usually driven by intrinsic motivation rather than the pursuit of specific goals and often associated with leisure time, family life, or even working life. Non-formal learning is a type of learning that falls between formal and informal learning. It is typically defined by intentionality, intrinsic motivation, and learning objectives. Unlike formal learning, it does not take place in traditional institutional environments or lead to certification. Non-formal learning can also take place within educational institutions and may be based on a curriculum. However, it always involves a voluntary dimension. Formal learning is structured, guided and usually follows a curriculum. Learning takes place in educational institutions and leads to certification (Johnson & Majewska, 2022; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development - Education Policy Committee & Werquin, 2007, pp. 22–25). An overview of the possible criteria for distinguishing between different types of learning is provided by Johnson & Majewska (2022, pp. 4–5). {| class="wikitable" |'''Formal learning''' |'''Non-formal learning''' | colspan="2" |'''Informal learning''' |- |Learning is structured (e.g., linear objectives) |Learning '''may be''' structured | colspan="2" |Learning is not structured |- |Learning is promoted through direct teaching behaviours | colspan="3" |Learning is promoted through indirect teaching behaviours |- |Learning is intended (by educator and learner) |Learning is intended by the '''learner''' | colspan="2" |Learning may not be intended by the learner |- |Learning is recognised by the learner and educator |Learning is recognised by the '''learner''' | colspan="2" |Learning may not be recognised by the learner |- | colspan="2" |Motivation for learning may be extrinsic to the learner | colspan="2" |Motivation for learning is intrinsic to the learner |- |Learning takes place in educational institutions |Learning '''can''' take place in educational institutions | colspan="2" |Learning can take place anywhere |- |Learning has a mandated dimension | colspan="3" |Learning has a voluntary dimension |- | colspan="2" |Learning may be recognised or measured through qualifications | colspan="2" |Learning is not recognised or measured through qualifications |- |Learning may primarily focus on propositional knowledge | colspan="3" |Learning may focus on both propositional and procedural knowledge |- |Learning tends to have a cognitive emphasis | colspan="3" |Learning involves cognitive, emotional, social and behavioural elements |- |Curriculum is written down | colspan="2" |Curriculum '''may be''' written down |Curriculum is not written down |- |Learning process is ‘top down’, focusing on developing specific knowledge and skills | colspan="3" |Learning process is ‘bottom up’, focusing on the learner and their needs |- |Learning follows formal curriculum | colspan="3" |Learning may complement formal curricula |- | colspan="3" |Learning may not be linked to socialisation |Learning is often linked to socialisation |} (Johnson & Majewska, 2022, p. 4–5.) What recent definitions have in common is that learning is viewed from a holistic perspective, i.e. in the context of a person's entire environment and throughout their entire lifetime (Harring et al., 2018). == Formal, informal and non-formal learning within the education system == In contemporary education and labour markets, the recognition of learning acquired outside formal institutions – through work, volunteering, online learning, or community engagement  – has become increasingly significant. Informal and non-formal learning contribute substantially to individuals’ competencies, yet these achievements often remain invisible in traditional qualification systems. === Recognition of non-formal and informal learning === To address this gap, several international organizations have developed frameworks and guidelines to support the validation of such learning. The European Union, for instance, has published the “European guidelines for validating non-formal and informal learning” (Cedefop, 2015), which provide a comprehensive framework for member states to implement validation systems that are accessible, fair, and learner-centered. Similarly, UNESCO has advanced the “Guidelines for the recognition, validation and accreditation (RVA) of the outcomes of non-formal and informal learning (UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning, 2012), developed in collaboration with 42 member states. These guidelines aim to promote inclusive education systems and support lifelong learning by enabling individuals to receive formal recognition for diverse learning experiences 2 By integrating these international frameworks into national policies, education systems can become more inclusive, flexible, and responsive to the realities of learners’ lives. Recognizing informal and non-formal learning not only enhances individual empowerment and employability but also contributes to social cohesion and economic innovation. As a possible framework for describing language learning outside formal education and training, Benson (2011) proposes a model encompassing location, formality, pedagogy, and locus of control. Each of these aspects can be viewed as a pole on a scale. The model recognises that the increased range of language learning opportunities has brought about significant changes to learners' environments and that the boundaries between formal and informal learning are becoming increasingly blurred. === Digital language education and informal/non-formal learning   === Some examples of wider and emerging research fields especially in digital informal and non-formal learning are learning in the digital wilds and learning with AI based tools. Since the 2000s, digital technology has opened up many opportunities to use languages outside the classroom. Informal learning is now a focus of language teaching and research. Sauro and Zourou (2017, p. 186) define 'language learning in the digital wilds' as 'informal language learning that takes place in digital spaces, communities, and networks that are independent of formal instructional contexts'. Similar expressions such as 'online informal learning of English (OILE)' (Sockett, 2014) or 'informal digital learning of English (IDLE)' (Lee & Dressman, 2018) also refer to digital learning environments. Recently, AI-based tools such as large language models (LLMs) have added a new dimension to informal and non-formal language learning. Learners increasingly interact with AI chatbots (e.g., ChatGPT) outside of institutional settings in order to practise writing, rehearse dialogues, clarify vocabulary, or simulate real-life communication scenarios. These interactions often happen spontaneously, driven by learners' curiosity or needs, and blend characteristics of both informal and non-formal learning (Guan et al., 2024) Furthermore, outside digital learning environments, social developments such as an increasingly multilingual society are creating more opportunities for informal 'language learning beyond the classroom” (Nunan & Richards, 2015), an expression often used instead of “informal language learning”. === Plurilingualism and informal / non-formal learning === The expansion of learning environments offers more opportunities to use languages in all modes: reception, production, interaction and mediation. Online resources such as podcasts and films offer a wide range of opportunities to experience language authentically. Multilingual practices are particularly popular on digital platforms, with users adopting them for specific purposes (e.g. Androutsopoulos, 2015; Lee, 2017; Ndlangamandla, 2020). Physical environments also provide many ways to expand one's linguistic repertoire. These can be used to specifically integrate non-formal learning opportunities or encourage informal learning in formal settings. Various projects have demonstrated such potential, e.g. the Lingu@num project [ <nowiki>https://www.linguanum.eu/productions-products</nowiki>] for digital tasks. Examples of raising awareness of multilingualism can be seen in the LingusSnapp citizen science project [ <nowiki>http://www.linguasnapp.manchester.ac.uk/</nowiki>], which documents the multilingual landscape of Manchester. The Linguistic Risk-Taking Initiative is a pedagogical approach that promotes the use of the target language in daily situations outside of formal settings of instruction (Slavkov, 2023; Slavkov, 2020; Slavkov & Séror, 2019). Language learners are encouraged to take linguistic risks, which are defined as “authentic everyday communicative acts that take place outside of the language classroom and involve spontaneous and meaningful second language use” (Slavkov & Séror, 2019, p. 259). Since the Linguistic Risk-Taking Initiative is introduced to language learners in the classroom, but focuses on their target language use in everyday life, it can be considered a link between formal and informal learning (Cajka et al., 2023; Griffiths & Slavkov, 2021). == Take home messages == * Learning happens everywhere: Education is not limited to schools or universities. Informal and non-formal learning occur in everyday life, through digital media, social interactions, and community engagement. * Blurred boundaries: The lines between formal, non-formal, and informal learning are increasingly fluid, especially in language education. * Plurilingualism is a resource: Using multiple languages in various contexts (e.g., online platforms, work, leisure) enhances language competencies and cultural awareness. * Digital environments matter: Informal digital learning (e.g., through podcasts, games, social media) plays a growing role in language acquisition. * Recognition is key: International frameworks (e.g., from the EU and UNESCO) aim to validate and recognize learning that happens outside formal education. == Self-assessment == <quiz display=simple> {What best describes informal language learning?} -A) It is structured and leads to certification. +B) It happens during everyday activities, often spontaneously and unintended. -C) It is always guided by a teacher. -D) It only occurs in formal institutions. {Which of the following is an example of non-formal learning?} -A) Watching a movie in another language at home. +B) Attending a language conversation group outside school. -C) Learning a language through family conversations. -D) Reading a textbook in school. {What is the main goal of the EU and UNESCO guidelines on informal/non-formal learning?} -A) To replace formal education systems. -B) To foster self-directed learning. +C) To validate and recognise learning outside formal institutions. -D) To standardise learning in European education systems. </quiz> == Further resources == * Lingu@num project: https://www.linguanum.eu/productions-products * LinguaSnapp citizen science project: http://www.linguasnapp.manchester.ac.uk/ * Recognition of further learning in Europe: https://education.ec.europa.eu/news/recognition-of-prior-learning-in-europe * Europass: https://europass.europa.eu/en/validation-non-formal-and-informal-learning * UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning: Recognition, validation and accreditation of non-formal and informal Learning: https://www.uil.unesco.org/en/lifelong-learning/recognition-validation-accreditation == Bibliography == Androutsopoulos, J. (2015). Networked multilingualism: Some language practices on Facebook and their implications. ''International Journal of Bilingualism'', ''19''(2), 185–205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1367006913489198 Benson, P. (2011). Language learning and teaching beyond the classroom: An introduction to the field. In P. Benson & H. Reinders, Hayo (Eds.), ''Beyond the language classroom'' (pp. 7–16). Palgrave Macmillan. Cajka, Stefanie; Ed, Griffiths, Nikolay Slavkov & Eva Vetter. 2023. Linguistic risk-taking and informal language learning in Canada and Austria. In Denyze Toffoli, Geoffrey Sockett & Meryl Kusyk (eds.), ''Language Learning and Leisure: Informal Language Learning in the Digital Age'' (Studies on Language Acquisition [SOLA] 66), 207-237. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. Cedefop. (2015). ''European guidelines for validating non-formal and informal learning''. Publications Office. http://dx.doi.org/10.2801/378817 Coombs, P. H., Ahmed, M., International Council for Educational Development., & World Bank. (1974). ''Attacking rural poverty; how nonformal education can help''. Johns Hopkins University Press. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/656871468326130937/pdf/multi-page.pdf Faure, E., Herrera, F., Kaddoura, A.-R., Lopes, H., Petrovsky, A. V., Rahnema, M., & Champion Ward, F. (1972). ''Learning to be: The world of education today and tomorrow.'' United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Follett, M. P. (with Cornell University Library). (1918). ''The new state, group organization the solution of popular government''. Longmans, Green and co. http://archive.org/details/cu31924016856209 Griffiths, Ed & Nikolay Slavkov. 2021. Linguistic risk-taking: A bridge between the classroom and the outside world. ''Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics'' 24(2). 127-158. Guan, L., Li, S., & Gu, M. M. (2024). AI in informal digital English learning: A meta-analysis of its effectiveness on proficiency, motivation, and self-regulation. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 7, 100323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100323 Harring, M., Witte, M. D., & Burger, T. (2018). Informelles Lernen—Eine Einführung. In M. Harring, M. D. Witte, & T. Burger (Eds.), ''Handbuch informelles Lernen: Interdisziplinäre und internationale Perspektiven'' (pp. 12–25). Beltz Juventa. Jarvis, P. (Ed.). (1987). Eduard Lindeman. In S. Brookfield, ''Twentieth century thinkers in adult & continuing education'' (pp. 119–143). Croom Helm. Johnson, M., & Majewska, D. (2022, September 1). ''Formal, non-formal, and informal learning: What are they, and how can we research them?'' Cambridge University Press & Assessment. https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/371731 Lee, M.-K. (2017). To be autonomous or not to be: Issues of subsuming self-determination theory into research on language learner autonomy. ''TESOL Quarterly'', ''51''(1), 220–228. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.343 Lee, J. S., & Dressman, M. (2018). When IDLE hands make an English workshop: Informal digital learning of English and language proficiency. ''TESOL Quarterly'', ''52''(2), 435–445. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.422 Lindeman, E. (1926). ''The meaning of adult education''. New Republic, inc. Ndlangamandla, S. (2020). Language alternation in online forums: English monolingual normativity and multilingual practices. ''Scrutiny2'', ''25''(1), 43–63. https://doi.org/10.1080/18125441.2020.1802504 Nunan, D., & Richards, J. C. (Eds.). (2015). ''Language learning beyond the classroom'' (1. publ.). Routledge. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development - Education Policy Committee, & Werquin, P. (2007, September 19). ''Terms, concepts and models for analysing the value of recognition programme''. https://one.oecd.org/document/EDU/EDPC(2007)24/en/pdf Overwien, B. (2005). Stichwort: Informelles lernen. ''Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft'', ''8''(3), 339–355. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11618-005-0144-z Rohs, M. (2016). Genese informellen Lernens. In M. D. Witte, T. Burger, & M. Harring (Eds.), ''Handbuch informelles Lernen: Interdisziplinäre und internationale Perspektiven'' (pp. 3–38). Beltz Juventa. Sauro, S., & Zourou, K. (2017). Call for Papers for CALL in the Digital Wilds Special Issue. ''CALL in the Digital Wilds'', ''21''(1). https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/items/c9da50ba-1f65-41d9-a3d3-f6ebad8c37ce Slavkov, N. (2020). Where the magic happens: Fostering language learning, bilingualism and multilingualism through linguistic risk-taking. In T. Tinnefeld (Ed.), The magic of language: Productivity in linguistics and language teaching (pp. 47–70). COD. https://d-nb.info/1241778841/04 Slavkov, N. (2023). Linguistic risk-taking: A new pedagogical approach and a research program. Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 26(2), 32–59. https://doi.org/10.37213/cjal.2023.33038 Slavkov, N., & Séror, J. (2019). The development of the linguistic risk-taking initiative at the University of Ottawa. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 75(3), 254–272. https://doi.org/10.3138/cmlr.2018-0202 Sockett, G. (2014). ''The online informal learning of English''. Palgrave Macmillan UK. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137414885 UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning. (2012). ''UNESCO Guidelines for the recognition, validation and accreditation of the outcomes of non-formal and informal learning''. UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL). http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002163/216360e.pdf ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Margareta Strasser (Paris Lodron Universität Salzburg) * Paulina Wagner (Universität Wien) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] mynlu6u2niym84vjd28zk5bo4wmlc8g 0 326176 2817247 2800054 2026-06-29T15:56:10Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Credits */ 2817247 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == === '''1. Watch the following YouTube video:''' === What is English as a Lingua Franca? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4kISzi01Aqc&t=27s === '''2. Reflect about your own usage of English in your daily life:''' === * Who do you speak English with? Do you or they speak English as a L1? * Why is English used among speakers who do not speak it as a L1?   * In what ways is using English as a Lingua Franca different from using it as a native or second language?     == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * Define English as a Lingua Franca; * Compare the concepts of “English as a Lingua Franca”, “English as an International Language”, “World Englishes”, and “English as a Multilingua Franca”; * Identify challenges and opportunities in the teaching and learning of English as a lingua franca. = Key words = lingua franca; English as a Lingua Franca; English as an International Language; World Englishes == Table of content == # Introduction # History of the concept # Definitions and critical discussion of concepts # Pedagogical implications of Teaching English as a Lingua Franca # Take home messages # Self assessment # Resources to go further # References == Introduction == It may seem like a basic observation, but let us begin by remembering that communication needs in the 21^st century are different from those of previous centuries, due to human movements, the faster circulation of goods and ideas, and the growing use of computer-mediated communication, to name but a few reasons. However, it would be a mistake to assume that only nowadays is a language designated as a lingua franca used to ensure communication in situations of linguistic contact between people. Indeed, plurilingualism was a characteristic of human societies through history (Pavlenko, 2023). In situations where the interlocutors do not share the same L1, there are several possibilities for communication, with varying combinations of different languages. For example, the interlocutors may resort to: * intercomprehension: (a form of multilingual communication in which each interlocutor expresses themselves in one language and understands the other, usually due to linguistic similarities and contextual clues); * interlinguistic mediation: a form of communication in which one person makes communication intelligible to both parties; * a lingua franca: a language common to all participants in the interaction, which may be the L1 of one or more interlocutors or a foreign language for all those involved. This lesson addresses the specificity of communication using English as a lingua franca, and discusses the pedagogical implications of teaching English as a lingua franca. We begin by explaining the evolution of the context, before moving on to present a distinction and discussion of different concepts related to lingua franca, associated with English. We will then reflect on the pedagogical implications of this distinction. == History of the concept == The term ''lingua franca'' originally means "Frankish language," referring to the language of the Franks. This is because, since the time of the Crusades, people in the Middle East used this term to refer to all Westerners they came into contact with (Frath, 2025). Over the centuries, various languages have served as ''lingua francas'', each playing this role in different contexts, regions, and fields of specialization. Depending on the time period and the needs of the communities involved, these languages facilitated communication in areas such as trade, diplomacy, science, religion, and administration, allowing people from diverse linguistic backgrounds to understand one another and collaborate more or less effectively. According to Bayyurt (2025), English became a global language through historical forces such as British colonization from the 16th century onward and the rise of the United States as a global superpower after World War II. The spread of the Internet further reinforced its dominance, especially in fields like business, education, media, and technology. Today, billions use English as a first, second, or additional language, making it a key tool for cross-cultural communication. Considering the ratio between the number of native speakers of English, which is the language we are dealing with in this lesson, and the number of interpersonal contacts established on a global scale, it must be acknowledged that the number of situations in which native speakers of the language are present is considerably lower than the overall number of situations. As put forward by Kirkpatrick and Deterding (2024, p. 195), “there are more users of English as an additional language than native speakers”. And according to Rajagopalan (2025, p. 19), “English is today (...) the most widely spoken language right across the world. This is not to deny that there are other languages, notably Mandarin Chinese and Spanish, whose speakers outnumber those of English, but if we include speakers who regularly use it as a second language or resort to it occasionally, the picture changes dramatically”.. According toSelvi and Galloway (2025, p. 1), “since the mid-1970s, applied linguistics and language teaching scholars developed several related research paradigms with ideological synergies to systematically scrutinize the global spread, and use, of the English language” . In the following section, such research paradigms will be presented. == Definitions and critical discussion of concepts == Over time, English has adapted to diverse contexts, leading to two major areas of scholarly focus. The first is ''World Englishes (WE)'', which examines localized, nativized varieties of English that emerged in post-colonial settings, attached to the classification of Kachru (1985; Figure 1). Studies on World Englishes claim that English “should not be seen in terms of a single monolithic standard, as variation is the norm. And just as there are many varieties of British English, there are also many World Englishes, which in turn have sub-varieties” (Kirkpatrick & Deterding, 2024, p. 188). This concept inspired a lot of comparative studies of the different varieties, aligned with comparative and contrastive linguistics. https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fit:720/format:webp/1*nw28GD2t0tgsN70-48lCLQ.jpeg Figure 1. “Three circle model of World Englishes” (following Kachru, 1985). The second is ''English as a Lingua Franca (ELF)'', which explores how English is used as a flexible, dynamic means of communication among speakers from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. ELF research defines this usage as a “shared common language” (Seidlhofer, 2011) aimed at facilitating mutual understanding rather than conforming to native-speaker norms. According to this author, ELF is “any use of English among speakers of different first languages for whom English is the communicative medium of choice” (Seidlhofer, 2011, p. 7). Speakers use strategies like repetition, paraphrasing, and accommodation to ensure clarity and effective communication (Jenkins, Baker & Dewey, 2018). The research paradigm around English as a Lingua Franca inspired a lot of studies using interaction and conversation analysis. The following quotations compares the concepts “World Englishes” and “English as a Lingua Franca”:<blockquote>A key distinction between ELF and World Englishes is that the latter are spoken by people who share linguistic and cultural backgrounds and reflect the lives experiences of their speakers, including words borrowed from local languages in order to express cultural phenomena (...), while ELF occurs with speakers from different backgrounds (Kirkpatrick & Deterding, 2024, p. 195).</blockquote>By the same time, also the concept of “English as an International Language” saw the light, focusing on “the contexts and functions of English and the associated implications of the globalization of English” (Selvi & Galloway, 2025, p. 1). As a third phase, ''English as a Multilingual Franca'' can be named, focusing on variation and adaptability in multilingual interaction (Jenkins, 2015). Rather than imitating native English, ELF users draw creatively on their full linguistic repertoires, emphasizing intelligibility and cooperation. A central feature of ELF is its multilingual nature. It constantly evolves through contact with other languages and cultures, reflecting a globalized, transcultural reality. However, as an emerging research paradigm, ELF faces challenges in establishing its theoretical framework and practical applications. Further research is needed to  situate it within the broader field of applied language studies. All the four concepts are plurilingual in nature, even if they seem to display a monolingual surface form (Kirkpatrick & Deterding, 2024, p. 196). “World Englishes”, as in the case of Singapore English, carries traces of English in contact with local languages, resulting in a flexible use of shared languages within a specific geographical context. English as a Lingua Franca and English as an International Language, although they may appear monolingual - since the communicative situation involves only one language due to the lack (or partial sharing) of other linguistic resources - are still inherently multilingual. This is because speakers often transfer expressions and structures from their first languages. Finally, the concept of English as a Multilingual Franca embraces the speakers’ multilingualism and linguistic contact not only as a starting point for communication but also as a driving force in the evolution of the language itself. On a critical stance, the concept of ELF is criticised for its supposedly apolitical and “neutral” approach to English (Philipson, 2007). Framing ELF can be ideologically problematic and dangerous if it is seen as a culturally neutral tool that provides equal access to all (Philipson, 2008), whereas actually English can be seen as lingua economica (in economy), lingua academica (in academia) or lingua cultura (e.g. entertainment) and lingua americana etc''.'' In this sense, the concept “linguistic imperialism” (Philipson, 1992) refers to the domination of certain languages nationally and internationally on others, often leading to the suppression of other languages and forcing their speakers towards language shift in dominant languages. Problematizing also the concept of Word Englishes and the myths of International English as “natural”, “neutral” and “beneficial”, Pennycook (2006, p. 109) suggests that “we need to disinvent English, to demythologise it, and then to look at how a reinvention of English may help us understand more clearly what it is we are dealing with here”. On the other hand, the notion of linguistic imperialism has been criticized for being structuralistic overlooking the complexity and local dynamics of language use as well as agency for resistance (Blommaert, 2010). In response, it is considered important to understand how ELF functions / can function in complementary rather than competitive relations to other languages, approaching it as a “common property” disconnected from English as a native language and building on a research- based description of ELF actual use (Seidlhofer, 2007). == Pedagogical implications of teaching English as a Lingua Franca == Conceptualizing ELF as above-mentioned and bearing in mind the critical stance presented, it is clear that pedagogical practices need to be adjusted. As put on by Rajagopan (2025): In light of the dramatic changes in the way English has evolved (...), it goes without saying that teachers of English worldwide - and this, to be sure, includes those working in “native” English settings - have to wake up (...) to the fact that we urgently need to go back to the drawing board and redesign our plans, so as to set up more appropriate goals for and identify more adequate priorities in ELT [English Language Teaching] (Rajagopalan, 2025, p. 31). This quotation points to the concept of ELF awareness and ELF aware teaching which involves engaging with ELF research and understanding ways of integration into the classroom, with activities that mirror and localise “one’s interpretation of the ELF construct” (Sifakis & Bayyurt, 2018, p. 459). In practice, pedagogical implications would include activities that develop metalinguistic awareness and metacognitive awareness and authentic tasks to reflect on learners’ own beliefs on language use and communication in English. Going beyond the “native speaker” myth, and facilitating students to develop communication skills and strategies to a wider use of English within diverse ELF contexts, dealing with flexible practices is also important in the ELF classroom (Antonello, 2024). Focusing on intelligibility, it is important to move away from an exclusively norm-focused language environment towards a more open and inclusive approach, in order to be prepared to interact appropriately and effectively in intercultural contexts. Concerning language teaching and assessment of English as a Multilingual Franca, it would involve capitalising on students’ plurilingual repertoires both in teaching and assessment practices focusing more “on the ability to negotiate diversity in contact encounters in terms of both English (in its lingua franca guise) and multilingualism” (Jenkins, 2015, p. 79), prioritizing negotiation and co-construction and legitimising translanguaging and fluid, hybrid language practises. == Take home messages == * The use of a lingua franca to bridge language differences is not new (it has long been a practical solution in multilingual contexts). * The use of lingua franca has historical roots, and today it is English who plays this role globally, not because most people are native speakers, but because it serves as a common tool for communication in our interconnected world. * The research on English as a widespread language followed an evolution, from acknowledging the different varieties of the language (World Englishes), to its study as a shared resource among interlocutors (Lingua Franca and International Language), to being acknowledged as a flexible and dynamic resource being shaped by plurilingual contact situations (English as a Multilingual Franca). More recently, English as an International Language was also proposed. * Teaching English as a Lingua Franca implies helping the students to develop effective communication skills that prioritize mutual understanding over native-speaker norms. In practice, it means teaching strategies such as paraphrasing, clarification, repair of misunderstandings, and accommodation to navigate real-world plurilingual interactions. == Self-assessment == === Self test === All concepts used to refer to the global spread of English see the use of just one language in communication as negative. A. True B. False The concept of English as a lingua franca challenges the symbolic superior position of the native-speaker in contrast to the so-called non-native speaker. A. True B. False When teaching English as a Lingua Franca, intelligibility should be privileged over the native-speaker norms. A. True B. False The concept of English as a Multilingua Franca emphasizes translanguaging practices. A. True B. False ''Correct answers: 1B; 2A; 3A; 4A'' === Self reflection: === Below you can read an advertisement for IELTS exams, a famous standardized test for English (Jenkins, 2015, p. 79). (IELTS stands for International English Language Testing System). What perspectives of English are reflected and how do they contradict with ELF?<blockquote>IELTS is offered at over 900 locations around the world, and IELTS scores are accepted by over 9,000 organisations globally – including over 3,000 institutions in the US… Test questions are developed by specialists in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the UK and the US, making it a truly international test.</blockquote> == '''Resources to go further''' == * Jenkins, J., Baker, W., & Dewey, M. (Eds.). (2018). ''The Routledge Handbook of English as a Lingua Franca''. Routledge. * Kachru, B. (2005). ''Whose English is it? Asian Englishes: Beyond the Canon''. Hong Kong University Press. * Selvi, A.F., & Galloway, N. (Eds.) (2025). ''The Routledge Handbook of Teaching English as an International Language''. Routledge. = Bibliography = Antonello, M. (2024). Development of ELF-aware materials to foster the use of communication strategies in the ELT classroom.  ''Research Papers in Language Teaching and Learning 14''(2), 30-41. Bayyurt, Y. (2025). English as a Lingua Franca. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue/ Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education''. Peter Lang. Open access. Blommaert, J. (2010). ''The Sociolinguistics of Globalization''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Frath, P. (2025). Anglais comme lingua franca. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue/ Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education''. Peter Lang. Open access. Jenkins, J. (2015). Repositioning English and multilingualism in English as a lingua franca. ''Englishes in Practice'', 2(3), pp. 49-85. Jenkins, J., Baker, W., & Dewey, M. (Eds.). (2018). ''The Routledge handbook of English as a lingua franca''. Routledge. Kachru, B. (1985). Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: English language in the outer circle. In R. Quirk & H. Widowson (Eds.), ''English in the world: Teaching and learning the language and literatures'' (p.11-36). Cambridge University Press. Kirkpatrick, A., & Deterding, D. (2024). World Englishes and English as a lingua franca. In Li Wei, Z. Hua & J. Simpson (Eds.), ''The Routledge Handbook of Applied Linguistics'' (pp. 187-199). Routledge. Pavlenko, A. (Ed.) (2023). ''Multilingualism and History''. Cambridge University Press. Pennycook, A. (2006), The Myth of English as an International Language. In Makoni, P. S., & Pennycook, P. A. (Eds.) ''Disinventing and reconstituting languages'' (pp. 90-115).  Channel View Publications. Phillipson, R. (2007). English, no longer a foreign language in Europe? In J. Cummins, & C. Davison (Eds.), ''International Handbook of English Language Teaching'' (pp. 123-136). Springer. Phillipson, R. (2008). The linguistic imperialism of neoliberal empire. ''Critical Inquiry in Language Studies, 5''(1), 1-43. Phillipson, R. (1992). ''Linguistic imperialism''. London, Oxford University Press. Rajagopalan, K. (2025). Teaching English as a world language. In A. Selvi & N. Galloway (Eds.), ''The Routledge Handbook of Teaching English as an International Language'' (pp. 19-33). Routledge. Seidlhofer, B. (2007). Common property: English as a lingua franca in Europe. In J. Cummins, & C. Davison (Eds.), ''International Handbook of English Language Teaching'' (pp. 137-149). Springer International Handbooks of Education Vol. 15. Seidlhofer, B. (2011). ''Understanding English as a Lingua Franca''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Selvi, A.F., & Galloway, N. (2025). Introduction. In A. Selvi & N. Galloway (Eds.), ''The Routledge Handbook of Teaching English as an International Language'' (pp. 1-15). Routledge. Sifakis, N. C. & Bayyurt, Y. (2018). ELF-aware teacher education and development. In J. Jenkins, W. Baker, and M. Dewey (Eds.), The Routledge handbook on English as a lingua franca (pp. 456–67). Abington: Routledge. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Anastasia Gkaintartzi (University of Thessaly) * Sílvia Melo-Pfeifer (Universität Hamburg). [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:English]] [[Category:Languages]] e0yzxwyzezpfbvlqvazi09xx3f25rf4 2817273 2817247 2026-06-29T16:25:54Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self test */ 2817273 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == === '''1. Watch the following YouTube video:''' === What is English as a Lingua Franca? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4kISzi01Aqc&t=27s === '''2. Reflect about your own usage of English in your daily life:''' === * Who do you speak English with? Do you or they speak English as a L1? * Why is English used among speakers who do not speak it as a L1?   * In what ways is using English as a Lingua Franca different from using it as a native or second language?     == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * Define English as a Lingua Franca; * Compare the concepts of “English as a Lingua Franca”, “English as an International Language”, “World Englishes”, and “English as a Multilingua Franca”; * Identify challenges and opportunities in the teaching and learning of English as a lingua franca. = Key words = lingua franca; English as a Lingua Franca; English as an International Language; World Englishes == Table of content == # Introduction # History of the concept # Definitions and critical discussion of concepts # Pedagogical implications of Teaching English as a Lingua Franca # Take home messages # Self assessment # Resources to go further # References == Introduction == It may seem like a basic observation, but let us begin by remembering that communication needs in the 21^st century are different from those of previous centuries, due to human movements, the faster circulation of goods and ideas, and the growing use of computer-mediated communication, to name but a few reasons. However, it would be a mistake to assume that only nowadays is a language designated as a lingua franca used to ensure communication in situations of linguistic contact between people. Indeed, plurilingualism was a characteristic of human societies through history (Pavlenko, 2023). In situations where the interlocutors do not share the same L1, there are several possibilities for communication, with varying combinations of different languages. For example, the interlocutors may resort to: * intercomprehension: (a form of multilingual communication in which each interlocutor expresses themselves in one language and understands the other, usually due to linguistic similarities and contextual clues); * interlinguistic mediation: a form of communication in which one person makes communication intelligible to both parties; * a lingua franca: a language common to all participants in the interaction, which may be the L1 of one or more interlocutors or a foreign language for all those involved. This lesson addresses the specificity of communication using English as a lingua franca, and discusses the pedagogical implications of teaching English as a lingua franca. We begin by explaining the evolution of the context, before moving on to present a distinction and discussion of different concepts related to lingua franca, associated with English. We will then reflect on the pedagogical implications of this distinction. == History of the concept == The term ''lingua franca'' originally means "Frankish language," referring to the language of the Franks. This is because, since the time of the Crusades, people in the Middle East used this term to refer to all Westerners they came into contact with (Frath, 2025). Over the centuries, various languages have served as ''lingua francas'', each playing this role in different contexts, regions, and fields of specialization. Depending on the time period and the needs of the communities involved, these languages facilitated communication in areas such as trade, diplomacy, science, religion, and administration, allowing people from diverse linguistic backgrounds to understand one another and collaborate more or less effectively. According to Bayyurt (2025), English became a global language through historical forces such as British colonization from the 16th century onward and the rise of the United States as a global superpower after World War II. The spread of the Internet further reinforced its dominance, especially in fields like business, education, media, and technology. Today, billions use English as a first, second, or additional language, making it a key tool for cross-cultural communication. Considering the ratio between the number of native speakers of English, which is the language we are dealing with in this lesson, and the number of interpersonal contacts established on a global scale, it must be acknowledged that the number of situations in which native speakers of the language are present is considerably lower than the overall number of situations. As put forward by Kirkpatrick and Deterding (2024, p. 195), “there are more users of English as an additional language than native speakers”. And according to Rajagopalan (2025, p. 19), “English is today (...) the most widely spoken language right across the world. This is not to deny that there are other languages, notably Mandarin Chinese and Spanish, whose speakers outnumber those of English, but if we include speakers who regularly use it as a second language or resort to it occasionally, the picture changes dramatically”.. According toSelvi and Galloway (2025, p. 1), “since the mid-1970s, applied linguistics and language teaching scholars developed several related research paradigms with ideological synergies to systematically scrutinize the global spread, and use, of the English language” . In the following section, such research paradigms will be presented. == Definitions and critical discussion of concepts == Over time, English has adapted to diverse contexts, leading to two major areas of scholarly focus. The first is ''World Englishes (WE)'', which examines localized, nativized varieties of English that emerged in post-colonial settings, attached to the classification of Kachru (1985; Figure 1). Studies on World Englishes claim that English “should not be seen in terms of a single monolithic standard, as variation is the norm. And just as there are many varieties of British English, there are also many World Englishes, which in turn have sub-varieties” (Kirkpatrick & Deterding, 2024, p. 188). This concept inspired a lot of comparative studies of the different varieties, aligned with comparative and contrastive linguistics. https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fit:720/format:webp/1*nw28GD2t0tgsN70-48lCLQ.jpeg Figure 1. “Three circle model of World Englishes” (following Kachru, 1985). The second is ''English as a Lingua Franca (ELF)'', which explores how English is used as a flexible, dynamic means of communication among speakers from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. ELF research defines this usage as a “shared common language” (Seidlhofer, 2011) aimed at facilitating mutual understanding rather than conforming to native-speaker norms. According to this author, ELF is “any use of English among speakers of different first languages for whom English is the communicative medium of choice” (Seidlhofer, 2011, p. 7). Speakers use strategies like repetition, paraphrasing, and accommodation to ensure clarity and effective communication (Jenkins, Baker & Dewey, 2018). The research paradigm around English as a Lingua Franca inspired a lot of studies using interaction and conversation analysis. The following quotations compares the concepts “World Englishes” and “English as a Lingua Franca”:<blockquote>A key distinction between ELF and World Englishes is that the latter are spoken by people who share linguistic and cultural backgrounds and reflect the lives experiences of their speakers, including words borrowed from local languages in order to express cultural phenomena (...), while ELF occurs with speakers from different backgrounds (Kirkpatrick & Deterding, 2024, p. 195).</blockquote>By the same time, also the concept of “English as an International Language” saw the light, focusing on “the contexts and functions of English and the associated implications of the globalization of English” (Selvi & Galloway, 2025, p. 1). As a third phase, ''English as a Multilingual Franca'' can be named, focusing on variation and adaptability in multilingual interaction (Jenkins, 2015). Rather than imitating native English, ELF users draw creatively on their full linguistic repertoires, emphasizing intelligibility and cooperation. A central feature of ELF is its multilingual nature. It constantly evolves through contact with other languages and cultures, reflecting a globalized, transcultural reality. However, as an emerging research paradigm, ELF faces challenges in establishing its theoretical framework and practical applications. Further research is needed to  situate it within the broader field of applied language studies. All the four concepts are plurilingual in nature, even if they seem to display a monolingual surface form (Kirkpatrick & Deterding, 2024, p. 196). “World Englishes”, as in the case of Singapore English, carries traces of English in contact with local languages, resulting in a flexible use of shared languages within a specific geographical context. English as a Lingua Franca and English as an International Language, although they may appear monolingual - since the communicative situation involves only one language due to the lack (or partial sharing) of other linguistic resources - are still inherently multilingual. This is because speakers often transfer expressions and structures from their first languages. Finally, the concept of English as a Multilingual Franca embraces the speakers’ multilingualism and linguistic contact not only as a starting point for communication but also as a driving force in the evolution of the language itself. On a critical stance, the concept of ELF is criticised for its supposedly apolitical and “neutral” approach to English (Philipson, 2007). Framing ELF can be ideologically problematic and dangerous if it is seen as a culturally neutral tool that provides equal access to all (Philipson, 2008), whereas actually English can be seen as lingua economica (in economy), lingua academica (in academia) or lingua cultura (e.g. entertainment) and lingua americana etc''.'' In this sense, the concept “linguistic imperialism” (Philipson, 1992) refers to the domination of certain languages nationally and internationally on others, often leading to the suppression of other languages and forcing their speakers towards language shift in dominant languages. Problematizing also the concept of Word Englishes and the myths of International English as “natural”, “neutral” and “beneficial”, Pennycook (2006, p. 109) suggests that “we need to disinvent English, to demythologise it, and then to look at how a reinvention of English may help us understand more clearly what it is we are dealing with here”. On the other hand, the notion of linguistic imperialism has been criticized for being structuralistic overlooking the complexity and local dynamics of language use as well as agency for resistance (Blommaert, 2010). In response, it is considered important to understand how ELF functions / can function in complementary rather than competitive relations to other languages, approaching it as a “common property” disconnected from English as a native language and building on a research- based description of ELF actual use (Seidlhofer, 2007). == Pedagogical implications of teaching English as a Lingua Franca == Conceptualizing ELF as above-mentioned and bearing in mind the critical stance presented, it is clear that pedagogical practices need to be adjusted. As put on by Rajagopan (2025): In light of the dramatic changes in the way English has evolved (...), it goes without saying that teachers of English worldwide - and this, to be sure, includes those working in “native” English settings - have to wake up (...) to the fact that we urgently need to go back to the drawing board and redesign our plans, so as to set up more appropriate goals for and identify more adequate priorities in ELT [English Language Teaching] (Rajagopalan, 2025, p. 31). This quotation points to the concept of ELF awareness and ELF aware teaching which involves engaging with ELF research and understanding ways of integration into the classroom, with activities that mirror and localise “one’s interpretation of the ELF construct” (Sifakis & Bayyurt, 2018, p. 459). In practice, pedagogical implications would include activities that develop metalinguistic awareness and metacognitive awareness and authentic tasks to reflect on learners’ own beliefs on language use and communication in English. Going beyond the “native speaker” myth, and facilitating students to develop communication skills and strategies to a wider use of English within diverse ELF contexts, dealing with flexible practices is also important in the ELF classroom (Antonello, 2024). Focusing on intelligibility, it is important to move away from an exclusively norm-focused language environment towards a more open and inclusive approach, in order to be prepared to interact appropriately and effectively in intercultural contexts. Concerning language teaching and assessment of English as a Multilingual Franca, it would involve capitalising on students’ plurilingual repertoires both in teaching and assessment practices focusing more “on the ability to negotiate diversity in contact encounters in terms of both English (in its lingua franca guise) and multilingualism” (Jenkins, 2015, p. 79), prioritizing negotiation and co-construction and legitimising translanguaging and fluid, hybrid language practises. == Take home messages == * The use of a lingua franca to bridge language differences is not new (it has long been a practical solution in multilingual contexts). * The use of lingua franca has historical roots, and today it is English who plays this role globally, not because most people are native speakers, but because it serves as a common tool for communication in our interconnected world. * The research on English as a widespread language followed an evolution, from acknowledging the different varieties of the language (World Englishes), to its study as a shared resource among interlocutors (Lingua Franca and International Language), to being acknowledged as a flexible and dynamic resource being shaped by plurilingual contact situations (English as a Multilingual Franca). More recently, English as an International Language was also proposed. * Teaching English as a Lingua Franca implies helping the students to develop effective communication skills that prioritize mutual understanding over native-speaker norms. In practice, it means teaching strategies such as paraphrasing, clarification, repair of misunderstandings, and accommodation to navigate real-world plurilingual interactions. == Self-assessment == === Self test === <quiz> {All concepts used to refer to the global spread of English see the use of just one language in communication as negative.} -A. True +B. False {The concept of English as a lingua franca challenges the symbolic superior position of the native-speaker in contrast to the so-called non-native speaker.} +A. True -B. False {When teaching English as a Lingua Franca, intelligibility should be privileged over the native-speaker norms.} +A. True -B. False {The concept of English as a Lingua Franca emphasizes translanguaging practices.} +A. True -B. False </quiz> === Self reflection: === Below you can read an advertisement for IELTS exams, a famous standardized test for English (Jenkins, 2015, p. 79). (IELTS stands for International English Language Testing System). What perspectives of English are reflected and how do they contradict with ELF?<blockquote>IELTS is offered at over 900 locations around the world, and IELTS scores are accepted by over 9,000 organisations globally – including over 3,000 institutions in the US… Test questions are developed by specialists in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the UK and the US, making it a truly international test.</blockquote> == '''Resources to go further''' == * Jenkins, J., Baker, W., & Dewey, M. (Eds.). (2018). ''The Routledge Handbook of English as a Lingua Franca''. Routledge. * Kachru, B. (2005). ''Whose English is it? Asian Englishes: Beyond the Canon''. Hong Kong University Press. * Selvi, A.F., & Galloway, N. (Eds.) (2025). ''The Routledge Handbook of Teaching English as an International Language''. Routledge. = Bibliography = Antonello, M. (2024). Development of ELF-aware materials to foster the use of communication strategies in the ELT classroom.  ''Research Papers in Language Teaching and Learning 14''(2), 30-41. Bayyurt, Y. (2025). English as a Lingua Franca. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue/ Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education''. Peter Lang. Open access. Blommaert, J. (2010). ''The Sociolinguistics of Globalization''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Frath, P. (2025). Anglais comme lingua franca. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue/ Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education''. Peter Lang. Open access. Jenkins, J. (2015). Repositioning English and multilingualism in English as a lingua franca. ''Englishes in Practice'', 2(3), pp. 49-85. Jenkins, J., Baker, W., & Dewey, M. (Eds.). (2018). ''The Routledge handbook of English as a lingua franca''. Routledge. Kachru, B. (1985). Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: English language in the outer circle. In R. Quirk & H. Widowson (Eds.), ''English in the world: Teaching and learning the language and literatures'' (p.11-36). Cambridge University Press. Kirkpatrick, A., & Deterding, D. (2024). World Englishes and English as a lingua franca. In Li Wei, Z. Hua & J. Simpson (Eds.), ''The Routledge Handbook of Applied Linguistics'' (pp. 187-199). Routledge. Pavlenko, A. (Ed.) (2023). ''Multilingualism and History''. Cambridge University Press. Pennycook, A. (2006), The Myth of English as an International Language. In Makoni, P. S., & Pennycook, P. A. (Eds.) ''Disinventing and reconstituting languages'' (pp. 90-115).  Channel View Publications. Phillipson, R. (2007). English, no longer a foreign language in Europe? In J. Cummins, & C. Davison (Eds.), ''International Handbook of English Language Teaching'' (pp. 123-136). Springer. Phillipson, R. (2008). The linguistic imperialism of neoliberal empire. ''Critical Inquiry in Language Studies, 5''(1), 1-43. Phillipson, R. (1992). ''Linguistic imperialism''. London, Oxford University Press. Rajagopalan, K. (2025). Teaching English as a world language. In A. Selvi & N. Galloway (Eds.), ''The Routledge Handbook of Teaching English as an International Language'' (pp. 19-33). Routledge. Seidlhofer, B. (2007). Common property: English as a lingua franca in Europe. In J. Cummins, & C. Davison (Eds.), ''International Handbook of English Language Teaching'' (pp. 137-149). Springer International Handbooks of Education Vol. 15. Seidlhofer, B. (2011). ''Understanding English as a Lingua Franca''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Selvi, A.F., & Galloway, N. (2025). Introduction. In A. Selvi & N. Galloway (Eds.), ''The Routledge Handbook of Teaching English as an International Language'' (pp. 1-15). Routledge. Sifakis, N. C. & Bayyurt, Y. (2018). ELF-aware teacher education and development. In J. Jenkins, W. Baker, and M. Dewey (Eds.), The Routledge handbook on English as a lingua franca (pp. 456–67). Abington: Routledge. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Anastasia Gkaintartzi (University of Thessaly) * Sílvia Melo-Pfeifer (Universität Hamburg). [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:English]] [[Category:Languages]] 90mmv4yujy0mhvp3fc1yfp1ts2m3pxw 2817274 2817273 2026-06-29T16:26:48Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self test */ 2817274 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == === '''1. Watch the following YouTube video:''' === What is English as a Lingua Franca? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4kISzi01Aqc&t=27s === '''2. Reflect about your own usage of English in your daily life:''' === * Who do you speak English with? Do you or they speak English as a L1? * Why is English used among speakers who do not speak it as a L1?   * In what ways is using English as a Lingua Franca different from using it as a native or second language?     == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * Define English as a Lingua Franca; * Compare the concepts of “English as a Lingua Franca”, “English as an International Language”, “World Englishes”, and “English as a Multilingua Franca”; * Identify challenges and opportunities in the teaching and learning of English as a lingua franca. = Key words = lingua franca; English as a Lingua Franca; English as an International Language; World Englishes == Table of content == # Introduction # History of the concept # Definitions and critical discussion of concepts # Pedagogical implications of Teaching English as a Lingua Franca # Take home messages # Self assessment # Resources to go further # References == Introduction == It may seem like a basic observation, but let us begin by remembering that communication needs in the 21^st century are different from those of previous centuries, due to human movements, the faster circulation of goods and ideas, and the growing use of computer-mediated communication, to name but a few reasons. However, it would be a mistake to assume that only nowadays is a language designated as a lingua franca used to ensure communication in situations of linguistic contact between people. Indeed, plurilingualism was a characteristic of human societies through history (Pavlenko, 2023). In situations where the interlocutors do not share the same L1, there are several possibilities for communication, with varying combinations of different languages. For example, the interlocutors may resort to: * intercomprehension: (a form of multilingual communication in which each interlocutor expresses themselves in one language and understands the other, usually due to linguistic similarities and contextual clues); * interlinguistic mediation: a form of communication in which one person makes communication intelligible to both parties; * a lingua franca: a language common to all participants in the interaction, which may be the L1 of one or more interlocutors or a foreign language for all those involved. This lesson addresses the specificity of communication using English as a lingua franca, and discusses the pedagogical implications of teaching English as a lingua franca. We begin by explaining the evolution of the context, before moving on to present a distinction and discussion of different concepts related to lingua franca, associated with English. We will then reflect on the pedagogical implications of this distinction. == History of the concept == The term ''lingua franca'' originally means "Frankish language," referring to the language of the Franks. This is because, since the time of the Crusades, people in the Middle East used this term to refer to all Westerners they came into contact with (Frath, 2025). Over the centuries, various languages have served as ''lingua francas'', each playing this role in different contexts, regions, and fields of specialization. Depending on the time period and the needs of the communities involved, these languages facilitated communication in areas such as trade, diplomacy, science, religion, and administration, allowing people from diverse linguistic backgrounds to understand one another and collaborate more or less effectively. According to Bayyurt (2025), English became a global language through historical forces such as British colonization from the 16th century onward and the rise of the United States as a global superpower after World War II. The spread of the Internet further reinforced its dominance, especially in fields like business, education, media, and technology. Today, billions use English as a first, second, or additional language, making it a key tool for cross-cultural communication. Considering the ratio between the number of native speakers of English, which is the language we are dealing with in this lesson, and the number of interpersonal contacts established on a global scale, it must be acknowledged that the number of situations in which native speakers of the language are present is considerably lower than the overall number of situations. As put forward by Kirkpatrick and Deterding (2024, p. 195), “there are more users of English as an additional language than native speakers”. And according to Rajagopalan (2025, p. 19), “English is today (...) the most widely spoken language right across the world. This is not to deny that there are other languages, notably Mandarin Chinese and Spanish, whose speakers outnumber those of English, but if we include speakers who regularly use it as a second language or resort to it occasionally, the picture changes dramatically”.. According toSelvi and Galloway (2025, p. 1), “since the mid-1970s, applied linguistics and language teaching scholars developed several related research paradigms with ideological synergies to systematically scrutinize the global spread, and use, of the English language” . In the following section, such research paradigms will be presented. == Definitions and critical discussion of concepts == Over time, English has adapted to diverse contexts, leading to two major areas of scholarly focus. The first is ''World Englishes (WE)'', which examines localized, nativized varieties of English that emerged in post-colonial settings, attached to the classification of Kachru (1985; Figure 1). Studies on World Englishes claim that English “should not be seen in terms of a single monolithic standard, as variation is the norm. And just as there are many varieties of British English, there are also many World Englishes, which in turn have sub-varieties” (Kirkpatrick & Deterding, 2024, p. 188). This concept inspired a lot of comparative studies of the different varieties, aligned with comparative and contrastive linguistics. https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fit:720/format:webp/1*nw28GD2t0tgsN70-48lCLQ.jpeg Figure 1. “Three circle model of World Englishes” (following Kachru, 1985). The second is ''English as a Lingua Franca (ELF)'', which explores how English is used as a flexible, dynamic means of communication among speakers from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. ELF research defines this usage as a “shared common language” (Seidlhofer, 2011) aimed at facilitating mutual understanding rather than conforming to native-speaker norms. According to this author, ELF is “any use of English among speakers of different first languages for whom English is the communicative medium of choice” (Seidlhofer, 2011, p. 7). Speakers use strategies like repetition, paraphrasing, and accommodation to ensure clarity and effective communication (Jenkins, Baker & Dewey, 2018). The research paradigm around English as a Lingua Franca inspired a lot of studies using interaction and conversation analysis. The following quotations compares the concepts “World Englishes” and “English as a Lingua Franca”:<blockquote>A key distinction between ELF and World Englishes is that the latter are spoken by people who share linguistic and cultural backgrounds and reflect the lives experiences of their speakers, including words borrowed from local languages in order to express cultural phenomena (...), while ELF occurs with speakers from different backgrounds (Kirkpatrick & Deterding, 2024, p. 195).</blockquote>By the same time, also the concept of “English as an International Language” saw the light, focusing on “the contexts and functions of English and the associated implications of the globalization of English” (Selvi & Galloway, 2025, p. 1). As a third phase, ''English as a Multilingual Franca'' can be named, focusing on variation and adaptability in multilingual interaction (Jenkins, 2015). Rather than imitating native English, ELF users draw creatively on their full linguistic repertoires, emphasizing intelligibility and cooperation. A central feature of ELF is its multilingual nature. It constantly evolves through contact with other languages and cultures, reflecting a globalized, transcultural reality. However, as an emerging research paradigm, ELF faces challenges in establishing its theoretical framework and practical applications. Further research is needed to  situate it within the broader field of applied language studies. All the four concepts are plurilingual in nature, even if they seem to display a monolingual surface form (Kirkpatrick & Deterding, 2024, p. 196). “World Englishes”, as in the case of Singapore English, carries traces of English in contact with local languages, resulting in a flexible use of shared languages within a specific geographical context. English as a Lingua Franca and English as an International Language, although they may appear monolingual - since the communicative situation involves only one language due to the lack (or partial sharing) of other linguistic resources - are still inherently multilingual. This is because speakers often transfer expressions and structures from their first languages. Finally, the concept of English as a Multilingual Franca embraces the speakers’ multilingualism and linguistic contact not only as a starting point for communication but also as a driving force in the evolution of the language itself. On a critical stance, the concept of ELF is criticised for its supposedly apolitical and “neutral” approach to English (Philipson, 2007). Framing ELF can be ideologically problematic and dangerous if it is seen as a culturally neutral tool that provides equal access to all (Philipson, 2008), whereas actually English can be seen as lingua economica (in economy), lingua academica (in academia) or lingua cultura (e.g. entertainment) and lingua americana etc''.'' In this sense, the concept “linguistic imperialism” (Philipson, 1992) refers to the domination of certain languages nationally and internationally on others, often leading to the suppression of other languages and forcing their speakers towards language shift in dominant languages. Problematizing also the concept of Word Englishes and the myths of International English as “natural”, “neutral” and “beneficial”, Pennycook (2006, p. 109) suggests that “we need to disinvent English, to demythologise it, and then to look at how a reinvention of English may help us understand more clearly what it is we are dealing with here”. On the other hand, the notion of linguistic imperialism has been criticized for being structuralistic overlooking the complexity and local dynamics of language use as well as agency for resistance (Blommaert, 2010). In response, it is considered important to understand how ELF functions / can function in complementary rather than competitive relations to other languages, approaching it as a “common property” disconnected from English as a native language and building on a research- based description of ELF actual use (Seidlhofer, 2007). == Pedagogical implications of teaching English as a Lingua Franca == Conceptualizing ELF as above-mentioned and bearing in mind the critical stance presented, it is clear that pedagogical practices need to be adjusted. As put on by Rajagopan (2025): In light of the dramatic changes in the way English has evolved (...), it goes without saying that teachers of English worldwide - and this, to be sure, includes those working in “native” English settings - have to wake up (...) to the fact that we urgently need to go back to the drawing board and redesign our plans, so as to set up more appropriate goals for and identify more adequate priorities in ELT [English Language Teaching] (Rajagopalan, 2025, p. 31). This quotation points to the concept of ELF awareness and ELF aware teaching which involves engaging with ELF research and understanding ways of integration into the classroom, with activities that mirror and localise “one’s interpretation of the ELF construct” (Sifakis & Bayyurt, 2018, p. 459). In practice, pedagogical implications would include activities that develop metalinguistic awareness and metacognitive awareness and authentic tasks to reflect on learners’ own beliefs on language use and communication in English. Going beyond the “native speaker” myth, and facilitating students to develop communication skills and strategies to a wider use of English within diverse ELF contexts, dealing with flexible practices is also important in the ELF classroom (Antonello, 2024). Focusing on intelligibility, it is important to move away from an exclusively norm-focused language environment towards a more open and inclusive approach, in order to be prepared to interact appropriately and effectively in intercultural contexts. Concerning language teaching and assessment of English as a Multilingual Franca, it would involve capitalising on students’ plurilingual repertoires both in teaching and assessment practices focusing more “on the ability to negotiate diversity in contact encounters in terms of both English (in its lingua franca guise) and multilingualism” (Jenkins, 2015, p. 79), prioritizing negotiation and co-construction and legitimising translanguaging and fluid, hybrid language practises. == Take home messages == * The use of a lingua franca to bridge language differences is not new (it has long been a practical solution in multilingual contexts). * The use of lingua franca has historical roots, and today it is English who plays this role globally, not because most people are native speakers, but because it serves as a common tool for communication in our interconnected world. * The research on English as a widespread language followed an evolution, from acknowledging the different varieties of the language (World Englishes), to its study as a shared resource among interlocutors (Lingua Franca and International Language), to being acknowledged as a flexible and dynamic resource being shaped by plurilingual contact situations (English as a Multilingual Franca). More recently, English as an International Language was also proposed. * Teaching English as a Lingua Franca implies helping the students to develop effective communication skills that prioritize mutual understanding over native-speaker norms. In practice, it means teaching strategies such as paraphrasing, clarification, repair of misunderstandings, and accommodation to navigate real-world plurilingual interactions. == Self-assessment == === Self test === <quiz display="simple"> {All concepts used to refer to the global spread of English see the use of just one language in communication as negative.} -A. True +B. False {The concept of English as a lingua franca challenges the symbolic superior position of the native-speaker in contrast to the so-called non-native speaker.} +A. True -B. False {When teaching English as a Lingua Franca, intelligibility should be privileged over the native-speaker norms.} +A. True -B. False {The concept of English as a Lingua Franca emphasizes translanguaging practices.} +A. True -B. False </quiz> === Self reflection: === Below you can read an advertisement for IELTS exams, a famous standardized test for English (Jenkins, 2015, p. 79). (IELTS stands for International English Language Testing System). What perspectives of English are reflected and how do they contradict with ELF?<blockquote>IELTS is offered at over 900 locations around the world, and IELTS scores are accepted by over 9,000 organisations globally – including over 3,000 institutions in the US… Test questions are developed by specialists in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the UK and the US, making it a truly international test.</blockquote> == '''Resources to go further''' == * Jenkins, J., Baker, W., & Dewey, M. (Eds.). (2018). ''The Routledge Handbook of English as a Lingua Franca''. Routledge. * Kachru, B. (2005). ''Whose English is it? Asian Englishes: Beyond the Canon''. Hong Kong University Press. * Selvi, A.F., & Galloway, N. (Eds.) (2025). ''The Routledge Handbook of Teaching English as an International Language''. Routledge. = Bibliography = Antonello, M. (2024). Development of ELF-aware materials to foster the use of communication strategies in the ELT classroom.  ''Research Papers in Language Teaching and Learning 14''(2), 30-41. Bayyurt, Y. (2025). English as a Lingua Franca. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue/ Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education''. Peter Lang. Open access. Blommaert, J. (2010). ''The Sociolinguistics of Globalization''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Frath, P. (2025). Anglais comme lingua franca. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue/ Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education''. Peter Lang. Open access. Jenkins, J. (2015). Repositioning English and multilingualism in English as a lingua franca. ''Englishes in Practice'', 2(3), pp. 49-85. Jenkins, J., Baker, W., & Dewey, M. (Eds.). (2018). ''The Routledge handbook of English as a lingua franca''. Routledge. Kachru, B. (1985). Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: English language in the outer circle. In R. Quirk & H. Widowson (Eds.), ''English in the world: Teaching and learning the language and literatures'' (p.11-36). Cambridge University Press. Kirkpatrick, A., & Deterding, D. (2024). World Englishes and English as a lingua franca. In Li Wei, Z. Hua & J. Simpson (Eds.), ''The Routledge Handbook of Applied Linguistics'' (pp. 187-199). Routledge. Pavlenko, A. (Ed.) (2023). ''Multilingualism and History''. Cambridge University Press. Pennycook, A. (2006), The Myth of English as an International Language. In Makoni, P. S., & Pennycook, P. A. (Eds.) ''Disinventing and reconstituting languages'' (pp. 90-115).  Channel View Publications. Phillipson, R. (2007). English, no longer a foreign language in Europe? In J. Cummins, & C. Davison (Eds.), ''International Handbook of English Language Teaching'' (pp. 123-136). Springer. Phillipson, R. (2008). The linguistic imperialism of neoliberal empire. ''Critical Inquiry in Language Studies, 5''(1), 1-43. Phillipson, R. (1992). ''Linguistic imperialism''. London, Oxford University Press. Rajagopalan, K. (2025). Teaching English as a world language. In A. Selvi & N. Galloway (Eds.), ''The Routledge Handbook of Teaching English as an International Language'' (pp. 19-33). Routledge. Seidlhofer, B. (2007). Common property: English as a lingua franca in Europe. In J. Cummins, & C. Davison (Eds.), ''International Handbook of English Language Teaching'' (pp. 137-149). Springer International Handbooks of Education Vol. 15. Seidlhofer, B. (2011). ''Understanding English as a Lingua Franca''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Selvi, A.F., & Galloway, N. (2025). Introduction. In A. Selvi & N. Galloway (Eds.), ''The Routledge Handbook of Teaching English as an International Language'' (pp. 1-15). Routledge. Sifakis, N. C. & Bayyurt, Y. (2018). ELF-aware teacher education and development. In J. Jenkins, W. Baker, and M. Dewey (Eds.), The Routledge handbook on English as a lingua franca (pp. 456–67). Abington: Routledge. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Anastasia Gkaintartzi (University of Thessaly) * Sílvia Melo-Pfeifer (Universität Hamburg). [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:English]] [[Category:Languages]] oyi8nkdmgz5lvyc288a4j4bm7l6jvy6 0 326187 2817244 2792408 2026-06-29T15:52:53Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Credits */ 2817244 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == Imagine you are in a science classroom in a school in Germany, but the class is taught in English. The teacher is explaining the concept of photosynthesis, but some students struggle to understand key terms. '''Task:''' # Think about which strategies the teacher could use to help students understand the content while simultaneously working on their English competencies. # Reflect on how this approach could be applied in other subjects. == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * Understand the principles and importance of CLIL. * Explore its historical development and different definitions. * Identify key implementation strategies. * Analyze concrete examples of CLIL in practice. * Assess your understanding through self-assessment tasks. == Key words == CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning); bilingual education; multilingualism; scaffolding; language immersion; task-based learning, authentic materials == Table of content == # Introduction: Importance of CLIL # History of the Concept # Definitions and Theoretical Perspectives # Implementing CLIL: Strategies and Examples # Challenges and Benefits # Take-home Messages # Self-Assessment # Resources for go further # Bibliography == Introduction: Why is CLIL important? == In a globalized world, plurilingual education is increasingly necessary. CLIL provides an effective way to teach subject content while also fostering language acquisition. It promotes deeper learning, cognitive flexibility, and intercultural understanding, and prepares students for academic and professional mobility in an interconnected world (Bonnet & Breidbach, 2025, forthcoming). As an educational initiative driven by the European Commission and the Council of Europe, CLIL supports foreign language learning, plurilingualism, cultural education, democratic citizenship, and internationalization in education (Mehisto, Marsh & Frigols, 2008). == '''History of the concept''' == CLIL dates back to the 1960s and was initially intended to serve the goals of post-WWII reconciliation and European integration. From the 1990s onward, its focus shifted toward enhancing mobility within a common European labor market and higher education area. CLIL has evolved through multiple influences, including: * Canadian immersion programs * The European Union’s language policy initiatives * The rise of task-based and communicative approaches in language education == Definitions and discussion of definitions == CLIL can be broadly defined as an educational approach in which various language-supportive methodologies are used to create dual-focused instruction that addresses both the additional language and content (Coyle, Hood & Marsh, 2010). Various conceptualizations of CLIL exist along a continuum: {| class="wikitable" |'''Term''' |'''Focus''' |- |CLIL |Integrates language and content with balanced focus |- |Immersion |Language acquisition through full content exposure |- |Bilingual Education |General term for teaching in two languages |- |English Medium Instruction (EMI) |Stronger emphasis on content, language is vehicle |- |Content-Based Language Teaching (CBLT) |Focuses more on language gains |} CLIL differs from other terms in its pedagogical and policy-driven nature. It supports language and subject matter learning simultaneously but often lacks interaction strategies typical of natural plurilingualism. Global linguae francae tend to dominate over heritage languages. == Implementing CLIL: Strategies and Examples == CLIL pedagogy involves strategies and techniques that support both language and content acquisition, while fostering students’ participation. Examples include: === Example 1: Scaffolding (with multilingual glossaries and visuals), focusing on the action of subject specific vocabulary === * '''Example:''' A history lesson on the Industrial Revolution includes infographics, labeled diagrams, and bilingual or multilingual glossaries. * '''Impact:''' Helps students grasp complex concepts and events while reinforcing the acquisition of specific subject lexical items. === Example 2: Bilingual Task-Based Learning, focusing on increasing students’ participation === * '''Example:''' In a geography class, students collaborate to create a presentation on climate change, using both their first language and the additional language of instruction. * '''Impact:''' Encourages active engagement and authentic language use. CLIL also engages with communicative discourse functions (Llinares & Morton, 2017), genres (written/spoken texts), and multimodal strategies to make knowledge construction explicit. These strategies allow content and language to be co-developed and assessed. == Challenges and Benefits == === Challenges === * Teachers require training in both content and language pedagogy. * Materials must be adapted to suit diverse learners. * Demands curriculum adaptation and cooperation. * Assessment strategies are complex as they need to consider both content and language learning. * In CLIL programs in languages other than English, transitions in the school system might be difficult, because of reduced offers. === Potential Benefits === * CLIL might support the development of cognitive and intercultural skills. * CLIL can contribute to increasing students’ motivation through real-world applications of language learning. * CLIL might support students in their quest for academic and professional internationalisation. * CLIL potentially enhances the development of linguistic skills and content learning concomitantly. == Take home messages == * CLIL is a powerful approach supported by European policies to integrate language and content learning. * It requires pedagogical innovation and teacher professional development. * While challenges exist, the potential benefits in language proficiency, content understanding, and intercultural competence are substantial. = Self-assessment = === Multiple Choice === 1. What is the primary goal of CLIL? a) Teaching language without focusing on content b) Teaching content while integrating language learning x c) Focusing only on grammar 2. Which of the following is NOT a CLIL strategy? a) Using authentic materials b) Encouraging rote memorization without context x c) Providing visual support 3. What challenges might arise from applying CLIL in a language other than English? a) lack of specific offers to assure transition across scholarly levels X b) students might be too young and unprepared c) school subjects might not be adequate to implement the CLIL approach ''Correct answers: 1b; 2b; 3a.'' === Open Question === Reflect on a subject you teach/learn. * How could CLIL be applied effectively?   * Are there complex ideas that might become easier or harder to understand when taught in a second language? * How would you overcome such difficulties? == Resources to go further == * European Commission reports on CLIL * CLIL teaching handbooks (e.g., "Good Practices in CLIL" by the European Centre for Modern Languages) * Online CLIL lesson plans and repositories * Daryai-Hansen, Petra; Koistinen, Satu; Lindemann, Beate; Moussouri, Evangelia; Poggi, Caterina (2023): ''CLIL in other languages than English – Successful transitions across educational stages''. Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages). http://www.ecml.at/CLILLOTEtransitions. == Bibliography == Bonnet, A., & Breidbach, A. (2025, forthcoming). CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning). In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue - Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education.'' Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. Coyle, D., Hood, P., & Marsh, D. (2010). ''CLIL: Content and Language Integrated Learning''. Cambridge University Press. Mehisto, P., Marsh, D., & Frigols, M. J. (2008). ''Uncovering CLIL: Content and Language Integrated Learning in Bilingual and Multilingual Education''. Macmillan Education. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Sílvia Melo-Pfeifer (Universität Hamburg). [[Portal:Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Learning]] lo85ws78jtk70uumg89mwuvmrlbwfam 2817272 2817244 2026-06-29T16:23:30Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self-assessment */ 2817272 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == Imagine you are in a science classroom in a school in Germany, but the class is taught in English. The teacher is explaining the concept of photosynthesis, but some students struggle to understand key terms. '''Task:''' # Think about which strategies the teacher could use to help students understand the content while simultaneously working on their English competencies. # Reflect on how this approach could be applied in other subjects. == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * Understand the principles and importance of CLIL. * Explore its historical development and different definitions. * Identify key implementation strategies. * Analyze concrete examples of CLIL in practice. * Assess your understanding through self-assessment tasks. == Key words == CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning); bilingual education; multilingualism; scaffolding; language immersion; task-based learning, authentic materials == Table of content == # Introduction: Importance of CLIL # History of the Concept # Definitions and Theoretical Perspectives # Implementing CLIL: Strategies and Examples # Challenges and Benefits # Take-home Messages # Self-Assessment # Resources for go further # Bibliography == Introduction: Why is CLIL important? == In a globalized world, plurilingual education is increasingly necessary. CLIL provides an effective way to teach subject content while also fostering language acquisition. It promotes deeper learning, cognitive flexibility, and intercultural understanding, and prepares students for academic and professional mobility in an interconnected world (Bonnet & Breidbach, 2025, forthcoming). As an educational initiative driven by the European Commission and the Council of Europe, CLIL supports foreign language learning, plurilingualism, cultural education, democratic citizenship, and internationalization in education (Mehisto, Marsh & Frigols, 2008). == '''History of the concept''' == CLIL dates back to the 1960s and was initially intended to serve the goals of post-WWII reconciliation and European integration. From the 1990s onward, its focus shifted toward enhancing mobility within a common European labor market and higher education area. CLIL has evolved through multiple influences, including: * Canadian immersion programs * The European Union’s language policy initiatives * The rise of task-based and communicative approaches in language education == Definitions and discussion of definitions == CLIL can be broadly defined as an educational approach in which various language-supportive methodologies are used to create dual-focused instruction that addresses both the additional language and content (Coyle, Hood & Marsh, 2010). Various conceptualizations of CLIL exist along a continuum: {| class="wikitable" |'''Term''' |'''Focus''' |- |CLIL |Integrates language and content with balanced focus |- |Immersion |Language acquisition through full content exposure |- |Bilingual Education |General term for teaching in two languages |- |English Medium Instruction (EMI) |Stronger emphasis on content, language is vehicle |- |Content-Based Language Teaching (CBLT) |Focuses more on language gains |} CLIL differs from other terms in its pedagogical and policy-driven nature. It supports language and subject matter learning simultaneously but often lacks interaction strategies typical of natural plurilingualism. Global linguae francae tend to dominate over heritage languages. == Implementing CLIL: Strategies and Examples == CLIL pedagogy involves strategies and techniques that support both language and content acquisition, while fostering students’ participation. Examples include: === Example 1: Scaffolding (with multilingual glossaries and visuals), focusing on the action of subject specific vocabulary === * '''Example:''' A history lesson on the Industrial Revolution includes infographics, labeled diagrams, and bilingual or multilingual glossaries. * '''Impact:''' Helps students grasp complex concepts and events while reinforcing the acquisition of specific subject lexical items. === Example 2: Bilingual Task-Based Learning, focusing on increasing students’ participation === * '''Example:''' In a geography class, students collaborate to create a presentation on climate change, using both their first language and the additional language of instruction. * '''Impact:''' Encourages active engagement and authentic language use. CLIL also engages with communicative discourse functions (Llinares & Morton, 2017), genres (written/spoken texts), and multimodal strategies to make knowledge construction explicit. These strategies allow content and language to be co-developed and assessed. == Challenges and Benefits == === Challenges === * Teachers require training in both content and language pedagogy. * Materials must be adapted to suit diverse learners. * Demands curriculum adaptation and cooperation. * Assessment strategies are complex as they need to consider both content and language learning. * In CLIL programs in languages other than English, transitions in the school system might be difficult, because of reduced offers. === Potential Benefits === * CLIL might support the development of cognitive and intercultural skills. * CLIL can contribute to increasing students’ motivation through real-world applications of language learning. * CLIL might support students in their quest for academic and professional internationalisation. * CLIL potentially enhances the development of linguistic skills and content learning concomitantly. == Take home messages == * CLIL is a powerful approach supported by European policies to integrate language and content learning. * It requires pedagogical innovation and teacher professional development. * While challenges exist, the potential benefits in language proficiency, content understanding, and intercultural competence are substantial. = Self-assessment = === Multiple Choice === <quiz> {What is the primary goal of CLIL?} -a) Teaching language without focusing on content +b) Teaching content while integrating language learning x -c) Focusing only on grammar {Which of the following is NOT a CLIL strategy?} -a) Using authentic materials +b) Encouraging rote memorization without context x -c) Providing visual support {What challenges might arise from applying CLIL in a language other than English?} +a) lack of specific offers to assure transition across scholarly levels -b) students might be too young and unprepared +c) school subjects might not be adequate to implement the CLIL approach </quiz> === Open Question === Reflect on a subject you teach/learn. * How could CLIL be applied effectively?   * Are there complex ideas that might become easier or harder to understand when taught in a second language? * How would you overcome such difficulties? == Resources to go further == * European Commission reports on CLIL * CLIL teaching handbooks (e.g., "Good Practices in CLIL" by the European Centre for Modern Languages) * Online CLIL lesson plans and repositories * Daryai-Hansen, Petra; Koistinen, Satu; Lindemann, Beate; Moussouri, Evangelia; Poggi, Caterina (2023): ''CLIL in other languages than English – Successful transitions across educational stages''. Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages). http://www.ecml.at/CLILLOTEtransitions. == Bibliography == Bonnet, A., & Breidbach, A. (2025, forthcoming). CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning). In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue - Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education.'' Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. Coyle, D., Hood, P., & Marsh, D. (2010). ''CLIL: Content and Language Integrated Learning''. Cambridge University Press. Mehisto, P., Marsh, D., & Frigols, M. J. (2008). ''Uncovering CLIL: Content and Language Integrated Learning in Bilingual and Multilingual Education''. Macmillan Education. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Sílvia Melo-Pfeifer (Universität Hamburg). [[Portal:Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Learning]] prbhn3uuc9blsxklwzqy42thdpiwltk 2817278 2817272 2026-06-29T16:29:03Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Multiple Choice */ 2817278 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == Imagine you are in a science classroom in a school in Germany, but the class is taught in English. The teacher is explaining the concept of photosynthesis, but some students struggle to understand key terms. '''Task:''' # Think about which strategies the teacher could use to help students understand the content while simultaneously working on their English competencies. # Reflect on how this approach could be applied in other subjects. == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * Understand the principles and importance of CLIL. * Explore its historical development and different definitions. * Identify key implementation strategies. * Analyze concrete examples of CLIL in practice. * Assess your understanding through self-assessment tasks. == Key words == CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning); bilingual education; multilingualism; scaffolding; language immersion; task-based learning, authentic materials == Table of content == # Introduction: Importance of CLIL # History of the Concept # Definitions and Theoretical Perspectives # Implementing CLIL: Strategies and Examples # Challenges and Benefits # Take-home Messages # Self-Assessment # Resources for go further # Bibliography == Introduction: Why is CLIL important? == In a globalized world, plurilingual education is increasingly necessary. CLIL provides an effective way to teach subject content while also fostering language acquisition. It promotes deeper learning, cognitive flexibility, and intercultural understanding, and prepares students for academic and professional mobility in an interconnected world (Bonnet & Breidbach, 2025, forthcoming). As an educational initiative driven by the European Commission and the Council of Europe, CLIL supports foreign language learning, plurilingualism, cultural education, democratic citizenship, and internationalization in education (Mehisto, Marsh & Frigols, 2008). == '''History of the concept''' == CLIL dates back to the 1960s and was initially intended to serve the goals of post-WWII reconciliation and European integration. From the 1990s onward, its focus shifted toward enhancing mobility within a common European labor market and higher education area. CLIL has evolved through multiple influences, including: * Canadian immersion programs * The European Union’s language policy initiatives * The rise of task-based and communicative approaches in language education == Definitions and discussion of definitions == CLIL can be broadly defined as an educational approach in which various language-supportive methodologies are used to create dual-focused instruction that addresses both the additional language and content (Coyle, Hood & Marsh, 2010). Various conceptualizations of CLIL exist along a continuum: {| class="wikitable" |'''Term''' |'''Focus''' |- |CLIL |Integrates language and content with balanced focus |- |Immersion |Language acquisition through full content exposure |- |Bilingual Education |General term for teaching in two languages |- |English Medium Instruction (EMI) |Stronger emphasis on content, language is vehicle |- |Content-Based Language Teaching (CBLT) |Focuses more on language gains |} CLIL differs from other terms in its pedagogical and policy-driven nature. It supports language and subject matter learning simultaneously but often lacks interaction strategies typical of natural plurilingualism. Global linguae francae tend to dominate over heritage languages. == Implementing CLIL: Strategies and Examples == CLIL pedagogy involves strategies and techniques that support both language and content acquisition, while fostering students’ participation. Examples include: === Example 1: Scaffolding (with multilingual glossaries and visuals), focusing on the action of subject specific vocabulary === * '''Example:''' A history lesson on the Industrial Revolution includes infographics, labeled diagrams, and bilingual or multilingual glossaries. * '''Impact:''' Helps students grasp complex concepts and events while reinforcing the acquisition of specific subject lexical items. === Example 2: Bilingual Task-Based Learning, focusing on increasing students’ participation === * '''Example:''' In a geography class, students collaborate to create a presentation on climate change, using both their first language and the additional language of instruction. * '''Impact:''' Encourages active engagement and authentic language use. CLIL also engages with communicative discourse functions (Llinares & Morton, 2017), genres (written/spoken texts), and multimodal strategies to make knowledge construction explicit. These strategies allow content and language to be co-developed and assessed. == Challenges and Benefits == === Challenges === * Teachers require training in both content and language pedagogy. * Materials must be adapted to suit diverse learners. * Demands curriculum adaptation and cooperation. * Assessment strategies are complex as they need to consider both content and language learning. * In CLIL programs in languages other than English, transitions in the school system might be difficult, because of reduced offers. === Potential Benefits === * CLIL might support the development of cognitive and intercultural skills. * CLIL can contribute to increasing students’ motivation through real-world applications of language learning. * CLIL might support students in their quest for academic and professional internationalisation. * CLIL potentially enhances the development of linguistic skills and content learning concomitantly. == Take home messages == * CLIL is a powerful approach supported by European policies to integrate language and content learning. * It requires pedagogical innovation and teacher professional development. * While challenges exist, the potential benefits in language proficiency, content understanding, and intercultural competence are substantial. = Self-assessment = === Multiple Choice === <quiz display="simple"> {What is the primary goal of CLIL?} -a) Teaching language without focusing on content +b) Teaching content while integrating language learning x -c) Focusing only on grammar {Which of the following is NOT a CLIL strategy?} -a) Using authentic materials +b) Encouraging rote memorization without context x -c) Providing visual support {What challenges might arise from applying CLIL in a language other than English?} +a) lack of specific offers to assure transition across scholarly levels -b) students might be too young and unprepared +c) school subjects might not be adequate to implement the CLIL approach </quiz> === Open Question === Reflect on a subject you teach/learn. * How could CLIL be applied effectively?   * Are there complex ideas that might become easier or harder to understand when taught in a second language? * How would you overcome such difficulties? == Resources to go further == * European Commission reports on CLIL * CLIL teaching handbooks (e.g., "Good Practices in CLIL" by the European Centre for Modern Languages) * Online CLIL lesson plans and repositories * Daryai-Hansen, Petra; Koistinen, Satu; Lindemann, Beate; Moussouri, Evangelia; Poggi, Caterina (2023): ''CLIL in other languages than English – Successful transitions across educational stages''. Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages). http://www.ecml.at/CLILLOTEtransitions. == Bibliography == Bonnet, A., & Breidbach, A. (2025, forthcoming). CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning). In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue - Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education.'' Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. Coyle, D., Hood, P., & Marsh, D. (2010). ''CLIL: Content and Language Integrated Learning''. Cambridge University Press. Mehisto, P., Marsh, D., & Frigols, M. J. (2008). ''Uncovering CLIL: Content and Language Integrated Learning in Bilingual and Multilingual Education''. Macmillan Education. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Sílvia Melo-Pfeifer (Universität Hamburg). [[Portal:Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Learning]] d6rul57cz3m8kocjeargqi4qivze9hx 0 326355 2817267 2817211 2026-06-29T16:14:09Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Credits */ 2817267 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == Watch the two videos below and observe the use of languages by the people and characters. These practices could be described as translanguaging. How would you define translanguaging? * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SwsNYQXNooA Le pilote Part 2 - Têtes à claques] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OPxVQzV6KmU Can You Parler Franglais? | Dans Mes Binocles] == Objectives == At the end of this section, you should be able to... * know what translanguaging is; * be familiar with different concepts of translanguaging; * critically evaluate this perspective on plurilingualism. == Keywords == Plurilinguism, theories, translanguaging or translinguistic practices == Prerequisites == If necessary, review the page on [[theories and models of plurilingualism]]. == Table of contents == # Introduction # A bit of history # Various concepts # Take-home messages # Self-assessment # Resources to go further # Bibliography == Introduction == For many years, bilingualism was understood as the mastery of two languages. Bilingual individuals were often perceived as having deficient skills in both languages. Since the 1980s, however, the perception of plurilingualism and plurilinguals in academic literature has evolved.Plurilinguals are now recognized as people who use languages in specific ways and possess particular linguistic skills. The concept of translanguaging, which has gained prominence in recent years, describes these plurilingual practices that go beyond the (real or imagined) boundaries between languages. == History of the concept == For a long time, bilingualism was seen as the mastery of two languages and the ability to switch seamlessly between them (Penfield & Roberts, 1959). This has often led to a deficit view of individuals who use two (or more) languages in their daily lives. They were sometimes designated as ''“semilinguals”'' (Skutnabb-Kangas, 1981) because they did not possess the competences expected by the normative standard in their different languages. Since the 1980s, many researchers have taken a different view of plurilingualism and plurilinguals. They believe that these are people with specific uses of languages and particular skills (Grosjean, 1982, 2010; Lüdi & Py, 1986). Gradually, the idea that plurilinguals have a unique and specific competence and different resources in the different languages became established (Cook, 1992, 2016, 2020; Cummins, 1981). Coste, Moore and Zarate (2009) have defined what they call “plurilingual and pluricultural competence”, which is at the heart of the political and pedagogical project of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of Europe, 2001) and its Companion Volume (Council of Europe, 2021). The notion of a single competence means that different resources can be mobilised to communicate and learn languages. This leads us to recognize that plurilinguals often engage in translinguistic practices - especially among themselves - by mixing languages in communication. Recently, various publications have developed the concept of translanguaging to describe these practices across the (real or imagined) borders between languages. The origins of the term ‘translanguaging’ go back to bilingual education in Wales in the 1980s. The Welsh term ''trawsieithu'', coined by the educator Cen Williams and later translated into English as ''translanguaging'', refers to a planned teaching strategy that systematically integrates multiple languages (English and Welsh, in the Welsh context) within a single lesson to support understanding, writing and speaking (Lewis et al., 2012, p. 643). In this way, a text can for example be read in one language and summarised in another (Egli Cuenat, 2025, p. xx). The term was then taken up by North American research, in order to particularly describe and valorize the linguistic practices of LatinX communities - primarily in the United States - for whom the use of several languages (English and Spanish) and their blending (Spanglish) is integral to everyday communication. Used in a variety of contexts in which plurilingualism takes diverse forms, translanguaging can be understood as a broad umbrella term that encompasses a range of theoretical and practical approaches (Cenoz & Gorter, 2020, p. 2). == Conceptions == === Dimensions of translanguaging === Work on translanguaging is multifaceted: it describes language practices that involve the blending of languages, includes a pedagogical dimension (often referred to as ''pedagogical translanguaging'') and, in some cases, carries a strong political dimension. === Two underlying theories: UTT and CTT === After reviewing the literature, Cummins (2021; 2022; 2025) suggestsa distinction of two theories underlying pedagogical translanguaging: UTT (''unitary translanguaging theory'') and CTT (''crosslinguistic translanguaging theory''). ==== UTT (''unitary translanguaging theory'') ==== UTT (''unitary translanguaging theory''), particularly prominent in García's work, posits that bilinguals do not speak languages, but use the resources of their repertoire selectively to communicate (García & Lin, 2016, p. 10). According to this view, they possess a single linguistic system rather than a sum of distinct languages. To communicate, they use all their resources without making distinctions based on named languages. According to this approach, languages do not exist; they have no reality, either linguistic or cognitive. For Garcia and Wei, languages are political constructs, not linguistic systems. At the socio-political level, authors such as Flores and Rosa (2015) believe that teaching the standard (normative) language leads to a stigmatization of learners' authentic linguistic varieties (Cummins 2021, p. 9-10). ==== CTT (''crosslinguistic translanguaging theory'') ==== CTT (''crosslinguistic translanguaging theory''), by contrast, does not challenge the existence of languages. They are viewed as historical, cultural, and ideological constructs with material consequences that shape social action (Cummins, 2021, p. 17). CTT also affirms the legitimacy of the following widely accepted concepts: The CTT approach also affirms the legitimacy of the following (widely accepted) concepts. * ''Additive bilingualism'': refers to the learning of a second language (L2) in addition to the first language (L1), without replacing it. In other words, the two languages coexist and develop, each reinforcing the individual's cognitive and linguistic skills. * ''Common underlying proficiency'' : The central idea of the underlying common competence (Cummins, 1984) is that the skills developed in languages have a common cognitive base, even if the languages are different on the surface (vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, etc.). * ''Interlingual transfer'': Transfer refers to the process whereby a learner uses elements of a known language, e.g. French, to understand or produce another language, e.g. Spanish. While positive transfers - such as ''université/universidad, livre/libro, bouteille/botella'' - facilitate learning, negative transfers, also known as interference, lead to erroneous results.  For example, the Spanish word ''raro'' does not mean ''rare'' in French, but rather ''strange'' or ''bizarre''. === What they have in common === Despite the relatively significant differences at the theoretical level, the claims of the proponents of the two theories are similar when it comes to promoting translanguaging in practice. The term ''pedagogical translanguaging'' encompasses approaches aimed at consciously activating learners' plurilingual resources - both L1 and other language resources acquired in formal or informal settings. Pedagogical translanguaging is thus integrated into the didactic planning of the course and pursues a precise learning objective. Oral and written activities can cover phonetics, vocabulary, morphosyntax and text. They can be carried out in language classes, but also in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) (Cenoz & Gorter 2020, p. 3). Examples of activities include bilingual or multilingual discussions or presentations, collaborative multilingual writing (e.g. of a poem), reading and comparison of parallel texts (i.e. of the same text in two languages) and cross-readings (comparison of texts dealing with the same theme, but from different languages or cultural contexts). It is important to note that many of these activities proposed in translanguaging approaches are also carried out in more “traditional” pluralistic approaches such as intercomprehension and integrated language didactics (Candelier et al. 2012). With regard to vocabulary, for example, learners can be asked to consciously search for words from related languages to facilitate the comprehension process (Cenoz & Gorter 2020, 3). Examples of adaptable pedagogical practices are available on the PEP project website: * [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1VPNcVE7J06_sI_WDCtFU8grjY7RGvqy_am3QNM5C3yY&usp=drive_copy Multilingual digital storytelling] * [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1XA_iJh5V0flBIkrLHlCNilq9-kZ9zosLiR68rFktPZg/edit?usp=drive_copy&ouid=115319860720197708318 Plurilingual TV news broadcast] === Criticism of translanguaging === ==== Criticism of the UTT and the questioning of the existence of languages ==== Cummins is one of several researchers to raise a critical voice against the early work of García and his followers on translanguaging. The author believes that there are many arguments against questioning the existence of languages. To this end, he refers to work on aphasia (Bhatt & Bolonyai, 2022, cited by Cummins, 2025), which indicates that languages exist at the cognitive level. This work has, in fact, shown that each language corresponds to specific forms of neural organization. Moreover, he believes it would be paradoxical to rely on knowledge of one language - for example, the recognition of similar words - to learn another, if we deny the linguistic reality of languages. ==== Criticism of translanguaging hegemony and risks ==== Cavalli and Egli Cuenat (2024) deplore the hegemony of the term translanguaging, which tends to replace other terms and even eclipse various existing works. This is especially true of the “radical” version of translanguaging represented in texts by García and colleagues. Egli Cuenat (2025) believes that “the generalization of radical translanguaging, without taking into account historical and socio-political contexts, may reduce it to a mere educational slogan disconnected from local realities”. Furthermore, questioning languages as such could weaken efforts to preserve minority languages and favor the supremacy of English particularly in academic usage, where this language tends to impose itself ‘quite naturally’ (Cavalli & Egli Cuenat, 2024, 11). These authors also criticize work on translanguaging for ignoring the many previous works on plurilingualism and its promotion. ==== Pioneering work ignored - The example of interlectal practices ==== One example of this overlooked work is research into so-called “interlectal” practices (Prudent, 1981, p. 198; Souprayen-Cavery, 2010) in French territories where French and a French-based creole exist. Interlectal specialists describe daily mixtures of French and creole that could now be described as translanguaging. In these practices, the boundary between the two “lects” sometimes becomes imperceptible, and while linguists can quite often link certain elements to one of the languages involved, they are sometimes unable to distinguish between them. These pioneering works are not mentioned by translanguaging specialists. == Take-home messages == The term translanguaging brings together different theoretical conceptions. What unites the translanguaging approaches is the fact that they are based on a social justice agenda, addressing the needs of minority learners for equitable education and social inclusion. In practice, pedagogical translanguaging seeks to integrate and promote learners' plurilingual resources (L1 and other languages). Translanguaging, especially in its "radical" version, which calls into question the cognitive and linguistic existence of languages, is subject to a number of criticisms. == Self-assessment == * In what specific context was the term translanguaging first used? * What are the main differences between the two underlying theories of translanguaging: UTT (unitary translanguaging theory) and CTT (crosslinguistic translanguaging theory)? * What is the general aim of pedagogical translanguaging? == Resources to go further == * Cenoz, J., & Gorter, D. (2021). Pedagogical translanguaging. Cambridge University Press. * García, O.,  & Wei, L. (2014). ''Translanguaging: Language, Bilingualism and Education''. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137385765 * Juvonen, P., & Källkvist, M. (2021). ''Pedagogical Translanguaging: Theoretical, Methodological and Empirical Perspectives''. Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781788927383 * MacSwan, J. (2022). ''Multilingual Perspectives on Translanguaging''. Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781800415690 == Bibliography == Candelier, M., Camilleri-Grima, A., Castellotti, V. De Pietro, J.-F., Lörincz, I., Meißner, F.-J., … Schröder-Sura, A. (2012). ''Le CARAP. Un cadre de référence pour les approches plurielles des langues et des cultures. Compétences et ressources''. Graz : Centre européen pour les langues vivantes. https://carap.ecml.at/Portals/11/documents/CARAP-FR-web.pdf   Cenoz, J., & Gorter, D. (2020) Pedagogical translanguaging. An introduction. ''System,'' 92.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2020.102269 Cook, V. (1992). Evidence for multi-competence. ''Language Learning'', ''44''(4), 557‑591. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1992.tb01044.x Cook, V. (2016). Premises of multi-competence. Dans L. Wei & V. Cook (Éds.), ''The Cambridge Handbook of Linguistic Multi-Competence'' (p. 1‑25). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107425965.001 Cook, V. (2020). Multicompetence. Dans C.A. Chapelle (Éd.), ''The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics'' (p. 1‑6). John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0778.pub2 Conseil de l’Europe. (2001). ''Un cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues : Apprendre, enseigner, évaluer''. Didier ; Conseil de l’Europe.   https://rm.coe.int/16802fc3a8 Conseil de l’Europe. (2021). ''Cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues : Apprendre, enseigner, évaluer. Volume complémentaire''. Conseil de l’Europe. https://rm.coe.int/cadre-europeen-commun-de-reference-pour-les-langues-apprendre-enseigne/1680a4e270 Coste, D., Moore, D., & Zarate, G. (2009). ''Compétence plurilingue et pluriculturelle : Vers un cadre européen commun de référence pour l’enseignement et l’apprentissage des langues vivantes. Version révisée et enrichie d’un avant-propos et d’une bibliographie complémentaire''. Éditions du Conseil de l’Europe. https://rm.coe.int/168069d29c Cummins, J. (1981). The role of primary language development in promoting educational success for language minority students. Dans California State Department of Education (Éd.), ''Schooling and language minority students : A theoretical framework'' (p. 16‑62). California State University. Cummins, J. (1984). ''Bilingualism and special education: Issues in assessment and pedagogy''. Multilingual Matters. Cummins, J. (2021). Translanguaging: A Critical Analysis of Theoretical Claims. Dans P. Juvonen, & M. Källkvist (Éd.), ''Pedagogical Translanguaging. Theoretical, Methodological and Empirical Perspectives'' (p. 7-36). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781788927383-004 Cummins, J. (2022). Pedagogical translanguaging: Examining the credibility of unitary versus crosslinguistic translanguaging theory. ''OLBI Journal,'' 12, 33-55. https://doi.org/10.18192/olbij.v12i1.6073   Cummins, J. (2025). xxxxxxxxxxxx Egli Cuenat, M. (2025). xxxxxxxxxx Flores, N.,  & Rosa, J. (2015) Undoing appropriateness. Raciolinguistic ideologies and language diversity in education.''Harvard Educational Review,'' 85, 149–171. García, O., & Lin, A.M.Y. (2017). Translanguaging in Bilingual Education. Dans O. García, A.M.Y. Lin., & S. May (Éd.). ''Bilingual and Multilingual Education''. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02258-1_9 Grosjean, F. (1982). ''Life with two languages : An introduction to bilingualism''. Harvard University Press. Grosjean, F. (2010). ''Bilingual : Life and reality''. Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674056459 Lewis, G., Jones, B., & Baker, C. (2012). Translanguaging. Origins and development from school to street and beyond. ''Educational Research and Evaluation'', 18(7), 641-654. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803611.2012.718488 Lüdi, G., & Py, B. (1986). ''Etre bilingue''. Peter Lang. Penfield, W., & Roberts, L. (1959). ''Speech and brain mechanisms''. Princeton University Press; https://openlibrary.org/books/OL6269074M/Speech_and_brain-mechanism Prudent, L.-F. (1981). Diglossie et interlecte. ''Langages'', ''61'', 13‑38. Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (1981). ''Bilingualism or not : The education of minorities'' (L. Malmberg & D. Crane, Trad.). Multilingual Matters. Souprayen-Cavery, L. (2010). ''L’interlecte réunionnais : Approche sociolinguistique des pratiques et des représentations''. Harmattan. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Christoph Hülsmann (Paris Lodron Universität Salzburg) * Christian Ollivier (Université de La Réunion). ==See also== [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Linguistics]] kex5t58hygsz9a83j0ejtp1xhg7ixlh 2817324 2817267 2026-06-29T18:16:13Z ~2026-37432-69 3097899 2817324 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == Watch the two videos below and observe the use of languages by the people and characters. These practices could be described as translanguaging. How would you define translanguaging? * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SwsNYQXNooA Le pilote Part 2 - Têtes à claques] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OPxVQzV6KmU Can You Parler Franglais? | Dans Mes Binocles] == Objectives == At the end of this section, you should be able to... * know what translanguaging is; * be familiar with different concepts of translanguaging; * critically evaluate this perspective on plurilingualism. == Keywords == Plurilinguism, theories, translanguaging or translinguistic practices == Prerequisites == If necessary, review the page on [[theories and models of plurilingualism]]. == Table of contents == # Introduction # A bit of history # Various concepts # Take-home messages # Self-assessment # Resources to go further # Bibliography == Introduction == For many years, bilingualism was understood as the mastery of two languages. Bilingual individuals were often perceived as having deficient skills in both languages. Since the 1980s, however, the perception of plurilingualism and plurilinguals in academic literature has evolved. Plurilinguals are now recognized as people who use languages in specific ways and possess particular linguistic skills. The concept of translanguaging, which has gained prominence in recent years, describes these plurilingual practices that go beyond the (real or imagined) boundaries between languages. == History of the concept == For a long time, bilingualism was seen as the mastery of two languages and the ability to switch seamlessly between them (Penfield & Roberts, 1959). This has often led to a deficit view of individuals who use two (or more) languages in their daily lives. They were sometimes designated as ''“semilinguals”'' (Skutnabb-Kangas, 1981) because they did not possess the competences expected by the normative standard in their different languages. Since the 1980s, many researchers have taken a different view of plurilingualism and plurilinguals. They believe that these are people with specific uses of languages and particular skills (Grosjean, 1982, 2010; Lüdi & Py, 1986). Gradually, the idea that plurilinguals have a unique and specific competence and different resources in the different languages became established (Cook, 1992, 2016, 2020; Cummins, 1981). Coste, Moore and Zarate (2009) have defined what they call “plurilingual and pluricultural competence”, which is at the heart of the political and pedagogical project of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of Europe, 2001) and its Companion Volume (Council of Europe, 2021). The notion of a single competence means that different resources can be mobilised to communicate and learn languages. This leads us to recognize that plurilinguals often engage in translinguistic practices - especially among themselves - by mixing languages in communication. Recently, various publications have developed the concept of translanguaging to describe these practices across the (real or imagined) borders between languages. The origins of the term ‘translanguaging’ go back to bilingual education in Wales in the 1980s. The Welsh term ''trawsieithu'', coined by the educator Cen Williams and later translated into English as ''translanguaging'', refers to a planned teaching strategy that systematically integrates multiple languages (English and Welsh, in the Welsh context) within a single lesson to support understanding, writing and speaking (Lewis et al., 2012, p. 643). In this way, a text can for example be read in one language and summarised in another (Egli Cuenat, 2025). The term was then taken up by North American research, in order to particularly describe and valorize the linguistic practices of LatinX communities - primarily in the United States - for whom the use of several languages (English and Spanish) and their blending (Spanglish) is integral to everyday communication. Used in a variety of contexts in which plurilingualism takes diverse forms, translanguaging can be understood as a broad umbrella term that encompasses a range of theoretical and practical approaches (Cenoz & Gorter, 2020, p. 2). == Conceptions == === Dimensions of translanguaging === Work on translanguaging is multifaceted: it describes language practices that involve the blending of languages, includes a pedagogical dimension (often referred to as ''pedagogical translanguaging'') and, in some cases, carries a strong political dimension. === Two underlying theories: UTT and CTT === After reviewing the literature, Cummins (2021; 2022; 2025) suggests a distinction of two theories underlying pedagogical translanguaging: UTT (''unitary translanguaging theory'') and CTT (''crosslinguistic translanguaging theory''). ==== UTT (''unitary translanguaging theory'') ==== UTT (''unitary translanguaging theory''), particularly prominent in García's work, posits that bilinguals do not speak languages, but use the resources of their repertoire selectively to communicate (García & Lin, 2016, p. 10). According to this view, they possess a single linguistic system rather than a sum of distinct languages. To communicate, they use all their resources without making distinctions based on named languages. According to this approach, languages do not exist; they have no reality, either linguistic or cognitive. For Garcia and Wei, languages are political constructs, not linguistic systems. At the socio-political level, authors such as Flores and Rosa (2015) believe that teaching the standard (normative) language leads to a stigmatization of learners' authentic linguistic varieties (Cummins 2021, p. 9-10). ==== CTT (''crosslinguistic translanguaging theory'') ==== CTT (''crosslinguistic translanguaging theory''), by contrast, does not challenge the existence of languages. They are viewed as historical, cultural, and ideological constructs with material consequences that shape social action (Cummins, 2021, p. 17). The CTT approach also affirms the legitimacy of the following (widely accepted) concepts: * ''Additive bilingualism'': refers to the learning of a second language (L2) in addition to the first language (L1), without replacing it. In other words, the two languages coexist and develop, each reinforcing the individual's cognitive and linguistic skills. * ''Common underlying proficiency'': The central idea of the common underlying competence (Cummins, 1984) is that the skills developed in languages have a common cognitive base, even if the languages are different on the surface (vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, etc.). * ''Interlingual transfer'': Transfer refers to the process whereby a learner uses elements of a known language, e.g. French, to understand or produce another language, e.g. Spanish. While positive transfers - such as ''université/universidad, livre/libro, bouteille/botella'' - facilitate learning, negative transfers, also known as interference, lead to erroneous results. For example, the Spanish word ''raro'' does not mean ''rare'' in French, but rather ''strange'' or ''bizarre''. === What they have in common === Despite the relatively significant differences at the theoretical level, the claims of the proponents of the two theories are similar when it comes to promoting translanguaging in practice. The term ''pedagogical translanguaging'' encompasses approaches aimed at consciously activating learners' plurilingual resources - both L1 and other language resources acquired in formal or informal settings. Pedagogical translanguaging is thus integrated into the didactic planning of the course and pursues a precise learning objective. Oral and written activities can cover phonetics, vocabulary, morphosyntax and text. They can be carried out in language classes, but also in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) (Cenoz & Gorter 2020, p. 3). Examples of activities include bilingual or multilingual discussions or presentations, collaborative multilingual writing (e.g. of a poem), reading and comparison of parallel texts (i.e. of the same text in two languages) and cross-readings (comparison of texts dealing with the same theme, but from different languages or cultural contexts). It is important to note that many of these activities proposed in translanguaging approaches are also carried out in more “traditional” pluralistic approaches such as intercomprehension and integrated language didactics (Candelier et al. 2012). With regard to vocabulary, for example, learners can be asked to consciously search for words from related languages to facilitate the comprehension process (Cenoz & Gorter 2020, 3). Examples of adaptable pedagogical practices are available on the PEP project website: * [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1VPNcVE7J06_sI_WDCtFU8grjY7RGvqy_am3QNM5C3yY&usp=drive_copy Plurilingual digital storytelling] * [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1XA_iJh5V0flBIkrLHlCNilq9-kZ9zosLiR68rFktPZg/edit?usp=drive_copy&ouid=115319860720197708318 Plurilingual TV news broadcast] === Criticism of translanguaging === ==== Criticism of the UTT and the questioning of the existence of languages ==== Cummins is one of several researchers to raise a critical voice against the early work of García and her followers on translanguaging. The author believes that there are many arguments against questioning the existence of languages. To this end, he refers to work on aphasia (Bhatt & Bolonyai, 2022, cited by Cummins, 2025), which indicates that languages exist at the cognitive level. This work has, in fact, shown that each language corresponds to specific forms of neural organization. Moreover, he believes it would be paradoxical to rely on knowledge of one language - for example, the recognition of similar words - to learn another, if we deny the linguistic reality of languages. ==== Criticism of translanguaging hegemony and risks ==== Cavalli and Egli Cuenat (2024) deplore the hegemony of the term translanguaging, which tends to replace other terms and even eclipse various existing works. This is especially true of the “radical” version of translanguaging represented in texts by García and colleagues. Egli Cuenat (2025) believes that “the generalization of radical translanguaging, without taking into account historical and socio-political contexts, may reduce it to a mere educational slogan disconnected from local realities”. Furthermore, questioning languages as such could weaken efforts to preserve minority languages and favor the supremacy of English particularly in academic usage, where this language tends to impose itself ‘quite naturally’ (Cavalli & Egli Cuenat, 2024, 11). These authors also criticize work on translanguaging for ignoring the many previous works on plurilingualism and its promotion. ==== Pioneering work ignored - The example of interlectal practices ==== One example of this overlooked work is research into so-called “interlectal” practices (Prudent, 1981, p. 198; Souprayen-Cavery, 2010) in French territories where French and a French-based creole exist. Interlectal specialists describe daily mixtures of French and creole that could now be described as translanguaging. In these practices, the boundary between the two “lects” sometimes becomes imperceptible, and while linguists can quite often link certain elements to one of the languages involved, they are sometimes unable to distinguish between them. These pioneering works are not mentioned by translanguaging specialists. == Take-home messages == The term translanguaging brings together different theoretical conceptions. What unites the translanguaging approaches is the fact that they are based on a social justice agenda, addressing the needs of minority learners for equitable education and social inclusion. In practice, pedagogical translanguaging seeks to integrate and promote learners' plurilingual resources (L1 and other languages). Translanguaging, especially in its "radical" version, which calls into question the cognitive and linguistic existence of languages, is subject to a number of criticisms. == Self-assessment == * In what specific context was the term translanguaging first used? * What are the main differences between the two underlying theories of translanguaging: UTT (unitary translanguaging theory) and CTT (crosslinguistic translanguaging theory)? * What is the general aim of pedagogical translanguaging? == Resources to go further == * Cenoz, J., & Gorter, D. (2021). ''Pedagogical translanguaging.'' Cambridge University Press. * García, O.,  & Wei, L. (2014). ''Translanguaging: Language, Bilingualism and Education''. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137385765 * Juvonen, P., & Källkvist, M. (2021). ''Pedagogical Translanguaging: Theoretical, Methodological and Empirical Perspectives''. Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781788927383 * MacSwan, J. (2022). ''Multilingual Perspectives on Translanguaging''. Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781800415690 == Bibliography == Candelier, M., Camilleri-Grima, A., Castellotti, V. De Pietro, J.-F., Lörincz, I., Meißner, F.-J., … Schröder-Sura, A. (2012). ''Le CARAP. Un cadre de référence pour les approches plurielles des langues et des cultures. Compétences et ressources''. Graz : Centre européen pour les langues vivantes. https://carap.ecml.at/Portals/11/documents/CARAP-FR-web.pdf   Cenoz, J., & Gorter, D. (2020) Pedagogical translanguaging. An introduction. ''System,'' 92.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2020.102269 Cook, V. (1992). Evidence for multi-competence. ''Language Learning'', ''44''(4), 557‑591. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1992.tb01044.x Cook, V. (2016). Premises of multi-competence. Dans L. Wei & V. Cook (Éds.), ''The Cambridge Handbook of Linguistic Multi-Competence'' (p. 1‑25). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107425965.001 Cook, V. (2020). Multicompetence. Dans C.A. Chapelle (Éd.), ''The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics'' (p. 1‑6). John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0778.pub2 Conseil de l’Europe. (2001). ''Un cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues : Apprendre, enseigner, évaluer''. Didier ; Conseil de l’Europe.   https://rm.coe.int/16802fc3a8 Conseil de l’Europe. (2021). ''Cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues : Apprendre, enseigner, évaluer. Volume complémentaire''. Conseil de l’Europe. https://rm.coe.int/cadre-europeen-commun-de-reference-pour-les-langues-apprendre-enseigne/1680a4e270 Coste, D., Moore, D., & Zarate, G. (2009). ''Compétence plurilingue et pluriculturelle : Vers un cadre européen commun de référence pour l’enseignement et l’apprentissage des langues vivantes. Version révisée et enrichie d’un avant-propos et d’une bibliographie complémentaire''. Éditions du Conseil de l’Europe. https://rm.coe.int/168069d29c Cummins, J. (1981). The role of primary language development in promoting educational success for language minority students. Dans California State Department of Education (Éd.), ''Schooling and language minority students : A theoretical framework'' (p. 16‑62). California State University. Cummins, J. (1984). ''Bilingualism and special education: Issues in assessment and pedagogy''. Multilingual Matters. Cummins, J. (2021). Translanguaging: A Critical Analysis of Theoretical Claims. Dans P. Juvonen, & M. Källkvist (Éd.), ''Pedagogical Translanguaging. Theoretical, Methodological and Empirical Perspectives'' (p. 7-36). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781788927383-004 Cummins, J. (2022). Pedagogical translanguaging: Examining the credibility of unitary versus crosslinguistic translanguaging theory. ''OLBI Journal,'' 12, 33-55. https://doi.org/10.18192/olbij.v12i1.6073   Cummins, J. (2026). Translanguaging: Contrasting unitary and crosslinguistic theoretical conceptions. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l'éducation plurilingue. Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education'' (p. 326-328). Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/document/1588003 Egli Cuenat, M. (2026). Translanguaging - Une perspective critique. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l'éducation plurilingue. Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education'' (p. 317-319). Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/document/1588003 Flores, N.,  & Rosa, J. (2015) Undoing appropriateness. Raciolinguistic ideologies and language diversity in education.''Harvard Educational Review,'' 85, 149–171. García, O., & Lin, A.M.Y. (2017). Translanguaging in Bilingual Education. Dans O. García, A.M.Y. Lin., & S. May (Éd.). ''Bilingual and Multilingual Education''. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02258-1_9 Grosjean, F. (1982). ''Life with two languages : An introduction to bilingualism''. Harvard University Press. Grosjean, F. (2010). ''Bilingual : Life and reality''. Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674056459 Lewis, G., Jones, B., & Baker, C. (2012). Translanguaging. Origins and development from school to street and beyond. ''Educational Research and Evaluation'', 18(7), 641-654. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803611.2012.718488 Lüdi, G., & Py, B. (1986). ''Etre bilingue''. Peter Lang. Penfield, W., & Roberts, L. (1959). ''Speech and brain mechanisms''. Princeton University Press; https://openlibrary.org/books/OL6269074M/Speech_and_brain-mechanism Prudent, L.-F. (1981). Diglossie et interlecte. ''Langages'', ''61'', 13‑38. Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (1981). ''Bilingualism or not : The education of minorities'' (L. Malmberg & D. Crane, Trad.). Multilingual Matters. Souprayen-Cavery, L. (2010). ''L’interlecte réunionnais : Approche sociolinguistique des pratiques et des représentations''. Harmattan. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Christoph Hülsmann (Paris Lodron Universität Salzburg) * Christian Ollivier (Université de La Réunion). ==See also== [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Linguistics]] fm32bq2f2vyzxf8pqxrz135wylmlimw 0 326357 2817243 2792542 2026-06-29T15:51:25Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Credits */ 2817243 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == === Context: === You are preparing an activity on sounds and words in different languages around the world. While talking to your students, you discover that several of them speak languages at home that you do not know at all (e.g., Tigrinya, Albanian, Dari, etc.). You are not quite sure whether or how to integrate them into your activity, nor, if you do want to, where to start. === Instructions: === Take a few minutes to reflect on the following points: # What would be your initial reactions or questions as a teacher?  (For example: Should I be interested in this? Is it feasible? Is it beneficial for learning?) # What simple activity ideas could you imagine based on the presence of these languages in your classroom? (Even if you are unfamiliar with them!) How might you connect them to a corpus that includes several widely taught international languages (English, Spanish, German, etc.)? # In what ways could you involve the students concerned, as well as their families, in acknowledging and valuing their heritage languages?" == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to... * Become aware of the importance of linguistic diversity at school; * Understand what awakening to languages is and what its purpose is; * Understand the foundations and objectives of awakening to languages; * Discover the benefits of such an approach for students; * Understand the importance of metalinguistic reflection in learning; * Find ideas to involve students and families, seeing them as resources for implementing such an approach. == Key words == pluralistic approaches; teaching plurilingualism; metalinguistic reflection; language awareness; plurilingual and intercultural competence. == Prerequisites == * Basic knowledge of linguistics and language acquisition (optional). * Basic knowledge of language families == Table of contents == # Introduction # History # Definitions # Take home messages # Self-assessment == Introduction == Awakening to languages is one of the four pluralistic approaches and represents an innovative pedagogical approach. It is a form of learning through problem solving, with specific objectives and the use of various strategies and cognitive processes (Charitonidou & Ioannitou, 2012). Specifically, it is an original approach used in primary schools, where children discover the diversity of languages and their functions (Candelier, 2003; Dabène, 2003). This approach includes the development of attitudes, skills and knowledge about languages, and is based on several objectives: * linguistic (discovery of languages and their specific features), * cognitive (mobilization of mental processes that support learning, but also relating languages to each other), * sociolinguistic (understanding the roles and social representations of languages), * psychological (ability to take a detached view of linguistic diversity). By promoting a better understanding of language, this approach encourages curiosity, metalinguistic reflection, and openness to linguistic and cultural diversity. == History == Awakening to languages became widely recognized in 2003 thanks to the European EvLang program, but it was inspired by earlier initiatives. In the 1970s in Australia, faced with high levels of immigration, a language awareness approach was introduced in schools, even though English remained dominant (Dompmartin-Normand, 2011). In the 1980s in the United Kingdom, Eric Hawkins developed the Language Awareness movement because students were struggling with English and lacked motivation to learn other languages (Bullock, 1975; Fidler, 2006). He proposed a bridge course between languages to encourage reflection on language and understanding of how it works (Hawkins, 1984; Bernaus et al., 2008). In France, the idea was taken up in the late 1980s, especially in primary schools, in order to promote the languages of origin of migrant children and stimulate interest in all languages, even those not taught (Little & Kirwan, 2018; Candelier, 2005). Gradually, concepts such as metalinguistic reflection and cross-curricular skills were developed (Hawkins, 1999), while pilot projects were carried out in multicultural schools (Billiez, 1992; Dabène, 1991). Other countries followed suit, such as Italy (educazione linguistica) and Switzerland (EOLE program) (Bernaus et al., 2007). This work led to the EvLang and Ja-Ling programs, which disseminated the approach on a large scale (Kervran, 2006). == Definitions == Awakening to languages is a linguistic approach through which students discover the world of languages by exploring their diversity and their functions. To understand this approach, we can refer to the definition given by Michel Candelier, coordinator of the EvLang project: Awakening to languages is fostered when some activities focus on languages that the school does not aim to teach, whether or not they are spoken at home by certain pupils. This does not mean that only such activities are part of the awakening to languages, since it is above all a comprehensive, often comparative process involving these languages, the language of schooling, and the foreign languages taught. (Candelier, 2003, translated by the lesson’s authors) What makes this approach unique is that no language is excluded. It allows for the full recognition of students' languages, even if they are not the main language of the school, and can also help with language learning throughout schooling. When students engage in awakening to languages activities, they explore new sounds, observe different writing systems, compare languages reflecting on their similarities and differences, and become aware of the value of their own linguistic repertoire. In this way, they develop their ability to analyze human language (Armand, 2000; 2005). The purpose of this approach is also to highlight the languages they bring from home (Candelier et al., 2012). Thus, awakening to languages can serve as preparation for language learning, which Zarate (1995) calls ''propédeutique'', laying solid foundations in the early years. It develops skills such as linguistic observation, reflection, positive attitudes towards languages, and openness to intercultural encounters (Dabène, 2003; Bernaus et al., 2008). In short, it is preparation for language learning, which seeks to arouse students' curiosity, interest, and confidence in languages and cultures, and to strengthen their ability to observe, analyze, and make connections between different languages. In order to implement this approach, it is useful to refer to the tools/resources offered by the EvLang program. The approach presented below: # Setting the scene or anchoring. This first step serves to introduce the topic. It links the new material to the students' existing knowledge and their everyday life in the classroom. The aim is to create a “learning contract” with the students and ask an interesting and open-ended question (e.g., “Why don't we speak just one language in the world?”) that motivates the students to participate. This is also when the students' representations of languages emerge. They exchange their points of view, ask questions that interest them, and this encourages their engagement. Students also share their personal experiences, their linguistic histories, and their intuitive knowledge about languages, their form, and their role in everyday life. # The research situation. During this stage, students become a kind of detectives. They have to solve a problem presented by the teacher. A “linguistic tension” arises, which pushes them to discover new knowledge on their own. They develop strategies: observing, comparing, analyzing, hypothesizing, organizing, and discussing their ideas. They work in groups, negotiate, make tentative generalizations, and question what they knew about the language before. # Synthesis. This is the final stage, where the students' personal and collective discoveries take shape. They express what they have observed and understood by working together to create a concrete or conceptual solution or tool. This is the moment when everything they have discovered becomes clear and new knowledge is constructed. == An example of an awakening to languages activity == === “The sounds of my classroom” === ==== 1. Setting the scene: Discovering languages in the classroom ==== '''Objective''': To make students aware of the linguistic diversity of their group. '''Procedure''': * The teacher asks each student to think of a word, a short expression, or a special sound in the language they speak at home. * Each student shares their word or sound aloud with the rest of the class. * The teacher writes these words or sounds on the board, specifying the language if possible. * Simple questions are asked to spark curiosity: ** “Who knows this language?” ** “What do you find interesting or surprising about these words?” ** “Have you heard these sounds anywhere else?” ==== 2. Research situation: Observe and compare sounds ==== '''Objective''': To encourage students to listen carefully and think about the differences and similarities between languages. '''Procedure''': * The teacher reads the words or repeats the sounds one by one, slowly. * The students listen and repeat if possible, trying to imitate the sounds. * Then, in small groups (3-4 students), they discuss the following questions: ** Which sounds seem similar to you? ** Which sounds seem different to you? ** Are there any sounds you don't know? * Each group writes or draws their observations on a sheet of paper (for example, a table with columns labeled “similar” and “different”). ==== 3. Synthesis: Share and create a collective tool ==== '''Objective''': Develop a collective understanding and highlight the students' discoveries. '''Procedure''': * Each group presents its observations to the whole class. * The teacher writes down the important ideas on a large poster or board entitled “The sounds of our class.” * Together, create a small booklet or poster with: ** The words or sounds collected, ** The similarities and differences observed, ** A few drawings or symbols to illustrate the sounds. * Students are encouraged to use this booklet or poster in future language activities. * The activity ends with a discussion about what these discoveries have taught us: ** “Why is it important to know the languages spoken in the classroom?” ** “What does this teach us about languages in general?” ==== Teaching comments ==== * This activity develops linguistic curiosity and metalinguistic reflection from the very beginning of learning. * It values all of the students' languages, even those that are unfamiliar to the teacher. * Group work promotes cooperation and dialogue. * The booklet or poster creates a concrete tool that reminds students of the linguistic richness present in the classroom. * The teacher can adapt the difficulty of the questions according to the age of the students. * Families can also be invited to participate by sending words or sounds from home, which strengthens the school-family bond. == Take home messages == * Awakening to languages stands out for its openness to all languages, without exception, including those spoken at home. * The activities encourage language discovery through comparative work and reflection. * The approach develops observation skills, curiosity, and interest in languages and cultures, as well as a positive attitude toward diversity. * It is not a language teaching method, but rather an active preparation for learning. == Self-assessment == What is language awareness? a) A method for teaching foreign languages. b) An activity for learning a language at home. c) An approach to discovering the diversity of languages without teaching them. d) A course for becoming a language teacher. 2. What is the main objective of language awareness? a) To correct students' mistakes in all languages. b) To develop curiosity and reflection about languages. c) To teach English earlier in school. d) To learn to read and write in all the languages spoken in the class. 3. What do students do during a language awareness activity? a) They learn to speak a new language in a month. b) They have to translate all the words into their own language. c) They observe, compare languages, listen, and discuss. d) They prepare a dictation in a foreign language. 4. Why is it useful to involve students and their families in these activities? a) To have more homework to do at home. b) To check if families speak French well. c) To value the languages spoken at home and create a link with the school. d) To do translations during class. ''Correct answers: 1c, 2b; 3c; 4c'' == Resources to go further == * https://elodil.umontreal.ca/ * https://dulala.fr/ * https://bilem.ac-besancon.fr/faire-classe/leveil-aux-langues/ == Bibliography == Bernaus, M., Andrade, A.I., Kervran, M., Murkowska, A. & Saez, F. T. (2007) Plurilingual and Pluricultural awareness in language teacher education. Strasbourg: ECML, Council of Europe Publishing. Bernaus, M., Andrade, A-I., Kervran, M., Murkowska, A. & Trujilli Saez, F. (2008). Plurilingual and pluricultural awareness in language teacher education : a training kit. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Billiez, J. (1992). L’enseignement précoce des langues vivantes dans un environnement scolaire multilingue: vers une solution alternative. In Bouchard, R. (éd.) ''Acquisition et enseignement/apprentissage des langues'', (pp.257-269). Lidilem. Candelier, M. (2003). Evlang – l’éveil aux langues à l’école primaire – Bilan d’une innovation européenne. De Boeck – Duclot. Candelier, M. (2005). « L'éveil aux langues : une approche plurielle des langues et des cultures au service de l'extension des compétences linguistiques », Prudent, L-.F., Tupin, F. et Wharton S. (rédacteurs), Du plurilinguisme à l'école – Vers une gestion coordonnée des langues en contextes éducatifs sensibles, (pp. 417-436). Peter Lang. Charitonidou, A. & Ioannitou, G. (2012). « L’autonomie des enseignants : quels éléments caractérisent l’enseignant autonome et comment ils influent sur la décision de la mise en œuvre d’une innovation pédagogique ? ». Synergies France, nº 9, p. 51-59. Dabène, L. (2003). Préface. In M. Candelier (coord), L’Éveil au langues à l’école primaire: EvLang: bilan d’une innovation européenne,  13-17, Bruxelles: de Boeck. Dabène, L. (1991). L’éveil au langage: compte-rendu d’une expérience en cours. In Les langues vivantes à l’école élémentaire, Actes du colloque de juin 1990, (pp. 105-108). INRP. Dompmartin-Normand, C. (2011). Éveil aux langues et aux cultures à l'école : une démarche intégrée avec un triple objectif cognitif, affectif et social. ''L’ Autre, 12''(2), 162-168. Fidler, S. (2006). Awakening to languages in primary school. ''ELT Journal, 60''(4), 346–354. Hawkins, E. (1984). Awareness of language: An introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hawkins, E. (1999). Foreign Language Study and Language Awareness, 8 (3-4), 124-142. Kervran, M. (2006). Pourquoi et comment faire appel à la diversité des langues du monde à l'école primaire? Spirale- Revue de recherches en éducation, 38, 27-35. Little, D., & Kirwan, D. (2018). From plurilingual repertoires to language awareness: Developing primary pupils’ proficiency in the language of schooling. In C. Hélot, C. Frijns, K. Gorp & S. Sierens (Eds.), ''Language Awareness in Multilingual Classrooms in Europe: From Theory to Practice'', (pp.169-206). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. Zarate, G., (1995). Questions autour des pratiques interculturelles associées à l'éveil au langage. In D. Moore (coord) L'éveil au langage. Notions en questions. Rencontres en didactique des langues, 129-134, CREDIF- LIDILEM. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Eftychia Damaskou (University of Thessaly) * Lisa Brinkmann (Universität Hamburg). [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Languages]] r1lbvpwqsj09s8i4bbbh4h69rxj1j1x 2817269 2817243 2026-06-29T16:20:06Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self-assessment */ 2817269 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == === Context: === You are preparing an activity on sounds and words in different languages around the world. While talking to your students, you discover that several of them speak languages at home that you do not know at all (e.g., Tigrinya, Albanian, Dari, etc.). You are not quite sure whether or how to integrate them into your activity, nor, if you do want to, where to start. === Instructions: === Take a few minutes to reflect on the following points: # What would be your initial reactions or questions as a teacher?  (For example: Should I be interested in this? Is it feasible? Is it beneficial for learning?) # What simple activity ideas could you imagine based on the presence of these languages in your classroom? (Even if you are unfamiliar with them!) How might you connect them to a corpus that includes several widely taught international languages (English, Spanish, German, etc.)? # In what ways could you involve the students concerned, as well as their families, in acknowledging and valuing their heritage languages?" == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to... * Become aware of the importance of linguistic diversity at school; * Understand what awakening to languages is and what its purpose is; * Understand the foundations and objectives of awakening to languages; * Discover the benefits of such an approach for students; * Understand the importance of metalinguistic reflection in learning; * Find ideas to involve students and families, seeing them as resources for implementing such an approach. == Key words == pluralistic approaches; teaching plurilingualism; metalinguistic reflection; language awareness; plurilingual and intercultural competence. == Prerequisites == * Basic knowledge of linguistics and language acquisition (optional). * Basic knowledge of language families == Table of contents == # Introduction # History # Definitions # Take home messages # Self-assessment == Introduction == Awakening to languages is one of the four pluralistic approaches and represents an innovative pedagogical approach. It is a form of learning through problem solving, with specific objectives and the use of various strategies and cognitive processes (Charitonidou & Ioannitou, 2012). Specifically, it is an original approach used in primary schools, where children discover the diversity of languages and their functions (Candelier, 2003; Dabène, 2003). This approach includes the development of attitudes, skills and knowledge about languages, and is based on several objectives: * linguistic (discovery of languages and their specific features), * cognitive (mobilization of mental processes that support learning, but also relating languages to each other), * sociolinguistic (understanding the roles and social representations of languages), * psychological (ability to take a detached view of linguistic diversity). By promoting a better understanding of language, this approach encourages curiosity, metalinguistic reflection, and openness to linguistic and cultural diversity. == History == Awakening to languages became widely recognized in 2003 thanks to the European EvLang program, but it was inspired by earlier initiatives. In the 1970s in Australia, faced with high levels of immigration, a language awareness approach was introduced in schools, even though English remained dominant (Dompmartin-Normand, 2011). In the 1980s in the United Kingdom, Eric Hawkins developed the Language Awareness movement because students were struggling with English and lacked motivation to learn other languages (Bullock, 1975; Fidler, 2006). He proposed a bridge course between languages to encourage reflection on language and understanding of how it works (Hawkins, 1984; Bernaus et al., 2008). In France, the idea was taken up in the late 1980s, especially in primary schools, in order to promote the languages of origin of migrant children and stimulate interest in all languages, even those not taught (Little & Kirwan, 2018; Candelier, 2005). Gradually, concepts such as metalinguistic reflection and cross-curricular skills were developed (Hawkins, 1999), while pilot projects were carried out in multicultural schools (Billiez, 1992; Dabène, 1991). Other countries followed suit, such as Italy (educazione linguistica) and Switzerland (EOLE program) (Bernaus et al., 2007). This work led to the EvLang and Ja-Ling programs, which disseminated the approach on a large scale (Kervran, 2006). == Definitions == Awakening to languages is a linguistic approach through which students discover the world of languages by exploring their diversity and their functions. To understand this approach, we can refer to the definition given by Michel Candelier, coordinator of the EvLang project: Awakening to languages is fostered when some activities focus on languages that the school does not aim to teach, whether or not they are spoken at home by certain pupils. This does not mean that only such activities are part of the awakening to languages, since it is above all a comprehensive, often comparative process involving these languages, the language of schooling, and the foreign languages taught. (Candelier, 2003, translated by the lesson’s authors) What makes this approach unique is that no language is excluded. It allows for the full recognition of students' languages, even if they are not the main language of the school, and can also help with language learning throughout schooling. When students engage in awakening to languages activities, they explore new sounds, observe different writing systems, compare languages reflecting on their similarities and differences, and become aware of the value of their own linguistic repertoire. In this way, they develop their ability to analyze human language (Armand, 2000; 2005). The purpose of this approach is also to highlight the languages they bring from home (Candelier et al., 2012). Thus, awakening to languages can serve as preparation for language learning, which Zarate (1995) calls ''propédeutique'', laying solid foundations in the early years. It develops skills such as linguistic observation, reflection, positive attitudes towards languages, and openness to intercultural encounters (Dabène, 2003; Bernaus et al., 2008). In short, it is preparation for language learning, which seeks to arouse students' curiosity, interest, and confidence in languages and cultures, and to strengthen their ability to observe, analyze, and make connections between different languages. In order to implement this approach, it is useful to refer to the tools/resources offered by the EvLang program. The approach presented below: # Setting the scene or anchoring. This first step serves to introduce the topic. It links the new material to the students' existing knowledge and their everyday life in the classroom. The aim is to create a “learning contract” with the students and ask an interesting and open-ended question (e.g., “Why don't we speak just one language in the world?”) that motivates the students to participate. This is also when the students' representations of languages emerge. They exchange their points of view, ask questions that interest them, and this encourages their engagement. Students also share their personal experiences, their linguistic histories, and their intuitive knowledge about languages, their form, and their role in everyday life. # The research situation. During this stage, students become a kind of detectives. They have to solve a problem presented by the teacher. A “linguistic tension” arises, which pushes them to discover new knowledge on their own. They develop strategies: observing, comparing, analyzing, hypothesizing, organizing, and discussing their ideas. They work in groups, negotiate, make tentative generalizations, and question what they knew about the language before. # Synthesis. This is the final stage, where the students' personal and collective discoveries take shape. They express what they have observed and understood by working together to create a concrete or conceptual solution or tool. This is the moment when everything they have discovered becomes clear and new knowledge is constructed. == An example of an awakening to languages activity == === “The sounds of my classroom” === ==== 1. Setting the scene: Discovering languages in the classroom ==== '''Objective''': To make students aware of the linguistic diversity of their group. '''Procedure''': * The teacher asks each student to think of a word, a short expression, or a special sound in the language they speak at home. * Each student shares their word or sound aloud with the rest of the class. * The teacher writes these words or sounds on the board, specifying the language if possible. * Simple questions are asked to spark curiosity: ** “Who knows this language?” ** “What do you find interesting or surprising about these words?” ** “Have you heard these sounds anywhere else?” ==== 2. Research situation: Observe and compare sounds ==== '''Objective''': To encourage students to listen carefully and think about the differences and similarities between languages. '''Procedure''': * The teacher reads the words or repeats the sounds one by one, slowly. * The students listen and repeat if possible, trying to imitate the sounds. * Then, in small groups (3-4 students), they discuss the following questions: ** Which sounds seem similar to you? ** Which sounds seem different to you? ** Are there any sounds you don't know? * Each group writes or draws their observations on a sheet of paper (for example, a table with columns labeled “similar” and “different”). ==== 3. Synthesis: Share and create a collective tool ==== '''Objective''': Develop a collective understanding and highlight the students' discoveries. '''Procedure''': * Each group presents its observations to the whole class. * The teacher writes down the important ideas on a large poster or board entitled “The sounds of our class.” * Together, create a small booklet or poster with: ** The words or sounds collected, ** The similarities and differences observed, ** A few drawings or symbols to illustrate the sounds. * Students are encouraged to use this booklet or poster in future language activities. * The activity ends with a discussion about what these discoveries have taught us: ** “Why is it important to know the languages spoken in the classroom?” ** “What does this teach us about languages in general?” ==== Teaching comments ==== * This activity develops linguistic curiosity and metalinguistic reflection from the very beginning of learning. * It values all of the students' languages, even those that are unfamiliar to the teacher. * Group work promotes cooperation and dialogue. * The booklet or poster creates a concrete tool that reminds students of the linguistic richness present in the classroom. * The teacher can adapt the difficulty of the questions according to the age of the students. * Families can also be invited to participate by sending words or sounds from home, which strengthens the school-family bond. == Take home messages == * Awakening to languages stands out for its openness to all languages, without exception, including those spoken at home. * The activities encourage language discovery through comparative work and reflection. * The approach develops observation skills, curiosity, and interest in languages and cultures, as well as a positive attitude toward diversity. * It is not a language teaching method, but rather an active preparation for learning. == Self-assessment == <quiz> {What is language awareness?} -a) A method for teaching foreign languages. -b) An activity for learning a language at home. +c) An approach to discovering the diversity of languages without teaching them. -d) A course for becoming a language teacher. {What is the main objective of language awareness?} -a) To correct students' mistakes in all languages. +b) To develop curiosity and reflection about languages. -c) To teach English earlier in school. -d) To learn to read and write in all the languages spoken in the class. {What do students do during a language awareness activity?} -a) They learn to speak a new language in a month. -b) They have to translate all the words into their own language. +c) They observe, compare languages, listen, and discuss. -d) They prepare a dictation in a foreign language. {Why is it useful to involve students and their families in these activities?} -a) To have more homework to do at home. -b) To check if families speak French well. +c) To value the languages spoken at home and create a link with the school. -d) To do translations during class. </quiz> ''Correct answers: 1c, 2b; 3c; 4c'' == Resources to go further == * https://elodil.umontreal.ca/ * https://dulala.fr/ * https://bilem.ac-besancon.fr/faire-classe/leveil-aux-langues/ == Bibliography == Bernaus, M., Andrade, A.I., Kervran, M., Murkowska, A. & Saez, F. T. (2007) Plurilingual and Pluricultural awareness in language teacher education. Strasbourg: ECML, Council of Europe Publishing. Bernaus, M., Andrade, A-I., Kervran, M., Murkowska, A. & Trujilli Saez, F. (2008). Plurilingual and pluricultural awareness in language teacher education : a training kit. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Billiez, J. (1992). L’enseignement précoce des langues vivantes dans un environnement scolaire multilingue: vers une solution alternative. In Bouchard, R. (éd.) ''Acquisition et enseignement/apprentissage des langues'', (pp.257-269). Lidilem. Candelier, M. (2003). Evlang – l’éveil aux langues à l’école primaire – Bilan d’une innovation européenne. De Boeck – Duclot. Candelier, M. (2005). « L'éveil aux langues : une approche plurielle des langues et des cultures au service de l'extension des compétences linguistiques », Prudent, L-.F., Tupin, F. et Wharton S. (rédacteurs), Du plurilinguisme à l'école – Vers une gestion coordonnée des langues en contextes éducatifs sensibles, (pp. 417-436). Peter Lang. Charitonidou, A. & Ioannitou, G. (2012). « L’autonomie des enseignants : quels éléments caractérisent l’enseignant autonome et comment ils influent sur la décision de la mise en œuvre d’une innovation pédagogique ? ». Synergies France, nº 9, p. 51-59. Dabène, L. (2003). Préface. In M. Candelier (coord), L’Éveil au langues à l’école primaire: EvLang: bilan d’une innovation européenne,  13-17, Bruxelles: de Boeck. Dabène, L. (1991). L’éveil au langage: compte-rendu d’une expérience en cours. In Les langues vivantes à l’école élémentaire, Actes du colloque de juin 1990, (pp. 105-108). INRP. Dompmartin-Normand, C. (2011). Éveil aux langues et aux cultures à l'école : une démarche intégrée avec un triple objectif cognitif, affectif et social. ''L’ Autre, 12''(2), 162-168. Fidler, S. (2006). Awakening to languages in primary school. ''ELT Journal, 60''(4), 346–354. Hawkins, E. (1984). Awareness of language: An introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hawkins, E. (1999). Foreign Language Study and Language Awareness, 8 (3-4), 124-142. Kervran, M. (2006). Pourquoi et comment faire appel à la diversité des langues du monde à l'école primaire? Spirale- Revue de recherches en éducation, 38, 27-35. Little, D., & Kirwan, D. (2018). From plurilingual repertoires to language awareness: Developing primary pupils’ proficiency in the language of schooling. In C. Hélot, C. Frijns, K. Gorp & S. Sierens (Eds.), ''Language Awareness in Multilingual Classrooms in Europe: From Theory to Practice'', (pp.169-206). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. Zarate, G., (1995). Questions autour des pratiques interculturelles associées à l'éveil au langage. In D. Moore (coord) L'éveil au langage. Notions en questions. Rencontres en didactique des langues, 129-134, CREDIF- LIDILEM. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Eftychia Damaskou (University of Thessaly) * Lisa Brinkmann (Universität Hamburg). [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Languages]] 8nwmlzxwbfokwtyjhj4osksh73dp62d 2817270 2817269 2026-06-29T16:20:23Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self-assessment */ 2817270 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == === Context: === You are preparing an activity on sounds and words in different languages around the world. While talking to your students, you discover that several of them speak languages at home that you do not know at all (e.g., Tigrinya, Albanian, Dari, etc.). You are not quite sure whether or how to integrate them into your activity, nor, if you do want to, where to start. === Instructions: === Take a few minutes to reflect on the following points: # What would be your initial reactions or questions as a teacher?  (For example: Should I be interested in this? Is it feasible? Is it beneficial for learning?) # What simple activity ideas could you imagine based on the presence of these languages in your classroom? (Even if you are unfamiliar with them!) How might you connect them to a corpus that includes several widely taught international languages (English, Spanish, German, etc.)? # In what ways could you involve the students concerned, as well as their families, in acknowledging and valuing their heritage languages?" == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to... * Become aware of the importance of linguistic diversity at school; * Understand what awakening to languages is and what its purpose is; * Understand the foundations and objectives of awakening to languages; * Discover the benefits of such an approach for students; * Understand the importance of metalinguistic reflection in learning; * Find ideas to involve students and families, seeing them as resources for implementing such an approach. == Key words == pluralistic approaches; teaching plurilingualism; metalinguistic reflection; language awareness; plurilingual and intercultural competence. == Prerequisites == * Basic knowledge of linguistics and language acquisition (optional). * Basic knowledge of language families == Table of contents == # Introduction # History # Definitions # Take home messages # Self-assessment == Introduction == Awakening to languages is one of the four pluralistic approaches and represents an innovative pedagogical approach. It is a form of learning through problem solving, with specific objectives and the use of various strategies and cognitive processes (Charitonidou & Ioannitou, 2012). Specifically, it is an original approach used in primary schools, where children discover the diversity of languages and their functions (Candelier, 2003; Dabène, 2003). This approach includes the development of attitudes, skills and knowledge about languages, and is based on several objectives: * linguistic (discovery of languages and their specific features), * cognitive (mobilization of mental processes that support learning, but also relating languages to each other), * sociolinguistic (understanding the roles and social representations of languages), * psychological (ability to take a detached view of linguistic diversity). By promoting a better understanding of language, this approach encourages curiosity, metalinguistic reflection, and openness to linguistic and cultural diversity. == History == Awakening to languages became widely recognized in 2003 thanks to the European EvLang program, but it was inspired by earlier initiatives. In the 1970s in Australia, faced with high levels of immigration, a language awareness approach was introduced in schools, even though English remained dominant (Dompmartin-Normand, 2011). In the 1980s in the United Kingdom, Eric Hawkins developed the Language Awareness movement because students were struggling with English and lacked motivation to learn other languages (Bullock, 1975; Fidler, 2006). He proposed a bridge course between languages to encourage reflection on language and understanding of how it works (Hawkins, 1984; Bernaus et al., 2008). In France, the idea was taken up in the late 1980s, especially in primary schools, in order to promote the languages of origin of migrant children and stimulate interest in all languages, even those not taught (Little & Kirwan, 2018; Candelier, 2005). Gradually, concepts such as metalinguistic reflection and cross-curricular skills were developed (Hawkins, 1999), while pilot projects were carried out in multicultural schools (Billiez, 1992; Dabène, 1991). Other countries followed suit, such as Italy (educazione linguistica) and Switzerland (EOLE program) (Bernaus et al., 2007). This work led to the EvLang and Ja-Ling programs, which disseminated the approach on a large scale (Kervran, 2006). == Definitions == Awakening to languages is a linguistic approach through which students discover the world of languages by exploring their diversity and their functions. To understand this approach, we can refer to the definition given by Michel Candelier, coordinator of the EvLang project: Awakening to languages is fostered when some activities focus on languages that the school does not aim to teach, whether or not they are spoken at home by certain pupils. This does not mean that only such activities are part of the awakening to languages, since it is above all a comprehensive, often comparative process involving these languages, the language of schooling, and the foreign languages taught. (Candelier, 2003, translated by the lesson’s authors) What makes this approach unique is that no language is excluded. It allows for the full recognition of students' languages, even if they are not the main language of the school, and can also help with language learning throughout schooling. When students engage in awakening to languages activities, they explore new sounds, observe different writing systems, compare languages reflecting on their similarities and differences, and become aware of the value of their own linguistic repertoire. In this way, they develop their ability to analyze human language (Armand, 2000; 2005). The purpose of this approach is also to highlight the languages they bring from home (Candelier et al., 2012). Thus, awakening to languages can serve as preparation for language learning, which Zarate (1995) calls ''propédeutique'', laying solid foundations in the early years. It develops skills such as linguistic observation, reflection, positive attitudes towards languages, and openness to intercultural encounters (Dabène, 2003; Bernaus et al., 2008). In short, it is preparation for language learning, which seeks to arouse students' curiosity, interest, and confidence in languages and cultures, and to strengthen their ability to observe, analyze, and make connections between different languages. In order to implement this approach, it is useful to refer to the tools/resources offered by the EvLang program. The approach presented below: # Setting the scene or anchoring. This first step serves to introduce the topic. It links the new material to the students' existing knowledge and their everyday life in the classroom. The aim is to create a “learning contract” with the students and ask an interesting and open-ended question (e.g., “Why don't we speak just one language in the world?”) that motivates the students to participate. This is also when the students' representations of languages emerge. They exchange their points of view, ask questions that interest them, and this encourages their engagement. Students also share their personal experiences, their linguistic histories, and their intuitive knowledge about languages, their form, and their role in everyday life. # The research situation. During this stage, students become a kind of detectives. They have to solve a problem presented by the teacher. A “linguistic tension” arises, which pushes them to discover new knowledge on their own. They develop strategies: observing, comparing, analyzing, hypothesizing, organizing, and discussing their ideas. They work in groups, negotiate, make tentative generalizations, and question what they knew about the language before. # Synthesis. This is the final stage, where the students' personal and collective discoveries take shape. They express what they have observed and understood by working together to create a concrete or conceptual solution or tool. This is the moment when everything they have discovered becomes clear and new knowledge is constructed. == An example of an awakening to languages activity == === “The sounds of my classroom” === ==== 1. Setting the scene: Discovering languages in the classroom ==== '''Objective''': To make students aware of the linguistic diversity of their group. '''Procedure''': * The teacher asks each student to think of a word, a short expression, or a special sound in the language they speak at home. * Each student shares their word or sound aloud with the rest of the class. * The teacher writes these words or sounds on the board, specifying the language if possible. * Simple questions are asked to spark curiosity: ** “Who knows this language?” ** “What do you find interesting or surprising about these words?” ** “Have you heard these sounds anywhere else?” ==== 2. Research situation: Observe and compare sounds ==== '''Objective''': To encourage students to listen carefully and think about the differences and similarities between languages. '''Procedure''': * The teacher reads the words or repeats the sounds one by one, slowly. * The students listen and repeat if possible, trying to imitate the sounds. * Then, in small groups (3-4 students), they discuss the following questions: ** Which sounds seem similar to you? ** Which sounds seem different to you? ** Are there any sounds you don't know? * Each group writes or draws their observations on a sheet of paper (for example, a table with columns labeled “similar” and “different”). ==== 3. Synthesis: Share and create a collective tool ==== '''Objective''': Develop a collective understanding and highlight the students' discoveries. '''Procedure''': * Each group presents its observations to the whole class. * The teacher writes down the important ideas on a large poster or board entitled “The sounds of our class.” * Together, create a small booklet or poster with: ** The words or sounds collected, ** The similarities and differences observed, ** A few drawings or symbols to illustrate the sounds. * Students are encouraged to use this booklet or poster in future language activities. * The activity ends with a discussion about what these discoveries have taught us: ** “Why is it important to know the languages spoken in the classroom?” ** “What does this teach us about languages in general?” ==== Teaching comments ==== * This activity develops linguistic curiosity and metalinguistic reflection from the very beginning of learning. * It values all of the students' languages, even those that are unfamiliar to the teacher. * Group work promotes cooperation and dialogue. * The booklet or poster creates a concrete tool that reminds students of the linguistic richness present in the classroom. * The teacher can adapt the difficulty of the questions according to the age of the students. * Families can also be invited to participate by sending words or sounds from home, which strengthens the school-family bond. == Take home messages == * Awakening to languages stands out for its openness to all languages, without exception, including those spoken at home. * The activities encourage language discovery through comparative work and reflection. * The approach develops observation skills, curiosity, and interest in languages and cultures, as well as a positive attitude toward diversity. * It is not a language teaching method, but rather an active preparation for learning. == Self-assessment == <quiz> {What is language awareness?} -a) A method for teaching foreign languages. -b) An activity for learning a language at home. +c) An approach to discovering the diversity of languages without teaching them. -d) A course for becoming a language teacher. {What is the main objective of language awareness?} -a) To correct students' mistakes in all languages. +b) To develop curiosity and reflection about languages. -c) To teach English earlier in school. -d) To learn to read and write in all the languages spoken in the class. {What do students do during a language awareness activity?} -a) They learn to speak a new language in a month. -b) They have to translate all the words into their own language. +c) They observe, compare languages, listen, and discuss. -d) They prepare a dictation in a foreign language. {Why is it useful to involve students and their families in these activities?} -a) To have more homework to do at home. -b) To check if families speak French well. +c) To value the languages spoken at home and create a link with the school. -d) To do translations during class. </quiz> == Resources to go further == * https://elodil.umontreal.ca/ * https://dulala.fr/ * https://bilem.ac-besancon.fr/faire-classe/leveil-aux-langues/ == Bibliography == Bernaus, M., Andrade, A.I., Kervran, M., Murkowska, A. & Saez, F. T. (2007) Plurilingual and Pluricultural awareness in language teacher education. Strasbourg: ECML, Council of Europe Publishing. Bernaus, M., Andrade, A-I., Kervran, M., Murkowska, A. & Trujilli Saez, F. (2008). Plurilingual and pluricultural awareness in language teacher education : a training kit. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Billiez, J. (1992). L’enseignement précoce des langues vivantes dans un environnement scolaire multilingue: vers une solution alternative. In Bouchard, R. (éd.) ''Acquisition et enseignement/apprentissage des langues'', (pp.257-269). Lidilem. Candelier, M. (2003). Evlang – l’éveil aux langues à l’école primaire – Bilan d’une innovation européenne. De Boeck – Duclot. Candelier, M. (2005). « L'éveil aux langues : une approche plurielle des langues et des cultures au service de l'extension des compétences linguistiques », Prudent, L-.F., Tupin, F. et Wharton S. (rédacteurs), Du plurilinguisme à l'école – Vers une gestion coordonnée des langues en contextes éducatifs sensibles, (pp. 417-436). Peter Lang. Charitonidou, A. & Ioannitou, G. (2012). « L’autonomie des enseignants : quels éléments caractérisent l’enseignant autonome et comment ils influent sur la décision de la mise en œuvre d’une innovation pédagogique ? ». Synergies France, nº 9, p. 51-59. Dabène, L. (2003). Préface. In M. Candelier (coord), L’Éveil au langues à l’école primaire: EvLang: bilan d’une innovation européenne,  13-17, Bruxelles: de Boeck. Dabène, L. (1991). L’éveil au langage: compte-rendu d’une expérience en cours. In Les langues vivantes à l’école élémentaire, Actes du colloque de juin 1990, (pp. 105-108). INRP. Dompmartin-Normand, C. (2011). Éveil aux langues et aux cultures à l'école : une démarche intégrée avec un triple objectif cognitif, affectif et social. ''L’ Autre, 12''(2), 162-168. Fidler, S. (2006). Awakening to languages in primary school. ''ELT Journal, 60''(4), 346–354. Hawkins, E. (1984). Awareness of language: An introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hawkins, E. (1999). Foreign Language Study and Language Awareness, 8 (3-4), 124-142. Kervran, M. (2006). Pourquoi et comment faire appel à la diversité des langues du monde à l'école primaire? Spirale- Revue de recherches en éducation, 38, 27-35. Little, D., & Kirwan, D. (2018). From plurilingual repertoires to language awareness: Developing primary pupils’ proficiency in the language of schooling. In C. Hélot, C. Frijns, K. Gorp & S. Sierens (Eds.), ''Language Awareness in Multilingual Classrooms in Europe: From Theory to Practice'', (pp.169-206). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. Zarate, G., (1995). Questions autour des pratiques interculturelles associées à l'éveil au langage. In D. Moore (coord) L'éveil au langage. Notions en questions. Rencontres en didactique des langues, 129-134, CREDIF- LIDILEM. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Eftychia Damaskou (University of Thessaly) * Lisa Brinkmann (Universität Hamburg). [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Languages]] fdxo7rt1pz8j3lgoshf12alw7h1gcci 2817275 2817270 2026-06-29T16:27:28Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self-assessment */ 2817275 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == === Context: === You are preparing an activity on sounds and words in different languages around the world. While talking to your students, you discover that several of them speak languages at home that you do not know at all (e.g., Tigrinya, Albanian, Dari, etc.). You are not quite sure whether or how to integrate them into your activity, nor, if you do want to, where to start. === Instructions: === Take a few minutes to reflect on the following points: # What would be your initial reactions or questions as a teacher?  (For example: Should I be interested in this? Is it feasible? Is it beneficial for learning?) # What simple activity ideas could you imagine based on the presence of these languages in your classroom? (Even if you are unfamiliar with them!) How might you connect them to a corpus that includes several widely taught international languages (English, Spanish, German, etc.)? # In what ways could you involve the students concerned, as well as their families, in acknowledging and valuing their heritage languages?" == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to... * Become aware of the importance of linguistic diversity at school; * Understand what awakening to languages is and what its purpose is; * Understand the foundations and objectives of awakening to languages; * Discover the benefits of such an approach for students; * Understand the importance of metalinguistic reflection in learning; * Find ideas to involve students and families, seeing them as resources for implementing such an approach. == Key words == pluralistic approaches; teaching plurilingualism; metalinguistic reflection; language awareness; plurilingual and intercultural competence. == Prerequisites == * Basic knowledge of linguistics and language acquisition (optional). * Basic knowledge of language families == Table of contents == # Introduction # History # Definitions # Take home messages # Self-assessment == Introduction == Awakening to languages is one of the four pluralistic approaches and represents an innovative pedagogical approach. It is a form of learning through problem solving, with specific objectives and the use of various strategies and cognitive processes (Charitonidou & Ioannitou, 2012). Specifically, it is an original approach used in primary schools, where children discover the diversity of languages and their functions (Candelier, 2003; Dabène, 2003). This approach includes the development of attitudes, skills and knowledge about languages, and is based on several objectives: * linguistic (discovery of languages and their specific features), * cognitive (mobilization of mental processes that support learning, but also relating languages to each other), * sociolinguistic (understanding the roles and social representations of languages), * psychological (ability to take a detached view of linguistic diversity). By promoting a better understanding of language, this approach encourages curiosity, metalinguistic reflection, and openness to linguistic and cultural diversity. == History == Awakening to languages became widely recognized in 2003 thanks to the European EvLang program, but it was inspired by earlier initiatives. In the 1970s in Australia, faced with high levels of immigration, a language awareness approach was introduced in schools, even though English remained dominant (Dompmartin-Normand, 2011). In the 1980s in the United Kingdom, Eric Hawkins developed the Language Awareness movement because students were struggling with English and lacked motivation to learn other languages (Bullock, 1975; Fidler, 2006). He proposed a bridge course between languages to encourage reflection on language and understanding of how it works (Hawkins, 1984; Bernaus et al., 2008). In France, the idea was taken up in the late 1980s, especially in primary schools, in order to promote the languages of origin of migrant children and stimulate interest in all languages, even those not taught (Little & Kirwan, 2018; Candelier, 2005). Gradually, concepts such as metalinguistic reflection and cross-curricular skills were developed (Hawkins, 1999), while pilot projects were carried out in multicultural schools (Billiez, 1992; Dabène, 1991). Other countries followed suit, such as Italy (educazione linguistica) and Switzerland (EOLE program) (Bernaus et al., 2007). This work led to the EvLang and Ja-Ling programs, which disseminated the approach on a large scale (Kervran, 2006). == Definitions == Awakening to languages is a linguistic approach through which students discover the world of languages by exploring their diversity and their functions. To understand this approach, we can refer to the definition given by Michel Candelier, coordinator of the EvLang project: Awakening to languages is fostered when some activities focus on languages that the school does not aim to teach, whether or not they are spoken at home by certain pupils. This does not mean that only such activities are part of the awakening to languages, since it is above all a comprehensive, often comparative process involving these languages, the language of schooling, and the foreign languages taught. (Candelier, 2003, translated by the lesson’s authors) What makes this approach unique is that no language is excluded. It allows for the full recognition of students' languages, even if they are not the main language of the school, and can also help with language learning throughout schooling. When students engage in awakening to languages activities, they explore new sounds, observe different writing systems, compare languages reflecting on their similarities and differences, and become aware of the value of their own linguistic repertoire. In this way, they develop their ability to analyze human language (Armand, 2000; 2005). The purpose of this approach is also to highlight the languages they bring from home (Candelier et al., 2012). Thus, awakening to languages can serve as preparation for language learning, which Zarate (1995) calls ''propédeutique'', laying solid foundations in the early years. It develops skills such as linguistic observation, reflection, positive attitudes towards languages, and openness to intercultural encounters (Dabène, 2003; Bernaus et al., 2008). In short, it is preparation for language learning, which seeks to arouse students' curiosity, interest, and confidence in languages and cultures, and to strengthen their ability to observe, analyze, and make connections between different languages. In order to implement this approach, it is useful to refer to the tools/resources offered by the EvLang program. The approach presented below: # Setting the scene or anchoring. This first step serves to introduce the topic. It links the new material to the students' existing knowledge and their everyday life in the classroom. The aim is to create a “learning contract” with the students and ask an interesting and open-ended question (e.g., “Why don't we speak just one language in the world?”) that motivates the students to participate. This is also when the students' representations of languages emerge. They exchange their points of view, ask questions that interest them, and this encourages their engagement. Students also share their personal experiences, their linguistic histories, and their intuitive knowledge about languages, their form, and their role in everyday life. # The research situation. During this stage, students become a kind of detectives. They have to solve a problem presented by the teacher. A “linguistic tension” arises, which pushes them to discover new knowledge on their own. They develop strategies: observing, comparing, analyzing, hypothesizing, organizing, and discussing their ideas. They work in groups, negotiate, make tentative generalizations, and question what they knew about the language before. # Synthesis. This is the final stage, where the students' personal and collective discoveries take shape. They express what they have observed and understood by working together to create a concrete or conceptual solution or tool. This is the moment when everything they have discovered becomes clear and new knowledge is constructed. == An example of an awakening to languages activity == === “The sounds of my classroom” === ==== 1. Setting the scene: Discovering languages in the classroom ==== '''Objective''': To make students aware of the linguistic diversity of their group. '''Procedure''': * The teacher asks each student to think of a word, a short expression, or a special sound in the language they speak at home. * Each student shares their word or sound aloud with the rest of the class. * The teacher writes these words or sounds on the board, specifying the language if possible. * Simple questions are asked to spark curiosity: ** “Who knows this language?” ** “What do you find interesting or surprising about these words?” ** “Have you heard these sounds anywhere else?” ==== 2. Research situation: Observe and compare sounds ==== '''Objective''': To encourage students to listen carefully and think about the differences and similarities between languages. '''Procedure''': * The teacher reads the words or repeats the sounds one by one, slowly. * The students listen and repeat if possible, trying to imitate the sounds. * Then, in small groups (3-4 students), they discuss the following questions: ** Which sounds seem similar to you? ** Which sounds seem different to you? ** Are there any sounds you don't know? * Each group writes or draws their observations on a sheet of paper (for example, a table with columns labeled “similar” and “different”). ==== 3. Synthesis: Share and create a collective tool ==== '''Objective''': Develop a collective understanding and highlight the students' discoveries. '''Procedure''': * Each group presents its observations to the whole class. * The teacher writes down the important ideas on a large poster or board entitled “The sounds of our class.” * Together, create a small booklet or poster with: ** The words or sounds collected, ** The similarities and differences observed, ** A few drawings or symbols to illustrate the sounds. * Students are encouraged to use this booklet or poster in future language activities. * The activity ends with a discussion about what these discoveries have taught us: ** “Why is it important to know the languages spoken in the classroom?” ** “What does this teach us about languages in general?” ==== Teaching comments ==== * This activity develops linguistic curiosity and metalinguistic reflection from the very beginning of learning. * It values all of the students' languages, even those that are unfamiliar to the teacher. * Group work promotes cooperation and dialogue. * The booklet or poster creates a concrete tool that reminds students of the linguistic richness present in the classroom. * The teacher can adapt the difficulty of the questions according to the age of the students. * Families can also be invited to participate by sending words or sounds from home, which strengthens the school-family bond. == Take home messages == * Awakening to languages stands out for its openness to all languages, without exception, including those spoken at home. * The activities encourage language discovery through comparative work and reflection. * The approach develops observation skills, curiosity, and interest in languages and cultures, as well as a positive attitude toward diversity. * It is not a language teaching method, but rather an active preparation for learning. == Self-assessment == <quiz display="simple"> {What is language awareness?} -a) A method for teaching foreign languages. -b) An activity for learning a language at home. +c) An approach to discovering the diversity of languages without teaching them. -d) A course for becoming a language teacher. {What is the main objective of language awareness?} -a) To correct students' mistakes in all languages. +b) To develop curiosity and reflection about languages. -c) To teach English earlier in school. -d) To learn to read and write in all the languages spoken in the class. {What do students do during a language awareness activity?} -a) They learn to speak a new language in a month. -b) They have to translate all the words into their own language. +c) They observe, compare languages, listen, and discuss. -d) They prepare a dictation in a foreign language. {Why is it useful to involve students and their families in these activities?} -a) To have more homework to do at home. -b) To check if families speak French well. +c) To value the languages spoken at home and create a link with the school. -d) To do translations during class. </quiz> == Resources to go further == * https://elodil.umontreal.ca/ * https://dulala.fr/ * https://bilem.ac-besancon.fr/faire-classe/leveil-aux-langues/ == Bibliography == Bernaus, M., Andrade, A.I., Kervran, M., Murkowska, A. & Saez, F. T. (2007) Plurilingual and Pluricultural awareness in language teacher education. Strasbourg: ECML, Council of Europe Publishing. Bernaus, M., Andrade, A-I., Kervran, M., Murkowska, A. & Trujilli Saez, F. (2008). Plurilingual and pluricultural awareness in language teacher education : a training kit. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Billiez, J. (1992). L’enseignement précoce des langues vivantes dans un environnement scolaire multilingue: vers une solution alternative. In Bouchard, R. (éd.) ''Acquisition et enseignement/apprentissage des langues'', (pp.257-269). Lidilem. Candelier, M. (2003). Evlang – l’éveil aux langues à l’école primaire – Bilan d’une innovation européenne. De Boeck – Duclot. Candelier, M. (2005). « L'éveil aux langues : une approche plurielle des langues et des cultures au service de l'extension des compétences linguistiques », Prudent, L-.F., Tupin, F. et Wharton S. (rédacteurs), Du plurilinguisme à l'école – Vers une gestion coordonnée des langues en contextes éducatifs sensibles, (pp. 417-436). Peter Lang. Charitonidou, A. & Ioannitou, G. (2012). « L’autonomie des enseignants : quels éléments caractérisent l’enseignant autonome et comment ils influent sur la décision de la mise en œuvre d’une innovation pédagogique ? ». Synergies France, nº 9, p. 51-59. Dabène, L. (2003). Préface. In M. Candelier (coord), L’Éveil au langues à l’école primaire: EvLang: bilan d’une innovation européenne,  13-17, Bruxelles: de Boeck. Dabène, L. (1991). L’éveil au langage: compte-rendu d’une expérience en cours. In Les langues vivantes à l’école élémentaire, Actes du colloque de juin 1990, (pp. 105-108). INRP. Dompmartin-Normand, C. (2011). Éveil aux langues et aux cultures à l'école : une démarche intégrée avec un triple objectif cognitif, affectif et social. ''L’ Autre, 12''(2), 162-168. Fidler, S. (2006). Awakening to languages in primary school. ''ELT Journal, 60''(4), 346–354. Hawkins, E. (1984). Awareness of language: An introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hawkins, E. (1999). Foreign Language Study and Language Awareness, 8 (3-4), 124-142. Kervran, M. (2006). Pourquoi et comment faire appel à la diversité des langues du monde à l'école primaire? Spirale- Revue de recherches en éducation, 38, 27-35. Little, D., & Kirwan, D. (2018). From plurilingual repertoires to language awareness: Developing primary pupils’ proficiency in the language of schooling. In C. Hélot, C. Frijns, K. Gorp & S. Sierens (Eds.), ''Language Awareness in Multilingual Classrooms in Europe: From Theory to Practice'', (pp.169-206). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. Zarate, G., (1995). Questions autour des pratiques interculturelles associées à l'éveil au langage. In D. Moore (coord) L'éveil au langage. Notions en questions. Rencontres en didactique des langues, 129-134, CREDIF- LIDILEM. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Eftychia Damaskou (University of Thessaly) * Lisa Brinkmann (Universität Hamburg). [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Languages]] ik5c9ywjmmt35w7q0lhb6cs9tyfagxv 0 326358 2817252 2792546 2026-06-29T16:00:59Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Credits */ 2817252 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Initial activity == Watch the following videos and analyze the different language practices in relation to the diversity of languages spoken in them. # When your toddler speaks two different languages: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=66iY3UzC878 # Tips for Raising Multilingual Kids – Teaching 4 Languages to our Multicultural Children: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NIOpW-niwb0 After this first activity, watch the following video and give an example of strategies for managing the languages present in the family environment. If you know of or can think of any others, feel free to add them. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WwcGUuCpzXs Marie Rose Moro: Switching between languages: the case of migrant children] == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to... * Define the role of parental involvement in supporting children’s bilingualism/plurilingualism; * Understand the role of family involvement in the intergenerational transmission of the heritage language; * Identify different ways of positively managing plurilingualism within the family. == Keywords == migrants; language of origin; bilingualism; plurilingualism; intergenerational transmission of languages; family language policies; plurilingual education == Table of contents == # Introduction # Parental involvement in the bilingual development of children # Take-away messages # Self-assessment # Further resources # Bibliography == Introduction == Family mobility, whether forced or not, leads to situations in which families must implicitly or explicitly define their family language policies. Family language policies refer more specifically to explicit and implicit language policies and practices at home (Curdt-Christiansen, 2018), but we will refer to family language policies that go beyond the domestic context to describe more holistic practices used by families to defend their family languages. The need for language management is even more pressing when children are born, raising the question of whether or not to pass on the language of origin. In families where the parents speak two different languages of origin, or in cases of family breakdown due to mobility (e.g., divorce or death of one of the spouses), the choice of which languages to speak at home and pass on becomes even more pressing. In this plurilingual family setting, there is also the question of language management at school, in family language interactions, and the place given to it. This place may be in opposition to the languages of origin, or complementary to them, reflecting parental involvement in relation to the plurilingual reality of the family. The choice of school and foreign languages to study (or not), as well as the demand for native language courses in formal or informal contexts, are another sign of families' willingness to get involved in their children's language education. In this section of Wikiversity, we will analyze how families are involved in the linguistic (and multilingual) education of their children, particularly by seeking formal and/or informal opportunities to transmit the language of origin. This parental involvement can promote the child's bi/plurilingual development, in a holistic approach that also integrates the language(s) of the school. === Parental involvement in the bilingual development of children === We refer to the language of origin (also known as the family language) as the language that is transmitted in situations of mobility/migration, especially in the family environment, in a sociolinguistic context where it is a minority language. This language is normally combined with other languages to form the plurilingual repertoire of children. These other languages include the majority language(s) (often the languages of schooling), the languages of the curriculum, and other languages in circulation with social uses. Parents and families can be involved, directly or indirectly, not only in the transmission of family languages, but also in the learning and use of majority and school languages, i.e., in this related dual investment. Sometimes, parents, for fear of stigmatizing their children or to accept the advice of schools, which still tend to promote a monolingual ideal, choose not to pass on their native language to their children. Is it not true that many families continue to hear well-intentioned advice from school officials, such as “it is better to speak the language of the school at home” or “your child is still a little behind in terms of expression, this must be because he or she speaks another language at home”? However, when parents commit to passing on their L1, they can do so implicitly or explicitly, but passionately (Gkaintartzi et al., 2014). More specifically, parental involvement means that families, especially those with a migrant background, are resources with their “funds of knowledge” (Vélez-Ibáñez & Greenberg, 1992) and should not be viewed from a “deficit-oriented” perspective, but from a perspective of proactive engagement. Parental involvement is traditionally sought in terms of school-family collaboration (Arias, 2017; Epstein, 2021; Krüger & Thamin, 2021). However, the involvement of parents and families in the transmission of the language of origin goes far beyond this relationship with the school as a formal educational institution. We will now illustrate this complexity of family engagement by giving examples of family involvement in informal and formal contexts of language transmission. ==== Family engagement in the informal transmission of family/heritage languages ==== Families can informally support the bilingual and plurilingual development of their children through various everyday practices, which are situated and social literacy practices. For example, by adopting explicit family language policies such as the OPOL (one parent, one language) method or separating the language spoken at home from the language spoken in the community, or by establishing implicit rules that encourage the use of languages of origin at home, particularly in literacy practices. Regular reading in different languages, even in a playful way, helps to strengthen language skills. Participating in playgroups or social activities where children interact with other children in their native language provides natural opportunities for practice (Costa Wätzold & Melo-Pfeifer, 2024). Similarly, involvement in religious or community groups can encourage the use of these languages in a meaningful cultural setting (Souza, 2016). Initiatives such as the “mala de herança,” containing objects, books, or recordings in the family language, help maintain an emotional connection to the heritage language and culture (Costa Wätzold & Melo-Pfeifer, 2024). By helping their children with schoolwork, translating or explaining content in the heritage language (Costa Wätzold & Melo-Pfeifer, 2024), parents value this language as a cognitive tool. Finally, maintaining intergenerational family ties through frequent contact with grandparents, the members most often cited in the literature, in the country of origin (Melo-Pfeifer, 2015) reinforces the authentic use of the language of origin in emotional and everyday contexts. ==== Family involvement in the formal transmission of family languages ==== Families can make a more formal commitment to supporting their children's bilingual or plurilingual development, in particular by seeking out educational opportunities that incorporate the language or languages of origin. This may involve choosing bilingual or international schools where the language of origin is included in the official curriculum, either as a language of instruction or as a school subject. Another formal strategy is to enroll children in extracurricular courses in their heritage language, offered outside of regular school hours. These courses may be organized by migrant associations, parent groups, or cultural institutions, often on weekends, and allow children to develop their language skills in a structured setting while strengthening their cultural ties to their community of origin. Other forms of family involvement may include volunteering at school, working in school management groups, or even crowdsourcing for the school, particularly to support language programs (Arias, 2017). The typology of possible partnerships between schools and families, presented by Epstein (2001), ranges from parenting support, communication, volunteering, home learning, decision-making, and community collaboration. When it comes to school-family collaboration, a dynamic process also known as “co-education” (Krüger & Thamin, 2021), family involvement goes beyond responding to school requests (a “top-down” process) to include, above all, working to meet family requests (a “bottom-up” process). In this sense, “schools will actively engage parents and families in a partnership that supports the academic work of children at home and shared educational decision making at school” (Arias, 2017, p. 284). Among these educational decisions, we can include the use of languages and the promotion of languages of origin. These approaches demonstrate a conscious and sustained parental investment in maintaining and promoting family plurilingualism, even in the face of social and institutional challenges and barriers (Zaidi et al., 2021). It should be noted that these different illustrations are not part of an approach that opposes school languages, but more often than not are associated with them, in the spirit of overall appropriation. This simultaneous promotion of school languages and heritage languages within the family context is a crucial issue in plurilingual education. It promotes the cognitive development of learners and the preservation of their cultural identity, while opening up social and professional opportunities in their new environment. == Take-away messages == * Parental involvement is essential for the bilingual and plurilingual development of children. * Families can develop tacit or explicit strategies for the bilingual and plurilingual development of children by adopting family language policies. * Families can engage in formal and informal efforts to transmit the language of origin across generations, which directly contributes to the bilingual and plurilingual education of children, while promoting the learning and use of school languages. * School-family collaboration (sometimes referred to as co-education) is essential for concerted work on children's bilingual and plurilingual development. == Self-assessment == 1. How can families support their children's bilingual development? A. Through playful reading in the home language and the majority language B. By playing with groups of children who have the same linguistic repertoire C. Through regular contact with family members in the country of origin D. All of the above 2. Schools must collaborate with families to ensure harmonious bilingual and plurilingual development: A. True B. False 3. Families may have language policies for transmitting the language of origin without necessarily being aware of them: A. True B. False 4. Parental involvement in co-education initiatives means that schools must: A. View families as partners and not as structures that lack knowledge of the host society; B. Educate parents on the transmission of the language of the host country; C. Create specific school programs for families with a migrant background, in order to better integrate them. 5. The promotion of native languages within families is detrimental to the acquisition of the language of schooling: A. True B. False ''Correct answers: 1D; 2A; 3A; 4A; 5B'' == Further readings == * Epstein, J. (2001). ''School, family and community partnership''. Westview. * García, O., Zakharia, Z., & Otcu, B. (Eds.) (2013). ''Bilingual community education and multilingualism. Beyond heritage languages in a global city''. Multilingual Matters. * Paseka, A., & Byrne, D. (Eds.) (2020). ''Parental involvement across European education systems. Critical perspectives''. London: Routledge. == References == Arias, M. B. (2017). Parent and community involvement in bilingual and multilingual education. In W. Wright, S. Boun & O. García (Eds.), ''The handbook of bilingual and multilingual education'' (pp. 282-298). Wiley Blackwell. Costa Wätzold, J. & Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2024). Constructing bilingual input safe spaces at home: rethinking exposure to language from a multilingual and multisite perspective on literacy practices. ''Frontiers in Language Sciences'', 3. https://doi.org/10.3389/flang.2024.1416398 Curdt-Christiansen, X. L. (2018). Family Language Policy. In J. W. Tollefson & M. Pérez-Milans (Eds.), ''The Oxford Handbook of Language Policy and Planning''. Oxford University Press. [[DOI:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.013.21]] Epstein, J. (2001). ''School, family and community partnership''. Westview. Gkaintartzi, A., Chatzidaki, A., & Tsokalidou, R. (2014). Albanian Parents and the Greek Educational Context: Who is Willing to Fight for the Home Language?. ''International Multilingual Research Journal'', 8(4), 291–308. Doi: [[doi:10.1080/19313152.2014.953004|10.1080/19313152.2014.953004]]. Krüger, A.-B., & Thamin, N. (2021). Inclusion strategies for emergent bilingual pupils in pre-school in France: The importance of the home-school relationship. In L. Mary, A.-B. Krüger & A. Young (Eds.), ''Migration, multilingualism and education. Critical perspectives on inclusion'' (pp. 222–240). Multilingual Matters. Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2015). The role of the family in Heritage Language use and learning: impact on heritage language policies. ''International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism'', 18/1, (26-44). DOI: [[doi:10.1080/13670050.2013.868400|10.1080/13670050.2013.868400]].   Melo-Pfeifer, S., Krüger, A.-B., & Lasne, A. (2024). What’s language(s) got to do with it? Educators and newcomer refugee families’ perspectives on home–school collaboration: A case study in a primary school in Germany. ''Journal of Multilingual Theories and Practices'', 5(1), 69-90. Souza, A. (2016). ''Português como língua de herança em Londres: Recortes em casa, na igreja e na escola''. Pontes. Vélez-Ibáñez, C.G., & Greenberg, J.B. (1992). Formation and transformation of funds of knowledge among U.S. Mexican households. ''Anthropology & Education Quarterly'', 23(4), 313-335. Zaidi, R, Oliver, Ch., Strong, T., & Alwarraq, H. (2021). Behind Successful Refugee Parental Engagement: The Barriers and Challenges. ''Canadian Journal of Education / Revue canadienne de l’éducation'' 44.4: 907–937. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Thierry Gaillat (Université de La Réunion) * Sílvia Melo-Pfeifer (Universität Hamburg) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] kc0kx009clja858tjd7doj93rsq1j41 2817299 2817252 2026-06-29T16:52:31Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self-assessment */ 2817299 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Initial activity == Watch the following videos and analyze the different language practices in relation to the diversity of languages spoken in them. # When your toddler speaks two different languages: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=66iY3UzC878 # Tips for Raising Multilingual Kids – Teaching 4 Languages to our Multicultural Children: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NIOpW-niwb0 After this first activity, watch the following video and give an example of strategies for managing the languages present in the family environment. If you know of or can think of any others, feel free to add them. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WwcGUuCpzXs Marie Rose Moro: Switching between languages: the case of migrant children] == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to... * Define the role of parental involvement in supporting children’s bilingualism/plurilingualism; * Understand the role of family involvement in the intergenerational transmission of the heritage language; * Identify different ways of positively managing plurilingualism within the family. == Keywords == migrants; language of origin; bilingualism; plurilingualism; intergenerational transmission of languages; family language policies; plurilingual education == Table of contents == # Introduction # Parental involvement in the bilingual development of children # Take-away messages # Self-assessment # Further resources # Bibliography == Introduction == Family mobility, whether forced or not, leads to situations in which families must implicitly or explicitly define their family language policies. Family language policies refer more specifically to explicit and implicit language policies and practices at home (Curdt-Christiansen, 2018), but we will refer to family language policies that go beyond the domestic context to describe more holistic practices used by families to defend their family languages. The need for language management is even more pressing when children are born, raising the question of whether or not to pass on the language of origin. In families where the parents speak two different languages of origin, or in cases of family breakdown due to mobility (e.g., divorce or death of one of the spouses), the choice of which languages to speak at home and pass on becomes even more pressing. In this plurilingual family setting, there is also the question of language management at school, in family language interactions, and the place given to it. This place may be in opposition to the languages of origin, or complementary to them, reflecting parental involvement in relation to the plurilingual reality of the family. The choice of school and foreign languages to study (or not), as well as the demand for native language courses in formal or informal contexts, are another sign of families' willingness to get involved in their children's language education. In this section of Wikiversity, we will analyze how families are involved in the linguistic (and multilingual) education of their children, particularly by seeking formal and/or informal opportunities to transmit the language of origin. This parental involvement can promote the child's bi/plurilingual development, in a holistic approach that also integrates the language(s) of the school. === Parental involvement in the bilingual development of children === We refer to the language of origin (also known as the family language) as the language that is transmitted in situations of mobility/migration, especially in the family environment, in a sociolinguistic context where it is a minority language. This language is normally combined with other languages to form the plurilingual repertoire of children. These other languages include the majority language(s) (often the languages of schooling), the languages of the curriculum, and other languages in circulation with social uses. Parents and families can be involved, directly or indirectly, not only in the transmission of family languages, but also in the learning and use of majority and school languages, i.e., in this related dual investment. Sometimes, parents, for fear of stigmatizing their children or to accept the advice of schools, which still tend to promote a monolingual ideal, choose not to pass on their native language to their children. Is it not true that many families continue to hear well-intentioned advice from school officials, such as “it is better to speak the language of the school at home” or “your child is still a little behind in terms of expression, this must be because he or she speaks another language at home”? However, when parents commit to passing on their L1, they can do so implicitly or explicitly, but passionately (Gkaintartzi et al., 2014). More specifically, parental involvement means that families, especially those with a migrant background, are resources with their “funds of knowledge” (Vélez-Ibáñez & Greenberg, 1992) and should not be viewed from a “deficit-oriented” perspective, but from a perspective of proactive engagement. Parental involvement is traditionally sought in terms of school-family collaboration (Arias, 2017; Epstein, 2021; Krüger & Thamin, 2021). However, the involvement of parents and families in the transmission of the language of origin goes far beyond this relationship with the school as a formal educational institution. We will now illustrate this complexity of family engagement by giving examples of family involvement in informal and formal contexts of language transmission. ==== Family engagement in the informal transmission of family/heritage languages ==== Families can informally support the bilingual and plurilingual development of their children through various everyday practices, which are situated and social literacy practices. For example, by adopting explicit family language policies such as the OPOL (one parent, one language) method or separating the language spoken at home from the language spoken in the community, or by establishing implicit rules that encourage the use of languages of origin at home, particularly in literacy practices. Regular reading in different languages, even in a playful way, helps to strengthen language skills. Participating in playgroups or social activities where children interact with other children in their native language provides natural opportunities for practice (Costa Wätzold & Melo-Pfeifer, 2024). Similarly, involvement in religious or community groups can encourage the use of these languages in a meaningful cultural setting (Souza, 2016). Initiatives such as the “mala de herança,” containing objects, books, or recordings in the family language, help maintain an emotional connection to the heritage language and culture (Costa Wätzold & Melo-Pfeifer, 2024). By helping their children with schoolwork, translating or explaining content in the heritage language (Costa Wätzold & Melo-Pfeifer, 2024), parents value this language as a cognitive tool. Finally, maintaining intergenerational family ties through frequent contact with grandparents, the members most often cited in the literature, in the country of origin (Melo-Pfeifer, 2015) reinforces the authentic use of the language of origin in emotional and everyday contexts. ==== Family involvement in the formal transmission of family languages ==== Families can make a more formal commitment to supporting their children's bilingual or plurilingual development, in particular by seeking out educational opportunities that incorporate the language or languages of origin. This may involve choosing bilingual or international schools where the language of origin is included in the official curriculum, either as a language of instruction or as a school subject. Another formal strategy is to enroll children in extracurricular courses in their heritage language, offered outside of regular school hours. These courses may be organized by migrant associations, parent groups, or cultural institutions, often on weekends, and allow children to develop their language skills in a structured setting while strengthening their cultural ties to their community of origin. Other forms of family involvement may include volunteering at school, working in school management groups, or even crowdsourcing for the school, particularly to support language programs (Arias, 2017). The typology of possible partnerships between schools and families, presented by Epstein (2001), ranges from parenting support, communication, volunteering, home learning, decision-making, and community collaboration. When it comes to school-family collaboration, a dynamic process also known as “co-education” (Krüger & Thamin, 2021), family involvement goes beyond responding to school requests (a “top-down” process) to include, above all, working to meet family requests (a “bottom-up” process). In this sense, “schools will actively engage parents and families in a partnership that supports the academic work of children at home and shared educational decision making at school” (Arias, 2017, p. 284). Among these educational decisions, we can include the use of languages and the promotion of languages of origin. These approaches demonstrate a conscious and sustained parental investment in maintaining and promoting family plurilingualism, even in the face of social and institutional challenges and barriers (Zaidi et al., 2021). It should be noted that these different illustrations are not part of an approach that opposes school languages, but more often than not are associated with them, in the spirit of overall appropriation. This simultaneous promotion of school languages and heritage languages within the family context is a crucial issue in plurilingual education. It promotes the cognitive development of learners and the preservation of their cultural identity, while opening up social and professional opportunities in their new environment. == Take-away messages == * Parental involvement is essential for the bilingual and plurilingual development of children. * Families can develop tacit or explicit strategies for the bilingual and plurilingual development of children by adopting family language policies. * Families can engage in formal and informal efforts to transmit the language of origin across generations, which directly contributes to the bilingual and plurilingual education of children, while promoting the learning and use of school languages. * School-family collaboration (sometimes referred to as co-education) is essential for concerted work on children's bilingual and plurilingual development. == Self-assessment == <quiz display=simple> {How can families support their children's bilingual development?} -A. Through playful reading in the home language and the majority language -B. By playing with groups of children who have the same linguistic repertoire -C. Through regular contact with family members in the country of origin +D. All of the above {Schools must collaborate with families to ensure harmonious bilingual and plurilingual development:} +A. True -B. False {Families may have language policies for transmitting the language of origin without necessarily being aware of them:} +A. True -B. False {Parental involvement in co-education initiatives means that schools must:} +A. View families as partners and not as structures that lack knowledge of the host society; -B. Educate parents on the transmission of the language of the host country; -C. Create specific school programs for families with a migrant background, in order to better integrate them. {The promotion of native languages within families is detrimental to the acquisition of the language of schooling:} -A. True +B. False </quiz> == Further readings == * Epstein, J. (2001). ''School, family and community partnership''. Westview. * García, O., Zakharia, Z., & Otcu, B. (Eds.) (2013). ''Bilingual community education and multilingualism. Beyond heritage languages in a global city''. Multilingual Matters. * Paseka, A., & Byrne, D. (Eds.) (2020). ''Parental involvement across European education systems. Critical perspectives''. London: Routledge. == References == Arias, M. B. (2017). Parent and community involvement in bilingual and multilingual education. In W. Wright, S. Boun & O. García (Eds.), ''The handbook of bilingual and multilingual education'' (pp. 282-298). Wiley Blackwell. Costa Wätzold, J. & Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2024). Constructing bilingual input safe spaces at home: rethinking exposure to language from a multilingual and multisite perspective on literacy practices. ''Frontiers in Language Sciences'', 3. https://doi.org/10.3389/flang.2024.1416398 Curdt-Christiansen, X. L. (2018). Family Language Policy. In J. W. Tollefson & M. Pérez-Milans (Eds.), ''The Oxford Handbook of Language Policy and Planning''. Oxford University Press. [[DOI:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.013.21]] Epstein, J. (2001). ''School, family and community partnership''. Westview. Gkaintartzi, A., Chatzidaki, A., & Tsokalidou, R. (2014). Albanian Parents and the Greek Educational Context: Who is Willing to Fight for the Home Language?. ''International Multilingual Research Journal'', 8(4), 291–308. Doi: [[doi:10.1080/19313152.2014.953004|10.1080/19313152.2014.953004]]. Krüger, A.-B., & Thamin, N. (2021). Inclusion strategies for emergent bilingual pupils in pre-school in France: The importance of the home-school relationship. In L. Mary, A.-B. Krüger & A. Young (Eds.), ''Migration, multilingualism and education. Critical perspectives on inclusion'' (pp. 222–240). Multilingual Matters. Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2015). The role of the family in Heritage Language use and learning: impact on heritage language policies. ''International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism'', 18/1, (26-44). DOI: [[doi:10.1080/13670050.2013.868400|10.1080/13670050.2013.868400]].   Melo-Pfeifer, S., Krüger, A.-B., & Lasne, A. (2024). What’s language(s) got to do with it? Educators and newcomer refugee families’ perspectives on home–school collaboration: A case study in a primary school in Germany. ''Journal of Multilingual Theories and Practices'', 5(1), 69-90. Souza, A. (2016). ''Português como língua de herança em Londres: Recortes em casa, na igreja e na escola''. Pontes. Vélez-Ibáñez, C.G., & Greenberg, J.B. (1992). Formation and transformation of funds of knowledge among U.S. Mexican households. ''Anthropology & Education Quarterly'', 23(4), 313-335. Zaidi, R, Oliver, Ch., Strong, T., & Alwarraq, H. (2021). Behind Successful Refugee Parental Engagement: The Barriers and Challenges. ''Canadian Journal of Education / Revue canadienne de l’éducation'' 44.4: 907–937. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Thierry Gaillat (Université de La Réunion) * Sílvia Melo-Pfeifer (Universität Hamburg) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] o38x7942jevnuy6y1ye6gygef6iycuj 0 326359 2817260 2792553 2026-06-29T16:11:37Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Credits */ 2817260 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Initial activity == # First, make a list of what you understand by 'being multilingual'. Take notes to organise your ideas. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sw-O5UFeQW0 C'est quoi, être plurilingue ?] # The following video introduces us to intercultural competence in the workplace. After watching it, think about how this idea could be applied in an educational context: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e2UwknUZCbM Les compétences interculturelles]   == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to: * define what is meant by multilingual and intercultural competence; * understand that multilingual competence involves an intercultural dimension; * make the connection between intercultural and transcultural. == Keywords == multilingual competence; transcultural competence; intercultural competence; communication competence; multilingual turn; language repertoire == Prerequisites == * Understanding language and cultural concepts * Knowing what is meant by communication skills. * Be aware that the languages around us contribute to our linguistic potential. == Table of contents == # Introduction # History # Design # Key points to remember # Self-assessment == Introduction == In response to the growing need for individuals and communities to interact across cultural boundaries and in diverse situations, the concepts of intercultural, transcultural and plurilingual competence have emerged from disciplines such as anthropology, sociology and education. These concepts are essential for understanding and managing cultural and linguistic diversity in an interconnected world. By promoting aspects such as empathy, flexibility, open-mindedness and tolerance, they enable learners to interact in diverse linguistic and cultural environments, thus contributing to the creation of inclusive multicultural communities. These concepts, which have various origins, highlight different aspects of social and linguistic interactions within multilingual societies: intercultural competence aims to promote understanding and communication between different cultural groups. Transcultural competence, on the other hand, emphasises the hybridity and fluidity of cultural identities. Plurilingual competence stresses the ability of individuals to fully exploit their linguistic and general repertoire in multilingual contexts. The following sections provide a more detailed description of these concepts and present them in the context of their development. == History of the concept(s) == === Intercultural and transcultural competence === Even before the emergence of the concept of intercultural education in the context of migration in Europe, concepts very similar to the Western idea of intercultural education were developed in non-Western countries. For example, in China and Japan, there are comparable concepts focused on minority groups, such as ''Dōwa'' education in Japan and the Chinese concept of ''Minzu'', which has been part of teacher training since 1949. ''Dōwa'' education in Japan, offered within the formal education system, aims to reduce prejudice and discrimination against Buraku and other disadvantaged groups. It is committed to reducing social inequalities and promoting legal and economic equality (Neary, 2022). In ''Minzu'' pedagogy (the term ''Minzu'' is often translated as ethnic group; China officially has 56 ''Minzu'' groups), similarities and (unstable) differences are taken into account when encountering others; its main objective is to contribute to economic and social development of all (Dervin & Jacobsson, 2022, pp. 49–50). Similarly, the South African philosophy ''Ubuntu'' emphasises the close link between individual self-determination and social responsibility, placing community, solidarity and mutual responsibility at the heart of harmonious coexistence. It views humanity as part of a network of reciprocal relationships, where the well-being of each individual is inseparable from that of others (Ajitoni, 2024, pp. 3–5). These approaches also reflect the diversity of local contexts. Furthermore, the term ''intercultural'' does not exist in all languages, and similar concepts may address issues such as culture, language, ethnicity or local constructs (Dervin, 2025). In the United States, Canada and Australia, the concept of intercultural competence was initially developed under the term ''multicultural education''. In the 1970s, the United States' emphasis on minority rights led to the introduction of school programmes promoting cultural diversity. Similar developments took place in Canada, where multicultural education was introduced in response to demands from cultural minorities. Unlike in Europe, where the term ''intercultural education'' developed in the 1980s, the term ''multicultural education'' remained dominant in English-speaking countries (Portera, 2008, p. 482; Tarozzi, 2012). The integration of immigrant children into various European societies has been at the centre of educational approaches based on a deficit hypothesis, which began in the 1970s. Early strategies included the creation of specialised educational programmes, such as Ausländerpädagogik (education for foreigners) in Germany and the establishment of reception facilities (introductory classes) in France. These approaches often involved specific interventions for foreign children that were disconnected from the official curriculum. They were subsequently criticised for their compensatory and assimilationist tendencies. The main objective was to learn the target language of the country as a means of accessing its culture, which was perceived as a static and closed system. The linguistic and cultural origins of the learners were not taken into account in this approach (Portera, 2008, pp. 482–484; Tarozzi, 2012, p. 398). From the 1980s onwards, attention shifted from deficits to cultural differences in intercultural pedagogy. Intercultural learning became a central objective, emphasising empathy, perspective-taking and dialogue (Hauenschild, 2012, pp. 152–153) . An important foundation of the intercultural approach was  understanding of the others (''Fremdverstehen'') (Bredella et al., 2000; Bredella & Christ, 2007). In multilingual interactions, people not only use language, they also open themselves up to the cultural perspectives associated with and characterising it.  The relationship between the familiar and the unfamiliar is fluid and dynamic. Ignoring this dynamic can reinforce stereotypes by perpetuating an overestimation of difference (Bredella et al., 2000; Bredella and Christ, 2007).  Intercultural competence can thus be seen as the ability to interact across cultural boundaries and in diverse situations. It implies not only cultural sensitivity, but also open-mindedness and the ability to recognise, understand and respect the cultural differences expressed by speakers through their thoughts, feelings and behaviour. It should be noted that this concept is interdisciplinary, drawing on elements of sociology and/or psychology. It has become essential in today's globalised world (Reimann, 2015, pp. 2–4). At the same time, the concept of transculturality has emerged as a broader concept, recognising that individuals are shaped by multiple cultural influences. It stresses the negotiation of identity and selective interaction with cultural elements (Reimann, 2017, pp. 14–15). Transcultural competence involves cultural crossover and blending, emphasising cultural hybridity as well as the exchange and mixing of cultures. The concept of transculturation, introduced by anthropologists such as Fernando Ortiz (1940) in the 1940s and developed more recently by philosophers such as Wolfgang Welsch (1999), aims to transcend rigid cultural boundaries in order to envisage a fluid and dynamic interaction between cultures. It can be said that cultures blend and intertwine in a process of continuous transformation. It is used more specifically in migration and educational contexts to promote intercultural interaction enriched by the recognition of this cultural complexity. This moves away from a fixed view of cultural identities, promoted by nation states, towards the development of a more cosmopolitan citizenship, nourished by the different cultures encountered (Welsch, 2025). It is also worth noting that in the 1990s, general pedagogy and foreign language teaching recognised the importance of intercultural learning for all students, not just those from immigrant backgrounds (Reimann, 2017, p. 16). === Plurilingual competence === The concepts of intercultural and plurilingual competence are closely linked. The Council of Europe's policy and educational documents on intercultural competence have played a key role in the development of the concept of plurilingual competence. The latter is a continuation of the bilingual competence highlighted by Grosjean (1993) and Lüdi & Py (1986, 2002), which considers a bilingual subject not as the sum of two monolinguals, but as an entity in its own right. Coste et al. (1997) first defined ''compétence plurilingue'' in their work “''Compétence plurilingue et pluriculturelle. Vers un cadre européen commun de référence pour l’enseignement et l’apprentissage des langues vivantes : études préparatoires''.”, which was republished in 2009 in both English and French. In the foreword, Coste et al. present their definition of plurilingual competence and provide an English translation. Both versions are shown below:<blockquote>On désignera par compétence plurilingue et pluriculturelle, la compétence à communiquer langagièrement et à interagir culturellement possédée par un locuteur qui maîtrise, à des degrés divers, plusieurs langues et a, à des degrés divers, l’expérience de plusieurs cultures, tout en étant à même de gérer l’ensemble de ce capital langagier et culturel. L’option majeure est de considérer qu’il n’y a pas là superposition ou juxtaposition de compétences toujours distinctes, mais bien existence d’une compétence plurielle, complexe, voire composite et hétérogène, qui inclut des compétences singulières, voire partielles, mais qui est une en tant que répertoire disponible pour l’acteur social concerné. (Coste, Moore & Zarate, 1997, p. 12)</blockquote><blockquote>Plurilingual and pluricultural competence refers to the ability to use languages for the purposes of communication and to take part in intercultural interaction, where a person, viewed as a social actor has proficiency, of varying degrees, in several languages and experience of several cultures. This is not seen as the superposition or juxtaposition of distinct competences, but rather as the existence of a complex or even composite competence on which the social actor may draw. (Coste, Moore and Zarate, 2009, p. v) </blockquote>Plurilingual competence thus refers to an individual's ability to communicate using several languages, while integrating the diverse cultural experiences associated with them. According to the ''Common European Framework of Reference for Languages'' (CEFR; Council of Europe, 2001), it is a complex and composite competence. Rather than being a mere juxtaposition of the linguistic competences related to each language involved, it is part of the comprehensive and dynamic management of the linguistic and non-linguistic repertoire offered by multilingualism. This includes having partial competence in several languages, forming a multilingual repertoire that speakers can draw on depending on the context. In short, plurilingual competence is more than just the sum of competences in L1, L2, L3, and so on. The Companion Volume (Council of Europe, 2020) further develops the concept of plurilingual competence. It provides descriptors and a more detailed, operational framework that emphasises flexibility and strategy. It also integrates knowledge from more recent educational approaches. Several other documents stress the importance of plurilingual and intercultural education, such as the ''Guide to action-oriented, plurilingual and intercultural education'' (CEFR Expert Group, 2023), in line with the ''Guide for the development and implementation of curricula for plurilingual and intercultural education'' (Byram et al., 2016). This holistic concept is considered a key skill for meeting the challenges of a globalised and increasingly mobile society. It applies to all areas of education, values all languages equally and aims to facilitate constructive dialogue between individuals and groups in diverse cultural and social contexts. This education is considered fundamental to building an inclusive and equitable society that respects and values linguistic and cultural diversity,while encouraging critical thinking and active social participation (Recommendation CM/Rec(2022)1; CEFR Expert Group, 2023). This paradigm shift is the basis of what is known as "multilingual turn" (Macaire, 2025, May, 2013; Melo-Pfeifer, 2018), referring to the shift from a conception of an individual's language competences as being separate to a single, dynamic repertoire comprising all linguistic and other semiotic resources (e.g., gestures, intonation, proxemics, graphics, videos, images) of an individual. This plural repertoire is evolving and unbalanced, meaning that competences in each language may vary, but they interact in an interdependent system that allows users to switch between languages or combine language resources to interact across cultural boundaries and in diverse situations. This concept emphasises plurilingual competence, which goes beyond the simple coexistence of several languages at the social level (multilingualism) to encompass the individual's ability to use and combine several languages according to communication needs. This competence, which can be seen as heterogeneous in the sense that it is unique to each individual with varying degrees of linguistic proficiency, is part of an evolving dynamic that changes with each person's linguistic encounters. Thus, the plurilingual speaker’s social journey prompts them to draw on their linguistic repertoire and the competences associated with the various codes at their disposal, making this plural competence a distinct and valuable resource for learning. == Take-home messages == * '''Intercultural education is not exclusively Western:''' similar concepts exist in non-Western cultures, such as Minzu in China, Dōwa in Japan, and Ubuntu in East Africa, highlighting a diversity of educational traditions that are sensitive to cultural plurality. * '''From assimilation to recognition of differences:''' since the 1970s, European educational approaches have evolved from a perspective focused primarily on adaptation to the language and culture of the host country to one that emphasises appreciation of cultural differences and intercultural learning. * '''Plurilingual competence:''' plurilingual competence is not simply the sum of competences in L1, L2, L3, etc., but rather a unique competence within an individual's linguistic and semiotic repertoire. * '''The concept of "transcultural" values cultural hybridity:''' Here, fixed boundaries are transcended and fluid interaction between cultures is promoted, which is essential in migratory and educational contexts. == Self-assessment == === '''Multiple choice questions''' === 1. Reread the section on intercultural competence in the Wikiversity article. Then watch the [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QUQcA-FKWqg following video until 0:55]. Take notes: what are the key aspects of intercultural competence? 2. Plurilingual and intercultural competence is a: A. static competence '''B. dynamic''' competence B. it depends 3. Being plurilingual mean being equally proficient in all the languages you know. A. true '''B. false''' 4/ What does ''plurilingual competence'' mainly refer to? A. The ability to speak several languages fluently separately. '''B. The ability to integrate and use multiple languages dynamically within a single repertoire.''' C. The coexistence of several languages within a society. D. The study of linguistic structures in different languages. 5/ What is the main objective of ''transcultural competence''? A. Preserving distinct cultural identities. '''B. Taking into account and promoting cultural hybridity and the blending of cultures.''' C. Learning about the history of different cultures. D. Avoiding any interaction with other cultures in order to preserve cultural purity. ''Correct answers: 2B; 3B; 4B; 5B.'' === '''Reflective tasks to share''' === * Think of examples from your own life or environment where plurilingual and intercultural competencies have played a role. * Consider how schools and universities can promote plurilingual and intercultural competencies. What measures could be implemented? == Resources to go further == * Beacco, J.-C., Byram, M., Cavalli, M., Coste, D., Egli Cuenat, M., Goullier, F., & Panthier, J. (2016). ''Guide for the development and implementation of curricula for plurilingual and intercultural education''. Council of Europe. <nowiki>https://www.coe.int/en/web/language-policy/guide-for-the-development-and-implementation-of-curricula-for-plurilingual-and-intercultural-education</nowiki> * Byram, M. (2021). ''Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence : Revisited''. Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781800410251 * Castellotti V. (sous presse, 2025). La compétence plurilingue : entre communication hybride et expérience altéritaire. In S. Dietrich-Grappin et al. (Eds.), ''Vers la compétence plurilingue : Le translangage dans l'enseignement des langues tertiaires.'' Peter Lang. * Castellotti, V., & Moore, D. (2014/2011). La compétence plurilingue et pluriculturelle. Genèses et évolutions d’une notion-concept. In P. Blanchet & P. Chardenet (Eds.), ''Guide pour la recherche en didactique des langues et des cultures. Approches contextualisées'' (pp. 291-301). Editions des Archives contemporaines/AUF. * Conseil de l’Europe (CELV). (2025). ''Éducation plurilingue et interculturelle.'' https://www.ecml.at/fr/Thematic-areas/Plurilingual-and-intercultural-education * Conseil de l'Europe (CELV). (2025). ''Guide des'' compétences ''enseignantes pour les langues dans l’éducation''. https://www.ecml.at/ECML-Programme/Programme2016-2019/TowardsaCommonEuropeanFrameworkofReferenceforLanguageTeachers/tabid/1850/language/fr-FR/Default.aspx * Moore, D''.,'' & Castellotti, V. (2008) (éds.). ''La compétence plurilingue. Regards francophones.'' Peter Lang. * Reimann, D. (2017). ''Interkulturelle Kompetenz''. Narr Francke Attempto. == Bibliography == Ajitoni, B. D. (2024). Ubuntu and the philosophy of community in African thought : An exploration of collective identity and social harmony. ''Journal of African Studies and Sustainable Development, 7''(3). https://acjol.org/index.php/jassd/article/view/5672 Beacco, J.-C., Byram, M., Cavalli, M., Coste, D., Egli Cuenat, M., Goullier, F., & Panthier, J. (2016). ''Guide for the development and implementation of curricula for plurilingual and intercultural education''. Council of Europe. https://www.coe.int/en/web/language-policy/guide-for-the-development-and-implementation-of-curricula-for-plurilingual-and-intercultural-education Bredella, L., & Christ, H. (2007). ''Fremdverstehen und interkulturelle Kompetenz''. Narr. Bredella, L., Meißner, F.-J., Nünning, V., & Rösler, D. (Eds.). (2000). ''Wie ist Fremdverstehen lehr- und lernbar? : Vorträge aus dem Graduiertenkolleg « Didaktik des Fremdverstehens »''. Narr. Byram, M. (1997). ''Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence''. Multilingual Matters. Byram, M., Nichols, A., & Stevens, D. (2001). Introduction. In M. Byram, A. Nichols, & D. Stevens (Eds.), ''Developing intercultural competence in practice. Languages for intercultural communication and education'' (pp. 1–20). Multilingual Matters. CEFR Expert Group (Ed.). (2023). ''A guide to action-oriented, plurilingual and intercultural education''. Council of Europe Publishing. https://rm.coe.int/a-guide-to-action-oriented-plurilingual-and-intercultural-education-en/1680b52354 Coste, D., Moore, D., & Zarate, G. (1997). ''Compétence plurilingue et pluriculturelle. Vers un cadre européen commun de référence pour l’enseignement et l’apprentissage des langues vivantes. Études préparatoires''. Conseil de l’Europe. Coste, D., Moore, D., & Zarate, G. (2009). ''Plurilingual and pluricultural competence. Studies towards a Common European Framework of Reference for language learning and teaching. With a foreword and complementary bibliography''. Language Policy Division. https://rm.coe.int/168069d29b Council of Europe. (2020). ''Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Companion volume''. Council of Europe Publishing. https://rm.coe.int/common-european-framework-of-reference-for-languages-learning-teaching/16809ea0d4 Dervin, F. (2025, in press). Intercultural education as a polylith. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue / Encyclopedia of plurilingual education''. Peter Lang. Dervin, F., & Jacobsson, A. (2022). ''Intercultural communication education : Broken realities and rebellious dreams''. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1589-5 Grosjean, F. (1993). Le bilinguisme et le biculturalisme : Essai de définition. ''Travaux Neuchâtelois de Linguistique'', ''19'', 13–42). https://libra.unine.ch/handle/20.500.14713/57912 Lüdi, G., & Py, B. (1986). ''Être bilingue''. Peter Lang. Ed. revue et complétée en 2002. Macaire, D. (2025, sous presse). Tournant  plurilingue. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue / Encyclopedia of plurilingual education''. Peter Lang. May, S. (2013). ''The multilingual turn : Implications for SLA, TESOL, and bilingual education.'' Routledge. Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2018). The multilingual turn in foreign language education. Facts and fallacies. In A. Bonnet & P. Siemund (Eds.), ''Foreign language education in multilingual classrooms'' (pp. 191–210). John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/hsld.7 Neary, I. (2022). ''Dōwa policy and Japanese politics''. Routledge. Portera, A. (2008). L'éducation interculturelle en Europe : aspects épistémologiques et sémantiques. ''Éducation interculturelle'', ''19''(6), 481–491. https://doi.org/10.1080/14675980802568277 Reimann, D. (2015). ''Inter- und transkulturelle kommunikative Kompetenz''. https://www.uni-due.de/imperia/md/content/prodaz/reimann_intertranskulturelle_kompetenz.pdf Reimann, D. (2017). ''Interkulturelle Kompetenz''. Narr Francke Attempto. https://elibrary.narr.digital/book/99.125005/9783823391135 Tarozzi, M. (2012). Intercultural or multicultural education in Europe and the United States. In B. Della Chiesa, J. Scott, & C. Hinton (Eds.), ''Languages in a global world : Learning for better cultural understanding'' (pp. 393–406). OECD. https://www.oecd.org/education/ceri/languagesinaglobalworldlearningforbetterculturalunderstanding.htm Welsch, W. (1999). The puzzling form of cultures today. In M. Featherstone & S. Lash (Eds.), ''Spaces of culture : City, nation, world'' (pp. 195–213). Sage Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446218723.n11 Welsch, W. (2025, in press). Transculturality. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue / Encyclopedia of plurilingual education''. Peter Lang. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : Anastasia Gkaintartzi (University of Thessaly) & Paulina Wagner (Universität Wien) ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Thierry Gaillat (Université de La Réunion) * Margareta Strasser (Paris Lodron Universität Salzburg) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] jzh70xxoqej01h5n4ijo5yet7yl281x 2817312 2817260 2026-06-29T17:07:12Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Multiple choice questions */ 2817312 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Initial activity == # First, make a list of what you understand by 'being multilingual'. Take notes to organise your ideas. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sw-O5UFeQW0 C'est quoi, être plurilingue ?] # The following video introduces us to intercultural competence in the workplace. After watching it, think about how this idea could be applied in an educational context: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e2UwknUZCbM Les compétences interculturelles]   == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to: * define what is meant by multilingual and intercultural competence; * understand that multilingual competence involves an intercultural dimension; * make the connection between intercultural and transcultural. == Keywords == multilingual competence; transcultural competence; intercultural competence; communication competence; multilingual turn; language repertoire == Prerequisites == * Understanding language and cultural concepts * Knowing what is meant by communication skills. * Be aware that the languages around us contribute to our linguistic potential. == Table of contents == # Introduction # History # Design # Key points to remember # Self-assessment == Introduction == In response to the growing need for individuals and communities to interact across cultural boundaries and in diverse situations, the concepts of intercultural, transcultural and plurilingual competence have emerged from disciplines such as anthropology, sociology and education. These concepts are essential for understanding and managing cultural and linguistic diversity in an interconnected world. By promoting aspects such as empathy, flexibility, open-mindedness and tolerance, they enable learners to interact in diverse linguistic and cultural environments, thus contributing to the creation of inclusive multicultural communities. These concepts, which have various origins, highlight different aspects of social and linguistic interactions within multilingual societies: intercultural competence aims to promote understanding and communication between different cultural groups. Transcultural competence, on the other hand, emphasises the hybridity and fluidity of cultural identities. Plurilingual competence stresses the ability of individuals to fully exploit their linguistic and general repertoire in multilingual contexts. The following sections provide a more detailed description of these concepts and present them in the context of their development. == History of the concept(s) == === Intercultural and transcultural competence === Even before the emergence of the concept of intercultural education in the context of migration in Europe, concepts very similar to the Western idea of intercultural education were developed in non-Western countries. For example, in China and Japan, there are comparable concepts focused on minority groups, such as ''Dōwa'' education in Japan and the Chinese concept of ''Minzu'', which has been part of teacher training since 1949. ''Dōwa'' education in Japan, offered within the formal education system, aims to reduce prejudice and discrimination against Buraku and other disadvantaged groups. It is committed to reducing social inequalities and promoting legal and economic equality (Neary, 2022). In ''Minzu'' pedagogy (the term ''Minzu'' is often translated as ethnic group; China officially has 56 ''Minzu'' groups), similarities and (unstable) differences are taken into account when encountering others; its main objective is to contribute to economic and social development of all (Dervin & Jacobsson, 2022, pp. 49–50). Similarly, the South African philosophy ''Ubuntu'' emphasises the close link between individual self-determination and social responsibility, placing community, solidarity and mutual responsibility at the heart of harmonious coexistence. It views humanity as part of a network of reciprocal relationships, where the well-being of each individual is inseparable from that of others (Ajitoni, 2024, pp. 3–5). These approaches also reflect the diversity of local contexts. Furthermore, the term ''intercultural'' does not exist in all languages, and similar concepts may address issues such as culture, language, ethnicity or local constructs (Dervin, 2025). In the United States, Canada and Australia, the concept of intercultural competence was initially developed under the term ''multicultural education''. In the 1970s, the United States' emphasis on minority rights led to the introduction of school programmes promoting cultural diversity. Similar developments took place in Canada, where multicultural education was introduced in response to demands from cultural minorities. Unlike in Europe, where the term ''intercultural education'' developed in the 1980s, the term ''multicultural education'' remained dominant in English-speaking countries (Portera, 2008, p. 482; Tarozzi, 2012). The integration of immigrant children into various European societies has been at the centre of educational approaches based on a deficit hypothesis, which began in the 1970s. Early strategies included the creation of specialised educational programmes, such as Ausländerpädagogik (education for foreigners) in Germany and the establishment of reception facilities (introductory classes) in France. These approaches often involved specific interventions for foreign children that were disconnected from the official curriculum. They were subsequently criticised for their compensatory and assimilationist tendencies. The main objective was to learn the target language of the country as a means of accessing its culture, which was perceived as a static and closed system. The linguistic and cultural origins of the learners were not taken into account in this approach (Portera, 2008, pp. 482–484; Tarozzi, 2012, p. 398). From the 1980s onwards, attention shifted from deficits to cultural differences in intercultural pedagogy. Intercultural learning became a central objective, emphasising empathy, perspective-taking and dialogue (Hauenschild, 2012, pp. 152–153) . An important foundation of the intercultural approach was  understanding of the others (''Fremdverstehen'') (Bredella et al., 2000; Bredella & Christ, 2007). In multilingual interactions, people not only use language, they also open themselves up to the cultural perspectives associated with and characterising it.  The relationship between the familiar and the unfamiliar is fluid and dynamic. Ignoring this dynamic can reinforce stereotypes by perpetuating an overestimation of difference (Bredella et al., 2000; Bredella and Christ, 2007).  Intercultural competence can thus be seen as the ability to interact across cultural boundaries and in diverse situations. It implies not only cultural sensitivity, but also open-mindedness and the ability to recognise, understand and respect the cultural differences expressed by speakers through their thoughts, feelings and behaviour. It should be noted that this concept is interdisciplinary, drawing on elements of sociology and/or psychology. It has become essential in today's globalised world (Reimann, 2015, pp. 2–4). At the same time, the concept of transculturality has emerged as a broader concept, recognising that individuals are shaped by multiple cultural influences. It stresses the negotiation of identity and selective interaction with cultural elements (Reimann, 2017, pp. 14–15). Transcultural competence involves cultural crossover and blending, emphasising cultural hybridity as well as the exchange and mixing of cultures. The concept of transculturation, introduced by anthropologists such as Fernando Ortiz (1940) in the 1940s and developed more recently by philosophers such as Wolfgang Welsch (1999), aims to transcend rigid cultural boundaries in order to envisage a fluid and dynamic interaction between cultures. It can be said that cultures blend and intertwine in a process of continuous transformation. It is used more specifically in migration and educational contexts to promote intercultural interaction enriched by the recognition of this cultural complexity. This moves away from a fixed view of cultural identities, promoted by nation states, towards the development of a more cosmopolitan citizenship, nourished by the different cultures encountered (Welsch, 2025). It is also worth noting that in the 1990s, general pedagogy and foreign language teaching recognised the importance of intercultural learning for all students, not just those from immigrant backgrounds (Reimann, 2017, p. 16). === Plurilingual competence === The concepts of intercultural and plurilingual competence are closely linked. The Council of Europe's policy and educational documents on intercultural competence have played a key role in the development of the concept of plurilingual competence. The latter is a continuation of the bilingual competence highlighted by Grosjean (1993) and Lüdi & Py (1986, 2002), which considers a bilingual subject not as the sum of two monolinguals, but as an entity in its own right. Coste et al. (1997) first defined ''compétence plurilingue'' in their work “''Compétence plurilingue et pluriculturelle. Vers un cadre européen commun de référence pour l’enseignement et l’apprentissage des langues vivantes : études préparatoires''.”, which was republished in 2009 in both English and French. In the foreword, Coste et al. present their definition of plurilingual competence and provide an English translation. Both versions are shown below:<blockquote>On désignera par compétence plurilingue et pluriculturelle, la compétence à communiquer langagièrement et à interagir culturellement possédée par un locuteur qui maîtrise, à des degrés divers, plusieurs langues et a, à des degrés divers, l’expérience de plusieurs cultures, tout en étant à même de gérer l’ensemble de ce capital langagier et culturel. L’option majeure est de considérer qu’il n’y a pas là superposition ou juxtaposition de compétences toujours distinctes, mais bien existence d’une compétence plurielle, complexe, voire composite et hétérogène, qui inclut des compétences singulières, voire partielles, mais qui est une en tant que répertoire disponible pour l’acteur social concerné. (Coste, Moore & Zarate, 1997, p. 12)</blockquote><blockquote>Plurilingual and pluricultural competence refers to the ability to use languages for the purposes of communication and to take part in intercultural interaction, where a person, viewed as a social actor has proficiency, of varying degrees, in several languages and experience of several cultures. This is not seen as the superposition or juxtaposition of distinct competences, but rather as the existence of a complex or even composite competence on which the social actor may draw. (Coste, Moore and Zarate, 2009, p. v) </blockquote>Plurilingual competence thus refers to an individual's ability to communicate using several languages, while integrating the diverse cultural experiences associated with them. According to the ''Common European Framework of Reference for Languages'' (CEFR; Council of Europe, 2001), it is a complex and composite competence. Rather than being a mere juxtaposition of the linguistic competences related to each language involved, it is part of the comprehensive and dynamic management of the linguistic and non-linguistic repertoire offered by multilingualism. This includes having partial competence in several languages, forming a multilingual repertoire that speakers can draw on depending on the context. In short, plurilingual competence is more than just the sum of competences in L1, L2, L3, and so on. The Companion Volume (Council of Europe, 2020) further develops the concept of plurilingual competence. It provides descriptors and a more detailed, operational framework that emphasises flexibility and strategy. It also integrates knowledge from more recent educational approaches. Several other documents stress the importance of plurilingual and intercultural education, such as the ''Guide to action-oriented, plurilingual and intercultural education'' (CEFR Expert Group, 2023), in line with the ''Guide for the development and implementation of curricula for plurilingual and intercultural education'' (Byram et al., 2016). This holistic concept is considered a key skill for meeting the challenges of a globalised and increasingly mobile society. It applies to all areas of education, values all languages equally and aims to facilitate constructive dialogue between individuals and groups in diverse cultural and social contexts. This education is considered fundamental to building an inclusive and equitable society that respects and values linguistic and cultural diversity,while encouraging critical thinking and active social participation (Recommendation CM/Rec(2022)1; CEFR Expert Group, 2023). This paradigm shift is the basis of what is known as "multilingual turn" (Macaire, 2025, May, 2013; Melo-Pfeifer, 2018), referring to the shift from a conception of an individual's language competences as being separate to a single, dynamic repertoire comprising all linguistic and other semiotic resources (e.g., gestures, intonation, proxemics, graphics, videos, images) of an individual. This plural repertoire is evolving and unbalanced, meaning that competences in each language may vary, but they interact in an interdependent system that allows users to switch between languages or combine language resources to interact across cultural boundaries and in diverse situations. This concept emphasises plurilingual competence, which goes beyond the simple coexistence of several languages at the social level (multilingualism) to encompass the individual's ability to use and combine several languages according to communication needs. This competence, which can be seen as heterogeneous in the sense that it is unique to each individual with varying degrees of linguistic proficiency, is part of an evolving dynamic that changes with each person's linguistic encounters. Thus, the plurilingual speaker’s social journey prompts them to draw on their linguistic repertoire and the competences associated with the various codes at their disposal, making this plural competence a distinct and valuable resource for learning. == Take-home messages == * '''Intercultural education is not exclusively Western:''' similar concepts exist in non-Western cultures, such as Minzu in China, Dōwa in Japan, and Ubuntu in East Africa, highlighting a diversity of educational traditions that are sensitive to cultural plurality. * '''From assimilation to recognition of differences:''' since the 1970s, European educational approaches have evolved from a perspective focused primarily on adaptation to the language and culture of the host country to one that emphasises appreciation of cultural differences and intercultural learning. * '''Plurilingual competence:''' plurilingual competence is not simply the sum of competences in L1, L2, L3, etc., but rather a unique competence within an individual's linguistic and semiotic repertoire. * '''The concept of "transcultural" values cultural hybridity:''' Here, fixed boundaries are transcended and fluid interaction between cultures is promoted, which is essential in migratory and educational contexts. == Self-assessment == === '''Multiple choice questions''' === ==Reflection== Reread the section on intercultural competence in the Wikiversity article. Then watch the [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QUQcA-FKWqg following video until 0:55]. Take notes: what are the key aspects of intercultural competence? ==Multiple Choice== <quiz display=simple> {Plurilingual and intercultural competence is a: } -A. static competence +B. dynamic competence -C. it depends {Being plurilingual mean being equally proficient in all the languages you know.} -A. true +B. false {What does ''plurilingual competence'' mainly refer to?} -A. The ability to speak several languages fluently separately. +B. The ability to integrate and use multiple languages dynamically within a single repertoire. -C. The coexistence of several languages within a society. -D. The study of linguistic structures in different languages. {What is the main objective of ''transcultural competence''?} -A. Preserving distinct cultural identities. +B. Taking into account and promoting cultural hybridity and the blending of cultures. -C. Learning about the history of different cultures. -D. Avoiding any interaction with other cultures in order to preserve cultural purity. </quiz> === '''Reflective tasks to share''' === * Think of examples from your own life or environment where plurilingual and intercultural competencies have played a role. * Consider how schools and universities can promote plurilingual and intercultural competencies. What measures could be implemented? == Resources to go further == * Beacco, J.-C., Byram, M., Cavalli, M., Coste, D., Egli Cuenat, M., Goullier, F., & Panthier, J. (2016). ''Guide for the development and implementation of curricula for plurilingual and intercultural education''. Council of Europe. <nowiki>https://www.coe.int/en/web/language-policy/guide-for-the-development-and-implementation-of-curricula-for-plurilingual-and-intercultural-education</nowiki> * Byram, M. (2021). ''Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence : Revisited''. Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781800410251 * Castellotti V. (sous presse, 2025). La compétence plurilingue : entre communication hybride et expérience altéritaire. In S. Dietrich-Grappin et al. (Eds.), ''Vers la compétence plurilingue : Le translangage dans l'enseignement des langues tertiaires.'' Peter Lang. * Castellotti, V., & Moore, D. (2014/2011). La compétence plurilingue et pluriculturelle. Genèses et évolutions d’une notion-concept. In P. Blanchet & P. Chardenet (Eds.), ''Guide pour la recherche en didactique des langues et des cultures. Approches contextualisées'' (pp. 291-301). Editions des Archives contemporaines/AUF. * Conseil de l’Europe (CELV). (2025). ''Éducation plurilingue et interculturelle.'' https://www.ecml.at/fr/Thematic-areas/Plurilingual-and-intercultural-education * Conseil de l'Europe (CELV). (2025). ''Guide des'' compétences ''enseignantes pour les langues dans l’éducation''. https://www.ecml.at/ECML-Programme/Programme2016-2019/TowardsaCommonEuropeanFrameworkofReferenceforLanguageTeachers/tabid/1850/language/fr-FR/Default.aspx * Moore, D''.,'' & Castellotti, V. (2008) (éds.). ''La compétence plurilingue. Regards francophones.'' Peter Lang. * Reimann, D. (2017). ''Interkulturelle Kompetenz''. Narr Francke Attempto. == Bibliography == Ajitoni, B. D. (2024). Ubuntu and the philosophy of community in African thought : An exploration of collective identity and social harmony. ''Journal of African Studies and Sustainable Development, 7''(3). https://acjol.org/index.php/jassd/article/view/5672 Beacco, J.-C., Byram, M., Cavalli, M., Coste, D., Egli Cuenat, M., Goullier, F., & Panthier, J. (2016). ''Guide for the development and implementation of curricula for plurilingual and intercultural education''. Council of Europe. https://www.coe.int/en/web/language-policy/guide-for-the-development-and-implementation-of-curricula-for-plurilingual-and-intercultural-education Bredella, L., & Christ, H. (2007). ''Fremdverstehen und interkulturelle Kompetenz''. Narr. Bredella, L., Meißner, F.-J., Nünning, V., & Rösler, D. (Eds.). (2000). ''Wie ist Fremdverstehen lehr- und lernbar? : Vorträge aus dem Graduiertenkolleg « Didaktik des Fremdverstehens »''. Narr. Byram, M. (1997). ''Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence''. Multilingual Matters. Byram, M., Nichols, A., & Stevens, D. (2001). Introduction. In M. Byram, A. Nichols, & D. Stevens (Eds.), ''Developing intercultural competence in practice. Languages for intercultural communication and education'' (pp. 1–20). Multilingual Matters. CEFR Expert Group (Ed.). (2023). ''A guide to action-oriented, plurilingual and intercultural education''. Council of Europe Publishing. https://rm.coe.int/a-guide-to-action-oriented-plurilingual-and-intercultural-education-en/1680b52354 Coste, D., Moore, D., & Zarate, G. (1997). ''Compétence plurilingue et pluriculturelle. Vers un cadre européen commun de référence pour l’enseignement et l’apprentissage des langues vivantes. Études préparatoires''. Conseil de l’Europe. Coste, D., Moore, D., & Zarate, G. (2009). ''Plurilingual and pluricultural competence. Studies towards a Common European Framework of Reference for language learning and teaching. With a foreword and complementary bibliography''. Language Policy Division. https://rm.coe.int/168069d29b Council of Europe. (2020). ''Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Companion volume''. Council of Europe Publishing. https://rm.coe.int/common-european-framework-of-reference-for-languages-learning-teaching/16809ea0d4 Dervin, F. (2025, in press). Intercultural education as a polylith. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue / Encyclopedia of plurilingual education''. Peter Lang. Dervin, F., & Jacobsson, A. (2022). ''Intercultural communication education : Broken realities and rebellious dreams''. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1589-5 Grosjean, F. (1993). Le bilinguisme et le biculturalisme : Essai de définition. ''Travaux Neuchâtelois de Linguistique'', ''19'', 13–42). https://libra.unine.ch/handle/20.500.14713/57912 Lüdi, G., & Py, B. (1986). ''Être bilingue''. Peter Lang. Ed. revue et complétée en 2002. Macaire, D. (2025, sous presse). Tournant  plurilingue. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue / Encyclopedia of plurilingual education''. Peter Lang. May, S. (2013). ''The multilingual turn : Implications for SLA, TESOL, and bilingual education.'' Routledge. Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2018). The multilingual turn in foreign language education. Facts and fallacies. In A. Bonnet & P. Siemund (Eds.), ''Foreign language education in multilingual classrooms'' (pp. 191–210). John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/hsld.7 Neary, I. (2022). ''Dōwa policy and Japanese politics''. Routledge. Portera, A. (2008). L'éducation interculturelle en Europe : aspects épistémologiques et sémantiques. ''Éducation interculturelle'', ''19''(6), 481–491. https://doi.org/10.1080/14675980802568277 Reimann, D. (2015). ''Inter- und transkulturelle kommunikative Kompetenz''. https://www.uni-due.de/imperia/md/content/prodaz/reimann_intertranskulturelle_kompetenz.pdf Reimann, D. (2017). ''Interkulturelle Kompetenz''. Narr Francke Attempto. https://elibrary.narr.digital/book/99.125005/9783823391135 Tarozzi, M. (2012). Intercultural or multicultural education in Europe and the United States. In B. Della Chiesa, J. Scott, & C. Hinton (Eds.), ''Languages in a global world : Learning for better cultural understanding'' (pp. 393–406). OECD. https://www.oecd.org/education/ceri/languagesinaglobalworldlearningforbetterculturalunderstanding.htm Welsch, W. (1999). The puzzling form of cultures today. In M. Featherstone & S. Lash (Eds.), ''Spaces of culture : City, nation, world'' (pp. 195–213). Sage Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446218723.n11 Welsch, W. (2025, in press). Transculturality. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue / Encyclopedia of plurilingual education''. Peter Lang. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : Anastasia Gkaintartzi (University of Thessaly) & Paulina Wagner (Universität Wien) ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Thierry Gaillat (Université de La Réunion) * Margareta Strasser (Paris Lodron Universität Salzburg) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] 6u5urdjfw283dkw2mvu15nv1e2he433 0 326365 2817240 2792409 2026-06-29T15:15:56Z Projet PEP 3002502 2817240 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Initial activity == Copy the following prompt into a conversational AI (ChatGPT, Perplexity, Mistral, etc.).<blockquote>Let's imagine a meeting between two people who are seeing each other for the first time. They ask each other questions and chat to get to know each other. You play the role of one of these people. The specific feature is that you speak different Romance languages. You change languages with each question. For my part, I will always respond in [insert the name of the language in which you will respond and have good production skills, e.g. French]. You should not use this language. The language level you will use in the Romance languages should be A1 or even A2. Let's get started!</blockquote>You will thus experience Romance intercomprehension with AI. NB: you can do the same experiment with other language groups: Germanic, Slavic, etc. After the experiment, think about the following aspects: * Were you able to communicate with the AI by understanding the different languages it used? * What enabled you to understand what the AI was saying/asking? * Did you encounter any difficulties? If so, what kind?   == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should * be familiar with some uses of digital technologies to promote plurilingual education; * be able to use AI to develop your own plurilingual competence or help learners develop their plurilingual skills. == Keywords == Digital technologies; telecollaboration; intercomprehension; AI; subtitling; serious games == Prerequisites == No specific prerequisites, but it may be useful to learn about some of the approaches mentioned ([[intercomprehension]], integrated language didactics, etc.). == Table of contents == # Introduction # The emergence of digital technology in language teaching and learning – a brief history # Digital technology and plurilingual education – Various approaches ## Digital technology in virtual exchanges (telecollaboration) ## Digital technology in intercomprehension projects ## MOOCs and plurilingualism ## Other trends ## AI and the plurilingual classroom # Take-home messages # Self-assessment # Resources to go further # Bibliography == Introduction == Digital technology now plays an important role in language teaching. Its development and, above all, the spread of the Internet have also encouraged projects and forms of training in plurilingualism, particularly through plurilingual telecollaboration, e-tandem and interactive intercomprehension projects. AI opens up new avenues that have yet to be fully explored. Some of these avenues will be explored in this resource. == The emergence of digital technology in language teaching and learning – a brief history == Very early on, technology was seen as an opportunity for learning. At the beginning of the 20th century, people imagined learning machines. The following illustration (cf. Figure 1) gives one idea among many. The machine can transform the contents of several books, chosen by the teacher. Students can listen to these contents and seemingly learn without any further activity. [[File:Françoise Foliot - La radio à l'école.jpg|thumb|© Françoise Foliot CC-BY-SA]] The field of languages is no exception. A few years after the emergence and spread of the Internet, Mangenot (1998) distinguished between the possibility for learners to carry out "activities without exchanges" on the one hand, and "exchanges and projects" on the other. === Activities without exchange === * simple consultation of data (cultural, artistic, lexical, literary); * activities (playful or not) with or without a simulation component; * activities with images, audio and/or text; * activities requiring consultation of websites; * activities not designed for language learning purposes. (e.g. watching a online video). === Exchanges and projects === * In real time ** online chat or videoconference ** educational MOOs [Multi-User Object Oriented, i.e. virtual environments that are essentially text-based and interactive, enabling users to learn together in real time], or even dedicated to language practice. * Offline ** via mailing lists or discussion forums. ** through a virtual classroom ** activities involving exchanges between learners (Tandem language learning using e-mail for example). * As part of projects ** communication with a view to publishing the results on educative websites. ** publication on non-educative participative websites (see the [https://www.linguanum.eu/productions-products/tasks tasksheets designed by the Lingu@num project]). In the field of plurilingual education, projects, teaching approaches and tools remain underdeveloped. Buendgens-Kosten (2020) clearly highlights "[t]he monolingual problem of computer-assisted language learning". However, as shown below, certain projects, particularly those involving virtual exchanges and [[intercomprehension]], make extensive use of digital technology. And new prospects for digital technology and plurilingual education do exist, even if they have yet to be fully explored. == Digital technology and plurilingual education – Various approaches == === Digital technology in virtual exchanges (telecollaboration) === Virtual exchanges, particularly telecollaboration (Belz, 2003; O'Dowd, 2018; O'Dowd & Klippel, 2006; O'Dowd & Lewis, 2016; Turula et al., 2019), enable remote groups to carry out projects together. In the field of languages, this usually involves a group of speakers of language A learning language B working online in synchronous or asynchronous mode with a group of speakers of language B learning language A. One of the objectives is to develop intercultural skills and competences. In particular, students can discover other ways of thinking and seeing things and reflect on their own values. One of the pioneering projects was the ''Cultura'' project between American and French institutions (Cultura, 1999; Furstenberg et al., 2001). However, the dimension of plurilingualism is not always explicitly present, but it is underlying in these projects. The [https://unicollaboration.org/ UNIcollaboration] project website gives an idea of the vitality of telecollaboration in various disciplines, including languages and plurilingualism. === Digital technology in intercomprehension projects === Intercomprehension projects explicitly aim to develop plurilingual and intercultural competence. The goal is to learn to * understand the languages of the same group (e.g. Romance, Germanic, Slavic languages), by drawing on the competences and knowledge you already have in at least one of the languages in that group; * interact with speakers of the same language group by understanding them when they speak or write in a language you have not necessarily learnt and by writing or speaking in a language they have not necessarily learnt. It is therefore also a question of adapting the own output in order to be understood. For the first part, various projects have rapidly developed digital tools: the IGLOO project has designed a website for receptive learning of Germanic languages. In the field of Romance languages – which is very active in intercomprehension – pioneering projects such as Galatea and Eurom4 (Blanche-Benveniste et al., 1997) produced CD-ROMs for simultaneous receptive learning in various Romance languages. Other projects then took over through websites (several of which are no longer available). Examples include Eurom 5, which combines a handbook (Bonvino et al., 2011) and a website, and EuroCom (which covered Romance, Germanic and Slavic languages and offered a website dedicated to teaching intercomprehension). The spread of the Internet has helped to develop the interactive dimension of intercomprehension by making it easier for speakers of different languages to communicate with each other. This aspect has been developed mainly by the Galanet, Galapro and Miriadi projects. Galanet has developed a platform that brings together speakers of various (Romance) languages to carry out tasks together by interacting in their different languages. Intercomprehension learning resources were also made available (Dabène, 2003; Degache, 2004, 2005). === MOOCs and plurilingualism === The issue of plurilingualism is also central to certain MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses), which make use of subtitling in particular. Gajo and Fonseca Favre (2025) believe that plurilingualism is often seen as “a tool for solving the language problem”, particularly through the use of English or plurilingual subtitles. They raise the importance of considering the fact that the knowledge mediated by MOOCs is produced by teachers in a particular context and with a specific point of view, and then received by students in different contexts. The authors also believe that plurilingualism is under-exploited in MOOCs, even though it could be an asset. They point out that:<blockquote>several users affirm that switching from one language to another, thanks to subtitling, allows them to question the content being covered, for example by comparing technical terms in different languages or highlighting different lines of interpretation (mediation and indexicality functions) (Galo et Fonseca Favre, 2026, p. 283, our translation).</blockquote>Gajo and Fonseca Favre therefore encourage the use of "diverse voices" , in other words teachers from different educational and scientific backgrounds, and the strengthening of multi-channel communication (particularly through plurilingual subtitles) to enable "alternative ways of accessing content and knowledge" (Galo et Fonseca Favre, 2026, p. 283, our translation).   === Other trends === The field of language learning and games has also been taken over by digital technology (Schmoll, 2021). In the field of plurilingual education, examples are still quite rare. A serious game smartphone application was developed for intercomprehension (Interromanica), but is no longer available. Another example is the plurilingual serious game MElang-E (Kosten & Elsner, 2018). Shafivora (2025) also discusses the use of technologies enabling plurilingualism such as machine translation, multilingual online dictionaries, subtitles and AI as support to facilitate the integration of migrant learners. The same author also mentions research on awareness of plurilingualism and linguistic injustices in social media and the importance of helping learners recognize linguistic diversity and cultural stereotypes on social platforms. === AI and plurilingual education === The issue of AI in the field of plurilingual education remains largely unexplored by research, unlike the use of AI for language teaching and learning in general. Several journals, such as ''Language Learning and Technology'' (Warschauer & Xu, 2024) and ''Alsic'' (Cellier et al., 2025), have recently devoted special issues to this latter question. The focus is mainly on machine translation, with little attention paid to the development of plurilingual skills. However, there are possibilities: AI can help people become aware of their plurilingualism, develop language learning using integrated language didactics or a intercomprehension perspective, and implement and expand their plurilingual interaction skills. Here are some concrete examples proposed by Ollivier (2025). * In the area of plurilingual awareness, AI can be used to build and reflect on one's language biography. It is capable of asking questions about our language biography and thus helping us to become aware of it. After the exchange with the AI, we can ask it to summarize our answers. * AI can help us become aware of similarities between languages and thus help us understand texts and develop our intercomprehension skills or, more modestly, learn a language based on the knowledge and skills we have already acquired (integrated language didactics). It is thus possible to provide a text to an AI and ask it to list the words in that text that could be transparent to a speaker of a specific language. For example: provide a text in Portuguese and ask the AI to list the words that are very similar to French words. The learner can then try to construct meaning from the listed words. * In the field of plurilingual interactions, the AI can be asked to play the role of a communication partner in intercomprehension. This is what was proposed in the initial activity of this lesson. Finally, it should be noted that AI is a multilingual tool. It is possible to formulate prompts in one language to request responses in another language. The monolingual paradigm is thus fundamentally challenged by AI. Similarly, AI is a tool for crosslinguistic mediation through machine translation tools. In all cases, of course, it is important to be critical and not to use AI outputs without verification. Interaction between AI and humans remains the greatest potential for the use of AI. == Take-home messages == * Compared to the broader field of language teaching and learning, the use of digital technology is still not very widespread in plurilingual education. * However, various projects are exploiting some potentialities of digital technology to enable receptive learning of various languages of the same family (receptive intercomprehension), promote plurilingual exchanges and the development of plurilingual communication competences (interactive intercomprehension), or enable projects between distant groups with a plurilingual and intercultural dimension (telecollaboration). * AI opens up new perspectives that are still largely unexplored. == Self-assessment == * How is digital technology used in telecollaboration projects? * What has the emergence of the Internet and communication tools enabled in the field of intercomprehension? * Name two or three ways in which AI can be used to work on people's plurilingualism. == Resources to go further == * Gajo, L., & Fonseca Favre, M. (2025). Digital technologies. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education''. Peter Lang. * Martinez, P. (2025). Artificial intelligence: At the school of multilingualism. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopaedia of multilingual education''. Peter Lang. * Perplexity, P., Ollivier, C., & Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2025). Artificial intelligence. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education''. Peter Lang. * Shafirova, L. (2025). Digital technologies. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education.'' Peter Lang. == Bibliography == Buendgens-Kosten, J. (2020). The monolingual problem of computer-assisted language learning. ''ReCALL'', ''32''(3), 307–322. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095834402000004X Belz, J. A. (2003). Linguistic perspectives on the development of intercultural competence in telecollaboration. ''Language Learning and Technology'', ''7''(2), 68–117. Blanche-Benveniste, C., Valli, A., Mota, M. A., Simone, R., Bonvino, E., & Uzcanga Vivar, I. (1997). ''EuRom4. Método do ensino simultâneo das línguas românicas. Metodo para la enseñanza simultánea de las lenguas románicas. Metodo di insegnamento simultaneo della lingue romanze. Méthode d’enseignement simultané des langues romanes.'' La nuova Italia. Bonvino, E., Caddéo, S., Vilaginés Serra, E., & Pippa, S. (2011). ''EuRom5. Ler y compreender 5 línguas românicas. Leer y entender en 5 lenguas románicas. Llegir i entendre 5 llengües romàniques. Leggere e capire 5 lingue romanze. Lire et comprendre 5 langues romanes.'' Hoepli. Buendgens-Kosten, J. (2020). The monolingual problem of computer-assisted language learning. ''ReCALL'', ''32''(3), 307–322. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095834402000004X Cellier, A., Duthoit, E., Cavalla, C., & Freund, F. (Eds.). (2025). ''Intelligence artificielle et didactique des langues et des cultures. Alsic, 28(1)''. https://doi.org/10.4000/9hwu Cultura. (1999). ''CULTURA:'' ''Page d’acceuil, version française''. Cultura. http://web.mit.edu/french/culturaNEH1/cultura/indexfrench.html Dabène, L. (2003). ''De Galatea à Galanet. Un itinéraire de recherche. Lidil. Revue de linguistique et de didactique des langues'', ''28'', 23–29. Degache, C. (2004). Interactions asynchrones et appropriation dans un environnement d’apprentissage collaboratif  des langues (Galanet). Dans L. Baqué & M. Tost Planet (Éds.), ''Diversité et spécialités dans l’enseignement des langues. Repères & applications IV'' (p. 33‑48). https://www.france-universite-numerique-mooc.fr/c4x/ENSCachan/20006/asset/dc2004.pdf Degache, C. (2005). Comprendre la langue de l’autre et se faire comprendre ou la recherche d’une alternative communicative : Le projet Galanet. ''Synergies Italie'', ''2'', 50–60. Furstenberg, G., Levet, S., English, K., & Maillet, K. (2001). Giving a virtual voice to the silent language of culture: The "Cultura" project. ''Language Learning and Technology'', ''5''(1), 55-102. Gajo, L., & Fonseca Favre, M. (2025). Technologies numériques. Dans C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Éds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue. Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education''. Peter Lang. Kosten, J. B.-, & Elsner, D. (2018). 7. Playful Plurilingualism? Exploring Language(s) with the Multilingual Serious Game MElang-E. In J. Buendgens-Kosten & D. Elsner (Eds.), ''Multilingual Computer Assisted Language Learning'' (pp. 115–132). Multilingual Matters. https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.21832/9781788921497-009/html?srsltid=AfmBOorSEeZP97IoojyYH9KWq5YSA9Wr5sD-v15bokT6uqu95Uir77ey Mangenot, F. (1998). Classification des apports d’Internet à l’apprentissage des langues. ''Alsic'', ''1''(2), 133–146. https://doi.org/10.4000/alsic.1515 O’Dowd, R. (2018). From telecollaboration to virtual exchange: State-of-the-art and the role of UNICollaboration in moving forward. ''Journal of Virtual Exchange'', ''1''. https://doi.org/10.14705/rpnet.2018.jve O’Dowd, R., & Klippel, F. (2006). ''Telecollaboration and the development of intercultural communicative competence''. Langenscheidt. O’Dowd, R., & Lewis, T. (2016). ''Online Intercultural Exchange. Policy, Pedagogy, Practice''. Routledge. Ollivier, C. (2025, 16 January). ''Teachers and multilingualism didactics – attitudes, practices and digital perspectives''. Multilingualism in foreign language teaching – teaching concepts, methods and materials, Innsbruck. Schmoll, L. (2021). Pour une approche définitoire multidimensionnelle du jeu numérique pour l'apprentissage des langues. ''Alsic. 24''(2). https://doi.org/10.4000/alsic.5754 Shafirova, L. (2025). Digital technologies. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education''. Peter Lang. Turula, A., Kurek, M., & Lewis, T. (Eds.). (2019). ''Telecollaboration and virtual exchange across disciplines: In service of social inclusion and global citizenship.'' Research-publishing.net. https://doi.org/10.14705/rpnet.2019.35.9782490057429 Warschauer, M., & Xu, Y. (Eds.). (2024). ''Artificial intelligence for language learning. Language Learning and Technology, 28(2)''. Language Learning and Technology. https://www.lltjournal.org/collection/col_10125_108158/ '''Digital resources''' https://web.cortland.edu/flteach/civ/ ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : Christian Ollivier (Université de La Réunion). [[Portal:Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] [[Category:Technology]] gz5b48z4lhj33asga3ygakgbcn1jm99 2817241 2817240 2026-06-29T15:16:12Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Resources to go further */ 2817241 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Initial activity == Copy the following prompt into a conversational AI (ChatGPT, Perplexity, Mistral, etc.).<blockquote>Let's imagine a meeting between two people who are seeing each other for the first time. They ask each other questions and chat to get to know each other. You play the role of one of these people. The specific feature is that you speak different Romance languages. You change languages with each question. For my part, I will always respond in [insert the name of the language in which you will respond and have good production skills, e.g. French]. You should not use this language. The language level you will use in the Romance languages should be A1 or even A2. Let's get started!</blockquote>You will thus experience Romance intercomprehension with AI. NB: you can do the same experiment with other language groups: Germanic, Slavic, etc. After the experiment, think about the following aspects: * Were you able to communicate with the AI by understanding the different languages it used? * What enabled you to understand what the AI was saying/asking? * Did you encounter any difficulties? If so, what kind?   == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should * be familiar with some uses of digital technologies to promote plurilingual education; * be able to use AI to develop your own plurilingual competence or help learners develop their plurilingual skills. == Keywords == Digital technologies; telecollaboration; intercomprehension; AI; subtitling; serious games == Prerequisites == No specific prerequisites, but it may be useful to learn about some of the approaches mentioned ([[intercomprehension]], integrated language didactics, etc.). == Table of contents == # Introduction # The emergence of digital technology in language teaching and learning – a brief history # Digital technology and plurilingual education – Various approaches ## Digital technology in virtual exchanges (telecollaboration) ## Digital technology in intercomprehension projects ## MOOCs and plurilingualism ## Other trends ## AI and the plurilingual classroom # Take-home messages # Self-assessment # Resources to go further # Bibliography == Introduction == Digital technology now plays an important role in language teaching. Its development and, above all, the spread of the Internet have also encouraged projects and forms of training in plurilingualism, particularly through plurilingual telecollaboration, e-tandem and interactive intercomprehension projects. AI opens up new avenues that have yet to be fully explored. Some of these avenues will be explored in this resource. == The emergence of digital technology in language teaching and learning – a brief history == Very early on, technology was seen as an opportunity for learning. At the beginning of the 20th century, people imagined learning machines. The following illustration (cf. Figure 1) gives one idea among many. The machine can transform the contents of several books, chosen by the teacher. Students can listen to these contents and seemingly learn without any further activity. [[File:Françoise Foliot - La radio à l'école.jpg|thumb|© Françoise Foliot CC-BY-SA]] The field of languages is no exception. A few years after the emergence and spread of the Internet, Mangenot (1998) distinguished between the possibility for learners to carry out "activities without exchanges" on the one hand, and "exchanges and projects" on the other. === Activities without exchange === * simple consultation of data (cultural, artistic, lexical, literary); * activities (playful or not) with or without a simulation component; * activities with images, audio and/or text; * activities requiring consultation of websites; * activities not designed for language learning purposes. (e.g. watching a online video). === Exchanges and projects === * In real time ** online chat or videoconference ** educational MOOs [Multi-User Object Oriented, i.e. virtual environments that are essentially text-based and interactive, enabling users to learn together in real time], or even dedicated to language practice. * Offline ** via mailing lists or discussion forums. ** through a virtual classroom ** activities involving exchanges between learners (Tandem language learning using e-mail for example). * As part of projects ** communication with a view to publishing the results on educative websites. ** publication on non-educative participative websites (see the [https://www.linguanum.eu/productions-products/tasks tasksheets designed by the Lingu@num project]). In the field of plurilingual education, projects, teaching approaches and tools remain underdeveloped. Buendgens-Kosten (2020) clearly highlights "[t]he monolingual problem of computer-assisted language learning". However, as shown below, certain projects, particularly those involving virtual exchanges and [[intercomprehension]], make extensive use of digital technology. And new prospects for digital technology and plurilingual education do exist, even if they have yet to be fully explored. == Digital technology and plurilingual education – Various approaches == === Digital technology in virtual exchanges (telecollaboration) === Virtual exchanges, particularly telecollaboration (Belz, 2003; O'Dowd, 2018; O'Dowd & Klippel, 2006; O'Dowd & Lewis, 2016; Turula et al., 2019), enable remote groups to carry out projects together. In the field of languages, this usually involves a group of speakers of language A learning language B working online in synchronous or asynchronous mode with a group of speakers of language B learning language A. One of the objectives is to develop intercultural skills and competences. In particular, students can discover other ways of thinking and seeing things and reflect on their own values. One of the pioneering projects was the ''Cultura'' project between American and French institutions (Cultura, 1999; Furstenberg et al., 2001). However, the dimension of plurilingualism is not always explicitly present, but it is underlying in these projects. The [https://unicollaboration.org/ UNIcollaboration] project website gives an idea of the vitality of telecollaboration in various disciplines, including languages and plurilingualism. === Digital technology in intercomprehension projects === Intercomprehension projects explicitly aim to develop plurilingual and intercultural competence. The goal is to learn to * understand the languages of the same group (e.g. Romance, Germanic, Slavic languages), by drawing on the competences and knowledge you already have in at least one of the languages in that group; * interact with speakers of the same language group by understanding them when they speak or write in a language you have not necessarily learnt and by writing or speaking in a language they have not necessarily learnt. It is therefore also a question of adapting the own output in order to be understood. For the first part, various projects have rapidly developed digital tools: the IGLOO project has designed a website for receptive learning of Germanic languages. In the field of Romance languages – which is very active in intercomprehension – pioneering projects such as Galatea and Eurom4 (Blanche-Benveniste et al., 1997) produced CD-ROMs for simultaneous receptive learning in various Romance languages. Other projects then took over through websites (several of which are no longer available). Examples include Eurom 5, which combines a handbook (Bonvino et al., 2011) and a website, and EuroCom (which covered Romance, Germanic and Slavic languages and offered a website dedicated to teaching intercomprehension). The spread of the Internet has helped to develop the interactive dimension of intercomprehension by making it easier for speakers of different languages to communicate with each other. This aspect has been developed mainly by the Galanet, Galapro and Miriadi projects. Galanet has developed a platform that brings together speakers of various (Romance) languages to carry out tasks together by interacting in their different languages. Intercomprehension learning resources were also made available (Dabène, 2003; Degache, 2004, 2005). === MOOCs and plurilingualism === The issue of plurilingualism is also central to certain MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses), which make use of subtitling in particular. Gajo and Fonseca Favre (2025) believe that plurilingualism is often seen as “a tool for solving the language problem”, particularly through the use of English or plurilingual subtitles. They raise the importance of considering the fact that the knowledge mediated by MOOCs is produced by teachers in a particular context and with a specific point of view, and then received by students in different contexts. The authors also believe that plurilingualism is under-exploited in MOOCs, even though it could be an asset. They point out that:<blockquote>several users affirm that switching from one language to another, thanks to subtitling, allows them to question the content being covered, for example by comparing technical terms in different languages or highlighting different lines of interpretation (mediation and indexicality functions) (Galo et Fonseca Favre, 2026, p. 283, our translation).</blockquote>Gajo and Fonseca Favre therefore encourage the use of "diverse voices" , in other words teachers from different educational and scientific backgrounds, and the strengthening of multi-channel communication (particularly through plurilingual subtitles) to enable "alternative ways of accessing content and knowledge" (Galo et Fonseca Favre, 2026, p. 283, our translation).   === Other trends === The field of language learning and games has also been taken over by digital technology (Schmoll, 2021). In the field of plurilingual education, examples are still quite rare. A serious game smartphone application was developed for intercomprehension (Interromanica), but is no longer available. Another example is the plurilingual serious game MElang-E (Kosten & Elsner, 2018). Shafivora (2025) also discusses the use of technologies enabling plurilingualism such as machine translation, multilingual online dictionaries, subtitles and AI as support to facilitate the integration of migrant learners. The same author also mentions research on awareness of plurilingualism and linguistic injustices in social media and the importance of helping learners recognize linguistic diversity and cultural stereotypes on social platforms. === AI and plurilingual education === The issue of AI in the field of plurilingual education remains largely unexplored by research, unlike the use of AI for language teaching and learning in general. Several journals, such as ''Language Learning and Technology'' (Warschauer & Xu, 2024) and ''Alsic'' (Cellier et al., 2025), have recently devoted special issues to this latter question. The focus is mainly on machine translation, with little attention paid to the development of plurilingual skills. However, there are possibilities: AI can help people become aware of their plurilingualism, develop language learning using integrated language didactics or a intercomprehension perspective, and implement and expand their plurilingual interaction skills. Here are some concrete examples proposed by Ollivier (2025). * In the area of plurilingual awareness, AI can be used to build and reflect on one's language biography. It is capable of asking questions about our language biography and thus helping us to become aware of it. After the exchange with the AI, we can ask it to summarize our answers. * AI can help us become aware of similarities between languages and thus help us understand texts and develop our intercomprehension skills or, more modestly, learn a language based on the knowledge and skills we have already acquired (integrated language didactics). It is thus possible to provide a text to an AI and ask it to list the words in that text that could be transparent to a speaker of a specific language. For example: provide a text in Portuguese and ask the AI to list the words that are very similar to French words. The learner can then try to construct meaning from the listed words. * In the field of plurilingual interactions, the AI can be asked to play the role of a communication partner in intercomprehension. This is what was proposed in the initial activity of this lesson. Finally, it should be noted that AI is a multilingual tool. It is possible to formulate prompts in one language to request responses in another language. The monolingual paradigm is thus fundamentally challenged by AI. Similarly, AI is a tool for crosslinguistic mediation through machine translation tools. In all cases, of course, it is important to be critical and not to use AI outputs without verification. Interaction between AI and humans remains the greatest potential for the use of AI. == Take-home messages == * Compared to the broader field of language teaching and learning, the use of digital technology is still not very widespread in plurilingual education. * However, various projects are exploiting some potentialities of digital technology to enable receptive learning of various languages of the same family (receptive intercomprehension), promote plurilingual exchanges and the development of plurilingual communication competences (interactive intercomprehension), or enable projects between distant groups with a plurilingual and intercultural dimension (telecollaboration). * AI opens up new perspectives that are still largely unexplored. == Self-assessment == * How is digital technology used in telecollaboration projects? * What has the emergence of the Internet and communication tools enabled in the field of intercomprehension? * Name two or three ways in which AI can be used to work on people's plurilingualism. == Resources to go further == * Gajo, L., & Fonseca Favre, M. (2026). Technologies numériques. Dans C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Éds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue. Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education'' (p. 281-283). Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/document/1588003 * Martinez, P. (2026). Intelligence artificielle : À l’école du plurilinguisme. Dans C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Éds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue. Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education'' (p. 157-159). Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/document/1588003 * Perplexity, P., Ollivier, C., & Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2026). Artificial intelligence. Dans C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Éds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue. Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education'' (p. 160-162). Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/document/1588003 * Shafirova, L. (2026). Digital technologies. Dans C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Éds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue. Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education'' (p. 284-286). Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/document/1588003 == Bibliography == Buendgens-Kosten, J. (2020). The monolingual problem of computer-assisted language learning. ''ReCALL'', ''32''(3), 307–322. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095834402000004X Belz, J. A. (2003). Linguistic perspectives on the development of intercultural competence in telecollaboration. ''Language Learning and Technology'', ''7''(2), 68–117. Blanche-Benveniste, C., Valli, A., Mota, M. A., Simone, R., Bonvino, E., & Uzcanga Vivar, I. (1997). ''EuRom4. Método do ensino simultâneo das línguas românicas. Metodo para la enseñanza simultánea de las lenguas románicas. Metodo di insegnamento simultaneo della lingue romanze. Méthode d’enseignement simultané des langues romanes.'' La nuova Italia. Bonvino, E., Caddéo, S., Vilaginés Serra, E., & Pippa, S. (2011). ''EuRom5. Ler y compreender 5 línguas românicas. Leer y entender en 5 lenguas románicas. Llegir i entendre 5 llengües romàniques. Leggere e capire 5 lingue romanze. Lire et comprendre 5 langues romanes.'' Hoepli. Buendgens-Kosten, J. (2020). The monolingual problem of computer-assisted language learning. ''ReCALL'', ''32''(3), 307–322. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095834402000004X Cellier, A., Duthoit, E., Cavalla, C., & Freund, F. (Eds.). (2025). ''Intelligence artificielle et didactique des langues et des cultures. Alsic, 28(1)''. https://doi.org/10.4000/9hwu Cultura. (1999). ''CULTURA:'' ''Page d’acceuil, version française''. Cultura. http://web.mit.edu/french/culturaNEH1/cultura/indexfrench.html Dabène, L. (2003). ''De Galatea à Galanet. Un itinéraire de recherche. Lidil. Revue de linguistique et de didactique des langues'', ''28'', 23–29. Degache, C. (2004). Interactions asynchrones et appropriation dans un environnement d’apprentissage collaboratif  des langues (Galanet). Dans L. Baqué & M. Tost Planet (Éds.), ''Diversité et spécialités dans l’enseignement des langues. Repères & applications IV'' (p. 33‑48). https://www.france-universite-numerique-mooc.fr/c4x/ENSCachan/20006/asset/dc2004.pdf Degache, C. (2005). Comprendre la langue de l’autre et se faire comprendre ou la recherche d’une alternative communicative : Le projet Galanet. ''Synergies Italie'', ''2'', 50–60. Furstenberg, G., Levet, S., English, K., & Maillet, K. (2001). Giving a virtual voice to the silent language of culture: The "Cultura" project. ''Language Learning and Technology'', ''5''(1), 55-102. Gajo, L., & Fonseca Favre, M. (2025). Technologies numériques. Dans C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Éds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue. Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education''. Peter Lang. Kosten, J. B.-, & Elsner, D. (2018). 7. Playful Plurilingualism? Exploring Language(s) with the Multilingual Serious Game MElang-E. In J. Buendgens-Kosten & D. Elsner (Eds.), ''Multilingual Computer Assisted Language Learning'' (pp. 115–132). Multilingual Matters. https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.21832/9781788921497-009/html?srsltid=AfmBOorSEeZP97IoojyYH9KWq5YSA9Wr5sD-v15bokT6uqu95Uir77ey Mangenot, F. (1998). Classification des apports d’Internet à l’apprentissage des langues. ''Alsic'', ''1''(2), 133–146. https://doi.org/10.4000/alsic.1515 O’Dowd, R. (2018). From telecollaboration to virtual exchange: State-of-the-art and the role of UNICollaboration in moving forward. ''Journal of Virtual Exchange'', ''1''. https://doi.org/10.14705/rpnet.2018.jve O’Dowd, R., & Klippel, F. (2006). ''Telecollaboration and the development of intercultural communicative competence''. Langenscheidt. O’Dowd, R., & Lewis, T. (2016). ''Online Intercultural Exchange. Policy, Pedagogy, Practice''. Routledge. Ollivier, C. (2025, 16 January). ''Teachers and multilingualism didactics – attitudes, practices and digital perspectives''. Multilingualism in foreign language teaching – teaching concepts, methods and materials, Innsbruck. Schmoll, L. (2021). Pour une approche définitoire multidimensionnelle du jeu numérique pour l'apprentissage des langues. ''Alsic. 24''(2). https://doi.org/10.4000/alsic.5754 Shafirova, L. (2025). Digital technologies. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education''. Peter Lang. Turula, A., Kurek, M., & Lewis, T. (Eds.). (2019). ''Telecollaboration and virtual exchange across disciplines: In service of social inclusion and global citizenship.'' Research-publishing.net. https://doi.org/10.14705/rpnet.2019.35.9782490057429 Warschauer, M., & Xu, Y. (Eds.). (2024). ''Artificial intelligence for language learning. Language Learning and Technology, 28(2)''. Language Learning and Technology. https://www.lltjournal.org/collection/col_10125_108158/ '''Digital resources''' https://web.cortland.edu/flteach/civ/ ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : Christian Ollivier (Université de La Réunion). [[Portal:Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] [[Category:Technology]] sk1rj0w81r2s1646hfk3djlmx4vrz3b 2817242 2817241 2026-06-29T15:17:30Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Bibliography */ 2817242 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Initial activity == Copy the following prompt into a conversational AI (ChatGPT, Perplexity, Mistral, etc.).<blockquote>Let's imagine a meeting between two people who are seeing each other for the first time. They ask each other questions and chat to get to know each other. You play the role of one of these people. The specific feature is that you speak different Romance languages. You change languages with each question. For my part, I will always respond in [insert the name of the language in which you will respond and have good production skills, e.g. French]. You should not use this language. The language level you will use in the Romance languages should be A1 or even A2. Let's get started!</blockquote>You will thus experience Romance intercomprehension with AI. NB: you can do the same experiment with other language groups: Germanic, Slavic, etc. After the experiment, think about the following aspects: * Were you able to communicate with the AI by understanding the different languages it used? * What enabled you to understand what the AI was saying/asking? * Did you encounter any difficulties? If so, what kind?   == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should * be familiar with some uses of digital technologies to promote plurilingual education; * be able to use AI to develop your own plurilingual competence or help learners develop their plurilingual skills. == Keywords == Digital technologies; telecollaboration; intercomprehension; AI; subtitling; serious games == Prerequisites == No specific prerequisites, but it may be useful to learn about some of the approaches mentioned ([[intercomprehension]], integrated language didactics, etc.). == Table of contents == # Introduction # The emergence of digital technology in language teaching and learning – a brief history # Digital technology and plurilingual education – Various approaches ## Digital technology in virtual exchanges (telecollaboration) ## Digital technology in intercomprehension projects ## MOOCs and plurilingualism ## Other trends ## AI and the plurilingual classroom # Take-home messages # Self-assessment # Resources to go further # Bibliography == Introduction == Digital technology now plays an important role in language teaching. Its development and, above all, the spread of the Internet have also encouraged projects and forms of training in plurilingualism, particularly through plurilingual telecollaboration, e-tandem and interactive intercomprehension projects. AI opens up new avenues that have yet to be fully explored. Some of these avenues will be explored in this resource. == The emergence of digital technology in language teaching and learning – a brief history == Very early on, technology was seen as an opportunity for learning. At the beginning of the 20th century, people imagined learning machines. The following illustration (cf. Figure 1) gives one idea among many. The machine can transform the contents of several books, chosen by the teacher. Students can listen to these contents and seemingly learn without any further activity. [[File:Françoise Foliot - La radio à l'école.jpg|thumb|© Françoise Foliot CC-BY-SA]] The field of languages is no exception. A few years after the emergence and spread of the Internet, Mangenot (1998) distinguished between the possibility for learners to carry out "activities without exchanges" on the one hand, and "exchanges and projects" on the other. === Activities without exchange === * simple consultation of data (cultural, artistic, lexical, literary); * activities (playful or not) with or without a simulation component; * activities with images, audio and/or text; * activities requiring consultation of websites; * activities not designed for language learning purposes. (e.g. watching a online video). === Exchanges and projects === * In real time ** online chat or videoconference ** educational MOOs [Multi-User Object Oriented, i.e. virtual environments that are essentially text-based and interactive, enabling users to learn together in real time], or even dedicated to language practice. * Offline ** via mailing lists or discussion forums. ** through a virtual classroom ** activities involving exchanges between learners (Tandem language learning using e-mail for example). * As part of projects ** communication with a view to publishing the results on educative websites. ** publication on non-educative participative websites (see the [https://www.linguanum.eu/productions-products/tasks tasksheets designed by the Lingu@num project]). In the field of plurilingual education, projects, teaching approaches and tools remain underdeveloped. Buendgens-Kosten (2020) clearly highlights "[t]he monolingual problem of computer-assisted language learning". However, as shown below, certain projects, particularly those involving virtual exchanges and [[intercomprehension]], make extensive use of digital technology. And new prospects for digital technology and plurilingual education do exist, even if they have yet to be fully explored. == Digital technology and plurilingual education – Various approaches == === Digital technology in virtual exchanges (telecollaboration) === Virtual exchanges, particularly telecollaboration (Belz, 2003; O'Dowd, 2018; O'Dowd & Klippel, 2006; O'Dowd & Lewis, 2016; Turula et al., 2019), enable remote groups to carry out projects together. In the field of languages, this usually involves a group of speakers of language A learning language B working online in synchronous or asynchronous mode with a group of speakers of language B learning language A. One of the objectives is to develop intercultural skills and competences. In particular, students can discover other ways of thinking and seeing things and reflect on their own values. One of the pioneering projects was the ''Cultura'' project between American and French institutions (Cultura, 1999; Furstenberg et al., 2001). However, the dimension of plurilingualism is not always explicitly present, but it is underlying in these projects. The [https://unicollaboration.org/ UNIcollaboration] project website gives an idea of the vitality of telecollaboration in various disciplines, including languages and plurilingualism. === Digital technology in intercomprehension projects === Intercomprehension projects explicitly aim to develop plurilingual and intercultural competence. The goal is to learn to * understand the languages of the same group (e.g. Romance, Germanic, Slavic languages), by drawing on the competences and knowledge you already have in at least one of the languages in that group; * interact with speakers of the same language group by understanding them when they speak or write in a language you have not necessarily learnt and by writing or speaking in a language they have not necessarily learnt. It is therefore also a question of adapting the own output in order to be understood. For the first part, various projects have rapidly developed digital tools: the IGLOO project has designed a website for receptive learning of Germanic languages. In the field of Romance languages – which is very active in intercomprehension – pioneering projects such as Galatea and Eurom4 (Blanche-Benveniste et al., 1997) produced CD-ROMs for simultaneous receptive learning in various Romance languages. Other projects then took over through websites (several of which are no longer available). Examples include Eurom 5, which combines a handbook (Bonvino et al., 2011) and a website, and EuroCom (which covered Romance, Germanic and Slavic languages and offered a website dedicated to teaching intercomprehension). The spread of the Internet has helped to develop the interactive dimension of intercomprehension by making it easier for speakers of different languages to communicate with each other. This aspect has been developed mainly by the Galanet, Galapro and Miriadi projects. Galanet has developed a platform that brings together speakers of various (Romance) languages to carry out tasks together by interacting in their different languages. Intercomprehension learning resources were also made available (Dabène, 2003; Degache, 2004, 2005). === MOOCs and plurilingualism === The issue of plurilingualism is also central to certain MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses), which make use of subtitling in particular. Gajo and Fonseca Favre (2025) believe that plurilingualism is often seen as “a tool for solving the language problem”, particularly through the use of English or plurilingual subtitles. They raise the importance of considering the fact that the knowledge mediated by MOOCs is produced by teachers in a particular context and with a specific point of view, and then received by students in different contexts. The authors also believe that plurilingualism is under-exploited in MOOCs, even though it could be an asset. They point out that:<blockquote>several users affirm that switching from one language to another, thanks to subtitling, allows them to question the content being covered, for example by comparing technical terms in different languages or highlighting different lines of interpretation (mediation and indexicality functions) (Galo et Fonseca Favre, 2026, p. 283, our translation).</blockquote>Gajo and Fonseca Favre therefore encourage the use of "diverse voices" , in other words teachers from different educational and scientific backgrounds, and the strengthening of multi-channel communication (particularly through plurilingual subtitles) to enable "alternative ways of accessing content and knowledge" (Galo et Fonseca Favre, 2026, p. 283, our translation).   === Other trends === The field of language learning and games has also been taken over by digital technology (Schmoll, 2021). In the field of plurilingual education, examples are still quite rare. A serious game smartphone application was developed for intercomprehension (Interromanica), but is no longer available. Another example is the plurilingual serious game MElang-E (Kosten & Elsner, 2018). Shafivora (2025) also discusses the use of technologies enabling plurilingualism such as machine translation, multilingual online dictionaries, subtitles and AI as support to facilitate the integration of migrant learners. The same author also mentions research on awareness of plurilingualism and linguistic injustices in social media and the importance of helping learners recognize linguistic diversity and cultural stereotypes on social platforms. === AI and plurilingual education === The issue of AI in the field of plurilingual education remains largely unexplored by research, unlike the use of AI for language teaching and learning in general. Several journals, such as ''Language Learning and Technology'' (Warschauer & Xu, 2024) and ''Alsic'' (Cellier et al., 2025), have recently devoted special issues to this latter question. The focus is mainly on machine translation, with little attention paid to the development of plurilingual skills. However, there are possibilities: AI can help people become aware of their plurilingualism, develop language learning using integrated language didactics or a intercomprehension perspective, and implement and expand their plurilingual interaction skills. Here are some concrete examples proposed by Ollivier (2025). * In the area of plurilingual awareness, AI can be used to build and reflect on one's language biography. It is capable of asking questions about our language biography and thus helping us to become aware of it. After the exchange with the AI, we can ask it to summarize our answers. * AI can help us become aware of similarities between languages and thus help us understand texts and develop our intercomprehension skills or, more modestly, learn a language based on the knowledge and skills we have already acquired (integrated language didactics). It is thus possible to provide a text to an AI and ask it to list the words in that text that could be transparent to a speaker of a specific language. For example: provide a text in Portuguese and ask the AI to list the words that are very similar to French words. The learner can then try to construct meaning from the listed words. * In the field of plurilingual interactions, the AI can be asked to play the role of a communication partner in intercomprehension. This is what was proposed in the initial activity of this lesson. Finally, it should be noted that AI is a multilingual tool. It is possible to formulate prompts in one language to request responses in another language. The monolingual paradigm is thus fundamentally challenged by AI. Similarly, AI is a tool for crosslinguistic mediation through machine translation tools. In all cases, of course, it is important to be critical and not to use AI outputs without verification. Interaction between AI and humans remains the greatest potential for the use of AI. == Take-home messages == * Compared to the broader field of language teaching and learning, the use of digital technology is still not very widespread in plurilingual education. * However, various projects are exploiting some potentialities of digital technology to enable receptive learning of various languages of the same family (receptive intercomprehension), promote plurilingual exchanges and the development of plurilingual communication competences (interactive intercomprehension), or enable projects between distant groups with a plurilingual and intercultural dimension (telecollaboration). * AI opens up new perspectives that are still largely unexplored. == Self-assessment == * How is digital technology used in telecollaboration projects? * What has the emergence of the Internet and communication tools enabled in the field of intercomprehension? * Name two or three ways in which AI can be used to work on people's plurilingualism. == Resources to go further == * Gajo, L., & Fonseca Favre, M. (2026). Technologies numériques. Dans C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Éds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue. Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education'' (p. 281-283). Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/document/1588003 * Martinez, P. (2026). Intelligence artificielle : À l’école du plurilinguisme. Dans C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Éds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue. Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education'' (p. 157-159). Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/document/1588003 * Perplexity, P., Ollivier, C., & Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2026). Artificial intelligence. Dans C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Éds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue. Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education'' (p. 160-162). Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/document/1588003 * Shafirova, L. (2026). Digital technologies. Dans C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Éds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue. Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education'' (p. 284-286). Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/document/1588003 == Bibliography == Belz, J. A. (2003). Linguistic perspectives on the development of intercultural competence in telecollaboration. ''Language Learning and Technology'', ''7''(2), 68‑117. Blanche-Benveniste, C., Valli, A., Mota, M. A., Simone, R., Bonvino, E., & Uzcanga Vivar, I. (1997). ''EuRom4. Método do ensino simultâneo das línguas românicas. Metodo para la enseñanza simultánea de las lenguas románicas. Metodo di insegnamento simultaneo della lingue romanze. Méthode d’enseignement simultané des langues romanes''. La nuova Italia. Bonvino, E., Caddéo, S., Vilaginés Serra, E., & Pippa, S. (2011). ''EuRom5. Ler y compreender 5 línguas românicas. Leer y entender en 5 lenguas románicas. Llegir i entendre 5 llengües romàniques. Leggere e capire 5 lingue romanze. Lire et comprendre 5 langues romanes''. Hoepli. Buendgens-Kosten, J. (2020). The monolingual problem of computer-assisted language learning. ''ReCALL'', ''32''(3), 307‑322. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095834402000004X Cellier, A., Duthoit, E., Cavalla, C., & Freund, F. (Éds.). (2025). ''Intelligence artificielle et didactique des langues et des cultures. Alsic, 28(1)'' (28). Alsic. https://doi.org/10.4000/9hwu Cultura. (1999). ''CULTURA: Page d’acceuil, version française''. Cultura. http://web.mit.edu/french/culturaNEH1/cultura/indexfrench.html Dabène, L. (2003). De Galatea à Galanet. Un itinéraire de recherche. ''Lidil. Revue de linguistique et de didactique des langues'', ''28'', 23‑29. Degache, C. (2004). Interactions asynchrones et appropriation dans un environnement d’apprentissage collaboratif  des langues (Galanet). Dans L. Baqué & M. Tost Planet (Éds.), ''Diversité et spécialités dans l’enseignement des langues. Repères & applications IV'' (p. 33‑48). https://www.france-universite-numerique-mooc.fr/c4x/ENSCachan/20006/asset/dc2004.pdf Degache, C. (2005). Comprendre la langue de l’autre et se faire comprendre ou la recherche d’une alternative communicative : Le projet Galanet. ''Synergies Italie'', ''2'', 50‑60. Furstenberg, G., Levet, S., English, K., & Maillet, K. (2001). Giving a virtual voice to the silent language of culture : The « Cultura » project. ''Language Learning and Technology'', ''5''(1), 55‑102. Gajo, L., & Fonseca Favre, M. (2026). Technologies numériques. Dans C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Éds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue. Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education'' (p. 281-283). Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/document/1588003 Kosten, J. B., & Elsner, D. (2018). 7. Playful Plurilingualism? Exploring Language(s) with the Multilingual Serious Game MElang-E. Dans J. Buendgens-Kosten & D. Elsner (Éds.), ''Multilingual Computer Assisted Language Learning'' (p. 115‑132). Multilingual Matters. https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.21832/9781788921497-009/html?srsltid=AfmBOorSEeZP97IoojyYH9KWq5YSA9Wr5sD-v15bokT6uqu95Uir77ey Mangenot, F. (1998). Classification des apports d’Internet à l’apprentissage des langues. ''Alsic. Apprentissage des Langues et Systèmes d’Information et de Communication'', ''1''(2), 133‑146. https://doi.org/10.4000/alsic.1515 O’Dowd, R. (2018). From telecollaboration to virtual exchange : State-of-the-art and the role of UNICollaboration in moving forward. ''Journal of Virtual Exchange'', ''1''. https://doi.org/10.14705/rpnet.2018.jve O’Dowd, R., & Klippel, F. (2006). ''Telecollaboration and the development of intercultural communicative competence''. Langenscheidt. O’Dowd, R., & Lewis, T. (2016). ''Online Intercultural Exchange. Policy, Pedagogy, Practice''. Routledge. Ollivier, C. (2025, janvier 16). ''Lehrende und Mehrsprachigkeitsdidaktik – Einstellungen, Praktiken und digitale Perspektiven''. Mehrsprachigkeit im Fremdsprachenunterricht – Unterrichtskonzepte, Methoden und Materialien, Innsbruck. Schmoll, L. (2021). Pour une approche définitoire multidimensionnelle du jeu numérique pour l’apprentissage des langues. ''Alsic. Apprentissage des Langues et Systèmes d’Information et de Communication'', ''24''(2), Article Vol. 24, n° 2. https://doi.org/10.4000/alsic.5754 Shafirova, L. (2026). Digital technologies. Dans C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Éds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue. Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education'' (p. 284-286). Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/document/1588003 Turula, A., Kurek, M., & Lewis, T. (Éds.). (2019). ''Telecollaboration and virtual exchange across disciplines : In service of social inclusion and global citizenship''. Research-publishing.net. https://doi.org/10.14705/rpnet.2019.35.9782490057429 Warschauer, M., & Xu, Y. (Éds.). (2024). ''Artificial intelligence for language learning. Language Learning and Technology, 28(2)''. Language Learning and Technology. https://www.lltjournal.org/collection/col_10125_108158/<nowiki/> '''Digital resources''' https://web.cortland.edu/flteach/civ/ ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : Christian Ollivier (Université de La Réunion). [[Portal:Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] [[Category:Technology]] nq3qza6eubstqmda9xfhsu4pwn613gb 2817245 2817242 2026-06-29T15:53:35Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Credits */ 2817245 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Initial activity == Copy the following prompt into a conversational AI (ChatGPT, Perplexity, Mistral, etc.).<blockquote>Let's imagine a meeting between two people who are seeing each other for the first time. They ask each other questions and chat to get to know each other. You play the role of one of these people. The specific feature is that you speak different Romance languages. You change languages with each question. For my part, I will always respond in [insert the name of the language in which you will respond and have good production skills, e.g. French]. You should not use this language. The language level you will use in the Romance languages should be A1 or even A2. Let's get started!</blockquote>You will thus experience Romance intercomprehension with AI. NB: you can do the same experiment with other language groups: Germanic, Slavic, etc. After the experiment, think about the following aspects: * Were you able to communicate with the AI by understanding the different languages it used? * What enabled you to understand what the AI was saying/asking? * Did you encounter any difficulties? If so, what kind?   == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should * be familiar with some uses of digital technologies to promote plurilingual education; * be able to use AI to develop your own plurilingual competence or help learners develop their plurilingual skills. == Keywords == Digital technologies; telecollaboration; intercomprehension; AI; subtitling; serious games == Prerequisites == No specific prerequisites, but it may be useful to learn about some of the approaches mentioned ([[intercomprehension]], integrated language didactics, etc.). == Table of contents == # Introduction # The emergence of digital technology in language teaching and learning – a brief history # Digital technology and plurilingual education – Various approaches ## Digital technology in virtual exchanges (telecollaboration) ## Digital technology in intercomprehension projects ## MOOCs and plurilingualism ## Other trends ## AI and the plurilingual classroom # Take-home messages # Self-assessment # Resources to go further # Bibliography == Introduction == Digital technology now plays an important role in language teaching. Its development and, above all, the spread of the Internet have also encouraged projects and forms of training in plurilingualism, particularly through plurilingual telecollaboration, e-tandem and interactive intercomprehension projects. AI opens up new avenues that have yet to be fully explored. Some of these avenues will be explored in this resource. == The emergence of digital technology in language teaching and learning – a brief history == Very early on, technology was seen as an opportunity for learning. At the beginning of the 20th century, people imagined learning machines. The following illustration (cf. Figure 1) gives one idea among many. The machine can transform the contents of several books, chosen by the teacher. Students can listen to these contents and seemingly learn without any further activity. [[File:Françoise Foliot - La radio à l'école.jpg|thumb|© Françoise Foliot CC-BY-SA]] The field of languages is no exception. A few years after the emergence and spread of the Internet, Mangenot (1998) distinguished between the possibility for learners to carry out "activities without exchanges" on the one hand, and "exchanges and projects" on the other. === Activities without exchange === * simple consultation of data (cultural, artistic, lexical, literary); * activities (playful or not) with or without a simulation component; * activities with images, audio and/or text; * activities requiring consultation of websites; * activities not designed for language learning purposes. (e.g. watching a online video). === Exchanges and projects === * In real time ** online chat or videoconference ** educational MOOs [Multi-User Object Oriented, i.e. virtual environments that are essentially text-based and interactive, enabling users to learn together in real time], or even dedicated to language practice. * Offline ** via mailing lists or discussion forums. ** through a virtual classroom ** activities involving exchanges between learners (Tandem language learning using e-mail for example). * As part of projects ** communication with a view to publishing the results on educative websites. ** publication on non-educative participative websites (see the [https://www.linguanum.eu/productions-products/tasks tasksheets designed by the Lingu@num project]). In the field of plurilingual education, projects, teaching approaches and tools remain underdeveloped. Buendgens-Kosten (2020) clearly highlights "[t]he monolingual problem of computer-assisted language learning". However, as shown below, certain projects, particularly those involving virtual exchanges and [[intercomprehension]], make extensive use of digital technology. And new prospects for digital technology and plurilingual education do exist, even if they have yet to be fully explored. == Digital technology and plurilingual education – Various approaches == === Digital technology in virtual exchanges (telecollaboration) === Virtual exchanges, particularly telecollaboration (Belz, 2003; O'Dowd, 2018; O'Dowd & Klippel, 2006; O'Dowd & Lewis, 2016; Turula et al., 2019), enable remote groups to carry out projects together. In the field of languages, this usually involves a group of speakers of language A learning language B working online in synchronous or asynchronous mode with a group of speakers of language B learning language A. One of the objectives is to develop intercultural skills and competences. In particular, students can discover other ways of thinking and seeing things and reflect on their own values. One of the pioneering projects was the ''Cultura'' project between American and French institutions (Cultura, 1999; Furstenberg et al., 2001). However, the dimension of plurilingualism is not always explicitly present, but it is underlying in these projects. The [https://unicollaboration.org/ UNIcollaboration] project website gives an idea of the vitality of telecollaboration in various disciplines, including languages and plurilingualism. === Digital technology in intercomprehension projects === Intercomprehension projects explicitly aim to develop plurilingual and intercultural competence. The goal is to learn to * understand the languages of the same group (e.g. Romance, Germanic, Slavic languages), by drawing on the competences and knowledge you already have in at least one of the languages in that group; * interact with speakers of the same language group by understanding them when they speak or write in a language you have not necessarily learnt and by writing or speaking in a language they have not necessarily learnt. It is therefore also a question of adapting the own output in order to be understood. For the first part, various projects have rapidly developed digital tools: the IGLOO project has designed a website for receptive learning of Germanic languages. In the field of Romance languages – which is very active in intercomprehension – pioneering projects such as Galatea and Eurom4 (Blanche-Benveniste et al., 1997) produced CD-ROMs for simultaneous receptive learning in various Romance languages. Other projects then took over through websites (several of which are no longer available). Examples include Eurom 5, which combines a handbook (Bonvino et al., 2011) and a website, and EuroCom (which covered Romance, Germanic and Slavic languages and offered a website dedicated to teaching intercomprehension). The spread of the Internet has helped to develop the interactive dimension of intercomprehension by making it easier for speakers of different languages to communicate with each other. This aspect has been developed mainly by the Galanet, Galapro and Miriadi projects. Galanet has developed a platform that brings together speakers of various (Romance) languages to carry out tasks together by interacting in their different languages. Intercomprehension learning resources were also made available (Dabène, 2003; Degache, 2004, 2005). === MOOCs and plurilingualism === The issue of plurilingualism is also central to certain MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses), which make use of subtitling in particular. Gajo and Fonseca Favre (2025) believe that plurilingualism is often seen as “a tool for solving the language problem”, particularly through the use of English or plurilingual subtitles. They raise the importance of considering the fact that the knowledge mediated by MOOCs is produced by teachers in a particular context and with a specific point of view, and then received by students in different contexts. The authors also believe that plurilingualism is under-exploited in MOOCs, even though it could be an asset. They point out that:<blockquote>several users affirm that switching from one language to another, thanks to subtitling, allows them to question the content being covered, for example by comparing technical terms in different languages or highlighting different lines of interpretation (mediation and indexicality functions) (Galo et Fonseca Favre, 2026, p. 283, our translation).</blockquote>Gajo and Fonseca Favre therefore encourage the use of "diverse voices" , in other words teachers from different educational and scientific backgrounds, and the strengthening of multi-channel communication (particularly through plurilingual subtitles) to enable "alternative ways of accessing content and knowledge" (Galo et Fonseca Favre, 2026, p. 283, our translation).   === Other trends === The field of language learning and games has also been taken over by digital technology (Schmoll, 2021). In the field of plurilingual education, examples are still quite rare. A serious game smartphone application was developed for intercomprehension (Interromanica), but is no longer available. Another example is the plurilingual serious game MElang-E (Kosten & Elsner, 2018). Shafivora (2025) also discusses the use of technologies enabling plurilingualism such as machine translation, multilingual online dictionaries, subtitles and AI as support to facilitate the integration of migrant learners. The same author also mentions research on awareness of plurilingualism and linguistic injustices in social media and the importance of helping learners recognize linguistic diversity and cultural stereotypes on social platforms. === AI and plurilingual education === The issue of AI in the field of plurilingual education remains largely unexplored by research, unlike the use of AI for language teaching and learning in general. Several journals, such as ''Language Learning and Technology'' (Warschauer & Xu, 2024) and ''Alsic'' (Cellier et al., 2025), have recently devoted special issues to this latter question. The focus is mainly on machine translation, with little attention paid to the development of plurilingual skills. However, there are possibilities: AI can help people become aware of their plurilingualism, develop language learning using integrated language didactics or a intercomprehension perspective, and implement and expand their plurilingual interaction skills. Here are some concrete examples proposed by Ollivier (2025). * In the area of plurilingual awareness, AI can be used to build and reflect on one's language biography. It is capable of asking questions about our language biography and thus helping us to become aware of it. After the exchange with the AI, we can ask it to summarize our answers. * AI can help us become aware of similarities between languages and thus help us understand texts and develop our intercomprehension skills or, more modestly, learn a language based on the knowledge and skills we have already acquired (integrated language didactics). It is thus possible to provide a text to an AI and ask it to list the words in that text that could be transparent to a speaker of a specific language. For example: provide a text in Portuguese and ask the AI to list the words that are very similar to French words. The learner can then try to construct meaning from the listed words. * In the field of plurilingual interactions, the AI can be asked to play the role of a communication partner in intercomprehension. This is what was proposed in the initial activity of this lesson. Finally, it should be noted that AI is a multilingual tool. It is possible to formulate prompts in one language to request responses in another language. The monolingual paradigm is thus fundamentally challenged by AI. Similarly, AI is a tool for crosslinguistic mediation through machine translation tools. In all cases, of course, it is important to be critical and not to use AI outputs without verification. Interaction between AI and humans remains the greatest potential for the use of AI. == Take-home messages == * Compared to the broader field of language teaching and learning, the use of digital technology is still not very widespread in plurilingual education. * However, various projects are exploiting some potentialities of digital technology to enable receptive learning of various languages of the same family (receptive intercomprehension), promote plurilingual exchanges and the development of plurilingual communication competences (interactive intercomprehension), or enable projects between distant groups with a plurilingual and intercultural dimension (telecollaboration). * AI opens up new perspectives that are still largely unexplored. == Self-assessment == * How is digital technology used in telecollaboration projects? * What has the emergence of the Internet and communication tools enabled in the field of intercomprehension? * Name two or three ways in which AI can be used to work on people's plurilingualism. == Resources to go further == * Gajo, L., & Fonseca Favre, M. (2026). Technologies numériques. Dans C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Éds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue. Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education'' (p. 281-283). Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/document/1588003 * Martinez, P. (2026). Intelligence artificielle : À l’école du plurilinguisme. Dans C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Éds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue. Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education'' (p. 157-159). Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/document/1588003 * Perplexity, P., Ollivier, C., & Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2026). Artificial intelligence. Dans C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Éds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue. Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education'' (p. 160-162). Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/document/1588003 * Shafirova, L. (2026). Digital technologies. Dans C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Éds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue. Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education'' (p. 284-286). Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/document/1588003 == Bibliography == Belz, J. A. (2003). Linguistic perspectives on the development of intercultural competence in telecollaboration. ''Language Learning and Technology'', ''7''(2), 68‑117. Blanche-Benveniste, C., Valli, A., Mota, M. A., Simone, R., Bonvino, E., & Uzcanga Vivar, I. (1997). ''EuRom4. Método do ensino simultâneo das línguas românicas. Metodo para la enseñanza simultánea de las lenguas románicas. Metodo di insegnamento simultaneo della lingue romanze. Méthode d’enseignement simultané des langues romanes''. La nuova Italia. Bonvino, E., Caddéo, S., Vilaginés Serra, E., & Pippa, S. (2011). ''EuRom5. Ler y compreender 5 línguas românicas. Leer y entender en 5 lenguas románicas. Llegir i entendre 5 llengües romàniques. Leggere e capire 5 lingue romanze. Lire et comprendre 5 langues romanes''. Hoepli. Buendgens-Kosten, J. (2020). The monolingual problem of computer-assisted language learning. ''ReCALL'', ''32''(3), 307‑322. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095834402000004X Cellier, A., Duthoit, E., Cavalla, C., & Freund, F. (Éds.). (2025). ''Intelligence artificielle et didactique des langues et des cultures. Alsic, 28(1)'' (28). Alsic. https://doi.org/10.4000/9hwu Cultura. (1999). ''CULTURA: Page d’acceuil, version française''. Cultura. http://web.mit.edu/french/culturaNEH1/cultura/indexfrench.html Dabène, L. (2003). De Galatea à Galanet. Un itinéraire de recherche. ''Lidil. Revue de linguistique et de didactique des langues'', ''28'', 23‑29. Degache, C. (2004). Interactions asynchrones et appropriation dans un environnement d’apprentissage collaboratif  des langues (Galanet). Dans L. Baqué & M. Tost Planet (Éds.), ''Diversité et spécialités dans l’enseignement des langues. Repères & applications IV'' (p. 33‑48). https://www.france-universite-numerique-mooc.fr/c4x/ENSCachan/20006/asset/dc2004.pdf Degache, C. (2005). Comprendre la langue de l’autre et se faire comprendre ou la recherche d’une alternative communicative : Le projet Galanet. ''Synergies Italie'', ''2'', 50‑60. Furstenberg, G., Levet, S., English, K., & Maillet, K. (2001). Giving a virtual voice to the silent language of culture : The « Cultura » project. ''Language Learning and Technology'', ''5''(1), 55‑102. Gajo, L., & Fonseca Favre, M. (2026). Technologies numériques. Dans C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Éds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue. Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education'' (p. 281-283). Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/document/1588003 Kosten, J. B., & Elsner, D. (2018). 7. Playful Plurilingualism? Exploring Language(s) with the Multilingual Serious Game MElang-E. Dans J. Buendgens-Kosten & D. Elsner (Éds.), ''Multilingual Computer Assisted Language Learning'' (p. 115‑132). Multilingual Matters. https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.21832/9781788921497-009/html?srsltid=AfmBOorSEeZP97IoojyYH9KWq5YSA9Wr5sD-v15bokT6uqu95Uir77ey Mangenot, F. (1998). Classification des apports d’Internet à l’apprentissage des langues. ''Alsic. Apprentissage des Langues et Systèmes d’Information et de Communication'', ''1''(2), 133‑146. https://doi.org/10.4000/alsic.1515 O’Dowd, R. (2018). From telecollaboration to virtual exchange : State-of-the-art and the role of UNICollaboration in moving forward. ''Journal of Virtual Exchange'', ''1''. https://doi.org/10.14705/rpnet.2018.jve O’Dowd, R., & Klippel, F. (2006). ''Telecollaboration and the development of intercultural communicative competence''. Langenscheidt. O’Dowd, R., & Lewis, T. (2016). ''Online Intercultural Exchange. Policy, Pedagogy, Practice''. Routledge. Ollivier, C. (2025, janvier 16). ''Lehrende und Mehrsprachigkeitsdidaktik – Einstellungen, Praktiken und digitale Perspektiven''. Mehrsprachigkeit im Fremdsprachenunterricht – Unterrichtskonzepte, Methoden und Materialien, Innsbruck. Schmoll, L. (2021). Pour une approche définitoire multidimensionnelle du jeu numérique pour l’apprentissage des langues. ''Alsic. Apprentissage des Langues et Systèmes d’Information et de Communication'', ''24''(2), Article Vol. 24, n° 2. https://doi.org/10.4000/alsic.5754 Shafirova, L. (2026). Digital technologies. Dans C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Éds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue. Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education'' (p. 284-286). Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/document/1588003 Turula, A., Kurek, M., & Lewis, T. (Éds.). (2019). ''Telecollaboration and virtual exchange across disciplines : In service of social inclusion and global citizenship''. Research-publishing.net. https://doi.org/10.14705/rpnet.2019.35.9782490057429 Warschauer, M., & Xu, Y. (Éds.). (2024). ''Artificial intelligence for language learning. Language Learning and Technology, 28(2)''. Language Learning and Technology. https://www.lltjournal.org/collection/col_10125_108158/<nowiki/> '''Digital resources''' https://web.cortland.edu/flteach/civ/ ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Christian Ollivier (Université de La Réunion). [[Portal:Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] [[Category:Technology]] tglwgel2f4o1oiesy30pjfmye1hdai0 0 326925 2817249 2792543 2026-06-29T15:59:16Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Educational resources */ 2817249 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == Watch the following video, which explains the concept of mediation: '''[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZFeeciNY8fU&list=PLRjd-2uIRPgSY-J9Q2wMiGU_mYW6Fuucn Mediacion]''' Next, ask yourself a few questions: * What did you learn about the concept of mediation? * Given the examples provided, why is this skill important in foreign language teaching? * Is it possible for you to practice it during your classes? Why (or why not)? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you should be able to… * define mediation in general, and interlinguistic mediation more specifically; * distinguish between mediation of production, interaction, and (inter)comprehension; * explain how different forms of mediation (including translation) work * analyze mediation skills in specific tasks; * list criteria for creating mediation tasks and for assessing mediation skills * identify the role of mediation in the development of language skills. == Keywords == Mediation, plurilinguism, strategies, tasks == Prerequisites == Familiarity with the ''Common European Framework of Reference for Languages'' (CEFR) and its ''Companion Volume'' (2020) can help you better understand the specific nature of mediation skills. == Table of Contents == # Introduction # History of the concept # Conceptual differences: Mediation, comprehension, production, interaction, and mutual understanding # Interlinguistic mediation tasks # Assessment of interlinguistic mediation skills # Take-home messages # Self-assessment # Resources to go further # Bibliography # Educational resources == Introduction == In our plurilingual and intercultural societies, linguistic mediation, whether inter- or intralinguistic, plays a fundamental role in developing learners' communication skills. It is no longer just a question of mastering one or more target languages in isolation, but of mobilizing the entire linguistic and semiotic repertoire to co-construct meaning, facilitate (inter)comprehension, and build bridges between languages, cultures, and interlocutors. More specifically, situations that promote the mobilization and transfer of interlinguistic knowledge become learning opportunities, as they allow learners to exploit their prior linguistic and cultural knowledge in a holistic and integrated way. Furthermore, recognizing and valuing the diversity of learners' linguistic repertoires not only helps to boost their confidence, but also promotes an inclusive and dynamic approach to language teaching. This perspective encourages teaching approaches that value inter- and intralinguistic mediation, in which languages, registers, and variations are not compartmentalized but constantly interact in the service of communication, mutual understanding and learning. In this Wikiversity lesson, we will explore the concept of mediation. We will present a brief interdisciplinary history of the concept, followed by recent developments in plurilingual education. For this, a comparison with other concepts, such as intercomprehension and interproduction, is necessary. The last part will be devoted to issues surrounding the creation and implementation of interlinguistic mediation tasks and the challenges posed by the assessment of these bi/plurilingual tasks. == History of the concept == The concept of mediation is not new. The term “conflict mediation” is often used, for example, when referring to the reconciliation of two (seemingly) divergent positions. In intercultural studies, authors examine specific situations, particularly misunderstandings arising from perceived cultural differences, where interlocutors must negotiate a basis for agreement, mitigate potential conflicts, etc. (Stalder & Tonti, 2014). Teaching and learning situations are also known for moments of pedagogical, cognitive, and relational mediation, as shown, for example, by the concepts of the “zone of proximal development” (Vygotsky, 1986), scaffolding (Wood, Bruner & Ross, 976), and remediation (Van Lier, 1988). In all these cases, mediation involves the co-construction of an interactional space, in formal or informal learning spaces, and mediation strategies are necessary to build shared communication and learning expectations (Araújo e Sá, De Carlo & Melo-Pfeifer, 2019). In the words of Coste and Cavali, mediation involves “reducing the distance between two poles” (2015, p. 12). In language teaching and plurilingual education, 2001 was a revolutionary year for the introduction of the concept of mediation into the specific vocabulary of this discipline. In 2001, mediation was included in the ''Common European Framework of Reference for Languages'' (CEFR) to indicate communicative language activities that are not covered by isolated reception and production. This document states that “[t]hose with some knowledge, even slight, may use it to help those with none to communicate by mediating between individuals with no common language. In the absence of a mediator, such individuals may nevertheless achieve some degree of communication by bringing the whole of their linguistic equipment into play, experimenting with alternative forms of expression in different languages or dialects, exploiting paralinguistics (mime, gesture, facial expression, etc.) and radically simplifying their use of language.” (2001, p. 4-5) The same document considers that teaching and learning interlinguistic mediation are important because “mediating language activities – (re)processing an existing text – occupy an important place in the normal linguistic functioning of our societies.” (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 14). Two types of mediation are mentioned: translation (written) and interpretation (oral), alongside summarizing and rephrasing (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 87; see also De Carlo, 2012). Although the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) presented mediation as an important aspect of language proficiency, it did not provide any illustrative descriptors, which in some ways blocked or delayed its inclusion in school curricula, at least in certain national contexts. As early as 2018, in the first version of the ''Companion Volume'', mediation saw its scope broadened to encompass intra- and interlinguistic mediation. The focus is on the learner as a social actor, the role of language in processes such as creating a space and conditions conducive to communication and/or learning, collaborating to construct new meaning, encouraging others to construct or understand new meaning, and transmitting new information in an appropriate form. Without going into detail, the ''Companion Volume'' proposes new descriptors related to the parallel use of languages and the ability of language users to act as interlinguistic mediators and to mix, integrate, and alternate languages. In this document, mediation is defined as follows: In mediation, the user/learner acts as a social agent who creates bridges and helps to construct or convey meaning, sometimes within the same language, sometimes from one language to another (cross-linguistic mediation). (Council of Europe, 2018, p. 103). This document distinguishes between three types of mediation: * Mediating a text: transferring information to someone who does not have access to the original text due to linguistic, cultural, or social barriers. * Mediating concepts: related to the pedagogical aspects of mediation, the scales relevant to this category refer to educational areas that require interaction management, collaboration to construct meaning, facilitation of collaborative interactions, among others. * Mediating communication: a process aimed at facilitating understanding between participants, for example in cases of tension or disagreement. In language teaching and plurilingual education, the type of mediation most commonly considered, particularly in research on the concept, is “mediating a text”, as demonstrated by the METLA project (Stathopoulou et al, 2023). In addition, the authors of this project, funded by the European Centre for Modern Languages, consider that interlinguistic mediation: * always occurs in a social context, a “social practice” in which language users engage when there is a communication gap (i.e., a lack of understanding of the other language); * is an intentional activity that always serves a communicative purpose and can achieve that purpose by taking into account the context of the situation (who is writing/speaking to whom), for what purpose, etc. == Conceptual differences: mediation, comprehension, production, interaction, and mutual understanding == As mentioned above, there are two types of mediation: * Intralinguistic mediation, which consists of rephrasing, summarizing, explaining, or adapting content in the same language in order to facilitate understanding or access to information for a third party. Typical examples of this type of mediation include synopses of films or novels, meeting reports, book summaries, or even reformulation processes within a production or interaction activity (often preceded by specific markers such as ''namely, in other words, let's say, in short, among other things''). * Interlinguistic mediation is a type of mediation that involves at least two different languages. It consists of transmitting, reformulating, or adapting content from one language to another (or others) in order to make it understandable to someone who does not speak the original language. In language teaching, mediation refers to a process by which an individual facilitates understanding, communication, or learning between two (or more) people, groups, or texts, often in situations where there is a linguistic, cultural, or cognitive barrier. The following diagram explains interlinguistic mediation: Interlinguistic mediation differs in that it occurs in a multilingual interaction situation (synchronous or asynchronous), unlike reception and production, which in foreign language teaching are traditionally and by definition monolingual situations.   The similarities between mediation and intercomprehension are more complex. The relationship between these two concepts has been widely debated in the context of intercomprehension research (see Castellotti, 2007, Tavares, 2007, Degache & Gabarino, 2017). Indeed, both processes are placed in the context of plurilingual interactions. If we take a fixed conception of intercomprehension that is now outdated, it would be easy to distinguish between the two concepts, given that plurilingual interaction can be summarized in the following basic diagram: However, numerous analyses of discourse produced in real-life contexts of plurilingual interaction (Araújo e Sá, & Melo, 2006; Lüdi, 2024; Capucho, 2018; Capucho, Silva & Chenoll, 2018) reveal that within these interactions, speakers often resort to activities of (re)mediation of interlinguistic conflicts or misunderstandings. These activities cover both intralinguistic mediation processes (when the speaker reformulates their statement in their language to make it clearer for an interlocutor who does not necessarily speak their language) and interlinguistic mediation processes, during numerous moments of translanguaging, whether spontaneous or requested by the interlocutor. Interproduction is therefore often evidence of mediation processes, because, during moments of production, the speaker makes strategic choices to adapt their speech to the difficulties they perceive or sense in their interlocutor. Mediation is therefore an essential skill in foreign language communication, whether monolingual or plurilingual. It helps to overcome potential conflicts in negotiating meaning, while paving the way for successful intercultural and human encounters. ----[1] It should be noted, however, that in plurilingual communication situations, speaker 1 may assume the role of speaker 2, repeating the message in another language as part of a continuous process of translanguaging. (cf. Lüdi, 2014: 20–24). == Interlinguistic mediation tasks == In their analysis of interlinguistic mediation tasks in textbooks, Melo-Pfeifer and Schröder-Sura (2018) conclude that instructions are often vague, stereotypical, and likely to create ambiguity, particularly with regard to the choice or use of language. As the authors note,   in these cases of exolingual communication, the student is placed in the position of an expert, (...), with no resources other than their [linguistic] knowledge; on the other hand, their interlocutor is placed in a situation of total or partial incomprehension, using phrases such as: “he doesn't understand very well” (Figure 1). In addition, "it is a question of mediating between a native speaker of the target language (or an authentic document in the target language) and a native speaker of the source language/second language, which, once again, does not exhaust the contexts in which mediation is required in real life: mediation can be done in an exolingual/endolingual situation where all interlocutors speak French as the target language, for example. (Melo-Pfeifer and Schröder-Sura, 2018, n. p). These initial observations lead us to propose a list of criteria for the construction of interlinguistic mediation tasks, as suggested by the authors of the METLA project (Stathopoulou et al., 2023): * Integrate learners' family languages as valuable resources for constructing meaning, communicating, and promoting identity. * Include the intercultural and multicultural dimension, particularly through the recognition and integration of family languages and cultures, in order to promote inclusive approaches that are sensitive to local contexts. * Create dynamic communication situations where expertise changes hands, is designed to be dynamic and is co-constructed. * Integrate gestures, multimodality, and various media to reflect the real communication practices in which learners are engaged. * Ensure the authenticity of tasks by anchoring them in meaningful and holistic communication situations. * Encourage the use of strategies aimed at constructing meaning and facilitating interaction by providing examples of strategies. * Develop specific mediation strategies among learners to enable them to relay information, simplify complex ideas, or negotiate meaning between languages and cultures. * Promote learners' reflexivity by encouraging them to reflect on the effectiveness and results of the mediation strategies they use. * Diversify text types to expose learners to a variety of discourse types and communicative intentions. * Provide transparent and realistic assessment criteria that are less focused on linguistic and formal correctness alone and more aligned with real-life mediation tasks (pragmatic goals, successful communication, etc.). == Assessment of interlinguistic mediation skills == The need to assess interlinguistic mediation skills is fully in line with the requirements of contemporary plurilingual societies. As Gorter and Cenoz (2017, p. 43) point out, “teaching is moving towards a multilingual focus, and assessment should also follow the same path.” From this perspective, assessing interlinguistic mediation skills would be in line with the need to analyze current plurilingual teaching practices (Melo-Pfeifer & Ollivier, 2025). Indeed, changes in language teaching practices, particularly through plurilingual practices, naturally call for an evolution in assessment methods (Dendrinos, 2019). Based on the new scales of the CEFR ''Companion Volume'' (CEFR-CV), and taking into account the cultural, linguistic, and pedagogical specificities of the local context (such as the languages present, the needs and interests of learners, etc.), it is possible to design appropriate tools for assessing mediation skills. Assessing mediation through specific tasks can become a continuous learning experience for students, in line with formative assessment or “assessment for learning.” Teachers are encouraged to provide learners with opportunities to reflect on their mediation skills and strategies and to assess them as an integral part of their lifelong learning journey. The METLA team (Stathopoulou et al., 2023) proposes that learners' plurilingual competence can be assessed through interlinguistic mediation tasks, such as: * summarizing oral or written information heard or read in one language, then presenting it orally or in writing in another language, adapting the discourse and/or genre of the original text as necessary to suit the intended purpose of communication; * using information from different sources in different languages to produce an oral or written text. Language production may be bilingual or trilingual, and students' responses may draw on several languages, including their native language(s). == Take-home messages == # Language mediation is essential for developing learners' communication skills in plurilingual and intercultural societies. It involves mobilizing the entire linguistic and semiotic repertoire in order to co-construct meaning, facilitate mutual understanding, and build bridges between languages, cultures, and interlocutors. # Mediation, initially linked to conflict resolution and pedagogy, was officially integrated into language teaching with the CEFR in 2001. It is defined as a natural communicative act, covering translation, interpretation, summarizing, and rephrasing, and its scope was expanded in the 2018 ''Companion Volume'' to include intra- and interlinguistic mediation. # A distinction is made between intralinguistic mediation (within the same language, through reformulation, summarization, or explanation) and interlinguistic mediation (between several languages, through transmission or adaptation of content). Mediation differs from simple reception or production, as it occurs in plurilingual contact situations and aims to overcome linguistic, cultural, or cognitive barriers. # Mediation tasks should be based on communicative situations and authentic needs, incorporate a wide variety of materials and texts, and include key moments for reflection on the value of the strategies used. # The assessment of interlinguistic mediation meets the needs of plurilingual societies and must evolve towards plurilingual assessment practices. It aims to measure learners' ability to relay information between languages, texts, and contexts, and to encourage formative, continuous assessment that is integrated into the learning process, mobilizing several languages and adapting discourse according to communication objectives. == Self-assessment == A.  '''What is the main difference between intralinguistic and interlinguistic mediation?''' # One is oral, the other is written. # One is done in one language, the other between two or more languages. # One involves a teacher, the other does not. '''B. Interlinguistic mediation is the process of:''' # facilitating the co-construction of an interaction space where several languages are in use. # facilitating the co-construction of an interaction space within the same language. # facilitating the co-construction of an interaction space where several languages are in use and the co-construction of an interaction space within the same language. '''C. Interlinguistic mediation activities should:''' # ask learners to translate statements word for word to facilitate and/or verify understanding. # ask learners to relay information deemed essential in a given context from one language to another. # ask learners to always be wary of linguistic similarities in contexts where several languages are present. D. '''What is the main criticism expressed regarding mediation tasks in textbooks?''' # They are too innovative and interactive. # They are vague and stereotypical. # They favor the mother tongue too much in foreign language classes. E. '''What should a good mediation task promote?''' # Strictly unilingual learning. # Exclusive use of official languages. # Use of family languages and multimodality. F. '''Why is the evaluation of interlinguistic mediation important?''' # To penalize linguistic errors. # To monitor developments in plurilingual education and guide learning. # To compare skills between students from different countries. == Resources to go further == * Dendrinos, B. (Ed.) (2024). ''Mediation as Negotiation of Meanings, Plurilingualism and Language Education''. Routledge. * Melo-Pfeifer, S., & Ollivier, C. (2025). Assessing the plurilingual competence and plurilingual individuals’ skills and knowledge: similarities and divergences. ''Frontiers of Communication'', 10:1498940. Doi: [[doi:10.3389/fcomm.2025.1498940|10.3389/fcomm.2025.1498940]]. * Piccardo, E., & North, B. (2019). ''The Action-oriented Approach: A Dynamic Vision of Language Education''. Multilingual Matters. * Stathopoulou M. (2015). Cross-language mediation in foreign language teaching and testing. Multilingual Matters. * Zarate, G., Gohard-Radenkovic, A., Lussier, D., & Penz, H. (2003). ''Médiation culturelle et didactique des langues.'' Editions du Conseil de L’Europe. = Bibliography = Araujo e Sá, M. H., & Melo, S. (2006). Del caos a la creatividad: los chats entre lingüistas y didactas. ''Estudios de lingüística del español, 24''. http://elies.rediris.es/elies24/araujo.htm Araújo e Sá, M., de Carlo, M., & Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2019). Mediation(s) in an on-line, multilingual teacher education environment. ''Indagatio Didactica'', ''11''(4), 99-120. https://doi.org/10.34624/id.v11i4.10585. Blume, O.-M., Gregor, G., Jorißen, C. & Mann-Grabowski, C. (2012). ''À plus !'' 1 ''Nouvelle édition. Französisch für Gymnasien'' (livre de l’élève)''.'' Cornelsen. Capucho, F. (2018). Plurilingual interactions – the role of interproduction strategies. In Marianne Hepp – Martina Nied Curcio (eds.), ''Educazione plurilingue: ricerca, didattica e politiche linguistiche'' (pp. 157 – 166'')''. Istituto Italiano di Studi Germanici. Capucho, F. Silva, M. P. & Chenoll, A., (2018). 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Traduction et médiation dans l'enseignement-apprentissage linguistique. ''Études de linguistique appliquée,'' 167(3), 299-311. https://doi.org/10.3917/ela.167.0299. Degache, Ch. & Gabarino, S. (2017). Jalons, diffusion et itinéraires des approches intercompréhensives. In Ch. Degache & S. Gabarino, (eds.). ''Itinéraires pédagogiques de l’alternance des langues: l’intercompréhension.'' (pp. 2-14). ELLUG. Dendrinos B. (2019). ''Multilingual testing and assessment for plurilingual education'', ECSMP position paper. http://ecspm.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/MultiTest.pdf Lüdi, G. (2014). Le monde économique parle-t-il vraiment anglais? Les pratiques langagières dans le domaine des entreprises . In A-C Berthoud & M. Burger. M (eds.). ''Repenser le rôle des pratiques langagières dans la constitution des espaces sociaux contemporains'' (pp. 17-34). Bruxelles: De Boeck. Melo-Pfeifer, S., & Schröder-Sura, A. (2018). Les tâches de médiation dans les manuels de Français Langue Étrangère pour le secondaire en Allemagne. ''Recherches en didactique des langues et des cultures'', 15-3. http://journals.openedition.org/rdlc/3589;&#x20;DOI:&#x20;https://doi.org/10.4000/rdlc.3589. Stalder, P., & Tonti, A. (Eds.) (2014). ''La Médiation (inter)culturelle : représentations, mises en œuvre et développement des compétences''. Édition des archives contemporaines. Stathopoulou, M., Gauci, P., Liontou, M., & Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2023). ''Mediation in teaching, learning & assessment (METLA): A teaching guide for language educators''. European Centre For Modern Languages. Tavares, C. F. (2007). L'intercompréhension est-elle soluble dans la communication? In F. Capucho, A. Alves de Paula Martins, C. Degache, & M. Tost (eds.). ''Diálogos em intercompreensão''. (pp. 585-596). Universidade Católica Editora. Van Lier, L. (1988). ''The Classroom and the Language Learner''. New York: Longman. Vygotsky, L. (1986). ''Thought and Language''. Revisited Edition.In A. Kozulin (Ed.), MIT, (first edition, 1934) Wood, D., Bruner, J., & Roos, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. ''Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry'', 17, 89-100. = Educational resources = METLA task database: https://www.ecml.at/en/ECML-Programme/Programme-2020-2023/Mediation-in-teaching-and-assessment/materials Stathopoulou, M., Gauci, P., Liontou, M., & Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2023). ''Mediation in teaching, learning & assessment (METLA): A teaching guide for language educators''. European Centre For Modern Languages. https://www.ecml.at/Portals/1/documents/ECML-resources/METLA-teaching-guide-EN.pdf Vetter, E, & Kratochwil, L. (Eds.) (2025). ''Promouvoir l'éducation plurilingue. Exemples de bonnes pratiques adaptables''. https://phaidra.univie.ac.at/o:2143758 == Credits == This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Filomena Capucho (Universidade Católica Portuguesa) * Sílvia Melo-Pfeifer (Universität Hamburg). [[Category:Language|mediation]] pjv99rleht7abl56pckjb94a3opx9vx 2817294 2817249 2026-06-29T16:43:42Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self-assessment */ 2817294 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == Watch the following video, which explains the concept of mediation: '''[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZFeeciNY8fU&list=PLRjd-2uIRPgSY-J9Q2wMiGU_mYW6Fuucn Mediacion]''' Next, ask yourself a few questions: * What did you learn about the concept of mediation? * Given the examples provided, why is this skill important in foreign language teaching? * Is it possible for you to practice it during your classes? Why (or why not)? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you should be able to… * define mediation in general, and interlinguistic mediation more specifically; * distinguish between mediation of production, interaction, and (inter)comprehension; * explain how different forms of mediation (including translation) work * analyze mediation skills in specific tasks; * list criteria for creating mediation tasks and for assessing mediation skills * identify the role of mediation in the development of language skills. == Keywords == Mediation, plurilinguism, strategies, tasks == Prerequisites == Familiarity with the ''Common European Framework of Reference for Languages'' (CEFR) and its ''Companion Volume'' (2020) can help you better understand the specific nature of mediation skills. == Table of Contents == # Introduction # History of the concept # Conceptual differences: Mediation, comprehension, production, interaction, and mutual understanding # Interlinguistic mediation tasks # Assessment of interlinguistic mediation skills # Take-home messages # Self-assessment # Resources to go further # Bibliography # Educational resources == Introduction == In our plurilingual and intercultural societies, linguistic mediation, whether inter- or intralinguistic, plays a fundamental role in developing learners' communication skills. It is no longer just a question of mastering one or more target languages in isolation, but of mobilizing the entire linguistic and semiotic repertoire to co-construct meaning, facilitate (inter)comprehension, and build bridges between languages, cultures, and interlocutors. More specifically, situations that promote the mobilization and transfer of interlinguistic knowledge become learning opportunities, as they allow learners to exploit their prior linguistic and cultural knowledge in a holistic and integrated way. Furthermore, recognizing and valuing the diversity of learners' linguistic repertoires not only helps to boost their confidence, but also promotes an inclusive and dynamic approach to language teaching. This perspective encourages teaching approaches that value inter- and intralinguistic mediation, in which languages, registers, and variations are not compartmentalized but constantly interact in the service of communication, mutual understanding and learning. In this Wikiversity lesson, we will explore the concept of mediation. We will present a brief interdisciplinary history of the concept, followed by recent developments in plurilingual education. For this, a comparison with other concepts, such as intercomprehension and interproduction, is necessary. The last part will be devoted to issues surrounding the creation and implementation of interlinguistic mediation tasks and the challenges posed by the assessment of these bi/plurilingual tasks. == History of the concept == The concept of mediation is not new. The term “conflict mediation” is often used, for example, when referring to the reconciliation of two (seemingly) divergent positions. In intercultural studies, authors examine specific situations, particularly misunderstandings arising from perceived cultural differences, where interlocutors must negotiate a basis for agreement, mitigate potential conflicts, etc. (Stalder & Tonti, 2014). Teaching and learning situations are also known for moments of pedagogical, cognitive, and relational mediation, as shown, for example, by the concepts of the “zone of proximal development” (Vygotsky, 1986), scaffolding (Wood, Bruner & Ross, 976), and remediation (Van Lier, 1988). In all these cases, mediation involves the co-construction of an interactional space, in formal or informal learning spaces, and mediation strategies are necessary to build shared communication and learning expectations (Araújo e Sá, De Carlo & Melo-Pfeifer, 2019). In the words of Coste and Cavali, mediation involves “reducing the distance between two poles” (2015, p. 12). In language teaching and plurilingual education, 2001 was a revolutionary year for the introduction of the concept of mediation into the specific vocabulary of this discipline. In 2001, mediation was included in the ''Common European Framework of Reference for Languages'' (CEFR) to indicate communicative language activities that are not covered by isolated reception and production. This document states that “[t]hose with some knowledge, even slight, may use it to help those with none to communicate by mediating between individuals with no common language. In the absence of a mediator, such individuals may nevertheless achieve some degree of communication by bringing the whole of their linguistic equipment into play, experimenting with alternative forms of expression in different languages or dialects, exploiting paralinguistics (mime, gesture, facial expression, etc.) and radically simplifying their use of language.” (2001, p. 4-5) The same document considers that teaching and learning interlinguistic mediation are important because “mediating language activities – (re)processing an existing text – occupy an important place in the normal linguistic functioning of our societies.” (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 14). Two types of mediation are mentioned: translation (written) and interpretation (oral), alongside summarizing and rephrasing (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 87; see also De Carlo, 2012). Although the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) presented mediation as an important aspect of language proficiency, it did not provide any illustrative descriptors, which in some ways blocked or delayed its inclusion in school curricula, at least in certain national contexts. As early as 2018, in the first version of the ''Companion Volume'', mediation saw its scope broadened to encompass intra- and interlinguistic mediation. The focus is on the learner as a social actor, the role of language in processes such as creating a space and conditions conducive to communication and/or learning, collaborating to construct new meaning, encouraging others to construct or understand new meaning, and transmitting new information in an appropriate form. Without going into detail, the ''Companion Volume'' proposes new descriptors related to the parallel use of languages and the ability of language users to act as interlinguistic mediators and to mix, integrate, and alternate languages. In this document, mediation is defined as follows: In mediation, the user/learner acts as a social agent who creates bridges and helps to construct or convey meaning, sometimes within the same language, sometimes from one language to another (cross-linguistic mediation). (Council of Europe, 2018, p. 103). This document distinguishes between three types of mediation: * Mediating a text: transferring information to someone who does not have access to the original text due to linguistic, cultural, or social barriers. * Mediating concepts: related to the pedagogical aspects of mediation, the scales relevant to this category refer to educational areas that require interaction management, collaboration to construct meaning, facilitation of collaborative interactions, among others. * Mediating communication: a process aimed at facilitating understanding between participants, for example in cases of tension or disagreement. In language teaching and plurilingual education, the type of mediation most commonly considered, particularly in research on the concept, is “mediating a text”, as demonstrated by the METLA project (Stathopoulou et al, 2023). In addition, the authors of this project, funded by the European Centre for Modern Languages, consider that interlinguistic mediation: * always occurs in a social context, a “social practice” in which language users engage when there is a communication gap (i.e., a lack of understanding of the other language); * is an intentional activity that always serves a communicative purpose and can achieve that purpose by taking into account the context of the situation (who is writing/speaking to whom), for what purpose, etc. == Conceptual differences: mediation, comprehension, production, interaction, and mutual understanding == As mentioned above, there are two types of mediation: * Intralinguistic mediation, which consists of rephrasing, summarizing, explaining, or adapting content in the same language in order to facilitate understanding or access to information for a third party. Typical examples of this type of mediation include synopses of films or novels, meeting reports, book summaries, or even reformulation processes within a production or interaction activity (often preceded by specific markers such as ''namely, in other words, let's say, in short, among other things''). * Interlinguistic mediation is a type of mediation that involves at least two different languages. It consists of transmitting, reformulating, or adapting content from one language to another (or others) in order to make it understandable to someone who does not speak the original language. In language teaching, mediation refers to a process by which an individual facilitates understanding, communication, or learning between two (or more) people, groups, or texts, often in situations where there is a linguistic, cultural, or cognitive barrier. The following diagram explains interlinguistic mediation: Interlinguistic mediation differs in that it occurs in a multilingual interaction situation (synchronous or asynchronous), unlike reception and production, which in foreign language teaching are traditionally and by definition monolingual situations.   The similarities between mediation and intercomprehension are more complex. The relationship between these two concepts has been widely debated in the context of intercomprehension research (see Castellotti, 2007, Tavares, 2007, Degache & Gabarino, 2017). Indeed, both processes are placed in the context of plurilingual interactions. If we take a fixed conception of intercomprehension that is now outdated, it would be easy to distinguish between the two concepts, given that plurilingual interaction can be summarized in the following basic diagram: However, numerous analyses of discourse produced in real-life contexts of plurilingual interaction (Araújo e Sá, & Melo, 2006; Lüdi, 2024; Capucho, 2018; Capucho, Silva & Chenoll, 2018) reveal that within these interactions, speakers often resort to activities of (re)mediation of interlinguistic conflicts or misunderstandings. These activities cover both intralinguistic mediation processes (when the speaker reformulates their statement in their language to make it clearer for an interlocutor who does not necessarily speak their language) and interlinguistic mediation processes, during numerous moments of translanguaging, whether spontaneous or requested by the interlocutor. Interproduction is therefore often evidence of mediation processes, because, during moments of production, the speaker makes strategic choices to adapt their speech to the difficulties they perceive or sense in their interlocutor. Mediation is therefore an essential skill in foreign language communication, whether monolingual or plurilingual. It helps to overcome potential conflicts in negotiating meaning, while paving the way for successful intercultural and human encounters. ----[1] It should be noted, however, that in plurilingual communication situations, speaker 1 may assume the role of speaker 2, repeating the message in another language as part of a continuous process of translanguaging. (cf. Lüdi, 2014: 20–24). == Interlinguistic mediation tasks == In their analysis of interlinguistic mediation tasks in textbooks, Melo-Pfeifer and Schröder-Sura (2018) conclude that instructions are often vague, stereotypical, and likely to create ambiguity, particularly with regard to the choice or use of language. As the authors note,   in these cases of exolingual communication, the student is placed in the position of an expert, (...), with no resources other than their [linguistic] knowledge; on the other hand, their interlocutor is placed in a situation of total or partial incomprehension, using phrases such as: “he doesn't understand very well” (Figure 1). In addition, "it is a question of mediating between a native speaker of the target language (or an authentic document in the target language) and a native speaker of the source language/second language, which, once again, does not exhaust the contexts in which mediation is required in real life: mediation can be done in an exolingual/endolingual situation where all interlocutors speak French as the target language, for example. (Melo-Pfeifer and Schröder-Sura, 2018, n. p). These initial observations lead us to propose a list of criteria for the construction of interlinguistic mediation tasks, as suggested by the authors of the METLA project (Stathopoulou et al., 2023): * Integrate learners' family languages as valuable resources for constructing meaning, communicating, and promoting identity. * Include the intercultural and multicultural dimension, particularly through the recognition and integration of family languages and cultures, in order to promote inclusive approaches that are sensitive to local contexts. * Create dynamic communication situations where expertise changes hands, is designed to be dynamic and is co-constructed. * Integrate gestures, multimodality, and various media to reflect the real communication practices in which learners are engaged. * Ensure the authenticity of tasks by anchoring them in meaningful and holistic communication situations. * Encourage the use of strategies aimed at constructing meaning and facilitating interaction by providing examples of strategies. * Develop specific mediation strategies among learners to enable them to relay information, simplify complex ideas, or negotiate meaning between languages and cultures. * Promote learners' reflexivity by encouraging them to reflect on the effectiveness and results of the mediation strategies they use. * Diversify text types to expose learners to a variety of discourse types and communicative intentions. * Provide transparent and realistic assessment criteria that are less focused on linguistic and formal correctness alone and more aligned with real-life mediation tasks (pragmatic goals, successful communication, etc.). == Assessment of interlinguistic mediation skills == The need to assess interlinguistic mediation skills is fully in line with the requirements of contemporary plurilingual societies. As Gorter and Cenoz (2017, p. 43) point out, “teaching is moving towards a multilingual focus, and assessment should also follow the same path.” From this perspective, assessing interlinguistic mediation skills would be in line with the need to analyze current plurilingual teaching practices (Melo-Pfeifer & Ollivier, 2025). Indeed, changes in language teaching practices, particularly through plurilingual practices, naturally call for an evolution in assessment methods (Dendrinos, 2019). Based on the new scales of the CEFR ''Companion Volume'' (CEFR-CV), and taking into account the cultural, linguistic, and pedagogical specificities of the local context (such as the languages present, the needs and interests of learners, etc.), it is possible to design appropriate tools for assessing mediation skills. Assessing mediation through specific tasks can become a continuous learning experience for students, in line with formative assessment or “assessment for learning.” Teachers are encouraged to provide learners with opportunities to reflect on their mediation skills and strategies and to assess them as an integral part of their lifelong learning journey. The METLA team (Stathopoulou et al., 2023) proposes that learners' plurilingual competence can be assessed through interlinguistic mediation tasks, such as: * summarizing oral or written information heard or read in one language, then presenting it orally or in writing in another language, adapting the discourse and/or genre of the original text as necessary to suit the intended purpose of communication; * using information from different sources in different languages to produce an oral or written text. Language production may be bilingual or trilingual, and students' responses may draw on several languages, including their native language(s). == Take-home messages == # Language mediation is essential for developing learners' communication skills in plurilingual and intercultural societies. It involves mobilizing the entire linguistic and semiotic repertoire in order to co-construct meaning, facilitate mutual understanding, and build bridges between languages, cultures, and interlocutors. # Mediation, initially linked to conflict resolution and pedagogy, was officially integrated into language teaching with the CEFR in 2001. It is defined as a natural communicative act, covering translation, interpretation, summarizing, and rephrasing, and its scope was expanded in the 2018 ''Companion Volume'' to include intra- and interlinguistic mediation. # A distinction is made between intralinguistic mediation (within the same language, through reformulation, summarization, or explanation) and interlinguistic mediation (between several languages, through transmission or adaptation of content). Mediation differs from simple reception or production, as it occurs in plurilingual contact situations and aims to overcome linguistic, cultural, or cognitive barriers. # Mediation tasks should be based on communicative situations and authentic needs, incorporate a wide variety of materials and texts, and include key moments for reflection on the value of the strategies used. # The assessment of interlinguistic mediation meets the needs of plurilingual societies and must evolve towards plurilingual assessment practices. It aims to measure learners' ability to relay information between languages, texts, and contexts, and to encourage formative, continuous assessment that is integrated into the learning process, mobilizing several languages and adapting discourse according to communication objectives. == Self-assessment == <quiz display=simple> {What is the main difference between intralinguistic and interlinguistic mediation?} -One is oral, the other is written. +One is done in one language, the other between two or more languages. -One involves a teacher, the other does not. {Interlinguistic mediation is the process of:} +facilitating the co-construction of an interaction space where several languages are in use. -facilitating the co-construction of an interaction space within the same language. -facilitating the co-construction of an interaction space where several languages are in use and the co-construction of an interaction space within the same language. {Interlinguistic mediation activities should:} -ask learners to translate statements word for word to facilitate and/or verify understanding. +ask learners to relay information deemed essential in a given context from one language to another. -ask learners to always be wary of linguistic similarities in contexts where several languages are present. {What is the main criticism expressed regarding mediation tasks in textbooks?} -They are too innovative and interactive. -They are vague and stereotypical. +They favor the mother tongue too much in foreign language classes. {What should a good mediation task promote?} -Strictly unilingual learning. -Exclusive use of official languages. +Use of family languages and multimodality. {Why is the evaluation of interlinguistic mediation important?} -To penalize linguistic errors. +To monitor developments in plurilingual education and guide learning. -To compare skills between students from different countries. </quiz> == Resources to go further == * Dendrinos, B. (Ed.) (2024). ''Mediation as Negotiation of Meanings, Plurilingualism and Language Education''. Routledge. * Melo-Pfeifer, S., & Ollivier, C. (2025). Assessing the plurilingual competence and plurilingual individuals’ skills and knowledge: similarities and divergences. ''Frontiers of Communication'', 10:1498940. Doi: [[doi:10.3389/fcomm.2025.1498940|10.3389/fcomm.2025.1498940]]. * Piccardo, E., & North, B. (2019). ''The Action-oriented Approach: A Dynamic Vision of Language Education''. Multilingual Matters. * Stathopoulou M. (2015). Cross-language mediation in foreign language teaching and testing. Multilingual Matters. * Zarate, G., Gohard-Radenkovic, A., Lussier, D., & Penz, H. (2003). ''Médiation culturelle et didactique des langues.'' Editions du Conseil de L’Europe. = Bibliography = Araujo e Sá, M. H., & Melo, S. (2006). Del caos a la creatividad: los chats entre lingüistas y didactas. ''Estudios de lingüística del español, 24''. http://elies.rediris.es/elies24/araujo.htm Araújo e Sá, M., de Carlo, M., & Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2019). Mediation(s) in an on-line, multilingual teacher education environment. ''Indagatio Didactica'', ''11''(4), 99-120. https://doi.org/10.34624/id.v11i4.10585. Blume, O.-M., Gregor, G., Jorißen, C. & Mann-Grabowski, C. (2012). ''À plus !'' 1 ''Nouvelle édition. Französisch für Gymnasien'' (livre de l’élève)''.'' Cornelsen. Capucho, F. (2018). Plurilingual interactions – the role of interproduction strategies. In Marianne Hepp – Martina Nied Curcio (eds.), ''Educazione plurilingue: ricerca, didattica e politiche linguistiche'' (pp. 157 – 166'')''. Istituto Italiano di Studi Germanici. Capucho, F. Silva, M. P. & Chenoll, A., (2018). Co-constructing meaning in international meetings - an approach to plurilingual interactions, ''International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism''. DOI: [[doi:10.1080/13670050.2018.1474849|10.1080/13670050.2018.1474849]] Castellotti, V., (2007). L'intercompréhension est-elle soluble dans l'éducation plurilingue ? In Capucho F., A. Alves P. Martins, Ch. Degache & M. Tost (eds.) (2007). ''Diálogos em Intercompreensão (2e édition – CdRom)''. (pp. 571 – 584). Universidade Católica. Council of Europe (2001). ''Common European Framework of Reference for languages: Learning, eaching, assessment.'' Cambridge University Press. <nowiki>https://rm.coe.int/1680459f97</nowiki>, accessed 3 November 2025. Council of Europe (2018). ''Common European Framework of Reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment – Companion volume''. URL: https://rm.coe.int/cefr-companion-volume-with-new-descriptors-2018/1680787989 De Carlo, M. (2012). Traduction et médiation dans l'enseignement-apprentissage linguistique. ''Études de linguistique appliquée,'' 167(3), 299-311. https://doi.org/10.3917/ela.167.0299. Degache, Ch. & Gabarino, S. (2017). Jalons, diffusion et itinéraires des approches intercompréhensives. In Ch. Degache & S. Gabarino, (eds.). ''Itinéraires pédagogiques de l’alternance des langues: l’intercompréhension.'' (pp. 2-14). ELLUG. Dendrinos B. (2019). ''Multilingual testing and assessment for plurilingual education'', ECSMP position paper. http://ecspm.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/MultiTest.pdf Lüdi, G. (2014). Le monde économique parle-t-il vraiment anglais? Les pratiques langagières dans le domaine des entreprises . In A-C Berthoud & M. Burger. M (eds.). ''Repenser le rôle des pratiques langagières dans la constitution des espaces sociaux contemporains'' (pp. 17-34). Bruxelles: De Boeck. Melo-Pfeifer, S., & Schröder-Sura, A. (2018). Les tâches de médiation dans les manuels de Français Langue Étrangère pour le secondaire en Allemagne. ''Recherches en didactique des langues et des cultures'', 15-3. http://journals.openedition.org/rdlc/3589;&#x20;DOI:&#x20;https://doi.org/10.4000/rdlc.3589. Stalder, P., & Tonti, A. (Eds.) (2014). ''La Médiation (inter)culturelle : représentations, mises en œuvre et développement des compétences''. Édition des archives contemporaines. Stathopoulou, M., Gauci, P., Liontou, M., & Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2023). ''Mediation in teaching, learning & assessment (METLA): A teaching guide for language educators''. European Centre For Modern Languages. Tavares, C. F. (2007). L'intercompréhension est-elle soluble dans la communication? In F. Capucho, A. Alves de Paula Martins, C. Degache, & M. Tost (eds.). ''Diálogos em intercompreensão''. (pp. 585-596). Universidade Católica Editora. Van Lier, L. (1988). ''The Classroom and the Language Learner''. New York: Longman. Vygotsky, L. (1986). ''Thought and Language''. Revisited Edition.In A. Kozulin (Ed.), MIT, (first edition, 1934) Wood, D., Bruner, J., & Roos, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. ''Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry'', 17, 89-100. = Educational resources = METLA task database: https://www.ecml.at/en/ECML-Programme/Programme-2020-2023/Mediation-in-teaching-and-assessment/materials Stathopoulou, M., Gauci, P., Liontou, M., & Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2023). ''Mediation in teaching, learning & assessment (METLA): A teaching guide for language educators''. European Centre For Modern Languages. https://www.ecml.at/Portals/1/documents/ECML-resources/METLA-teaching-guide-EN.pdf Vetter, E, & Kratochwil, L. (Eds.) (2025). ''Promouvoir l'éducation plurilingue. Exemples de bonnes pratiques adaptables''. https://phaidra.univie.ac.at/o:2143758 == Credits == This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Filomena Capucho (Universidade Católica Portuguesa) * Sílvia Melo-Pfeifer (Universität Hamburg). [[Category:Language|mediation]] fkvrndr9a7j3j0s9bphz4afz9wwcjtb 0 327528 2817303 2805107 2026-06-29T16:56:10Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self-assessment */ 2817303 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == [[File:CV courts de professeurs de langue.png|alt=CV courts de professeurs de langue|thumb|Figure 1 - CV courts de professeurs de langue]] You are looking for a teacher for an online English course on a learning platform. You aim to improve pronunciation and conversation and deepen your grammar and vocabulary skills. Observe the following teacher profiles (cf. Figure 1). Who would you choose and based on what criteria? If your choice was influenced by the teacher's nationality or native language, you might have been affected by a cognitive bias: the belief that a native-speaking teacher always guarantees better learning compared to a non-native speaker. == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to * reflect on cognitive biases that may affect the perception of native and non-native teachers. * understand the concept and the implications of native speakerism and its influence on language learning choices.   == Keywords == Myth of native speaker, native speaker ideology', native speaker, non native speaker, ''English Language Teaching'' – ELT, multilingualism. == Introduction == The term ''native speaker'' is commonly used, especially in the field of language teaching, and carries various connotations, including the myth of the native speaker and the ideology of native speakerism. From a sociolinguistic perspective, this concept is controversial because it is often associated with ideas of authenticity and linguistic authority that do not always reflect reality. In other words, the native speaker is often seen as the ideal model for language teaching, overlooking the value of the potential pedagogical and didactic skills of those who have acquired the language as a second language. However, in multilingual societies, this notion has become increasingly obsolete. Paikeday (1985), in ''The Native Speaker is Dead!'', argued that the concept of the native speaker rests on an illusion of linguistic homogeneity that does not reflect the complex, multilingual reality of language users. Building on this idea, Cook (1999) proposed moving beyond the native-speaker model in favor of the ''L2 user'', who should be seen as a legitimate and fully competent language user in their own right, rather than a deficient imitation of a monolingual ideal. This shift recognizes that language learners are inherently plurilingual and that their linguistic repertoires reflect the dynamic, interconnected nature of real-world communication. This distinction between '''''native''''' and '''''non-native speakers''''' not only oversimplifies reality but also reinforces implicit hierarchies that position native-speaking teachers as superior to non-native teachers. This phenomenon, known as native-speakerism (Halliday, 2006), is a sociocultural construct that assumes a higher level of competence in those who have learned a language from early childhood, often leading to a preference for native-speaking teachers at the expense of highly qualified professionals. In the field of English Language Teaching (ELT), this ideology developed within the educational contexts of English-speaking countries such as the United Kingdom, the United States, and Australia, where the belief emerged that only native speakers can provide the most authentic language model. Native speakerism often promotes a single “pure” variety of the language (typically based on British or American standards in the case of English), ignoring the reality of linguistic variation and the skills of non-native speakers. However, non-native English teachers are themselves plurilingual individuals who have personally experienced the process of language learning. This gives them valuable insights into the challenges and strategies involved in acquiring a second language, as well as an ability to draw on multiple linguistic and cultural repertoires to support learners. Their plurilingual competence not only enriches the teaching process but also embodies a more inclusive and realistic model of global English use. Language is not a fixed and immutable entity but rather a dynamic and socially influenced process. Dividing the linguistic world into rigid categories of native and non-native speakers not only oversimplifies a complex reality but also risks hindering a more equitable and inclusive approach to language teaching, which should embrace the richness of multilingualism and the diverse linguistic backgrounds of all learners. == History of the concept == The concept of the "Native Speaker" (NS) has long been a subject of debate in applied linguistics. According to Davies (2004), this debate gained momentum when Chomsky (1965) introduced the idea of the native speaker from a theoretical linguistic perspective, framing native speaker competence as the ultimate stage of language development. In this view, everyone is considered a native speaker of at least one language, and native speaker status is considered an ideal and stable benchmark. This  statement ideally views language as an entity without considering any variations or special proficiency levels. As Zhang (2021) observes, individuals who identify as native speakers of the same language may have very different perceptions of their own linguistic abilities, challenging the notion of a uniform norm for native speakers. Over time, other scholars have sought to explain the inequalities linked to ''native speakerism'' from different perspectives. Phillipson (1992), for instance, introduced the Center–Periphery model, in which dominant English-speaking countries like the United Kingdom, the United States, and Australia constitute the Center, while countries where English is learned as a foreign language are positioned in the Periphery. This model highlights the dependent relationship between these two groups, suggesting that the educational practices and linguistic norms of the Center are imposed on the Periphery. Critics such as Kubota (2001) and Pennycook (2017) have pointed out how the dominance of native speakers in ELT creates power imbalances, favoring certain groups at the expense of others. This has direct consequences on language education, influencing educational policies, job opportunities, and even the self-esteem of students and teachers. The growing role of English as a global lingua franca, and the fact that non-native speakers now outnumber native speakers, have prompted a re-evaluation of the assumption that native speakers are the ideal language users and teachers.This shift has brought attention to the need to deconstruct the myth of the native speaker’s linguistic and pedagogical superiority. One of the most persistent effects of this ideology can be seen in how second language learners are evaluated. There is often a tendency to rely on a monolithic and static conception of language, where the native speaker is treated as the unquestioned norm. This model creates a dichotomy in which second language users' performance is perceived as inferior and prone to errors in comparison. This reflects what Bley-Vroman (1983) termed the ''Comparative Fallacy''—the flawed assumption that the only valid benchmark for second language competence is native speaker performance. Although the concept was introduced decades ago, it remains highly relevant to current discussions on native speakerism, as it underscores how these comparisons obscure the actual multilingual and strategic language use of learners. In reality, second language users are often bilingual or multilingual, drawing on diverse linguistic resources in flexible ways. Similarly, many native speakers themselves possess multilingual competencies shaped by regional varieties, additional languages, or other sociolinguistic factors. These realities challenge rigid, idealized distinctions between native and non-native speakers and call for a more inclusive, dynamic, and context-sensitive understanding of language proficiency. == Definitions == The term "native speakerism" was coined by applied linguist Adrian Holliday, who defines it as ''“a pervasive ideology within English Language Teaching, characterized by the belief that 'native-speaker' teachers represent a 'Western culture' from which spring the ideals both of the English language and of English language teaching methodology”'' (Holliday, 2005, p. 385). This ideology positions native speakers—often from major English-speaking countries—as the ideal linguistic and cultural models, reinforcing assumptions about linguistic purity and superiority. However, linguists such as David Crystal have challenged the notion of a fixed or "pure" native speaker. In a talk titled ''“The Myth of the Native Speaker,”'' Crystal notes:<blockquote>''“There was never a native speaker in the sense of somebody who hasn’t been influenced by some sort of local variation—mixed accents and all sorts of influences.”'' Available online: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p-kZLP2FWUI&t=224s The myth of the native speaker] (with David Crystal)</blockquote> Other scholars, including Jennifer Jenkins and George Braine, have criticized the native/non-native dichotomy on both linguistic and sociopolitical grounds: * Linguistic argument: Jenkins (2000) points out that the categories of native and non-native are overly simplistic and linguistically unsound. Many speakers grow up in multilingual environments or acquire high levels of English proficiency without being considered "native." * Sociopolitical argument: Braine (1999), drawing on Kramsch, argues that these terms are ideologically constructed to preserve a privileged group—namely, those born in English-dominant countries—while excluding other competent educators based solely on birthplace or accent. This privileging also extends to specific ''standard'' varieties of English, particularly British and American English, which are positioned as the most legitimate or prestigious models, thereby reinforcing linguistic hierarchies within English Language Teaching. Regardless of its geographical location, the ideology of ''native speakerism'' is not limited to the English language and can be adopted or challenged in various ways within any educational context. == Practical examples == This section provides real-world examples and multimedia resources to help learners and educators better understand the concept of native speakerism in English Language Teaching (ELT). These activities can be used in teacher training, applied linguistics courses, or professional development workshops. === 1. Video Reflection: ''Should You Try to Sound Like a Native?'' === '''Link:''' [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/AMqz_205P6Q Should you try to sound like a native speaker?] (@thenonnativespeaker767) This short video challenges the idea that sounding like a native speaker should be the ultimate goal in language learning. '''Suggested Activity:''' * Watch the video and discuss the following: ** What assumptions does the speaker challenge? ** How might this reflect or resist native speakerism? ** In what ways can pronunciation goals be redefined more inclusively? === 2. Teacher Testimonies: ''The Non-Native Speaker YouTube Channel'' === '''Link:''' [https://www.youtube.com/@thenonnativespeaker767 The Non Native Speaker] (@thenonnativespeaker767) This channel shares personal stories and reflections from a non-native English teacher navigating the profession. '''Suggested Activity:''' * Choose one video in any language and summarize the key message. * Reflect on how does the speaker's identity shape their teaching experience * What are the visible impacts of native speakerism in the classroom or professional context? === 3. Case Study: Discrimination in Hiring Practices === '''Quote from a real rejection message:''' “We are only allowed to hire native speaker[s]. I am so sorry as your CV is really interesting.” '''Source''': [https://www.elgazette.com/teacher-sues-over-native-speakerism/ Teacher sues over native-speakerism] (EL Gazette Article 28th February 2022 by Gerald Nikolai Smith) '''Suggested Activity:''' Read the [https://www.elgazette.com/teacher-sues-over-native-speakerism/ article] and discuss: * Should job offers specify “native speakers only”? * What alternative hiring criteria would promote equity? * How could policies change to value multilingual expertise? === 4. Social Media Advocacy: Rachel Tsateri on LinkedIn === '''Link to post:''' [https://www.linkedin.com/posts/rachel-tsateri-38898194_equality-teachingenglish-equalopportunities-activity-6874319334919995392-IXHl/ View Post] (2022) Social media can be a powerful space for educators to share their experiences and advocate for fairness in ELT. '''Suggested Activity:''' * Read the post and a few comments. * Discuss the tone and content of professional responses. * What kinds of arguments are used to support or reject native speakerism? === 5. Visual Mapping Activity: Who Is Considered a Native Speaker? === '''Description:''' Create a visual map that explores different varieties of English and challenges the binary distinction between native and non-native speakers. '''Suggestions:''' * Include diverse English varieties (e.g., Singaporean English, Jamaican English, Welsh English) * Identify the assumptions behind native speaker labels == Take-home messages == * '''Native speakerism is more than a hiring bias; it's an ideology.''' It promotes the belief that so-called "native speakers" are the best models. This often reinforces cultural and linguistic hierarchies, privileging Western norms and marginalizing highly qualified non-native English-speaking educators. * '''Uncritical preference for native speakers limits equity in ELT.''' Many educational institutions prioritize native-speaking teachers based on assumptions rather than evidence. This overlooks the pedagogical skills, intercultural awareness, and lived experience that non-native teachers can bring to the classroom. * '''Authenticity in language teaching must be redefined.''' “Authentic” materials and models should not be limited to native speaker norms. Instead, authenticity should reflect the real-world diversity of English users and embrace global varieties of English, multilingual realities, and learner identities. == Self-assessment == <quiz display=simple> {What does the term "native speakerism" refer to?} - The belief that teachers should possess near-native proficiency to be effective language instructors. + The ideology that native speakers represent the ideal model for language learning and teaching. - The assumption that native-speaking teachers naturally create more authentic learning environments than non-native speakers. - A viewpoint that values cultural immersion over pedagogical training in second language education. {Who coined the term "native-speakerism"?} - Jenkins + Holliday - Braine - Phillipson {How does native speakerism contribute to inequalities in the field of ELT?} + It privileges native English speakers in hiring practices, often regardless of their teaching qualifications. - It ensures that non-native English teachers are given additional training to match native speaker standards. - It standardizes global English teaching methods based on the most effective pedagogical research. - It promotes global equity by setting a consistent standard for English language instruction across regions. </quiz> == Resources to go further == * Llurda, E. (Ed.). (2005). ''Non-native language teachers: Perceptions, challenges and contributions to the profession.'' Springer. * Slavkov, N., Melo-Pfeifer, S., & Kerschhofer-Puhalo, N. (Eds.). (2021). ''The changing face of the “native speaker”: Perspectives from multilingualism and globalization'' (Vol. 31). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. * Rudolph, N., Selvi, A. F., & Yazan, B. (2015). Conceptualizing and confronting inequity: Approaches within and beyond native speakerism. In A. F. Selvi (Ed.), ''Critical perspectives on global Englishes in ELT'' (pp. 1–17). Springer. Other studies have examined how native speakerism operates in specific educational settings. For instance, Maganaka (2023) explores how hiring practices in ELT reflect discriminatory attitudes against non-native teachers, whereas Derivy-Plard (2011) and Dupouy and Wilson (2024) investigate how native-speaker ideologies affect language teaching and perception in the French university context. * Derivy-Plard, M. (2011). Enseignants « natifs/non-natifs » : vers une professionnalité des enseignants de langue(s). ''Compétences d’enseignant à l’épreuve des profils d'apprenants, vers une ingénierie de formation'', 35–46. * Dupouy, M., & Wilson, A. (2024). Accents et idéologies linguistiques dans l’enseignement/apprentissage du FLE/S et de l’anglais à l’université en France. ''Mélanges CRAPEL, 44'', 1–22. * Maganaka, A. (2023). Native speakerism and employment discrimination in English language teaching. ''Canadian Journal for New Scholars in Education, 14''(1), 119–130. == Bibliography == Bley-Vroman, R. (1983). The comparative fallacy in interlanguage studies: The case of systematicity. ''Language Learning, 33''(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1983.tb00983.x Braine, G. (2010). ''Non-native-speaker English teachers: Research, pedagogy, and professional growth.'' Routledge. Holliday, A. (2006). Native-speakerism. ''ELT Journal, 60''(4), 385–387. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccl030 Chomsky, N. (1965). ''Aspects of the theory of syntax.'' MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.21236/AD0616323 Holliday, A. (1994). ''Appropriate methodology and social context.'' Cambridge University Press. Holliday, A. (2005). ''The struggle to teach English as an international language.'' Oxford University Press. Holliday, A. (2014). Native speakerism. In ''The encyclopedia of applied linguistics.'' https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0855 Holliday, A. (2015). Native-speakerism: Taking the concept forward and achieving cultural belief. In S. A. Houghton & D. Rivers (Eds.), ''(En)countering native-speakerism: Global perspectives'' (pp. 11–25). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137414380_2 Jenkins, J. (1996). Native speaker, non-native and English as a foreign language: Time for a change. ''ELT Journal, 50''(4), 317–320. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/50.4.317 Kubota, R., & Lin, A. (2009). Race, culture, and identities in second language education: Introduction to research and practice. In R. Kubota & A. Lin (Eds.), ''Race, culture, and identities in second language education: Exploring critically engaged practice'' (pp. 1–24). Routledge. Kubota, R. (2001). Discursive construction of the images of U.S. classrooms. ''TESOL Quarterly, 35''(1), 9–37. https://doi.org/10.2307/3587856 Llurda, E., & Calvet-Terré, J. (2024). Native-speakerism and non-native second language teachers. In P. Garrett & J. M. Cots (Eds.), ''The Routledge handbook of language and identity'' (2nd ed.). Routledge. Norton, B. (2013). ''Identity and language learning: Extending the conversation'' (2nd ed.). Multilingual Matters. Paikeday, T. M., & Chomsky, N. (1985). ''The native speaker is dead!: An informal discussion of a linguistic myth with Noam Chomsky and other linguists, philosophers, psychologists, and lexicographers.'' Paikeday Publishing. Pennycook, A. (2017). ''The cultural politics of English as an international language'' (2nd ed.). Routledge. Phillipson, R. (1992). ''Linguistic imperialism.'' Oxford University Press. Zhang, H. (2021). The term “native speaker”: Myth or reality? Acceptable or problematic? ''Nuanced Garbling.'' https://unimelbling.github.io/journal/2021/journal-articles/the-term-of-native-speaker.pdf == Credits == This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) * Diego Cortes Velasquez (Universitá Roma Tre) * Logambal Souprayen-Cavery (Université de La Réunion) avevrbr3len1s21op18ejnuc4z6ypwt 4 327638 2817235 2815347 2026-06-29T14:05:28Z Codename Noreste 2969951 /* MediaWiki:Protectedpagetext#Protected edit request on 11 December 2025 */ archive from [[Wikiversity:Colloquium]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 2817235 wikitext text/x-wiki {{archive}} == [[MediaWiki:Protectedpagetext#Protected edit request on 11 December 2025]] == I posted an edit request there 5 months ago, so I’ll be taking it to this page. [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-28640-56|&#126;2026-28640-56]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-28640-56|talk]]) 23:33, 12 May 2026 (UTC) :What exactly is the problem? I don't understand what needs to change and why. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:35, 12 May 2026 (UTC) : Pinging @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]], @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] and @[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] for further input. Someone is requesting a modification to [[MediaWiki:Protectedpagetext]] to use {{tlx|Protected page text}}, but we might need to discuss whether to use the template. In the meantime, I'll start a sandbox version of the protected page text template. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:19, 14 May 2026 (UTC) ::Sounds good -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 04:13, 15 May 2026 (UTC) :::+1 Jtneill. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 12:59, 19 May 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy]] proposed as policy == {{archive top|Consensus to promote to an official policy. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:30, 1 June 2026 (UTC)}} [[Wikiversity:Deletions]] has been operating as a [[Wikiversity:Guidelines|guideline]]. It has been revised and moved to [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy]], consistent with naming conventions used across sister projects such as Wikipedia, Wikibooks, and Wikiquote. The speedy deletion criteria have also been updated for consistency with [[MediaWiki:Deletereason-dropdown]]. This proposal is for the page to be formally adopted as [[Wikiversity:Policies|Wikiversity policy]]. Community feedback is invited, including suggestions for further improvements that may strengthen the proposed policy. === Voting === *{{support}} Seems reasonable. If there's somehow something missed here, we can just amend it later. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:33, 18 May 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} I don't see any issues with the policy. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 16:07, 18 May 2026 (UTC) === Comments === {{archive bottom}} == Vote now in the 2026 U4C election == <section begin="announcement-content" /> Eligible voters are asked to participate in the 2026 [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee]] election. More information–including an eligibility check, voting process information, candidate information, and a link to the vote–are available on Meta at the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026|2026 Election information page]]. The vote closes on 2 June 2026 at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1780358400 00:00 UTC]. Please vote if your account is eligible. Results will be available by 14 June 2026. -- In cooperation with the U4C,<section end="announcement-content" /> [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 17:15, 27 May 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=30513860 --> == May 2026 Wikimedia Café meetups regarding the Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan == <div class="border-box" style="background-color: var(--background-color-warning-subtle, #f8eaba); max-width: 875px; padding: 5px; border: 1px solid black; margin: 5px; color: var(--clr-dark)"> <div class="box" style="float:left; padding-top: 15px; padding-right: 15px;">[[File:Wikimedia Café logo in plain SVG format.svg|75px|alt=The logo for the Wikimedia Café]]</div> Hello! There will be two '''[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Wikimedia Café]''' discussion opportunities during the last weekend of May. Both sessions will focus on the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation_Annual_Plan/2026-2027 the 2026-2027 Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan]. Participants may attend either or both sessions. #'''Saturday, 30 May 2026 at 15:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1780153200 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to the Americas, Africa, and Europe #'''Sunday, 31 May 2026 at 05:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1780203600 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific Café participants are highly encouraged to read in advance [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Sohom_Datta/annual_plan_guide at least this summary of the plan]. Optionally, Café participants are encouraged to read portions of the plan that interest them and [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:Wikimedia_Foundation_Annual_Plan/2026-2027 ask questions or provide feedback on the Annual Plan talk page]. Please see the Café page for more information, including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#May_2026_meetings_with_a_focus_on_Wikimedia_Foundation_Annual_Plan/2026-2027 tables of timestamp conversions for both sessions], [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#Agenda._This_will_be_an_approximately_1_hour_Caf%C3%A9_session,_and_is_extendible_for_an_additional_30_minutes_if_needed. the agenda], and [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#How_to_attend_the_session how to register]! <br /> [[File:Buntstifte Eberhard Faber crop 64h.jpg|860px|alt=cropped image of colored pencils]]</div> <span style="white-space:nowrap;">[[User:Pine|<span style="color:#01796f; text-shadow:#00BFFF 0 0 1.0em">↠Pine</span>]] [[User talk:Pine|<span style="color:DeepSkyBlue">(<b style="color:#FFDF00;text-shadow:#FFDF00 0 0 1.0em">✉</b>)</span>]]</span> 19:46, 21 May 2026 (UTC) ==Curator inactivity review== These curators haven't been active for > 2 years. As per the [[Wikiversity:Curatorship|curatorship policy]]: * [[Special:Log/Cody naccarato]] was notified on their talk page by [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] on 24 Apr 2026 * [[Special:Log/Praxidicae]] was notified on their talk page by [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] on 24 Apr 2026 * [[Special:Log/Tegel]] was notified on their talk page by [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] notified their talk page on 16 May 2026 The policy allows a month to hear from these users. If no response, a custodian will remove their curator rights. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 06:14, 16 May 2026 (UTC) : For Cody naccarato and Praxidicae, their rights are to be removed by the 19th of May if they don't respond either here or on their talk page. For Tegel, the removal will happen on the 16th of June, probably. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:13, 16 May 2026 (UTC) ::Should be 24 May for Cody naccarato and Praxidicae? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 23:11, 16 May 2026 (UTC) ::: I made [[#Inactive curators]] on the 19th of April. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:18, 17 May 2026 (UTC) ::::OK, I see (had missed that thread, sorry - I've now moved the the 3 inactivity topics to be adjacent). ::::I'm thinking the curator policy indicates one month from user talk page notification? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 06:44, 17 May 2026 (UTC) ::::: Yes. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:49, 17 May 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] and @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]: feel free to remove Cody naccarato and Praxidicae's curator permissions. They have not responded at all after one month. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:29, 19 May 2026 (UTC) ::I've gone ahead and removed their rights due to 2+ year inactivity and no response to the initial notice. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:36, 21 May 2026 (UTC) == Create a pseudo-bot user group? == {{tracked|T426882|resolved}} I would like to propose adding a new user group to Wikiversity: Pseudo-bot (<code>flood</code>). This will allow users to perform repetitive actions without flushing the recent changes feed (with only the <code>bot</code> user right). However, I would suggest that for the pseudo-bot user group: * It can be granted and revoked by custodians. <s>However, can curators add and remove pseudo-bot from their own accounts (and not others)?</s> * Users can remove themselves from it. * A guideline might be necessary about the information and usage of it. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:31, 14 May 2026 (UTC) :This sounds good. Which other wiki could we model this user group on? e.g., [[b:Wikibooks:Pseudo-bots]]? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 04:19, 15 May 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] Wikiquote has a similar group: [[:wikiquote:Special:ListGroupRights]] [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 04:25, 15 May 2026 (UTC) : Should we allow curators to add and remove themselves from the pseudobot user group (from their own account) as well? I see no objections to creating the user group. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:20, 18 May 2026 (UTC) ::My thinking is perhaps not curators by default because there should be clear visibility about their actions until they are well trusted. Let's draft a guideline or proposed policy ([[Wikiversity:Pseudo-bots]]) for the proposed user group. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 23:39, 18 May 2026 (UTC) ::: A solution is that they can ask any custodian to grant that group, and to remove themselves when done. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:17, 19 May 2026 (UTC) :::: Yes, that sounds good. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 01:12, 19 May 2026 (UTC) : I'll file a Phabricator task by tomorrow if there are no objections. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:01, 19 May 2026 (UTC) ::{{done}}. [[User:Neriah|Neriah]] ([[User talk:Neriah|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Neriah|contribs]]) 13:23, 21 May 2026 (UTC) == Interface administrator for Codename Noreste == {{Archive top|After running for a week, there is clear consensus for [[User:Codename Noreste]] to have Interface admin rights for 120 days; implemented until 10 September, 2026 -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 22:36, 12 May 2026 (UTC)}} Hello, everyone. I am requesting interface administrator access on this wiki. The main reasoning is that I would benefit from having the user right <code>editinterface</code>, which would allow me to make dark mode changes to pages in the MediaWiki namespace, add <code><nowiki><div class="mw-parser-output"></nowiki></code> to some interface pages using templates, handle interface-protected edit requests, and similar stuff. Additionally, I have some knowledge of CSS, and I would like to assist with modifying CSS pages whenever necessary, such as moving MediaWiki common.css code to TemplateStyles CSS pages. I am requesting the maximum time that is allowed per the [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators|policy]], and I have 2FA enabled on my account. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:55, 6 May 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} Globally trusted user. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 01:07, 6 May 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} Trusted and knowledgeable. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 04:35, 6 May 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} WV would benefit from this. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 08:32, 6 May 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} --[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:13, 7 May 2026 (UTC) :{{Comment}} Could @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] delete [[MediaWiki:Gadget-WikiSign.js]], which was requested to be deleted @[[User:Koavf|Justin]], @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]]? I dont think we need it. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:40, 9 May 2026 (UTC) ::Yes - clearly no longer used -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 10:18, 9 May 2026 (UTC) ::: I can't delete it because I don't have the required permissions to do so. ::: On a side note, if this project has a need for permanent interface administrators, I would suggest that we have a minimum of two IAs, similar to how there must be two CUs and/or suppressors (or none). Maybe Koavf can be a good candidate if I am elected for permanent interface adminship, and I believe that permission shouldn't be removed from someone's own account. Instead, a bureaucrat should do it. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:20, 9 May 2026 (UTC) ::::I am willing and happy to do it, unfortunately, we do not have an appetite for indef IAs and just had a discussion that resulted in a [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity:Interface_administrators&diff=prev&oldid=2807543 consensus that we can have IAs that have the user rights for 14 to 120 days]. So once you have the rights, please make sure to gopher it. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:54, 9 May 2026 (UTC) :::::@[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] give it time. Look at me, I was in favor of shorter time, now I am looking back to times, when custodians could do it without the need of extra flag. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:31, 9 May 2026 (UTC) ::::::Here's hoping. I think it would reduce administrative overhead, but that's just me and I'm not a bureaucrat here. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:33, 9 May 2026 (UTC) ::::Complicated. Where are the times, admins could do everything! [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:27, 9 May 2026 (UTC) {{archive bottom}} == Reminder about custodian-related pages == I would like to remind the community about what the following custodian pages are: * [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]] is for requesting actions to be done by custodians, and * [[Wikiversity:Notices for custodians]] is for notices of interest to custodians, like an administrator's noticeboard Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:12, 12 May 2026 (UTC) :Thanks - I needed this reminder :) -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 22:21, 12 May 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship]] to become a policy == {{archive top|'''Approved - now a policy'''. 5 supports + 1 nominator. No objections.}} Following the recent approval of [[Wikiversity:Curators]] as a policy, I think [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship]] may also be ready for policy status. Please share your views about whether bureaucratship is ready to become a policy, or whether further revisions are needed. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 13:58, 9 May 2026 (UTC) : I added a logo about that user group, but other than that, it looks good to me. {{support}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:38, 9 May 2026 (UTC) :I think that the consensus on this policy is proven by years of using it without further changes. But I I have to say weather I agree with this to become a policy, than of course {{support}}. It works and there were no major issues with it. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:45, 9 May 2026 (UTC) :{{support}} no issues. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:51, 10 May 2026 (UTC) :{{support}} [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 12:37, 11 May 2026 (UTC) :{{support}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 06:51, 12 May 2026 (UTC) {{archive bottom}} == Timeline format? == I’ve been working on the World War II articles, including the [[World War II/Timeline|timeline]], and is there a specific timeline format that should be used? Right now it’s just a table, and there’s no separation between different periods/phases of the war. I don’t want to use [[mw:Extension:EasyTimeline]] because this will be displaying dates and not time periods. [[User:PhilDaBirdMan|PhilDaBirdMan]] ([[User talk:PhilDaBirdMan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PhilDaBirdMan|contribs]]) 01:35, 4 May 2026 (UTC) :I dont think we have a policy or guideline, how to format a timeline. But you may try to browes wikiversity by Google if someone was dealing with this in the past somewhow @[[User:PhilDaBirdMan|PhilDaBirdMan]]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 12:23, 5 May 2026 (UTC) ::+1 - there's no specific guideline on how to format a timeline, it's really up to you. In my opinion I think the timeline is good. I'd personally bold the dates just to make it easier to separate it from the event description, but that's my personal 2 cents. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:18, 5 May 2026 (UTC) :::I’ll probably remove links to the dates/years, they’re just Wikipedia pages that shouldn’t be over linked to. [[User:PhilDaBirdMan|PhilDaBirdMan]] ([[User talk:PhilDaBirdMan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PhilDaBirdMan|contribs]]) 00:39, 6 May 2026 (UTC) == Language learning == toki! I am trying to add or see what the toki pona language learning stuff on here is but I don't see anything that is language learning for anything. [[User:Jan Imon|Jan Imon]] ([[User talk:Jan Imon|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jan Imon|contribs]]) 23:13, 2 May 2026 (UTC) —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:29, 3 May 2026 (UTC) :We have language materials ([[:Category:Languages]], [[World Languages]], [[Portal:Foreign Language Learning]], [[Portal:Multilingual Studies]]). They are not as developed as I think we would all like and there's not any coverage of Toki Pona, but in principle, we could and would like that. You can also see [[:b:Subject:Languages]] at our sister project Wikibooks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:33, 3 May 2026 (UTC) == Coming over From wikinews == Any chance someone could help me if you are allowed to write news articles here since wikinews is going read only mode soon, thank you! [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 22:43, 1 May 2026 (UTC) :The scope of Wikiversity is very broad and is basically about more-or-less any learning material. We have made it a point to not have duplicative content of other WMF projects, but since Wikinews is being shuttered, I personally am fine with writing news articles here. One thing that is not controversial at all is a learning resource <em>about</em> how to write news: that could be hugely useful here and could involve the process of writing news stories to learn and to share back and forth with an editor or fact-checker. In fact, I'd support an entire namespace dedicated to keeping the notion of Wikinews alive here. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:38, 1 May 2026 (UTC) ::Thank you so much! How do I start? Cheers! @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 01:07, 2 May 2026 (UTC) :::I think it's premature to start just making news articles en masse, but if you want to start discussing the topic of citizen journalism, you can do that now. [[:Category:Journalism]] already has some material, so you can start by seeing what we already have, how you can refine that, etc. You can definitely have learning resources with collaborators who want to learn about journalism ASAP. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 01:24, 2 May 2026 (UTC) ::::thanks. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 01:38, 2 May 2026 (UTC) ::::If I could try and start one News Article could you please tell me how to go about it? Like what style of writing like Wikinews or something else? Thank you Justin! @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 01:48, 2 May 2026 (UTC) :::::Honestly, there are very few policies and guidelines here. I think the best way to write a news story would be in a manner that is obvious and instructive. So, for instance, it's common to use the "pyramid style" when you're writing news, so if you were to write a story that makes it very clear that you are using that approach, that would be helpful. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 02:08, 2 May 2026 (UTC) ::::::cool thanks. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 02:13, 2 May 2026 (UTC) ::::::im ready to write @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 21:30, 13 May 2026 (UTC) :::::::I think we should get more local consensus for a big project like including the entirety of the scope of Wikinews here. Again, I support it personally. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 21:55, 13 May 2026 (UTC) ::::::::ok lets begin. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 22:15, 13 May 2026 (UTC) sjnnttbbs6b5d2zobj8uinjbiptcwwf 1 327678 2817367 2792009 2026-06-30T08:55:24Z Alexander-Barth 3097879 /* New title */ Reply 2817367 wikitext text/x-wiki == New title == @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] Maybe change the title to something like: Quadratic Equation Advanced. Thought? [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 09:19, 15 February 2026 (UTC) :To me the "completing the square" is quite pedagogic and visual (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Completing_the_square). I think it would make sense to have the page [[Quadratic equation]] as the main entry point. Calling this page "Quadratic Equation Advanced" would a good idea in my opinion. [[User:Alexander-Barth|Alexander-Barth]] ([[User talk:Alexander-Barth|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Alexander-Barth|contribs]]) 08:55, 30 June 2026 (UTC) snhtrx975sl86bkn2fhnyk54w6mj5x2 2817369 2817367 2026-06-30T09:04:36Z Alexander-Barth 3097879 /* Notation */ new section 2817369 wikitext text/x-wiki == New title == @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] Maybe change the title to something like: Quadratic Equation Advanced. Thought? [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 09:19, 15 February 2026 (UTC) :To me the "completing the square" is quite pedagogic and visual (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Completing_the_square). I think it would make sense to have the page [[Quadratic equation]] as the main entry point. Calling this page "Quadratic Equation Advanced" would a good idea in my opinion. [[User:Alexander-Barth|Alexander-Barth]] ([[User talk:Alexander-Barth|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Alexander-Barth|contribs]]) 08:55, 30 June 2026 (UTC) == Notation == I don't understand the use of ellipses ... in this page. I guess it is used to separate the equation from their number. Maybe we should use https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Math/CoverageTest#Equation_numbering Also it seems a bit unorthodox to write e.g. <math>AAqq</math> instead of <math>A^2 q^2</math>. But a lot of interesting content is on this page :-) [[User:Alexander-Barth|Alexander-Barth]] ([[User talk:Alexander-Barth|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Alexander-Barth|contribs]]) 09:04, 30 June 2026 (UTC) 1urwuassd3xzzpvdzhveg5toy1ncddf 0 327760 2817257 2796907 2026-06-29T16:07:43Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Bibliography */ 2817257 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Initial activity == * Make a list of the languages you hear around you in your daily life (at home, at work, in your neighborhood, online, etc.). * For each language, write down one positive thing that you think it  contributes to children’s learning, on the one hand, and to students’ learning, on the other. * Think about how you could use these languages in your classroom to help students learn better: propose ideas and make suggestions. * Write in one sentence what you think a "pluralistic approach" would be in language teaching. == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to: * characterize what pluralistic approaches are; * know and understand the foundations of plurilingual didactics and pluralistic approaches; * illustrate concretely the didactic approaches (Awakening to Languages, Integrated Language Didactics, Intercultural Approach, etc.) that are part of the pluralistic approaches. == Keywords == Pluralistic approaches - Didactics of plurilingualism - Plurilingual and intercultural competence - Language awareness - Intercomprehension - Integrated language didactics - Intercultural approach == Prerequisites == * Basic knowledge of language didactics * Basic understanding of plurilingualism == Introduction == In today's classrooms, students have diverse language backgrounds. Some speak one or more languages at home, others learn a foreign language at school. Given this diversity, a pedagogy that values all languages and cultures is essential. ''Pluralistic approaches'' address this need: they constitute a coherent framework within the didactics of plurilingualism. Any didactic approach that uses "teaching/learning activities involving several (i.e. more than one) varieties of languages or cultures” (Candelier et al. 2012. p. 6), is considered a pluralistic approach. == History == Although these approaches emerged in the late twentieth century, they were formalized in the ''Framework of Reference for Pluralistic Approaches to Languages and Cultures'' (FREPA, 2012), which identifies four main strands: language awareness, intercomprehension between languages, integrated language didactics, and the intercultural approach. They represent pedagogical developments within the didactics of plurilingualism. Unlike traditional approaches that focus on a single language, pluralistic approaches integrate activities -  particularly metalinguistic ones - that mobilize several languages and cultures simultaneously, fostering a dynamic, integrated view of plurilingual and intercultural competence (Candelier, 2017). This competence is conceived not as the sum of competencies in each language or variety, but as a single competence. == Conceptions == According to Candelier (2003, pp. 19-20), pluralistic approaches are "pedagogical approaches in which the student is led to work simultaneously on several languages,  so that they can draw on knowledge or know-how acquired in one language in order to learn others" (our translation). These approaches allow students to: * make connections between different languages; * become aware of similarities and differences between languages; * mobilize their knowledge to learn more effectively; * value their own linguistic repertoire; * develop positive attitudes towards linguistic diversity. Therefore, they do not amount to a simple accumulation of language competencies, but rather an articulated and integrated construction. The four pluralistic approaches identified by the FREPA are: # '''Language Awareness''' : Language Awareness aims to raise learners' awareness of linguistic and cultural diversity. It exposes students to a wide variety of languages — including those not taught at school — to foster curiosity, openness, and metalinguistic awareness. This approach also promotes recognition of heritage languages and plurilingualism as resources for learning. This approach aims to develop attitudes of openness towards other languages and cultures. From a didactic perspective, Language Awareness can involve observing and comparing multilingual corpora so that students can identify sound or graphic regularities. The teacher acts as a facilitator, valuing students' heritage languages without needing to master them. This approach helps deconstruct stereotypes and develop metalinguistic analysis skills around the languages presented. (Links to the encyclopedia and Wikiversity entry) # '''Intercomprehension between parent languages''' : This approach involves working in parallel on two or more languages from the same language family (e.g., Romance, Germanic, Slavic, etc.). Learners draw on knowledge of a language they already know to develop comprehension in another related language. The focus is mainly on receptive skills (reading and listening), but also concerns interactional skills used when speakers of different languages communicate. Didactically, the approach leverages lexical and syntactic similarities across related languages to support meaning-oriented learning. The teacher guides learners to identify transparent clues that link the languages and to formulate reading hypotheses, thereby turning knowledge of a source language into a cognitive gateway for accessing several closely related target languages simultaneously (e.g., across the Romance languages). (Links to the encyclopedia and Wikiversity entry). # '''Integrated language teaching''' : This approach seeks to build links between the languages learned at school and those learners already know. It is grounded in transferring knowledge and strategies from one language to another to strengthen the entire linguistic repertoire. It values interactions among languages and the deliberate reuse of previously acquired linguistic knowledge. Practically, it involves creating situations that decompartmentalize learning by establishing explicit bridges between the language of schooling and foreign languages (e.g., developing shared grammatical terminology). It also leads teachers to coordinate their practices with colleagues teaching other languages, helping students transfer learning strategies across contexts and thereby optimizing cognitive skills and ensuring coherence in their learning trajectories.  (Links to the encyclopedia and Wikiversity entry) # '''The intercultural approach''' : It emphasizes developing the competence to understand, interpret and interact with people from different cultures. It encourages reflection on situations of cultural contact and on the representations we hold of ourselves and others. Culture is conceived as dynamic, open and constantly evolving, and the approach promotes mutual understanding and dialogue. From a didactic perspective, it goes beyond teaching “civilizational facts” to include activities that foster decentering and critical analysis of cultural misunderstandings. The teacher guides learners to make their own value system explicit and to relativize their points of view, in order to facilitate communication in contexts of otherness. (Links to the encyclopedia and Wikiversity entry) == Take-home messages == * Pluralistic approaches value all languages, not only those taught at school. * They support the development of plurilingual and intercultural competence, essential in today's societies. * They enable students to transfer competencies between languages. * They strengthen the self-esteem of allophone learners by legitimizing their languages and cultures. * They offer an inclusive, innovative pedagogy. == Self-assessment == <quiz> '''Q 1: General definition ''' {According to the text, what is the main characteristic of a "pluralistic approach"?} - A. Focusing on intensive learning of only one foreign language at a time. + B. Implementing activities that involve several linguistic and cultural varieties simultaneously. - C. Replacing the first language/mother tongue with the language of schooling. - D. Being intended only for students who do not speak the language of schooling. '''Q 2: The Framework of Reference ''' {Which framework formalized the four main strands of pluralistic approaches?} - A. The Ministry of National Education. - B. The OECD. + C. The FREPA (2012). - D. The CEFR (2001). '''Q3: Awakening to languages ''' {Which feature distinguishes "Awakening to Languages" from other approaches?} - A. It concerns only languages of the same family (e.g., Romance, Germanic). - B. It requires the teacher to be fluent in all the languages presented. + C. It exposes students to a wide variety of languages, including those not taught at school. - . It focuses only on French grammar. '''Q 4: Intercomprehension ''' {What type of skills does the "intercomprehension between parent languages" approach mainly emphasize?} - A. Only productive skills (speaking and writing fluently). - B. Only receptive skills (written and oral comprehension). + C. Receptive and interaction skills. - D. Memorization of vocabulary lists. '''Q 5: Integrated language teaching ''' {What is the main objective of "integrated language teaching" (or integrated didactics)?} - A. Learning two languages separately without ever mixing them. + B. Decompartmentalizing learning by creating bridges between the language of schooling and foreign languages. - C. Teaching a subject (such as maths) in a foreign language. + D. Systematically correcting errors related to the first language/mother tongue. '''Q6: The intercultural approach ''' {From a didactic perspective, how does the intercultural approach differ from the mere teaching of culture-specific facts?} - A. It mainly involves memorizing capitals, flags and traditional festivals. - B. It asks students to abandon their own culture to adopt that of others. + C. It proposes decentring and critical analysis activities to make one’s own value system explicit. - D. It avoids controversial topics and focuses only on the positive aspects of a culture. '''Q 7: Plurilingual competence ''' {How should plurilingual competence be understood?} + A. As a single and integrated competence, not merely a sum of separate competences. - B. As a collection of distinct, isolated competencies for each language. - C. As a competence reserved for allophone students. - D. As the ability to speak several languages perfectly and without an accent. '''Q 8: Transversality and transfer ''' {What is the major cognitive advantage of pluralistic approaches for students?} - A. Learning all the languages of the world simultaneously. + B. Promote the transfer of competencies, enabling learners to draw on knowledge of one language to learn others. - C. Replacing grammar learning with simple observation. - D. Requiring learners to forget their first language/mother tongue to better immerse in the foreign language. </quiz> == Resources to go further == * The FREPA website: https://carap.ecml.at/en/ * Education and Linguistic and Cultural Diversity Network (EDiLiC): https://www.edilic.org/ * A toolkit for implementing integrated didactics in language education: https://www.ecml.at/en/ECML-Programme/Programme-2024-2027/Integrated-didactics#team == Bibliography == Candelier, M. (2003). Janua Linguarum – la porte des langues – L’introduction de l’éveil aux langues dans le curriculum. Strasbourg : Centre Européen pour les langues vivantes/Conseil de l’Europe. Candelier, M. (2017). Le CECR, le CARAP et quelques autres–Repères sur la diffusion du «message plurilingue». ''Plurilinguisme'', 59-72. Candelier, M., Camilleri-Grima, A., Castellotti, V. de Pietro, J.-F., Lörincz, I., Meißner, F.-J., Noguerol, A., Schröder-Sura, A., & Molinié, M. (2012). ''FREPA. A Framework of Reference for Pluralistic Approaches to Languages and Cultures. Competences and resources''. Conseil de l’Europe. <nowiki>https://carap.ecml.at/en/</nowiki> Candelier, M. & Schröder-Sura, A. (2015). Les approches plurielles et le CARAP : origines, évolutions, perspectives. Dans J.-F. de Pietro & B. Gerber, (dirs.), ''Les approches plurielles des langues et des cultures, Babylonia 2/2015'' (pp. 12-19). Candelier, M. & Manno, G. (dirs.) (2023). ''La didactique intégrée des langues - Apprendre une langue avec d’autres langues ?'' Association ADEB. <nowiki>http://www.adeb-asso.org/portfolio_category/livres/</nowiki> Candelier, M. & De Pietro, J.-F. (2025). Didactics of plurilingualism – A European view. In: C. Fäcke, X. Gao & P. Garrett-Rucks (Eds.), The Handbook of Plurilingual and Intercultural Language Learning. Wiley Blackwell. Cognigni, E. (2020). ''Il plurilinguismo come risorsa – Prospettive teoriche, politiche educative et pratiche didattiche''. ETS. Conseil de l’Europe. (2021). ''Cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues : Apprendre, enseigner, évaluer. Volume complémentaire''. Conseil de l’Europe. <nowiki>https://rm.coe.int/cadre-europeen-commun-de-reference-pour-les-langues-apprendre-enseigne/1680a4e270</nowiki> Conseil de l’Europe. (2001). ''Un cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues : Apprendre, enseigner, évaluer''. Didier ; Conseil de l’Europe. <nowiki>https://rm.coe.int/16802fc3a8</nowiki> ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Eftychia Damaskou (University of Thessaly) * Thierry Gaillat (Université de La Réunion) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] 0s1qjjve7nfmticd9ymz682lp43o5j1 2817305 2817257 2026-06-29T16:58:16Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self-assessment */ 2817305 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Initial activity == * Make a list of the languages you hear around you in your daily life (at home, at work, in your neighborhood, online, etc.). * For each language, write down one positive thing that you think it  contributes to children’s learning, on the one hand, and to students’ learning, on the other. * Think about how you could use these languages in your classroom to help students learn better: propose ideas and make suggestions. * Write in one sentence what you think a "pluralistic approach" would be in language teaching. == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to: * characterize what pluralistic approaches are; * know and understand the foundations of plurilingual didactics and pluralistic approaches; * illustrate concretely the didactic approaches (Awakening to Languages, Integrated Language Didactics, Intercultural Approach, etc.) that are part of the pluralistic approaches. == Keywords == Pluralistic approaches - Didactics of plurilingualism - Plurilingual and intercultural competence - Language awareness - Intercomprehension - Integrated language didactics - Intercultural approach == Prerequisites == * Basic knowledge of language didactics * Basic understanding of plurilingualism == Introduction == In today's classrooms, students have diverse language backgrounds. Some speak one or more languages at home, others learn a foreign language at school. Given this diversity, a pedagogy that values all languages and cultures is essential. ''Pluralistic approaches'' address this need: they constitute a coherent framework within the didactics of plurilingualism. Any didactic approach that uses "teaching/learning activities involving several (i.e. more than one) varieties of languages or cultures” (Candelier et al. 2012. p. 6), is considered a pluralistic approach. == History == Although these approaches emerged in the late twentieth century, they were formalized in the ''Framework of Reference for Pluralistic Approaches to Languages and Cultures'' (FREPA, 2012), which identifies four main strands: language awareness, intercomprehension between languages, integrated language didactics, and the intercultural approach. They represent pedagogical developments within the didactics of plurilingualism. Unlike traditional approaches that focus on a single language, pluralistic approaches integrate activities -  particularly metalinguistic ones - that mobilize several languages and cultures simultaneously, fostering a dynamic, integrated view of plurilingual and intercultural competence (Candelier, 2017). This competence is conceived not as the sum of competencies in each language or variety, but as a single competence. == Conceptions == According to Candelier (2003, pp. 19-20), pluralistic approaches are "pedagogical approaches in which the student is led to work simultaneously on several languages,  so that they can draw on knowledge or know-how acquired in one language in order to learn others" (our translation). These approaches allow students to: * make connections between different languages; * become aware of similarities and differences between languages; * mobilize their knowledge to learn more effectively; * value their own linguistic repertoire; * develop positive attitudes towards linguistic diversity. Therefore, they do not amount to a simple accumulation of language competencies, but rather an articulated and integrated construction. The four pluralistic approaches identified by the FREPA are: # '''Language Awareness''' : Language Awareness aims to raise learners' awareness of linguistic and cultural diversity. It exposes students to a wide variety of languages — including those not taught at school — to foster curiosity, openness, and metalinguistic awareness. This approach also promotes recognition of heritage languages and plurilingualism as resources for learning. This approach aims to develop attitudes of openness towards other languages and cultures. From a didactic perspective, Language Awareness can involve observing and comparing multilingual corpora so that students can identify sound or graphic regularities. The teacher acts as a facilitator, valuing students' heritage languages without needing to master them. This approach helps deconstruct stereotypes and develop metalinguistic analysis skills around the languages presented. (Links to the encyclopedia and Wikiversity entry) # '''Intercomprehension between parent languages''' : This approach involves working in parallel on two or more languages from the same language family (e.g., Romance, Germanic, Slavic, etc.). Learners draw on knowledge of a language they already know to develop comprehension in another related language. The focus is mainly on receptive skills (reading and listening), but also concerns interactional skills used when speakers of different languages communicate. Didactically, the approach leverages lexical and syntactic similarities across related languages to support meaning-oriented learning. The teacher guides learners to identify transparent clues that link the languages and to formulate reading hypotheses, thereby turning knowledge of a source language into a cognitive gateway for accessing several closely related target languages simultaneously (e.g., across the Romance languages). (Links to the encyclopedia and Wikiversity entry). # '''Integrated language teaching''' : This approach seeks to build links between the languages learned at school and those learners already know. It is grounded in transferring knowledge and strategies from one language to another to strengthen the entire linguistic repertoire. It values interactions among languages and the deliberate reuse of previously acquired linguistic knowledge. Practically, it involves creating situations that decompartmentalize learning by establishing explicit bridges between the language of schooling and foreign languages (e.g., developing shared grammatical terminology). It also leads teachers to coordinate their practices with colleagues teaching other languages, helping students transfer learning strategies across contexts and thereby optimizing cognitive skills and ensuring coherence in their learning trajectories.  (Links to the encyclopedia and Wikiversity entry) # '''The intercultural approach''' : It emphasizes developing the competence to understand, interpret and interact with people from different cultures. It encourages reflection on situations of cultural contact and on the representations we hold of ourselves and others. Culture is conceived as dynamic, open and constantly evolving, and the approach promotes mutual understanding and dialogue. From a didactic perspective, it goes beyond teaching “civilizational facts” to include activities that foster decentering and critical analysis of cultural misunderstandings. The teacher guides learners to make their own value system explicit and to relativize their points of view, in order to facilitate communication in contexts of otherness. (Links to the encyclopedia and Wikiversity entry) == Take-home messages == * Pluralistic approaches value all languages, not only those taught at school. * They support the development of plurilingual and intercultural competence, essential in today's societies. * They enable students to transfer competencies between languages. * They strengthen the self-esteem of allophone learners by legitimizing their languages and cultures. * They offer an inclusive, innovative pedagogy. == Self-assessment == <quiz display=simple> '''Q 1: General definition ''' {According to the text, what is the main characteristic of a "pluralistic approach"?} - A. Focusing on intensive learning of only one foreign language at a time. + B. Implementing activities that involve several linguistic and cultural varieties simultaneously. - C. Replacing the first language/mother tongue with the language of schooling. - D. Being intended only for students who do not speak the language of schooling. '''Q 2: The Framework of Reference ''' {Which framework formalized the four main strands of pluralistic approaches?} - A. The Ministry of National Education. - B. The OECD. + C. The FREPA (2012). - D. The CEFR (2001). '''Q3: Awakening to languages ''' {Which feature distinguishes "Awakening to Languages" from other approaches?} - A. It concerns only languages of the same family (e.g., Romance, Germanic). - B. It requires the teacher to be fluent in all the languages presented. + C. It exposes students to a wide variety of languages, including those not taught at school. - . It focuses only on French grammar. '''Q 4: Intercomprehension ''' {What type of skills does the "intercomprehension between parent languages" approach mainly emphasize?} - A. Only productive skills (speaking and writing fluently). - B. Only receptive skills (written and oral comprehension). + C. Receptive and interaction skills. - D. Memorization of vocabulary lists. '''Q 5: Integrated language teaching ''' {What is the main objective of "integrated language teaching" (or integrated didactics)?} - A. Learning two languages separately without ever mixing them. + B. Decompartmentalizing learning by creating bridges between the language of schooling and foreign languages. - C. Teaching a subject (such as maths) in a foreign language. + D. Systematically correcting errors related to the first language/mother tongue. '''Q6: The intercultural approach ''' {From a didactic perspective, how does the intercultural approach differ from the mere teaching of culture-specific facts?} - A. It mainly involves memorizing capitals, flags and traditional festivals. - B. It asks students to abandon their own culture to adopt that of others. + C. It proposes decentring and critical analysis activities to make one’s own value system explicit. - D. It avoids controversial topics and focuses only on the positive aspects of a culture. '''Q 7: Plurilingual competence ''' {How should plurilingual competence be understood?} + A. As a single and integrated competence, not merely a sum of separate competences. - B. As a collection of distinct, isolated competencies for each language. - C. As a competence reserved for allophone students. - D. As the ability to speak several languages perfectly and without an accent. '''Q 8: Transversality and transfer ''' {What is the major cognitive advantage of pluralistic approaches for students?} - A. Learning all the languages of the world simultaneously. + B. Promote the transfer of competencies, enabling learners to draw on knowledge of one language to learn others. - C. Replacing grammar learning with simple observation. - D. Requiring learners to forget their first language/mother tongue to better immerse in the foreign language. </quiz> == Resources to go further == * The FREPA website: https://carap.ecml.at/en/ * Education and Linguistic and Cultural Diversity Network (EDiLiC): https://www.edilic.org/ * A toolkit for implementing integrated didactics in language education: https://www.ecml.at/en/ECML-Programme/Programme-2024-2027/Integrated-didactics#team == Bibliography == Candelier, M. (2003). Janua Linguarum – la porte des langues – L’introduction de l’éveil aux langues dans le curriculum. Strasbourg : Centre Européen pour les langues vivantes/Conseil de l’Europe. Candelier, M. (2017). Le CECR, le CARAP et quelques autres–Repères sur la diffusion du «message plurilingue». ''Plurilinguisme'', 59-72. Candelier, M., Camilleri-Grima, A., Castellotti, V. de Pietro, J.-F., Lörincz, I., Meißner, F.-J., Noguerol, A., Schröder-Sura, A., & Molinié, M. (2012). ''FREPA. A Framework of Reference for Pluralistic Approaches to Languages and Cultures. Competences and resources''. Conseil de l’Europe. <nowiki>https://carap.ecml.at/en/</nowiki> Candelier, M. & Schröder-Sura, A. (2015). Les approches plurielles et le CARAP : origines, évolutions, perspectives. Dans J.-F. de Pietro & B. Gerber, (dirs.), ''Les approches plurielles des langues et des cultures, Babylonia 2/2015'' (pp. 12-19). Candelier, M. & Manno, G. (dirs.) (2023). ''La didactique intégrée des langues - Apprendre une langue avec d’autres langues ?'' Association ADEB. <nowiki>http://www.adeb-asso.org/portfolio_category/livres/</nowiki> Candelier, M. & De Pietro, J.-F. (2025). Didactics of plurilingualism – A European view. In: C. Fäcke, X. Gao & P. Garrett-Rucks (Eds.), The Handbook of Plurilingual and Intercultural Language Learning. Wiley Blackwell. Cognigni, E. (2020). ''Il plurilinguismo come risorsa – Prospettive teoriche, politiche educative et pratiche didattiche''. ETS. Conseil de l’Europe. (2021). ''Cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues : Apprendre, enseigner, évaluer. Volume complémentaire''. Conseil de l’Europe. <nowiki>https://rm.coe.int/cadre-europeen-commun-de-reference-pour-les-langues-apprendre-enseigne/1680a4e270</nowiki> Conseil de l’Europe. (2001). ''Un cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues : Apprendre, enseigner, évaluer''. Didier ; Conseil de l’Europe. <nowiki>https://rm.coe.int/16802fc3a8</nowiki> ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Eftychia Damaskou (University of Thessaly) * Thierry Gaillat (Université de La Réunion) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] 938clg6lvw30da5ranvo7g9ltaphzu1 2817307 2817305 2026-06-29T17:00:43Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self-assessment */ 2817307 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Initial activity == * Make a list of the languages you hear around you in your daily life (at home, at work, in your neighborhood, online, etc.). * For each language, write down one positive thing that you think it  contributes to children’s learning, on the one hand, and to students’ learning, on the other. * Think about how you could use these languages in your classroom to help students learn better: propose ideas and make suggestions. * Write in one sentence what you think a "pluralistic approach" would be in language teaching. == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to: * characterize what pluralistic approaches are; * know and understand the foundations of plurilingual didactics and pluralistic approaches; * illustrate concretely the didactic approaches (Awakening to Languages, Integrated Language Didactics, Intercultural Approach, etc.) that are part of the pluralistic approaches. == Keywords == Pluralistic approaches - Didactics of plurilingualism - Plurilingual and intercultural competence - Language awareness - Intercomprehension - Integrated language didactics - Intercultural approach == Prerequisites == * Basic knowledge of language didactics * Basic understanding of plurilingualism == Introduction == In today's classrooms, students have diverse language backgrounds. Some speak one or more languages at home, others learn a foreign language at school. Given this diversity, a pedagogy that values all languages and cultures is essential. ''Pluralistic approaches'' address this need: they constitute a coherent framework within the didactics of plurilingualism. Any didactic approach that uses "teaching/learning activities involving several (i.e. more than one) varieties of languages or cultures” (Candelier et al. 2012. p. 6), is considered a pluralistic approach. == History == Although these approaches emerged in the late twentieth century, they were formalized in the ''Framework of Reference for Pluralistic Approaches to Languages and Cultures'' (FREPA, 2012), which identifies four main strands: language awareness, intercomprehension between languages, integrated language didactics, and the intercultural approach. They represent pedagogical developments within the didactics of plurilingualism. Unlike traditional approaches that focus on a single language, pluralistic approaches integrate activities -  particularly metalinguistic ones - that mobilize several languages and cultures simultaneously, fostering a dynamic, integrated view of plurilingual and intercultural competence (Candelier, 2017). This competence is conceived not as the sum of competencies in each language or variety, but as a single competence. == Conceptions == According to Candelier (2003, pp. 19-20), pluralistic approaches are "pedagogical approaches in which the student is led to work simultaneously on several languages,  so that they can draw on knowledge or know-how acquired in one language in order to learn others" (our translation). These approaches allow students to: * make connections between different languages; * become aware of similarities and differences between languages; * mobilize their knowledge to learn more effectively; * value their own linguistic repertoire; * develop positive attitudes towards linguistic diversity. Therefore, they do not amount to a simple accumulation of language competencies, but rather an articulated and integrated construction. The four pluralistic approaches identified by the FREPA are: # '''Language Awareness''' : Language Awareness aims to raise learners' awareness of linguistic and cultural diversity. It exposes students to a wide variety of languages — including those not taught at school — to foster curiosity, openness, and metalinguistic awareness. This approach also promotes recognition of heritage languages and plurilingualism as resources for learning. This approach aims to develop attitudes of openness towards other languages and cultures. From a didactic perspective, Language Awareness can involve observing and comparing multilingual corpora so that students can identify sound or graphic regularities. The teacher acts as a facilitator, valuing students' heritage languages without needing to master them. This approach helps deconstruct stereotypes and develop metalinguistic analysis skills around the languages presented. (Links to the encyclopedia and Wikiversity entry) # '''Intercomprehension between parent languages''' : This approach involves working in parallel on two or more languages from the same language family (e.g., Romance, Germanic, Slavic, etc.). Learners draw on knowledge of a language they already know to develop comprehension in another related language. The focus is mainly on receptive skills (reading and listening), but also concerns interactional skills used when speakers of different languages communicate. Didactically, the approach leverages lexical and syntactic similarities across related languages to support meaning-oriented learning. The teacher guides learners to identify transparent clues that link the languages and to formulate reading hypotheses, thereby turning knowledge of a source language into a cognitive gateway for accessing several closely related target languages simultaneously (e.g., across the Romance languages). (Links to the encyclopedia and Wikiversity entry). # '''Integrated language teaching''' : This approach seeks to build links between the languages learned at school and those learners already know. It is grounded in transferring knowledge and strategies from one language to another to strengthen the entire linguistic repertoire. It values interactions among languages and the deliberate reuse of previously acquired linguistic knowledge. Practically, it involves creating situations that decompartmentalize learning by establishing explicit bridges between the language of schooling and foreign languages (e.g., developing shared grammatical terminology). It also leads teachers to coordinate their practices with colleagues teaching other languages, helping students transfer learning strategies across contexts and thereby optimizing cognitive skills and ensuring coherence in their learning trajectories.  (Links to the encyclopedia and Wikiversity entry) # '''The intercultural approach''' : It emphasizes developing the competence to understand, interpret and interact with people from different cultures. It encourages reflection on situations of cultural contact and on the representations we hold of ourselves and others. Culture is conceived as dynamic, open and constantly evolving, and the approach promotes mutual understanding and dialogue. From a didactic perspective, it goes beyond teaching “civilizational facts” to include activities that foster decentering and critical analysis of cultural misunderstandings. The teacher guides learners to make their own value system explicit and to relativize their points of view, in order to facilitate communication in contexts of otherness. (Links to the encyclopedia and Wikiversity entry) == Take-home messages == * Pluralistic approaches value all languages, not only those taught at school. * They support the development of plurilingual and intercultural competence, essential in today's societies. * They enable students to transfer competencies between languages. * They strengthen the self-esteem of allophone learners by legitimizing their languages and cultures. * They offer an inclusive, innovative pedagogy. == Self-assessment == <quiz display=simple> {Q 1: General definition - According to the text, what is the main characteristic of a "pluralistic approach"?} - A. Focusing on intensive learning of only one foreign language at a time. + B. Implementing activities that involve several linguistic and cultural varieties simultaneously. - C. Replacing the first language/mother tongue with the language of schooling. - D. Being intended only for students who do not speak the language of schooling. {Q 2: The Framework of Reference - Which framework formalized the four main strands of pluralistic approaches?} - A. The Ministry of National Education. - B. The OECD. + C. The FREPA (2012). - D. The CEFR (2001). {Q3: Awakening to languages - Which feature distinguishes "Awakening to Languages" from other approaches?} - A. It concerns only languages of the same family (e.g., Romance, Germanic). - B. It requires the teacher to be fluent in all the languages presented. + C. It exposes students to a wide variety of languages, including those not taught at school. - . It focuses only on French grammar. {Q 4: Intercomprehension - What type of skills does the "intercomprehension between parent languages" approach mainly emphasize?} - A. Only productive skills (speaking and writing fluently). - B. Only receptive skills (written and oral comprehension). + C. Receptive and interaction skills. - D. Memorization of vocabulary lists. {Q 5: Integrated language teaching - What is the main objective of "integrated language teaching" (or integrated didactics)?} - A. Learning two languages separately without ever mixing them. + B. Decompartmentalizing learning by creating bridges between the language of schooling and foreign languages. - C. Teaching a subject (such as maths) in a foreign language. + D. Systematically correcting errors related to the first language/mother tongue. {Q6: The intercultural approach - From a didactic perspective, how does the intercultural approach differ from the mere teaching of culture-specific facts?} - A. It mainly involves memorizing capitals, flags and traditional festivals. - B. It asks students to abandon their own culture to adopt that of others. + C. It proposes decentring and critical analysis activities to make one’s own value system explicit. - D. It avoids controversial topics and focuses only on the positive aspects of a culture. {Q 7: Plurilingual competence - How should plurilingual competence be understood?} + A. As a single and integrated competence, not merely a sum of separate competences. - B. As a collection of distinct, isolated competencies for each language. - C. As a competence reserved for allophone students. - D. As the ability to speak several languages perfectly and without an accent. {Q 8: Transversality and transfer - What is the major cognitive advantage of pluralistic approaches for students?} - A. Learning all the languages of the world simultaneously. + B. Promote the transfer of competencies, enabling learners to draw on knowledge of one language to learn others. - C. Replacing grammar learning with simple observation. - D. Requiring learners to forget their first language/mother tongue to better immerse in the foreign language. </quiz> == Resources to go further == * The FREPA website: https://carap.ecml.at/en/ * Education and Linguistic and Cultural Diversity Network (EDiLiC): https://www.edilic.org/ * A toolkit for implementing integrated didactics in language education: https://www.ecml.at/en/ECML-Programme/Programme-2024-2027/Integrated-didactics#team == Bibliography == Candelier, M. (2003). Janua Linguarum – la porte des langues – L’introduction de l’éveil aux langues dans le curriculum. Strasbourg : Centre Européen pour les langues vivantes/Conseil de l’Europe. Candelier, M. (2017). Le CECR, le CARAP et quelques autres–Repères sur la diffusion du «message plurilingue». ''Plurilinguisme'', 59-72. Candelier, M., Camilleri-Grima, A., Castellotti, V. de Pietro, J.-F., Lörincz, I., Meißner, F.-J., Noguerol, A., Schröder-Sura, A., & Molinié, M. (2012). ''FREPA. A Framework of Reference for Pluralistic Approaches to Languages and Cultures. Competences and resources''. Conseil de l’Europe. <nowiki>https://carap.ecml.at/en/</nowiki> Candelier, M. & Schröder-Sura, A. (2015). Les approches plurielles et le CARAP : origines, évolutions, perspectives. Dans J.-F. de Pietro & B. Gerber, (dirs.), ''Les approches plurielles des langues et des cultures, Babylonia 2/2015'' (pp. 12-19). Candelier, M. & Manno, G. (dirs.) (2023). ''La didactique intégrée des langues - Apprendre une langue avec d’autres langues ?'' Association ADEB. <nowiki>http://www.adeb-asso.org/portfolio_category/livres/</nowiki> Candelier, M. & De Pietro, J.-F. (2025). Didactics of plurilingualism – A European view. In: C. Fäcke, X. Gao & P. Garrett-Rucks (Eds.), The Handbook of Plurilingual and Intercultural Language Learning. Wiley Blackwell. Cognigni, E. (2020). ''Il plurilinguismo come risorsa – Prospettive teoriche, politiche educative et pratiche didattiche''. ETS. Conseil de l’Europe. (2021). ''Cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues : Apprendre, enseigner, évaluer. Volume complémentaire''. Conseil de l’Europe. <nowiki>https://rm.coe.int/cadre-europeen-commun-de-reference-pour-les-langues-apprendre-enseigne/1680a4e270</nowiki> Conseil de l’Europe. (2001). ''Un cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues : Apprendre, enseigner, évaluer''. Didier ; Conseil de l’Europe. <nowiki>https://rm.coe.int/16802fc3a8</nowiki> ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Eftychia Damaskou (University of Thessaly) * Thierry Gaillat (Université de La Réunion) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] 4rh4lu9g6goda64t0nt6u8n3ymas7gt 0 327800 2817259 2792936 2026-06-29T16:11:09Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Bibliography */ 2817259 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Initial activity == During a language session on ''Little Red Riding Hood'' with a middle section class at a nursery school in La Réunion, a pupil produced : ''Le loup va amarrer le Chaperon rouge'' ‘ (’ ''The wolf is going to moor Red Riding Hood'' ‘). (in French: Le loup va attacher le Chaperon rouge). The next day, the teacher wrote the statement on the language table: {| class="wikitable" |+'''Language table''' !'''Créole''' !'''Mix''' !'''French''' |- | |'''Le loup va amarrer le Chaperon rouge.''' | |} Read this exchange between the pupils and the teacher, who is using the pedagogy of variation. Try to understand what this pedagogy consists of.<blockquote>Teacher: Since ‘ ''Le loup va amarrer le Chaperon rouge'' ’ is a mixture, we're going to see how it's said in French and in Creole. So, how do you say it in Creole? Student 1: Le loup i sa attacher le chaperon rouge. Student 2: Well, no, ‘attacher’ is in French. You say ‘Le loup i sa amaré le Chaperon rouge’. Pupil 3: I say ‘Le loup i sava amar le Chaperon rouge’. Teacher : Do the others agree? Pupil 4: No, I prefer ‘Le loup i sa amar le Chaperon rouge’. Teacher: Does everyone agree with that? Pupils: Yes! Teacher: OK, so we'll keep ‘Le loup i sa armar le Chaperon rouge’ in Creole. How do you say it in French? Pupil 4: That's easy, we say ‘Le loup va attacher le Chaperon rouge’. Teacher : Does everyone agree? Pupil 5: Why don't we say ‘The wolf is going to tie up Red Riding Hood’? Pupil 2: Well, we said it's all mixed up! Student 5: Oh yes! Teacher: So we keep ‘Le loup va attacher le Chaperon rouge’ in French.</blockquote>The teacher completes the language table&nbsp;''':''' {| class="wikitable" |+'''Language table''' !'''Creole''' !'''Mix''' !'''French''' |- |'''Le lou i sa amar le Chapron rouj.''' |'''Le loup va amarrer le Chaperon rouge.''' |'''Le loup va attacher le Chaperon rouge.''' | |} == Objectives == At the end of this section, you should be able to : * know the characteristics of variation teaching ; * implement variation teaching in the classroom. == Key words == interlect, linguistic variation, contextualisation, school language standard, integrated language teaching == Prerequisites == * Knowledge of sociolinguistics, in particular the notions of ‘variation’ and ‘norm’. == Table of contents == * Introduction * History * Conceptions * Things to remember * Self-evaluation (multiple choice with solutions, open questions, etc.) * Resources for further study * Bibliography == Introduction == Variation pedagogy is used when language teaching and learning approaches are adapted to sociolinguistic contexts where several languages with different statuses coexist (known as ‘diglossic’). Sociolinguistics should be associated with teaching activities, paying particular attention to the realities of language. As part of bilingual teaching or integrated language teaching, the pedagogy of variation involves taking account of pupils' actual language practices, in particular the phenomena of language variation or language mixing, in order to acquire the school language norm. In the course of language activities, pupils are encouraged to analyse their own language productions and to understand how the languages taught or included in the teaching-learning process work. In this way, they develop the skills that are essential for successful language acquisition: linguistic awareness and metalinguistic reflection. On these various points, the pedagogy of variation could be similar to the pedagogy of translanguaging (Garcia & Li Wei, 2014) currently in vogue in the USA, in that they both take account of pupils' plurilingual repertoires. However, the history of these two pedagogical approaches differs. == History == In France, the question of the pedagogical treatment of language variation in the context of the teaching-learning of French was raised in the work of Romian, Marcellesi and Treignier (1985), who referred to ‘a pedagogy of variation’ to solve the problems associated with the academic failure of children whose language practices are undermined by the school. ‘This pedagogy, yet to be developed, is based on a dual principle: the linguistic unity of the French language and the plurality of its uses and social discourse’ (Romian and Treignier, 1985, p. 3). Indeed, the implementation of the pedagogy of variation aims at the acquisition of the school linguistic norm when it is in competition with other varieties or regional languages. This pedagogy has proved effective in the Creole-speaking islands of the French West Indies (Martinique, Guadeloupe and Guyana) and the Indian Ocean (Réunion), where the French language coexists with a Creole language (with a French lexical base) and its varieties, sometimes mixing in such a way as to blur linguistic boundaries and give rise to interlectal forms (Prudent, 1983). The concept of interlect, which first appeared in Prudent's (1980) work on the conversational dynamics of the West Indies, refers to ‘the set of utterances that cannot be predicted by a grammar of the acrolect or basilect’ (Prudent, 1981, p.31), which are the grammars specific to so-called standard languages, such as French or Spanish, and Creole languages. Later, the concept of interlect was used to describe the mixed linguistic forms of French and Reunionese Creole (Souprayen-Cavery, 2010). As soon as Creole was introduced into schools as a language taught as part of Creole-French bilingual education and integrated into French teaching practices in the early 2000s in the Antilles and Réunion, the question of the place of pedagogical treatment of interlectal forms arose. The pedagogy of variation is therefore a pedagogical application of the concept of interlect for the acquisition of French and also Creole. It should be noted that these specificities, relating to the context of the Creole-speaking islands, prevent a potential rapprochement between the pedagogies of variation and translanguaging, even if both take into account the dynamic process in which hybrid forms appear. == Conceptions == The pedagogy of variation is mainly implemented in the context of bilingual teaching or integrated language teaching. It therefore comes under the heading of the didactics of plurilingualism and is based on ‘reflective observation of language contact’ (Georger, 2006, p. 57). The aim is to lead pupils towards the acquisition of school language standards by making them aware of their language use. The aim of this first stage is to make the most of what the pupils have to say, enabling them to express themselves in complete safety. After welcoming these linguistic productions, the teacher leads the pupils to analyse interlectal forms in particular, helping them to understand the distinction between codes as part of a contrastive analysis, which leads to the validation of the normative linguistic form. In this way, pupils develop their metalinguistic reflexes and can acquire the languages taught effectively. As a result, this method of teaching interlectal forms requires teachers to have a command of the target codes. For example, in the context of Reunion Island, the implementation of the integrated didactics of French and Creole in an interlectal context (Souprayen-Cavery, 2014) requires a mastery of French and Creole. It is also on this point that the pedagogies of variation and translanguaging in the version developed by García seem to differ, insofar as, for this second pedagogical approach, mastery of the languages used by the pupils seems not to be a necessary condition for its implementation. Furthermore, it should be emphasised that in translanguaging pedagogy, languages are not separate linguistic realities. The similarities between the two pedagogical approaches mainly relate to the same starting point, that of the pupils' actual hybrid language productions, and to the same end goal of acquiring the languages taught (pedagogical translanguaging, Cenoz & Gorter, 2021). == Take home messages == The main objective of the pedagogy of variation is to take into account all the language productions of the pupils for the acquisition of the school linguistic norm. == Self-assessment == <quiz> {In the exchange between the teacher and her pupils in the initial activity, the teacher accepts all the pupils' suggestions without judging them.} + True - False {The pupils analyse their classmates' suggestions.} + True - False {The students validate the correct proposal.} - True + False {The objective of this teaching method is based on the codic distinction.} + True - False <quiz> == Resources for further reading == * Chaudenson, R. (2007). Vers une didactique spécifique du français en milieu créolophone. In R. Chaudenson (Ed.), ''Français et créoles: du partenariat à des didactiques adaptées'' (pp. 47-90). L'Harmattan. * Chaudenson, R. (Ed.) (2008). ''Didactique du français en milieux créolophones.'' ''Outils pédagogiques et formation des maîtres''. L'Harmattan. * Lebon-Eyquem, M. (2014). Comment adapter l'enseignement à la variation linguistique réunionnaise? ''Contextes et Didactiques'', ''4'', https://doi.org/10.4000/ced.358 * Prudent, L. F., & Mérida, G. J. (1984). An langaj kréyol dimi-panaché... : interlect and conversational dynamics''.'' ''Langages'', 74, 31-45. * Ronjat, J. (1913). ''Le développement du langage observé chez un enfant bilingue''. Champion. * Simonin, J. (1995). Questioning social uses of language in a sociolinguistically complex island context. Le cas de l'île de la Réunion. Pour un modèle d'analyse interactionnelle. In J. Richard-Zappella (Ed), ''Le questionnement social'' (pp. 335-339). University of Rouen, IRED. == Bibliography == Cenoz, J., & Gorter, D. (2021). Pedagogical translanguaging. Cambridge University. García, O., & Li Wei (2014). ''Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism and education''. Palgrave Macmillan. Georger, F. (2006). ''Créole et français: deux langues pour un enseignement, Réflexion à partir d'une classe maternelle bilingue à La Réunion.'' Editions Tikouti. Prudent, L.-F. (1981). Diglossie et interlecte.''Langages'', 61, 13-38. Prudent, L.-F. (1983). Les Petites Antilles présentent-elles une situation de diglossie? ''Cahiers de linguistique sociale'', 4/5, 24-40. Prudent, L.-F. (2005). Interlect and pedagogy of variation in Creole countries. In L.-F. Prudent, F. Tupin & S. Wharton (Eds.), ''Du plurilinguisme à l'école'', ''vers une gestion coordonnée des langues en contextes éducatifs sensibles'' (pp. 359-378). Peter Lang. Romian, H., & Treignier J. (1985). Quel(s) traitement(s) pédagogique(s) de la variation et des normes langagières? ''Repères pour la rénovation de l'enseignement du français'', 67, 3-8. Romian H., Marcellesi C., Treignier J. (1985) Quelques concepts et notions opératoires pour une pédagogie de la variation langagière. ''Repères pour la rénovation de l'enseignement du français'', 67, 23- 32). Souprayen-Cavery, L. (2010). ''L'interlecte réunionnais: approche sociolinguistique des pratiques et des représentations,'' L'Harmattan''.'' Souprayen-Cavery, L. (2014). Pour une didactique intégrée du français et du créole dans un contexte interlectal. In J.-F. De Pietro & M. Rispail (Eds.), ''L'enseignement du français à l'heure du plurilinguisme'' (pp. 99-112)'','' Presses universitaires de Namur. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Logambal Souprayen-Cavery (Université de La Réunion) * Emmanuelle Croze (Université de La Réunion) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] ctt2nmjga7opln38up5633bfp3ilfib 2817310 2817259 2026-06-29T17:03:47Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self-assessment */ 2817310 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Initial activity == During a language session on ''Little Red Riding Hood'' with a middle section class at a nursery school in La Réunion, a pupil produced : ''Le loup va amarrer le Chaperon rouge'' ‘ (’ ''The wolf is going to moor Red Riding Hood'' ‘). (in French: Le loup va attacher le Chaperon rouge). The next day, the teacher wrote the statement on the language table: {| class="wikitable" |+'''Language table''' !'''Créole''' !'''Mix''' !'''French''' |- | |'''Le loup va amarrer le Chaperon rouge.''' | |} Read this exchange between the pupils and the teacher, who is using the pedagogy of variation. Try to understand what this pedagogy consists of.<blockquote>Teacher: Since ‘ ''Le loup va amarrer le Chaperon rouge'' ’ is a mixture, we're going to see how it's said in French and in Creole. So, how do you say it in Creole? Student 1: Le loup i sa attacher le chaperon rouge. Student 2: Well, no, ‘attacher’ is in French. You say ‘Le loup i sa amaré le Chaperon rouge’. Pupil 3: I say ‘Le loup i sava amar le Chaperon rouge’. Teacher : Do the others agree? Pupil 4: No, I prefer ‘Le loup i sa amar le Chaperon rouge’. Teacher: Does everyone agree with that? Pupils: Yes! Teacher: OK, so we'll keep ‘Le loup i sa armar le Chaperon rouge’ in Creole. How do you say it in French? Pupil 4: That's easy, we say ‘Le loup va attacher le Chaperon rouge’. Teacher : Does everyone agree? Pupil 5: Why don't we say ‘The wolf is going to tie up Red Riding Hood’? Pupil 2: Well, we said it's all mixed up! Student 5: Oh yes! Teacher: So we keep ‘Le loup va attacher le Chaperon rouge’ in French.</blockquote>The teacher completes the language table&nbsp;''':''' {| class="wikitable" |+'''Language table''' !'''Creole''' !'''Mix''' !'''French''' |- |'''Le lou i sa amar le Chapron rouj.''' |'''Le loup va amarrer le Chaperon rouge.''' |'''Le loup va attacher le Chaperon rouge.''' | |} == Objectives == At the end of this section, you should be able to : * know the characteristics of variation teaching ; * implement variation teaching in the classroom. == Key words == interlect, linguistic variation, contextualisation, school language standard, integrated language teaching == Prerequisites == * Knowledge of sociolinguistics, in particular the notions of ‘variation’ and ‘norm’. == Table of contents == * Introduction * History * Conceptions * Things to remember * Self-evaluation (multiple choice with solutions, open questions, etc.) * Resources for further study * Bibliography == Introduction == Variation pedagogy is used when language teaching and learning approaches are adapted to sociolinguistic contexts where several languages with different statuses coexist (known as ‘diglossic’). Sociolinguistics should be associated with teaching activities, paying particular attention to the realities of language. As part of bilingual teaching or integrated language teaching, the pedagogy of variation involves taking account of pupils' actual language practices, in particular the phenomena of language variation or language mixing, in order to acquire the school language norm. In the course of language activities, pupils are encouraged to analyse their own language productions and to understand how the languages taught or included in the teaching-learning process work. In this way, they develop the skills that are essential for successful language acquisition: linguistic awareness and metalinguistic reflection. On these various points, the pedagogy of variation could be similar to the pedagogy of translanguaging (Garcia & Li Wei, 2014) currently in vogue in the USA, in that they both take account of pupils' plurilingual repertoires. However, the history of these two pedagogical approaches differs. == History == In France, the question of the pedagogical treatment of language variation in the context of the teaching-learning of French was raised in the work of Romian, Marcellesi and Treignier (1985), who referred to ‘a pedagogy of variation’ to solve the problems associated with the academic failure of children whose language practices are undermined by the school. ‘This pedagogy, yet to be developed, is based on a dual principle: the linguistic unity of the French language and the plurality of its uses and social discourse’ (Romian and Treignier, 1985, p. 3). Indeed, the implementation of the pedagogy of variation aims at the acquisition of the school linguistic norm when it is in competition with other varieties or regional languages. This pedagogy has proved effective in the Creole-speaking islands of the French West Indies (Martinique, Guadeloupe and Guyana) and the Indian Ocean (Réunion), where the French language coexists with a Creole language (with a French lexical base) and its varieties, sometimes mixing in such a way as to blur linguistic boundaries and give rise to interlectal forms (Prudent, 1983). The concept of interlect, which first appeared in Prudent's (1980) work on the conversational dynamics of the West Indies, refers to ‘the set of utterances that cannot be predicted by a grammar of the acrolect or basilect’ (Prudent, 1981, p.31), which are the grammars specific to so-called standard languages, such as French or Spanish, and Creole languages. Later, the concept of interlect was used to describe the mixed linguistic forms of French and Reunionese Creole (Souprayen-Cavery, 2010). As soon as Creole was introduced into schools as a language taught as part of Creole-French bilingual education and integrated into French teaching practices in the early 2000s in the Antilles and Réunion, the question of the place of pedagogical treatment of interlectal forms arose. The pedagogy of variation is therefore a pedagogical application of the concept of interlect for the acquisition of French and also Creole. It should be noted that these specificities, relating to the context of the Creole-speaking islands, prevent a potential rapprochement between the pedagogies of variation and translanguaging, even if both take into account the dynamic process in which hybrid forms appear. == Conceptions == The pedagogy of variation is mainly implemented in the context of bilingual teaching or integrated language teaching. It therefore comes under the heading of the didactics of plurilingualism and is based on ‘reflective observation of language contact’ (Georger, 2006, p. 57). The aim is to lead pupils towards the acquisition of school language standards by making them aware of their language use. The aim of this first stage is to make the most of what the pupils have to say, enabling them to express themselves in complete safety. After welcoming these linguistic productions, the teacher leads the pupils to analyse interlectal forms in particular, helping them to understand the distinction between codes as part of a contrastive analysis, which leads to the validation of the normative linguistic form. In this way, pupils develop their metalinguistic reflexes and can acquire the languages taught effectively. As a result, this method of teaching interlectal forms requires teachers to have a command of the target codes. For example, in the context of Reunion Island, the implementation of the integrated didactics of French and Creole in an interlectal context (Souprayen-Cavery, 2014) requires a mastery of French and Creole. It is also on this point that the pedagogies of variation and translanguaging in the version developed by García seem to differ, insofar as, for this second pedagogical approach, mastery of the languages used by the pupils seems not to be a necessary condition for its implementation. Furthermore, it should be emphasised that in translanguaging pedagogy, languages are not separate linguistic realities. The similarities between the two pedagogical approaches mainly relate to the same starting point, that of the pupils' actual hybrid language productions, and to the same end goal of acquiring the languages taught (pedagogical translanguaging, Cenoz & Gorter, 2021). == Take home messages == The main objective of the pedagogy of variation is to take into account all the language productions of the pupils for the acquisition of the school linguistic norm. == Self-assessment == <quiz display=simple> {In the exchange between the teacher and her pupils in the initial activity, the teacher accepts all the pupils' suggestions without judging them.} + True - False {The pupils analyse their classmates' suggestions.} + True - False {The students validate the correct proposal.} - True + False {The objective of this teaching method is based on the codic distinction.} + True - False </quiz> == Resources for further reading == * Chaudenson, R. (2007). Vers une didactique spécifique du français en milieu créolophone. In R. Chaudenson (Ed.), ''Français et créoles: du partenariat à des didactiques adaptées'' (pp. 47-90). L'Harmattan. * Chaudenson, R. (Ed.) (2008). ''Didactique du français en milieux créolophones.'' ''Outils pédagogiques et formation des maîtres''. L'Harmattan. * Lebon-Eyquem, M. (2014). Comment adapter l'enseignement à la variation linguistique réunionnaise? ''Contextes et Didactiques'', ''4'', https://doi.org/10.4000/ced.358 * Prudent, L. F., & Mérida, G. J. (1984). An langaj kréyol dimi-panaché... : interlect and conversational dynamics''.'' ''Langages'', 74, 31-45. * Ronjat, J. (1913). ''Le développement du langage observé chez un enfant bilingue''. Champion. * Simonin, J. (1995). Questioning social uses of language in a sociolinguistically complex island context. Le cas de l'île de la Réunion. Pour un modèle d'analyse interactionnelle. In J. Richard-Zappella (Ed), ''Le questionnement social'' (pp. 335-339). University of Rouen, IRED. == Bibliography == Cenoz, J., & Gorter, D. (2021). Pedagogical translanguaging. Cambridge University. García, O., & Li Wei (2014). ''Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism and education''. Palgrave Macmillan. Georger, F. (2006). ''Créole et français: deux langues pour un enseignement, Réflexion à partir d'une classe maternelle bilingue à La Réunion.'' Editions Tikouti. Prudent, L.-F. (1981). Diglossie et interlecte.''Langages'', 61, 13-38. Prudent, L.-F. (1983). Les Petites Antilles présentent-elles une situation de diglossie? ''Cahiers de linguistique sociale'', 4/5, 24-40. Prudent, L.-F. (2005). Interlect and pedagogy of variation in Creole countries. In L.-F. Prudent, F. Tupin & S. Wharton (Eds.), ''Du plurilinguisme à l'école'', ''vers une gestion coordonnée des langues en contextes éducatifs sensibles'' (pp. 359-378). Peter Lang. Romian, H., & Treignier J. (1985). Quel(s) traitement(s) pédagogique(s) de la variation et des normes langagières? ''Repères pour la rénovation de l'enseignement du français'', 67, 3-8. Romian H., Marcellesi C., Treignier J. (1985) Quelques concepts et notions opératoires pour une pédagogie de la variation langagière. ''Repères pour la rénovation de l'enseignement du français'', 67, 23- 32). Souprayen-Cavery, L. (2010). ''L'interlecte réunionnais: approche sociolinguistique des pratiques et des représentations,'' L'Harmattan''.'' Souprayen-Cavery, L. (2014). Pour une didactique intégrée du français et du créole dans un contexte interlectal. In J.-F. De Pietro & M. Rispail (Eds.), ''L'enseignement du français à l'heure du plurilinguisme'' (pp. 99-112)'','' Presses universitaires de Namur. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Logambal Souprayen-Cavery (Université de La Réunion) * Emmanuelle Croze (Université de La Réunion) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] 3vsuq7shlbr0cicg0td4crzt9uhgp5x 0 329124 2817284 2805106 2026-06-29T16:33:27Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self-assessment */ 2817284 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Initial activity == [[File:Dessin d'élèves sur ses langues.png|alt=Dessin d'élèves sur ses langues|thumb|Figure 1 - Dessin d'élèves sur ses langues]] [[File:Dessin d'élève réunionnais sur ses langues.png|alt=Dessin d'élève réunionnais sur ses langues|thumb|Figure 2 - Dessin d'élève réunionnais sur ses langues]] [[File:Dessin d'élève réunionnais sur les langues.png|alt=Dessin d'élève réunionnais sur les langues|thumb|Figure 3 - Dessin d'élève réunionnais sur les langues]] These documents (cf. Figures 1, 2 et 3) were produced in language classes to encourage reflection on learners‘ language learning experiences. We invite you to examine them. Try to answer the questions: * What do you learn about the speakers’ languages from these documents? * How did the speakers present their language histories? * What title would you give to this type of document? == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to... * understand the characteristics of language biographies and identity texts; * identify the objectives of using language biographies in the classroom; * use them in various training contexts or as a research tool. == Keywords == language practices, linguistic representations, language repertoire, multiple identities, sociolinguistic history, language contact, language status. == Prerequisites == Be aware of the languages you speak or do not speak that are part of your linguistic environment, and be able to name them. == Introduction == Language biography and identity texts are narrative tools that enable speakers to reflect on their linguistic practices and representations throughout their lives, to value each linguistic experience in order to imagine the next steps in the construction of their identity. Telling one's language story is not a simple narration, but a personal construction of one's sociolinguistic and environmental history. Thus, becoming aware of one's linguistic heritage causes a tremor in the self that leads to an existential transformation: ‘If we transform experience into consciousness, we are ready for a new beginning’ (Morin, 1994, p. 10). Because of these transformational effects, these tools can be used in the fields of sociolinguistics, education and teaching, for training purposes. More specifically, as a research tool, language biography also contributes to the reflection on languages in contact in the context of multilingualism and can be used to describe sociolinguistic situations in detail. This reflection is essential, as awareness of the richness and complexity of one's own language repertoire promotes a better understanding of how language works in individual and societal contexts. This self-awareness becomes a fundamental step in cultivating an attitude of openness, respect and appreciation for the linguistic repertoires of others, particularly in multilingual environments where multiple languages and identities coexist and interact. == History and concepts == Language biography and identity text are inspired by the methodology of life stories (Bertaux, 1997) in sociology. === Language biography === According to Thamin and Simon (2009), the term language biography was first used by R. Richterich J.-L. Chancerel in 1977:<blockquote>‘When searching for the origin of the term ‘language biographies’, we find it in the work of the Council of Europe, in a study by R. Richterich and J.-L. Chancerel dating from 1977, where it is stated that ‘the future learner will first give an account of their language biography...’ (p.3).</blockquote>The practice of life stories associated with adult education developed in the late 1970s in the field of education sciences has deeply inspired activities on language biography (Perregaux, 2002). Language sciences have also shown particular interest in this method for addressing issues of languages in contact (Billiez, 2003). Since the early 2000s, there has been renewed interest in language biography as a sociodidactic tool in the field of language teaching to address multilingualism in schools, combining ‘life courses’ and ‘language learning’ (Molinié, 2004). With a view to developing multilingualism within the European Union, the European Language Portfolio (ELP) presents language biography as a key tool enabling learners to become aware of their language repertoires and to self-assess their language skills. The Dictionary of French as a Foreign and Second Language Teaching (Cuq, 2003) offers a definition of language biography that takes into account its evolution and use in the various fields mentioned:<blockquote>‘the set of linguistic paths, more or less long and more or less numerous, that [a person] has travelled and which now form their language capital; they are historical beings who have encountered one or more languages, native or foreign, which constitute an ever-changing language capital. It is, in short, the linguistic experiences lived and accumulated in a random order that differentiate each individual from one another’ (p. 36).</blockquote>This 2023 definition was proposed on the basis of practices implemented in classroom situations. Therefore, the use of language biographies was not initiated by theory but by educational communities. From the blossoming of languages to language biography: work by pupils in cycle 1 (first year of nursery school in Réunion). === Identity texts === The term ‘identity texts’ appeared in the early 2000s in work carried out in Canada on pupils in Toronto classrooms with a view to promoting inclusivity. Cummins and Early (2011) looked at identity texts with the aim of linking language issues and societal challenges. As part of his reflections on bilingualism and bilingual education, Cummins (2000) used identity texts to guide bilingual pupils (particularly allophones, i.e. those who speak a language other than the language of the school) towards the construction of their cultural identities by making them aware of the profound value of their linguistic heritage. Cummins and Early (2011) describe identity texts as creative work presented by students in written, oral, visual or multimodal form, which transcribes their linguistic and cultural universe in a teacher-led educational space. [[File:De la fleur des langues à la biographie langagière - production d’élèves du cycle 1.png|alt=From the blossoming of languages to language biography: work by pupils in cycle 1 (first year of nursery school in Réunion)|thumb|Figure 4 - From the blossoming of languages to language biography: work by pupils in cycle 1 (first year of nursery school in Réunion)]] == Take home messages == Language biographies and identity texts are narrative tools that can be used in various fields (sociolinguistics, language teaching, education sciences, etc.) to raise awareness and promote the value of the speaker's language repertoire and experiences, with a view to identity reconstruction. == Self-assessment == <quiz display="simple"> {The language biographies and identity texts from the initial activity are presented in chronological order (past-present-future).} +True -False {The LB and IT from the initial activity reflect the languages spoken by the students.} +True -False {The LB and IT from the initial activity reflect the languages learned at school.} +True -False {In the BLs and ITs, feelings towards languages are made explicit.} +True -False </quiz> == Resources for further study == * Brohy, C. (2002). Raconte-moi tes langues...les biographies langagières en tant qu’outils d’enseignement et de recherche. ''VALS-ASLA,'' 76, 183-193. * Castellotti, V. & Moore, D. (2009). Dessins d’enfants et constructions plurilingues. Territoires imagés et parcours imaginés. Dans  M. Molinié (Ed.), ''Le dessin réflexif : élément'' ''d’une herméneutique du sujet plurilingue'' (pp. 45-85). Cergy-Pontoise : CRTF Université de Cergy-Pontoise. * Dominicé, P. (1992). ''L’histoire de vie comme processus de formation.'' Paris : L’Harmattan. * Lüdi, G. (2005). L’intérêt épistémologique de l’autobiographie linguistique pour l’acquisition/enseignement des langues. Dans M.-A. Mochet, M.-J. Barbot, V. Castellotti, J.-L. Chiss, C. Develotte & D. Moore (Eds.), ''Plurilinguisme et apprentissages. Mélanges Daniel Coste'' (pp. 143-154). Lyon : ENS Editions. * Molinié, M. (2003). Discontinuité sociolinguistique et cohérence biographique. ''VALS-ASLA,'' 76, 99-113. * Molinié, Μ. (2009). Le dessin réflexif : acte 1. Dans M. Molinié (Ed.), ''Le dessin réflexif : élément'' ''d’une herméneutique du sujet plurilingue'' (pp. 9-27). Cergy-Pontoise : CRTF Université de Cergy-Pontoise. * Atelier FLEUR DES LANGUES. Pour répertorier et valoriser les langues de la classe. https://padlet.com/MissionLVR/enseignement-en-milieu-cr-olophone-au-cycle-3-ns1gzwcescs7qiv3/wish/lkDVaKd4xBJVQPp9 == '''Bibliography''' == Bertaux, D. (1997). ''Les récits de vie, perspective ethnosociologique.'' Paris : Nathan. Billiez, J. (2003). ''Contacts de langues. Modèles, typologies, interventions''. Paris : L’Harmattan. Cummins, J. (2000). ''Language, power and pedagogy.'' Clevedon, R.U : Multilingual Matters. Cummins, J. et Early, M. (2011). ''Identity texts: The collaborative creation of power in multilingual schools''. Institute of Education Press. Cuq, J.-P. (2003). ''Dictionnaire de didactique du français langue étrangère et seconde''. Paris : CLE international. Edgar, M. (1994). ''Autocritique''. Points Essais. Molinié, M. (2004). Finalités du « biographique » en didactique des langues, Dans ''Le français aujourdhui'' '','' 147 (87-95). Molinié, M. (2006). Une approche biographique des trajectoires linguistiques et culturelles. Dans M. Molinié, (Ed.), ''Biographie langagière et apprentissage plurilingue.'' ''Le français dans le monde. Recherches et applications, 39'', 8-11. https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01224908/document Perregaux, C. (2002). (Auto)biographies langagières en formation et à l’école : pour une autre compréhension du rapport aux langues. ''VALS-ASLA, 76'' (81-94). Thamin, N. & Simon, D.-L. (2009). Réflexion épistémologique sur la notion de biographies langagières », Dans ''Carnets d’Ateliers de Sociolinguistique'' (CAS) n°4. == Credits == This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) * Sílvia Melo-Pfeifer (Universität Hamburg) * Logambal Souprayen-Cavery (Université de La Réunion) 6l81qs6oy9zzunbkzjx4ybzfwjcbvj9 0 329126 2817216 2817214 2026-06-29T12:00:04Z Vettere6 3097828 /* A question of terminology */ 2817216 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} = Starting activity = 1.  First, before reading any further, think about the concept of a language being “endangered”. What does this concept mean to you? What might be the danger involved? Try to identify a few reasons why a language might be considered endangered. 2.  Estimate the percentage of endangered languages among the approximately 7,500 languages in the world. You can then compare your estimate with the scale proposed on [https://glottolog.org/langdoc/status GlottoScope]. 3.  In a third step, drawing in particular on the resources proposed below, draw up a list of organizations that are involved in the protection of so-called “endangered” languages. Also note the other terms used to refer to this type of languages. * [https://la1ere.francetvinfo.fr/langues-autochtones-peril-demeure-decryptage-692158.html <nowiki>Langues autochtones : péril en la demeure [DECRYPTAGE]</nowiki>] * [https://blog.assimil.com/langues-en-danger-disparition/ Langues en danger : attention à leur disparition] * [https://www.unesco.org/en/decades/indigenous-languages UNESCO International Decade of Indigenous Languages 2022-2032] * [https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000380132/PDF/380132eng.pdf.multi UNESCO World Atlas of Languages] = Objectives = At the end of this section, you will be able to: * identify the challenges facing endangered languages in a multilingual context; * use respectful language when referring to endangered languages; * understand approaches to promoting endangered languages * understand the relationship between endangered languages and multilingual education. = Key words = Endangered languages, minority languages, indigenous languages, linguistic minority, revitalisation, reclamation, language promotion, plurilingual education, language policy = Introduction = “A language is endangered if it is not passed on to younger generations”. This is the simplest definition given by the ''Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger'' (original title: l’Atlas des langues en danger; p. 9, our translation). When we speak of “endangered” languages, we often refer to languages that—beyond the lack of intergenerational transmission—are used by numerically smaller groups and are not always officially recognized. There are many terms used to describe these languages, and we will see that not all of them are considered respectful. Languages considered to be “endangered” therefore constitute a sensitive subject, especially since language – in the generic sense – is intrinsically linked to being human. It influences, for example, how we form relationships with others, how we identify ourselves, how we take a stand, how we create art, and how we understand and transmit knowledge. It is therefore important to reflect on the terms used to name languages. In this regard, and to clarify matters, a guide was even published in 2025 to help journalists choose respectful terminology: ''[https://fpcc.ca/resource/say-it-with-respect/ Say it with respect].'' = History = === '''A question of terminology''' === Language labelling is always a political and ideological undertaking. It is particularly sensitive in the case of languages (and therefore their users) considered to be less powerful. Terms such as “less used,” “minority,” “small,” “small-scale,” or “endangered” reinforce and stabilize this position. Labelling languages as “minoritized,” “oppressed,” “marginalized,” or “excluded” takes into account the dynamics of power relations. Furthermore, if these languages are associated with communities that have a historical continuity with societies existing before conquest and colonization, the term “indigenous languages” is used. This is the case, for example, with UNESCO. The term “indigenous” language is less commonly used in French. A curious example is the Office of the Commissioner of Indigenous Languages in Canada. In Europe, the term “regional and minority” language is used, as we shall see in the section on the protection of “endangered” languages. === '''Identification of endangered languages''' === Two important measures were introduced in 1998 to promote so-called “regional or minority” languages: The ''European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages'' came into force in the same year as the ''Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities''. However, two important limitations should be noted: not all member countries of the Council of Europe have yet ratified these two documents, and migrant languages are not covered by this protection system. There are various scales for measuring whether a language is “endangered”, i.e. at risk of falling into disuse. According to GlottoScope's AES (Agglomerated Endangerment Status) scale, which classifies the majority of languages as “endangered”, only 34.13% of the world's languages are not considered as such. Other scales yield similar results, such as Ethnologue, which takes a more optimistic view, considering that “only” 43% of the world’s languages are “endangered.” Looking ahead, between 50% and 90% of the world’s languages could be seriously threatened or disappear by the year 2100 (Steele & Hagmair, 2024, p.3). === '''Weight of the “digital divide” between languages''' === In addition, there is a new challenge related to the digital divide, which is growing due to digital practices that give greater prominence to so-called international languages.  Indeed, these practices increase the structural disadvantages of languages considered “endangered” because they are not disseminated online and are classified, from a technological perspective, as “small-corpus” languages. The popularization of Artificial Intelligence (AI) worsens the situation for these small-corpus languages, amplifying the use of “dominant” languages through the development of AI-generated content online (Jouitteau 2023). === '''Language as a human right''' === The preservation of linguistic and human diversity is a global issue in which “endangered” languages play an important role. Research highlights their multiple contributions (cultural heritage, identity, social justice, knowledge preservation, well-being and scientific value, etc.). For example, UNESCO (2025) draws attention to the link between linguistic diversity and the climate crisis, arguing that knowledge of ecosystems and traditional sustainable practices is essential in the fight against global warming. === '''Saving linguistic diversity''' === Most “endangered” languages today share the common feature of existing within a multilingual context. Research adopts the approach of linguistic ecology advocated by Mühlhäusler (2018), which takes linguistic diversity as its starting point and considers languages as integrated within meaningful cultural, economic, and ecological contexts. To support an “endangered” language, linguistic diversity must therefore be preserved. In the field of education, a key area for the preservation of linguistic diversity, plurilingual education (Council of Europe, CM/Rec(2022-1)) and the didactics of plurilingualism are important levers for this preservation. This is part of a paradigm shift, which holds that by taking plurilingualism as a starting point, the foundations for future plurilingualism will be established. === '''Linguistic revitalisation and reclamation''' === Revitalisation and reclamation aim to safeguard linguistic diversity. However, there are important differences, as revitalisation pursues the idea of “bringing a language back to life” through measures that include, for example, intergenerational transmission or formal education. Reclamation emphasizes the idea that communities “take back” their language. Self-determination and community control are crucial (Leonard 2017). In what follows, we will list approaches to promote “endangered” languages within linguistic diversity, without distinguishing between revitalization and reclamation. = Conceptions = Several key approaches are implemented to support people who want to use “endangered” languages: * Create a safe space or a “breathing space” where the language can be used without pressure or fear of discrimination; * Engage with “new speakers”, that is, anyone who is committed to learning the language; * Raise awareness at the international level in line with UNESCO’s ''Decade of Indigenous Languages'' (2022–2032), a plan aimed at strengthening language rights and cultural diversity; * Document the languages, involving the communities that use them, through recordings or any other form of record that helps preserve their memory; * Create digital resources incorporating this documentation and share them on websites to enable access and learning; * Develop plurilingual education programs in educational institutions (universities, high schools, middle schools, etc.) with dedicated courses, seminars, and other activities to train teachers and learners; * Provide institutional support and sustainably fund languages, notably through laws and government initiatives that ensure long-term resources; * Develop respectful relationships between researchers and communities to avoid any colonial ideology; * Develop collaborative approaches (for example, for the creation of corpora). = Take home messages = * Understand that the endangerment of a language leads to it no longer being used; * Be aware that labelling languages is a political and ideological undertaking; * Understand that language is a human right that is defended by safeguarding linguistic diversity; * be aware that the census and documentation of minority and indigenous languages are essential, in the sense that they contribute to their recognition and to the preservation of human heritage; * Implement the promotion of these languages within institutions, notably in schools, through their recognition and, where possible, their teaching. = Self-assessment = # Make a list of terms used to refer to languages that are “in danger”. Classify the terms you find into two columns (respectful / to be avoided). Check your answers by consulting the guide. # List approaches to safeguarding linguistic diversity. Compare with the list above. Identify approaches that you consider particularly effective. = Resources to go further = * International Decade of Indigenous Languages 2022-2032: https://www.unesco.org/en/decades/indigenous-languages * UNESCO World Atlas of Languages: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000380132/PDF/380132eng.pdf.mult<nowiki/>i * UNESCO Atlas of the world's languages in danger: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000187026/PDF/187026eng.pdf.multi * Say it with respect! Journalists’ Guide: https://fpcc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/A-Journalists-Guide-to-Reporting-on-Indigenous-Minoritized-Languages-Language-Endangerment-and-Language-Revitalization.pdf * The Heritage Language Exchange: https://www.hlxchange.com * Living Tongues: https://livingtongues.org * Global Lessons: Indigenous languages and multilingualism in school programs: https://medium.com/global-lessons-indigenous-languages-and-multilingu/global-lessons-indigenous-languages-and-multilingualism-in-school-programs-7be80f580646#8b35 = Bibliography = CM/Rec(2022)1. L’ importance  de  l’éducation  plurilingue  et  interculturelle  pour  une  culture  de  la démocratie.  Recommandation CM/Rec(2022)1  adoptée  par  le  Comité  des  Ministres  du  Conseil de l’Europe le 2 février 2022 et exposé des motifs. https://www.ecml.at/Portals/1/documents/about-us/Recommendation%20and%20EM%20FR%20FINAL.pdf     Jouitteau, Mélanie. 2023. Guide de survie des langues minorisées à l'heure de l'intelligence artificielle: Appel aux communautés parlantes, ''Lapurdum'', numéro spécial 6. Leonard, W.Y. 2017. Producing language reclamation by decolonising ‘language’. In W. Y. Leonard & H. De Korne (Eds.), Language Documentation and Description (pp. 15-36). London: EL Publishing. Mühlhäusler, P. (2018): Theoretical and practical aspects of ecological language planning. In P. Mühlhäusler, R. Ludwig, & S. Pagel (Hrsg.): Linguistic ecology and language contact, Cambridge, 323–341, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139649568.018 Steele, P & Hagmair, G. (2024). Supporting minoritised and endangered languages. A policy brief based on the results from the CREWS and RISE UP projects. https://www.riseupproject.eu/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Supporting-minoritised-and-endangered-languages_CREWS_Rise-Up_-v3.pdf UNESCO.  (2025).  Les  langues  comptent  :  orientations  mondiales  pour  l’éducation  multilingue. https://doi.org/10.54675/ == Credits == This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) * Thierry Gaillat (Université de La Réunion) * Eva Vetter (Universität Wien) cxexqbqq947p614lz7z9yi72f5s1cwc 2817218 2817216 2026-06-29T12:02:41Z Vettere6 3097828 /* Bibliography */ 2817218 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} = Starting activity = 1.  First, before reading any further, think about the concept of a language being “endangered”. What does this concept mean to you? What might be the danger involved? Try to identify a few reasons why a language might be considered endangered. 2.  Estimate the percentage of endangered languages among the approximately 7,500 languages in the world. You can then compare your estimate with the scale proposed on [https://glottolog.org/langdoc/status GlottoScope]. 3.  In a third step, drawing in particular on the resources proposed below, draw up a list of organizations that are involved in the protection of so-called “endangered” languages. Also note the other terms used to refer to this type of languages. * [https://la1ere.francetvinfo.fr/langues-autochtones-peril-demeure-decryptage-692158.html <nowiki>Langues autochtones : péril en la demeure [DECRYPTAGE]</nowiki>] * [https://blog.assimil.com/langues-en-danger-disparition/ Langues en danger : attention à leur disparition] * [https://www.unesco.org/en/decades/indigenous-languages UNESCO International Decade of Indigenous Languages 2022-2032] * [https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000380132/PDF/380132eng.pdf.multi UNESCO World Atlas of Languages] = Objectives = At the end of this section, you will be able to: * identify the challenges facing endangered languages in a multilingual context; * use respectful language when referring to endangered languages; * understand approaches to promoting endangered languages * understand the relationship between endangered languages and multilingual education. = Key words = Endangered languages, minority languages, indigenous languages, linguistic minority, revitalisation, reclamation, language promotion, plurilingual education, language policy = Introduction = “A language is endangered if it is not passed on to younger generations”. This is the simplest definition given by the ''Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger'' (original title: l’Atlas des langues en danger; p. 9, our translation). When we speak of “endangered” languages, we often refer to languages that—beyond the lack of intergenerational transmission—are used by numerically smaller groups and are not always officially recognized. There are many terms used to describe these languages, and we will see that not all of them are considered respectful. Languages considered to be “endangered” therefore constitute a sensitive subject, especially since language – in the generic sense – is intrinsically linked to being human. It influences, for example, how we form relationships with others, how we identify ourselves, how we take a stand, how we create art, and how we understand and transmit knowledge. It is therefore important to reflect on the terms used to name languages. In this regard, and to clarify matters, a guide was even published in 2025 to help journalists choose respectful terminology: ''[https://fpcc.ca/resource/say-it-with-respect/ Say it with respect].'' = History = === '''A question of terminology''' === Language labelling is always a political and ideological undertaking. It is particularly sensitive in the case of languages (and therefore their users) considered to be less powerful. Terms such as “less used,” “minority,” “small,” “small-scale,” or “endangered” reinforce and stabilize this position. Labelling languages as “minoritized,” “oppressed,” “marginalized,” or “excluded” takes into account the dynamics of power relations. Furthermore, if these languages are associated with communities that have a historical continuity with societies existing before conquest and colonization, the term “indigenous languages” is used. This is the case, for example, with UNESCO. The term “indigenous” language is less commonly used in French. A curious example is the Office of the Commissioner of Indigenous Languages in Canada. In Europe, the term “regional and minority” language is used, as we shall see in the section on the protection of “endangered” languages. === '''Identification of endangered languages''' === Two important measures were introduced in 1998 to promote so-called “regional or minority” languages: The ''European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages'' came into force in the same year as the ''Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities''. However, two important limitations should be noted: not all member countries of the Council of Europe have yet ratified these two documents, and migrant languages are not covered by this protection system. There are various scales for measuring whether a language is “endangered”, i.e. at risk of falling into disuse. According to GlottoScope's AES (Agglomerated Endangerment Status) scale, which classifies the majority of languages as “endangered”, only 34.13% of the world's languages are not considered as such. Other scales yield similar results, such as Ethnologue, which takes a more optimistic view, considering that “only” 43% of the world’s languages are “endangered.” Looking ahead, between 50% and 90% of the world’s languages could be seriously threatened or disappear by the year 2100 (Steele & Hagmair, 2024, p.3). === '''Weight of the “digital divide” between languages''' === In addition, there is a new challenge related to the digital divide, which is growing due to digital practices that give greater prominence to so-called international languages.  Indeed, these practices increase the structural disadvantages of languages considered “endangered” because they are not disseminated online and are classified, from a technological perspective, as “small-corpus” languages. The popularization of Artificial Intelligence (AI) worsens the situation for these small-corpus languages, amplifying the use of “dominant” languages through the development of AI-generated content online (Jouitteau 2023). === '''Language as a human right''' === The preservation of linguistic and human diversity is a global issue in which “endangered” languages play an important role. Research highlights their multiple contributions (cultural heritage, identity, social justice, knowledge preservation, well-being and scientific value, etc.). For example, UNESCO (2025) draws attention to the link between linguistic diversity and the climate crisis, arguing that knowledge of ecosystems and traditional sustainable practices is essential in the fight against global warming. === '''Saving linguistic diversity''' === Most “endangered” languages today share the common feature of existing within a multilingual context. Research adopts the approach of linguistic ecology advocated by Mühlhäusler (2018), which takes linguistic diversity as its starting point and considers languages as integrated within meaningful cultural, economic, and ecological contexts. To support an “endangered” language, linguistic diversity must therefore be preserved. In the field of education, a key area for the preservation of linguistic diversity, plurilingual education (Council of Europe, CM/Rec(2022-1)) and the didactics of plurilingualism are important levers for this preservation. This is part of a paradigm shift, which holds that by taking plurilingualism as a starting point, the foundations for future plurilingualism will be established. === '''Linguistic revitalisation and reclamation''' === Revitalisation and reclamation aim to safeguard linguistic diversity. However, there are important differences, as revitalisation pursues the idea of “bringing a language back to life” through measures that include, for example, intergenerational transmission or formal education. Reclamation emphasizes the idea that communities “take back” their language. Self-determination and community control are crucial (Leonard 2017). In what follows, we will list approaches to promote “endangered” languages within linguistic diversity, without distinguishing between revitalization and reclamation. = Conceptions = Several key approaches are implemented to support people who want to use “endangered” languages: * Create a safe space or a “breathing space” where the language can be used without pressure or fear of discrimination; * Engage with “new speakers”, that is, anyone who is committed to learning the language; * Raise awareness at the international level in line with UNESCO’s ''Decade of Indigenous Languages'' (2022–2032), a plan aimed at strengthening language rights and cultural diversity; * Document the languages, involving the communities that use them, through recordings or any other form of record that helps preserve their memory; * Create digital resources incorporating this documentation and share them on websites to enable access and learning; * Develop plurilingual education programs in educational institutions (universities, high schools, middle schools, etc.) with dedicated courses, seminars, and other activities to train teachers and learners; * Provide institutional support and sustainably fund languages, notably through laws and government initiatives that ensure long-term resources; * Develop respectful relationships between researchers and communities to avoid any colonial ideology; * Develop collaborative approaches (for example, for the creation of corpora). = Take home messages = * Understand that the endangerment of a language leads to it no longer being used; * Be aware that labelling languages is a political and ideological undertaking; * Understand that language is a human right that is defended by safeguarding linguistic diversity; * be aware that the census and documentation of minority and indigenous languages are essential, in the sense that they contribute to their recognition and to the preservation of human heritage; * Implement the promotion of these languages within institutions, notably in schools, through their recognition and, where possible, their teaching. = Self-assessment = # Make a list of terms used to refer to languages that are “in danger”. Classify the terms you find into two columns (respectful / to be avoided). Check your answers by consulting the guide. # List approaches to safeguarding linguistic diversity. Compare with the list above. Identify approaches that you consider particularly effective. = Resources to go further = * International Decade of Indigenous Languages 2022-2032: https://www.unesco.org/en/decades/indigenous-languages * UNESCO World Atlas of Languages: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000380132/PDF/380132eng.pdf.mult<nowiki/>i * UNESCO Atlas of the world's languages in danger: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000187026/PDF/187026eng.pdf.multi * Say it with respect! Journalists’ Guide: https://fpcc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/A-Journalists-Guide-to-Reporting-on-Indigenous-Minoritized-Languages-Language-Endangerment-and-Language-Revitalization.pdf * The Heritage Language Exchange: https://www.hlxchange.com * Living Tongues: https://livingtongues.org * Global Lessons: Indigenous languages and multilingualism in school programs: https://medium.com/global-lessons-indigenous-languages-and-multilingu/global-lessons-indigenous-languages-and-multilingualism-in-school-programs-7be80f580646#8b35 = Bibliography = CM/Rec(2022)1. L’ importance  de  l’éducation  plurilingue  et  interculturelle  pour  une  culture  de  la démocratie.  Recommandation CM/Rec(2022)1  adoptée  par  le  Comité  des  Ministres  du  Conseil de l’Europe le 2 février 2022 et exposé des motifs. https://www.ecml.at/Portals/1/documents/about-us/Recommendation%20and%20EM%20FR%20FINAL.pdf     Jouitteau, Mélanie. 2023. Guide de survie des langues minorisées à l'heure de l'intelligence artificielle: Appel aux communautés parlantes, ''Lapurdum'', numéro spécial 6. https://hal.science/hal-04090195v2 Leonard, W.Y. 2017. Producing language reclamation by decolonising ‘language’. In W. Y. Leonard & H. De Korne (Eds.), Language Documentation and Description (pp. 15-36). London: EL Publishing. Mühlhäusler, P. (2018): Theoretical and practical aspects of ecological language planning. In P. Mühlhäusler, R. Ludwig, & S. Pagel (Hrsg.): Linguistic ecology and language contact, Cambridge, 323–341, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139649568.018 Steele, P & Hagmair, G. (2024). Supporting minoritised and endangered languages. A policy brief based on the results from the CREWS and RISE UP projects. https://www.riseupproject.eu/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Supporting-minoritised-and-endangered-languages_CREWS_Rise-Up_-v3.pdf UNESCO.  (2025).  Les  langues  comptent  :  orientations  mondiales  pour  l’éducation  multilingue. https://doi.org/10.54675/ == Credits == This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) * Thierry Gaillat (Université de La Réunion) * Eva Vetter (Universität Wien) h0qsvxaenuz3rcsemj53i0h8bs1x889 2817220 2817218 2026-06-29T12:03:29Z Vettere6 3097828 /* Take home messages */ 2817220 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} = Starting activity = 1.  First, before reading any further, think about the concept of a language being “endangered”. What does this concept mean to you? What might be the danger involved? Try to identify a few reasons why a language might be considered endangered. 2.  Estimate the percentage of endangered languages among the approximately 7,500 languages in the world. You can then compare your estimate with the scale proposed on [https://glottolog.org/langdoc/status GlottoScope]. 3.  In a third step, drawing in particular on the resources proposed below, draw up a list of organizations that are involved in the protection of so-called “endangered” languages. Also note the other terms used to refer to this type of languages. * [https://la1ere.francetvinfo.fr/langues-autochtones-peril-demeure-decryptage-692158.html <nowiki>Langues autochtones : péril en la demeure [DECRYPTAGE]</nowiki>] * [https://blog.assimil.com/langues-en-danger-disparition/ Langues en danger : attention à leur disparition] * [https://www.unesco.org/en/decades/indigenous-languages UNESCO International Decade of Indigenous Languages 2022-2032] * [https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000380132/PDF/380132eng.pdf.multi UNESCO World Atlas of Languages] = Objectives = At the end of this section, you will be able to: * identify the challenges facing endangered languages in a multilingual context; * use respectful language when referring to endangered languages; * understand approaches to promoting endangered languages * understand the relationship between endangered languages and multilingual education. = Key words = Endangered languages, minority languages, indigenous languages, linguistic minority, revitalisation, reclamation, language promotion, plurilingual education, language policy = Introduction = “A language is endangered if it is not passed on to younger generations”. This is the simplest definition given by the ''Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger'' (original title: l’Atlas des langues en danger; p. 9, our translation). When we speak of “endangered” languages, we often refer to languages that—beyond the lack of intergenerational transmission—are used by numerically smaller groups and are not always officially recognized. There are many terms used to describe these languages, and we will see that not all of them are considered respectful. Languages considered to be “endangered” therefore constitute a sensitive subject, especially since language – in the generic sense – is intrinsically linked to being human. It influences, for example, how we form relationships with others, how we identify ourselves, how we take a stand, how we create art, and how we understand and transmit knowledge. It is therefore important to reflect on the terms used to name languages. In this regard, and to clarify matters, a guide was even published in 2025 to help journalists choose respectful terminology: ''[https://fpcc.ca/resource/say-it-with-respect/ Say it with respect].'' = History = === '''A question of terminology''' === Language labelling is always a political and ideological undertaking. It is particularly sensitive in the case of languages (and therefore their users) considered to be less powerful. Terms such as “less used,” “minority,” “small,” “small-scale,” or “endangered” reinforce and stabilize this position. Labelling languages as “minoritized,” “oppressed,” “marginalized,” or “excluded” takes into account the dynamics of power relations. Furthermore, if these languages are associated with communities that have a historical continuity with societies existing before conquest and colonization, the term “indigenous languages” is used. This is the case, for example, with UNESCO. The term “indigenous” language is less commonly used in French. A curious example is the Office of the Commissioner of Indigenous Languages in Canada. In Europe, the term “regional and minority” language is used, as we shall see in the section on the protection of “endangered” languages. === '''Identification of endangered languages''' === Two important measures were introduced in 1998 to promote so-called “regional or minority” languages: The ''European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages'' came into force in the same year as the ''Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities''. However, two important limitations should be noted: not all member countries of the Council of Europe have yet ratified these two documents, and migrant languages are not covered by this protection system. There are various scales for measuring whether a language is “endangered”, i.e. at risk of falling into disuse. According to GlottoScope's AES (Agglomerated Endangerment Status) scale, which classifies the majority of languages as “endangered”, only 34.13% of the world's languages are not considered as such. Other scales yield similar results, such as Ethnologue, which takes a more optimistic view, considering that “only” 43% of the world’s languages are “endangered.” Looking ahead, between 50% and 90% of the world’s languages could be seriously threatened or disappear by the year 2100 (Steele & Hagmair, 2024, p.3). === '''Weight of the “digital divide” between languages''' === In addition, there is a new challenge related to the digital divide, which is growing due to digital practices that give greater prominence to so-called international languages.  Indeed, these practices increase the structural disadvantages of languages considered “endangered” because they are not disseminated online and are classified, from a technological perspective, as “small-corpus” languages. The popularization of Artificial Intelligence (AI) worsens the situation for these small-corpus languages, amplifying the use of “dominant” languages through the development of AI-generated content online (Jouitteau 2023). === '''Language as a human right''' === The preservation of linguistic and human diversity is a global issue in which “endangered” languages play an important role. Research highlights their multiple contributions (cultural heritage, identity, social justice, knowledge preservation, well-being and scientific value, etc.). For example, UNESCO (2025) draws attention to the link between linguistic diversity and the climate crisis, arguing that knowledge of ecosystems and traditional sustainable practices is essential in the fight against global warming. === '''Saving linguistic diversity''' === Most “endangered” languages today share the common feature of existing within a multilingual context. Research adopts the approach of linguistic ecology advocated by Mühlhäusler (2018), which takes linguistic diversity as its starting point and considers languages as integrated within meaningful cultural, economic, and ecological contexts. To support an “endangered” language, linguistic diversity must therefore be preserved. In the field of education, a key area for the preservation of linguistic diversity, plurilingual education (Council of Europe, CM/Rec(2022-1)) and the didactics of plurilingualism are important levers for this preservation. This is part of a paradigm shift, which holds that by taking plurilingualism as a starting point, the foundations for future plurilingualism will be established. === '''Linguistic revitalisation and reclamation''' === Revitalisation and reclamation aim to safeguard linguistic diversity. However, there are important differences, as revitalisation pursues the idea of “bringing a language back to life” through measures that include, for example, intergenerational transmission or formal education. Reclamation emphasizes the idea that communities “take back” their language. Self-determination and community control are crucial (Leonard 2017). In what follows, we will list approaches to promote “endangered” languages within linguistic diversity, without distinguishing between revitalization and reclamation. = Conceptions = Several key approaches are implemented to support people who want to use “endangered” languages: * Create a safe space or a “breathing space” where the language can be used without pressure or fear of discrimination; * Engage with “new speakers”, that is, anyone who is committed to learning the language; * Raise awareness at the international level in line with UNESCO’s ''Decade of Indigenous Languages'' (2022–2032), a plan aimed at strengthening language rights and cultural diversity; * Document the languages, involving the communities that use them, through recordings or any other form of record that helps preserve their memory; * Create digital resources incorporating this documentation and share them on websites to enable access and learning; * Develop plurilingual education programs in educational institutions (universities, high schools, middle schools, etc.) with dedicated courses, seminars, and other activities to train teachers and learners; * Provide institutional support and sustainably fund languages, notably through laws and government initiatives that ensure long-term resources; * Develop respectful relationships between researchers and communities to avoid any colonial ideology; * Develop collaborative approaches (for example, for the creation of corpora). = Take home messages = * Understand that the endangerment of a language leads to it no longer being used; * Be aware that labelling languages is a political and ideological undertaking; * Understand that language is a human right that is defended by safeguarding linguistic diversity; * Be aware that the census and documentation of minority and indigenous languages are essential, in the sense that they contribute to their recognition and to the preservation of human heritage; * Implement the promotion of these languages within institutions, notably in schools, through their recognition and, where possible, their teaching. = Self-assessment = # Make a list of terms used to refer to languages that are “in danger”. Classify the terms you find into two columns (respectful / to be avoided). Check your answers by consulting the guide. # List approaches to safeguarding linguistic diversity. Compare with the list above. Identify approaches that you consider particularly effective. = Resources to go further = * International Decade of Indigenous Languages 2022-2032: https://www.unesco.org/en/decades/indigenous-languages * UNESCO World Atlas of Languages: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000380132/PDF/380132eng.pdf.mult<nowiki/>i * UNESCO Atlas of the world's languages in danger: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000187026/PDF/187026eng.pdf.multi * Say it with respect! Journalists’ Guide: https://fpcc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/A-Journalists-Guide-to-Reporting-on-Indigenous-Minoritized-Languages-Language-Endangerment-and-Language-Revitalization.pdf * The Heritage Language Exchange: https://www.hlxchange.com * Living Tongues: https://livingtongues.org * Global Lessons: Indigenous languages and multilingualism in school programs: https://medium.com/global-lessons-indigenous-languages-and-multilingu/global-lessons-indigenous-languages-and-multilingualism-in-school-programs-7be80f580646#8b35 = Bibliography = CM/Rec(2022)1. L’ importance  de  l’éducation  plurilingue  et  interculturelle  pour  une  culture  de  la démocratie.  Recommandation CM/Rec(2022)1  adoptée  par  le  Comité  des  Ministres  du  Conseil de l’Europe le 2 février 2022 et exposé des motifs. https://www.ecml.at/Portals/1/documents/about-us/Recommendation%20and%20EM%20FR%20FINAL.pdf     Jouitteau, Mélanie. 2023. Guide de survie des langues minorisées à l'heure de l'intelligence artificielle: Appel aux communautés parlantes, ''Lapurdum'', numéro spécial 6. https://hal.science/hal-04090195v2 Leonard, W.Y. 2017. Producing language reclamation by decolonising ‘language’. In W. Y. Leonard & H. De Korne (Eds.), Language Documentation and Description (pp. 15-36). London: EL Publishing. Mühlhäusler, P. (2018): Theoretical and practical aspects of ecological language planning. In P. Mühlhäusler, R. Ludwig, & S. Pagel (Hrsg.): Linguistic ecology and language contact, Cambridge, 323–341, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139649568.018 Steele, P & Hagmair, G. (2024). Supporting minoritised and endangered languages. A policy brief based on the results from the CREWS and RISE UP projects. https://www.riseupproject.eu/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Supporting-minoritised-and-endangered-languages_CREWS_Rise-Up_-v3.pdf UNESCO.  (2025).  Les  langues  comptent  :  orientations  mondiales  pour  l’éducation  multilingue. https://doi.org/10.54675/ == Credits == This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) * Thierry Gaillat (Université de La Réunion) * Eva Vetter (Universität Wien) 3mmy2n0peh2d77mj1og1wwfw5opjp2m 2817222 2817220 2026-06-29T12:04:47Z Vettere6 3097828 /* Weight of the “digital divide” between languages */ 2817222 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} = Starting activity = 1.  First, before reading any further, think about the concept of a language being “endangered”. What does this concept mean to you? What might be the danger involved? Try to identify a few reasons why a language might be considered endangered. 2.  Estimate the percentage of endangered languages among the approximately 7,500 languages in the world. You can then compare your estimate with the scale proposed on [https://glottolog.org/langdoc/status GlottoScope]. 3.  In a third step, drawing in particular on the resources proposed below, draw up a list of organizations that are involved in the protection of so-called “endangered” languages. Also note the other terms used to refer to this type of languages. * [https://la1ere.francetvinfo.fr/langues-autochtones-peril-demeure-decryptage-692158.html <nowiki>Langues autochtones : péril en la demeure [DECRYPTAGE]</nowiki>] * [https://blog.assimil.com/langues-en-danger-disparition/ Langues en danger : attention à leur disparition] * [https://www.unesco.org/en/decades/indigenous-languages UNESCO International Decade of Indigenous Languages 2022-2032] * [https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000380132/PDF/380132eng.pdf.multi UNESCO World Atlas of Languages] = Objectives = At the end of this section, you will be able to: * identify the challenges facing endangered languages in a multilingual context; * use respectful language when referring to endangered languages; * understand approaches to promoting endangered languages * understand the relationship between endangered languages and multilingual education. = Key words = Endangered languages, minority languages, indigenous languages, linguistic minority, revitalisation, reclamation, language promotion, plurilingual education, language policy = Introduction = “A language is endangered if it is not passed on to younger generations”. This is the simplest definition given by the ''Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger'' (original title: l’Atlas des langues en danger; p. 9, our translation). When we speak of “endangered” languages, we often refer to languages that—beyond the lack of intergenerational transmission—are used by numerically smaller groups and are not always officially recognized. There are many terms used to describe these languages, and we will see that not all of them are considered respectful. Languages considered to be “endangered” therefore constitute a sensitive subject, especially since language – in the generic sense – is intrinsically linked to being human. It influences, for example, how we form relationships with others, how we identify ourselves, how we take a stand, how we create art, and how we understand and transmit knowledge. It is therefore important to reflect on the terms used to name languages. In this regard, and to clarify matters, a guide was even published in 2025 to help journalists choose respectful terminology: ''[https://fpcc.ca/resource/say-it-with-respect/ Say it with respect].'' = History = === '''A question of terminology''' === Language labelling is always a political and ideological undertaking. It is particularly sensitive in the case of languages (and therefore their users) considered to be less powerful. Terms such as “less used,” “minority,” “small,” “small-scale,” or “endangered” reinforce and stabilize this position. Labelling languages as “minoritized,” “oppressed,” “marginalized,” or “excluded” takes into account the dynamics of power relations. Furthermore, if these languages are associated with communities that have a historical continuity with societies existing before conquest and colonization, the term “indigenous languages” is used. This is the case, for example, with UNESCO. The term “indigenous” language is less commonly used in French. A curious example is the Office of the Commissioner of Indigenous Languages in Canada. In Europe, the term “regional and minority” language is used, as we shall see in the section on the protection of “endangered” languages. === '''Identification of endangered languages''' === Two important measures were introduced in 1998 to promote so-called “regional or minority” languages: The ''European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages'' came into force in the same year as the ''Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities''. However, two important limitations should be noted: not all member countries of the Council of Europe have yet ratified these two documents, and migrant languages are not covered by this protection system. There are various scales for measuring whether a language is “endangered”, i.e. at risk of falling into disuse. According to GlottoScope's AES (Agglomerated Endangerment Status) scale, which classifies the majority of languages as “endangered”, only 34.13% of the world's languages are not considered as such. Other scales yield similar results, such as Ethnologue, which takes a more optimistic view, considering that “only” 43% of the world’s languages are “endangered.” Looking ahead, between 50% and 90% of the world’s languages could be seriously threatened or disappear by the year 2100 (Steele & Hagmair, 2024, p.3). === '''Weight of the “digital divide” between languages''' === In addition, there is a new challenge related to the digital divide, which is growing due to digital practices that give greater prominence to so-called international languages.  Indeed, these practices increase the structural disadvantages of languages considered “endangered” because they are not disseminated online and are classified, from a technological perspective, as “small-corpus” languages. The popularization of Artificial Intelligence (AI) worsens the situation for these small-corpus languages, amplifying the use of “dominant” languages through the development of AI-generated content online ([https://hal.science/hal-04090195v2 Jouitteau 2023]). === '''Language as a human right''' === The preservation of linguistic and human diversity is a global issue in which “endangered” languages play an important role. Research highlights their multiple contributions (cultural heritage, identity, social justice, knowledge preservation, well-being and scientific value, etc.). For example, UNESCO (2025) draws attention to the link between linguistic diversity and the climate crisis, arguing that knowledge of ecosystems and traditional sustainable practices is essential in the fight against global warming. === '''Saving linguistic diversity''' === Most “endangered” languages today share the common feature of existing within a multilingual context. Research adopts the approach of linguistic ecology advocated by Mühlhäusler (2018), which takes linguistic diversity as its starting point and considers languages as integrated within meaningful cultural, economic, and ecological contexts. To support an “endangered” language, linguistic diversity must therefore be preserved. In the field of education, a key area for the preservation of linguistic diversity, plurilingual education (Council of Europe, CM/Rec(2022-1)) and the didactics of plurilingualism are important levers for this preservation. This is part of a paradigm shift, which holds that by taking plurilingualism as a starting point, the foundations for future plurilingualism will be established. === '''Linguistic revitalisation and reclamation''' === Revitalisation and reclamation aim to safeguard linguistic diversity. However, there are important differences, as revitalisation pursues the idea of “bringing a language back to life” through measures that include, for example, intergenerational transmission or formal education. Reclamation emphasizes the idea that communities “take back” their language. Self-determination and community control are crucial (Leonard 2017). In what follows, we will list approaches to promote “endangered” languages within linguistic diversity, without distinguishing between revitalization and reclamation. = Conceptions = Several key approaches are implemented to support people who want to use “endangered” languages: * Create a safe space or a “breathing space” where the language can be used without pressure or fear of discrimination; * Engage with “new speakers”, that is, anyone who is committed to learning the language; * Raise awareness at the international level in line with UNESCO’s ''Decade of Indigenous Languages'' (2022–2032), a plan aimed at strengthening language rights and cultural diversity; * Document the languages, involving the communities that use them, through recordings or any other form of record that helps preserve their memory; * Create digital resources incorporating this documentation and share them on websites to enable access and learning; * Develop plurilingual education programs in educational institutions (universities, high schools, middle schools, etc.) with dedicated courses, seminars, and other activities to train teachers and learners; * Provide institutional support and sustainably fund languages, notably through laws and government initiatives that ensure long-term resources; * Develop respectful relationships between researchers and communities to avoid any colonial ideology; * Develop collaborative approaches (for example, for the creation of corpora). = Take home messages = * Understand that the endangerment of a language leads to it no longer being used; * Be aware that labelling languages is a political and ideological undertaking; * Understand that language is a human right that is defended by safeguarding linguistic diversity; * Be aware that the census and documentation of minority and indigenous languages are essential, in the sense that they contribute to their recognition and to the preservation of human heritage; * Implement the promotion of these languages within institutions, notably in schools, through their recognition and, where possible, their teaching. = Self-assessment = # Make a list of terms used to refer to languages that are “in danger”. Classify the terms you find into two columns (respectful / to be avoided). Check your answers by consulting the guide. # List approaches to safeguarding linguistic diversity. Compare with the list above. Identify approaches that you consider particularly effective. = Resources to go further = * International Decade of Indigenous Languages 2022-2032: https://www.unesco.org/en/decades/indigenous-languages * UNESCO World Atlas of Languages: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000380132/PDF/380132eng.pdf.mult<nowiki/>i * UNESCO Atlas of the world's languages in danger: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000187026/PDF/187026eng.pdf.multi * Say it with respect! Journalists’ Guide: https://fpcc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/A-Journalists-Guide-to-Reporting-on-Indigenous-Minoritized-Languages-Language-Endangerment-and-Language-Revitalization.pdf * The Heritage Language Exchange: https://www.hlxchange.com * Living Tongues: https://livingtongues.org * Global Lessons: Indigenous languages and multilingualism in school programs: https://medium.com/global-lessons-indigenous-languages-and-multilingu/global-lessons-indigenous-languages-and-multilingualism-in-school-programs-7be80f580646#8b35 = Bibliography = CM/Rec(2022)1. L’ importance  de  l’éducation  plurilingue  et  interculturelle  pour  une  culture  de  la démocratie.  Recommandation CM/Rec(2022)1  adoptée  par  le  Comité  des  Ministres  du  Conseil de l’Europe le 2 février 2022 et exposé des motifs. https://www.ecml.at/Portals/1/documents/about-us/Recommendation%20and%20EM%20FR%20FINAL.pdf     Jouitteau, Mélanie. 2023. Guide de survie des langues minorisées à l'heure de l'intelligence artificielle: Appel aux communautés parlantes, ''Lapurdum'', numéro spécial 6. https://hal.science/hal-04090195v2 Leonard, W.Y. 2017. Producing language reclamation by decolonising ‘language’. In W. Y. Leonard & H. De Korne (Eds.), Language Documentation and Description (pp. 15-36). London: EL Publishing. Mühlhäusler, P. (2018): Theoretical and practical aspects of ecological language planning. In P. Mühlhäusler, R. Ludwig, & S. Pagel (Hrsg.): Linguistic ecology and language contact, Cambridge, 323–341, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139649568.018 Steele, P & Hagmair, G. (2024). Supporting minoritised and endangered languages. A policy brief based on the results from the CREWS and RISE UP projects. https://www.riseupproject.eu/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Supporting-minoritised-and-endangered-languages_CREWS_Rise-Up_-v3.pdf UNESCO.  (2025).  Les  langues  comptent  :  orientations  mondiales  pour  l’éducation  multilingue. https://doi.org/10.54675/ == Credits == This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) * Thierry Gaillat (Université de La Réunion) * Eva Vetter (Universität Wien) 0px1bikg1pfv028ivw37sdbdyyrpelk 2817223 2817222 2026-06-29T12:09:51Z Vettere6 3097828 /* Resources to go further */ 2817223 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} = Starting activity = 1.  First, before reading any further, think about the concept of a language being “endangered”. What does this concept mean to you? What might be the danger involved? Try to identify a few reasons why a language might be considered endangered. 2.  Estimate the percentage of endangered languages among the approximately 7,500 languages in the world. You can then compare your estimate with the scale proposed on [https://glottolog.org/langdoc/status GlottoScope]. 3.  In a third step, drawing in particular on the resources proposed below, draw up a list of organizations that are involved in the protection of so-called “endangered” languages. Also note the other terms used to refer to this type of languages. * [https://la1ere.francetvinfo.fr/langues-autochtones-peril-demeure-decryptage-692158.html <nowiki>Langues autochtones : péril en la demeure [DECRYPTAGE]</nowiki>] * [https://blog.assimil.com/langues-en-danger-disparition/ Langues en danger : attention à leur disparition] * [https://www.unesco.org/en/decades/indigenous-languages UNESCO International Decade of Indigenous Languages 2022-2032] * [https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000380132/PDF/380132eng.pdf.multi UNESCO World Atlas of Languages] = Objectives = At the end of this section, you will be able to: * identify the challenges facing endangered languages in a multilingual context; * use respectful language when referring to endangered languages; * understand approaches to promoting endangered languages * understand the relationship between endangered languages and multilingual education. = Key words = Endangered languages, minority languages, indigenous languages, linguistic minority, revitalisation, reclamation, language promotion, plurilingual education, language policy = Introduction = “A language is endangered if it is not passed on to younger generations”. This is the simplest definition given by the ''Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger'' (original title: l’Atlas des langues en danger; p. 9, our translation). When we speak of “endangered” languages, we often refer to languages that—beyond the lack of intergenerational transmission—are used by numerically smaller groups and are not always officially recognized. There are many terms used to describe these languages, and we will see that not all of them are considered respectful. Languages considered to be “endangered” therefore constitute a sensitive subject, especially since language – in the generic sense – is intrinsically linked to being human. It influences, for example, how we form relationships with others, how we identify ourselves, how we take a stand, how we create art, and how we understand and transmit knowledge. It is therefore important to reflect on the terms used to name languages. In this regard, and to clarify matters, a guide was even published in 2025 to help journalists choose respectful terminology: ''[https://fpcc.ca/resource/say-it-with-respect/ Say it with respect].'' = History = === '''A question of terminology''' === Language labelling is always a political and ideological undertaking. It is particularly sensitive in the case of languages (and therefore their users) considered to be less powerful. Terms such as “less used,” “minority,” “small,” “small-scale,” or “endangered” reinforce and stabilize this position. Labelling languages as “minoritized,” “oppressed,” “marginalized,” or “excluded” takes into account the dynamics of power relations. Furthermore, if these languages are associated with communities that have a historical continuity with societies existing before conquest and colonization, the term “indigenous languages” is used. This is the case, for example, with UNESCO. The term “indigenous” language is less commonly used in French. A curious example is the Office of the Commissioner of Indigenous Languages in Canada. In Europe, the term “regional and minority” language is used, as we shall see in the section on the protection of “endangered” languages. === '''Identification of endangered languages''' === Two important measures were introduced in 1998 to promote so-called “regional or minority” languages: The ''European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages'' came into force in the same year as the ''Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities''. However, two important limitations should be noted: not all member countries of the Council of Europe have yet ratified these two documents, and migrant languages are not covered by this protection system. There are various scales for measuring whether a language is “endangered”, i.e. at risk of falling into disuse. According to GlottoScope's AES (Agglomerated Endangerment Status) scale, which classifies the majority of languages as “endangered”, only 34.13% of the world's languages are not considered as such. Other scales yield similar results, such as Ethnologue, which takes a more optimistic view, considering that “only” 43% of the world’s languages are “endangered.” Looking ahead, between 50% and 90% of the world’s languages could be seriously threatened or disappear by the year 2100 (Steele & Hagmair, 2024, p.3). === '''Weight of the “digital divide” between languages''' === In addition, there is a new challenge related to the digital divide, which is growing due to digital practices that give greater prominence to so-called international languages.  Indeed, these practices increase the structural disadvantages of languages considered “endangered” because they are not disseminated online and are classified, from a technological perspective, as “small-corpus” languages. The popularization of Artificial Intelligence (AI) worsens the situation for these small-corpus languages, amplifying the use of “dominant” languages through the development of AI-generated content online ([https://hal.science/hal-04090195v2 Jouitteau 2023]). === '''Language as a human right''' === The preservation of linguistic and human diversity is a global issue in which “endangered” languages play an important role. Research highlights their multiple contributions (cultural heritage, identity, social justice, knowledge preservation, well-being and scientific value, etc.). For example, UNESCO (2025) draws attention to the link between linguistic diversity and the climate crisis, arguing that knowledge of ecosystems and traditional sustainable practices is essential in the fight against global warming. === '''Saving linguistic diversity''' === Most “endangered” languages today share the common feature of existing within a multilingual context. Research adopts the approach of linguistic ecology advocated by Mühlhäusler (2018), which takes linguistic diversity as its starting point and considers languages as integrated within meaningful cultural, economic, and ecological contexts. To support an “endangered” language, linguistic diversity must therefore be preserved. In the field of education, a key area for the preservation of linguistic diversity, plurilingual education (Council of Europe, CM/Rec(2022-1)) and the didactics of plurilingualism are important levers for this preservation. This is part of a paradigm shift, which holds that by taking plurilingualism as a starting point, the foundations for future plurilingualism will be established. === '''Linguistic revitalisation and reclamation''' === Revitalisation and reclamation aim to safeguard linguistic diversity. However, there are important differences, as revitalisation pursues the idea of “bringing a language back to life” through measures that include, for example, intergenerational transmission or formal education. Reclamation emphasizes the idea that communities “take back” their language. Self-determination and community control are crucial (Leonard 2017). In what follows, we will list approaches to promote “endangered” languages within linguistic diversity, without distinguishing between revitalization and reclamation. = Conceptions = Several key approaches are implemented to support people who want to use “endangered” languages: * Create a safe space or a “breathing space” where the language can be used without pressure or fear of discrimination; * Engage with “new speakers”, that is, anyone who is committed to learning the language; * Raise awareness at the international level in line with UNESCO’s ''Decade of Indigenous Languages'' (2022–2032), a plan aimed at strengthening language rights and cultural diversity; * Document the languages, involving the communities that use them, through recordings or any other form of record that helps preserve their memory; * Create digital resources incorporating this documentation and share them on websites to enable access and learning; * Develop plurilingual education programs in educational institutions (universities, high schools, middle schools, etc.) with dedicated courses, seminars, and other activities to train teachers and learners; * Provide institutional support and sustainably fund languages, notably through laws and government initiatives that ensure long-term resources; * Develop respectful relationships between researchers and communities to avoid any colonial ideology; * Develop collaborative approaches (for example, for the creation of corpora). = Take home messages = * Understand that the endangerment of a language leads to it no longer being used; * Be aware that labelling languages is a political and ideological undertaking; * Understand that language is a human right that is defended by safeguarding linguistic diversity; * Be aware that the census and documentation of minority and indigenous languages are essential, in the sense that they contribute to their recognition and to the preservation of human heritage; * Implement the promotion of these languages within institutions, notably in schools, through their recognition and, where possible, their teaching. = Self-assessment = # Make a list of terms used to refer to languages that are “in danger”. Classify the terms you find into two columns (respectful / to be avoided). Check your answers by consulting the guide. # List approaches to safeguarding linguistic diversity. Compare with the list above. Identify approaches that you consider particularly effective. = Resources to go further = * International Decade of Indigenous Languages 2022-2032: https://www.unesco.org/en/decades/indigenous-languages * UNESCO World Atlas of Languages: https://ocm.iccrom.org/documents/unesco-world-atlas-languages * UNESCO<nowiki/> Atlas of the world's languages in danger: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000187026/PDF/187026eng.pdf.multi * Say it with respect! Journalists’ Guide: https://fpcc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/A-Journalists-Guide-to-Reporting-on-Indigenous-Minoritized-Languages-Language-Endangerment-and-Language-Revitalization.pdf * The Heritage Language Exchange: https://www.hlxchange.com * Living Tongues: https://livingtongues.org * Global Lessons: Indigenous languages and multilingualism in school programs: https://medium.com/global-lessons-indigenous-languages-and-multilingu/global-lessons-indigenous-languages-and-multilingualism-in-school-programs-7be80f580646#8b35 = Bibliography = CM/Rec(2022)1. L’ importance  de  l’éducation  plurilingue  et  interculturelle  pour  une  culture  de  la démocratie.  Recommandation CM/Rec(2022)1  adoptée  par  le  Comité  des  Ministres  du  Conseil de l’Europe le 2 février 2022 et exposé des motifs. https://www.ecml.at/Portals/1/documents/about-us/Recommendation%20and%20EM%20FR%20FINAL.pdf     Jouitteau, Mélanie. 2023. Guide de survie des langues minorisées à l'heure de l'intelligence artificielle: Appel aux communautés parlantes, ''Lapurdum'', numéro spécial 6. https://hal.science/hal-04090195v2 Leonard, W.Y. 2017. Producing language reclamation by decolonising ‘language’. In W. Y. Leonard & H. De Korne (Eds.), Language Documentation and Description (pp. 15-36). London: EL Publishing. Mühlhäusler, P. (2018): Theoretical and practical aspects of ecological language planning. In P. Mühlhäusler, R. Ludwig, & S. Pagel (Hrsg.): Linguistic ecology and language contact, Cambridge, 323–341, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139649568.018 Steele, P & Hagmair, G. (2024). Supporting minoritised and endangered languages. A policy brief based on the results from the CREWS and RISE UP projects. https://www.riseupproject.eu/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Supporting-minoritised-and-endangered-languages_CREWS_Rise-Up_-v3.pdf UNESCO.  (2025).  Les  langues  comptent  :  orientations  mondiales  pour  l’éducation  multilingue. https://doi.org/10.54675/ == Credits == This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) * Thierry Gaillat (Université de La Réunion) * Eva Vetter (Universität Wien) s67g7bzjp6jtblaq06duk7hxwzp5v43 2817224 2817223 2026-06-29T12:13:24Z Vettere6 3097828 /* Resources to go further */ 2817224 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} = Starting activity = 1.  First, before reading any further, think about the concept of a language being “endangered”. What does this concept mean to you? What might be the danger involved? Try to identify a few reasons why a language might be considered endangered. 2.  Estimate the percentage of endangered languages among the approximately 7,500 languages in the world. You can then compare your estimate with the scale proposed on [https://glottolog.org/langdoc/status GlottoScope]. 3.  In a third step, drawing in particular on the resources proposed below, draw up a list of organizations that are involved in the protection of so-called “endangered” languages. Also note the other terms used to refer to this type of languages. * [https://la1ere.francetvinfo.fr/langues-autochtones-peril-demeure-decryptage-692158.html <nowiki>Langues autochtones : péril en la demeure [DECRYPTAGE]</nowiki>] * [https://blog.assimil.com/langues-en-danger-disparition/ Langues en danger : attention à leur disparition] * [https://www.unesco.org/en/decades/indigenous-languages UNESCO International Decade of Indigenous Languages 2022-2032] * [https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000380132/PDF/380132eng.pdf.multi UNESCO World Atlas of Languages] = Objectives = At the end of this section, you will be able to: * identify the challenges facing endangered languages in a multilingual context; * use respectful language when referring to endangered languages; * understand approaches to promoting endangered languages * understand the relationship between endangered languages and multilingual education. = Key words = Endangered languages, minority languages, indigenous languages, linguistic minority, revitalisation, reclamation, language promotion, plurilingual education, language policy = Introduction = “A language is endangered if it is not passed on to younger generations”. This is the simplest definition given by the ''Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger'' (original title: l’Atlas des langues en danger; p. 9, our translation). When we speak of “endangered” languages, we often refer to languages that—beyond the lack of intergenerational transmission—are used by numerically smaller groups and are not always officially recognized. There are many terms used to describe these languages, and we will see that not all of them are considered respectful. Languages considered to be “endangered” therefore constitute a sensitive subject, especially since language – in the generic sense – is intrinsically linked to being human. It influences, for example, how we form relationships with others, how we identify ourselves, how we take a stand, how we create art, and how we understand and transmit knowledge. It is therefore important to reflect on the terms used to name languages. In this regard, and to clarify matters, a guide was even published in 2025 to help journalists choose respectful terminology: ''[https://fpcc.ca/resource/say-it-with-respect/ Say it with respect].'' = History = === '''A question of terminology''' === Language labelling is always a political and ideological undertaking. It is particularly sensitive in the case of languages (and therefore their users) considered to be less powerful. Terms such as “less used,” “minority,” “small,” “small-scale,” or “endangered” reinforce and stabilize this position. Labelling languages as “minoritized,” “oppressed,” “marginalized,” or “excluded” takes into account the dynamics of power relations. Furthermore, if these languages are associated with communities that have a historical continuity with societies existing before conquest and colonization, the term “indigenous languages” is used. This is the case, for example, with UNESCO. The term “indigenous” language is less commonly used in French. A curious example is the Office of the Commissioner of Indigenous Languages in Canada. In Europe, the term “regional and minority” language is used, as we shall see in the section on the protection of “endangered” languages. === '''Identification of endangered languages''' === Two important measures were introduced in 1998 to promote so-called “regional or minority” languages: The ''European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages'' came into force in the same year as the ''Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities''. However, two important limitations should be noted: not all member countries of the Council of Europe have yet ratified these two documents, and migrant languages are not covered by this protection system. There are various scales for measuring whether a language is “endangered”, i.e. at risk of falling into disuse. According to GlottoScope's AES (Agglomerated Endangerment Status) scale, which classifies the majority of languages as “endangered”, only 34.13% of the world's languages are not considered as such. Other scales yield similar results, such as Ethnologue, which takes a more optimistic view, considering that “only” 43% of the world’s languages are “endangered.” Looking ahead, between 50% and 90% of the world’s languages could be seriously threatened or disappear by the year 2100 (Steele & Hagmair, 2024, p.3). === '''Weight of the “digital divide” between languages''' === In addition, there is a new challenge related to the digital divide, which is growing due to digital practices that give greater prominence to so-called international languages.  Indeed, these practices increase the structural disadvantages of languages considered “endangered” because they are not disseminated online and are classified, from a technological perspective, as “small-corpus” languages. The popularization of Artificial Intelligence (AI) worsens the situation for these small-corpus languages, amplifying the use of “dominant” languages through the development of AI-generated content online ([https://hal.science/hal-04090195v2 Jouitteau 2023]). === '''Language as a human right''' === The preservation of linguistic and human diversity is a global issue in which “endangered” languages play an important role. Research highlights their multiple contributions (cultural heritage, identity, social justice, knowledge preservation, well-being and scientific value, etc.). For example, UNESCO (2025) draws attention to the link between linguistic diversity and the climate crisis, arguing that knowledge of ecosystems and traditional sustainable practices is essential in the fight against global warming. === '''Saving linguistic diversity''' === Most “endangered” languages today share the common feature of existing within a multilingual context. Research adopts the approach of linguistic ecology advocated by Mühlhäusler (2018), which takes linguistic diversity as its starting point and considers languages as integrated within meaningful cultural, economic, and ecological contexts. To support an “endangered” language, linguistic diversity must therefore be preserved. In the field of education, a key area for the preservation of linguistic diversity, plurilingual education (Council of Europe, CM/Rec(2022-1)) and the didactics of plurilingualism are important levers for this preservation. This is part of a paradigm shift, which holds that by taking plurilingualism as a starting point, the foundations for future plurilingualism will be established. === '''Linguistic revitalisation and reclamation''' === Revitalisation and reclamation aim to safeguard linguistic diversity. However, there are important differences, as revitalisation pursues the idea of “bringing a language back to life” through measures that include, for example, intergenerational transmission or formal education. Reclamation emphasizes the idea that communities “take back” their language. Self-determination and community control are crucial (Leonard 2017). In what follows, we will list approaches to promote “endangered” languages within linguistic diversity, without distinguishing between revitalization and reclamation. = Conceptions = Several key approaches are implemented to support people who want to use “endangered” languages: * Create a safe space or a “breathing space” where the language can be used without pressure or fear of discrimination; * Engage with “new speakers”, that is, anyone who is committed to learning the language; * Raise awareness at the international level in line with UNESCO’s ''Decade of Indigenous Languages'' (2022–2032), a plan aimed at strengthening language rights and cultural diversity; * Document the languages, involving the communities that use them, through recordings or any other form of record that helps preserve their memory; * Create digital resources incorporating this documentation and share them on websites to enable access and learning; * Develop plurilingual education programs in educational institutions (universities, high schools, middle schools, etc.) with dedicated courses, seminars, and other activities to train teachers and learners; * Provide institutional support and sustainably fund languages, notably through laws and government initiatives that ensure long-term resources; * Develop respectful relationships between researchers and communities to avoid any colonial ideology; * Develop collaborative approaches (for example, for the creation of corpora). = Take home messages = * Understand that the endangerment of a language leads to it no longer being used; * Be aware that labelling languages is a political and ideological undertaking; * Understand that language is a human right that is defended by safeguarding linguistic diversity; * Be aware that the census and documentation of minority and indigenous languages are essential, in the sense that they contribute to their recognition and to the preservation of human heritage; * Implement the promotion of these languages within institutions, notably in schools, through their recognition and, where possible, their teaching. = Self-assessment = # Make a list of terms used to refer to languages that are “in danger”. Classify the terms you find into two columns (respectful / to be avoided). Check your answers by consulting the guide. # List approaches to safeguarding linguistic diversity. Compare with the list above. Identify approaches that you consider particularly effective. = Resources to go further = * International Decade of Indigenous Languages 2022-2032: https://www.unesco.org/en/decades/indigenous-languages * UNESCO World Atlas of Languages: https://ocm.iccrom.org/documents/unesco-world-atlas-languages * UNESCO<nowiki/> Atlas of the world's languages in danger: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000187026/PDF/187026eng.pdf.multi * Say it with respect! Journalists’ Guide: https://fpcc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/A-Journalists-Guide-to-Reporting-on-Indigenous-Minoritized-Languages-Language-Endangerment-and-Language-Revitalization.pdf * The Heritage Language Exchange: https://www.hlxchange.com * Living Tongues: https://livingtongues.org * Global Lessons: Indigenous languages and multilingualism in school programs: https://medium.com/global-lessons-indigenous-languages-and-multilingu/global-lessons-indigenous-languages-and-multilingualism-in-school-programs-7be80f580646#8b35 * RISE UP: https://www.riseupproject.eu/ = Bibliography = CM/Rec(2022)1. L’ importance  de  l’éducation  plurilingue  et  interculturelle  pour  une  culture  de  la démocratie.  Recommandation CM/Rec(2022)1  adoptée  par  le  Comité  des  Ministres  du  Conseil de l’Europe le 2 février 2022 et exposé des motifs. https://www.ecml.at/Portals/1/documents/about-us/Recommendation%20and%20EM%20FR%20FINAL.pdf     Jouitteau, Mélanie. 2023. Guide de survie des langues minorisées à l'heure de l'intelligence artificielle: Appel aux communautés parlantes, ''Lapurdum'', numéro spécial 6. https://hal.science/hal-04090195v2 Leonard, W.Y. 2017. Producing language reclamation by decolonising ‘language’. In W. Y. Leonard & H. De Korne (Eds.), Language Documentation and Description (pp. 15-36). London: EL Publishing. Mühlhäusler, P. (2018): Theoretical and practical aspects of ecological language planning. In P. Mühlhäusler, R. Ludwig, & S. Pagel (Hrsg.): Linguistic ecology and language contact, Cambridge, 323–341, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139649568.018 Steele, P & Hagmair, G. (2024). Supporting minoritised and endangered languages. A policy brief based on the results from the CREWS and RISE UP projects. https://www.riseupproject.eu/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Supporting-minoritised-and-endangered-languages_CREWS_Rise-Up_-v3.pdf UNESCO.  (2025).  Les  langues  comptent  :  orientations  mondiales  pour  l’éducation  multilingue. https://doi.org/10.54675/ == Credits == This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) * Thierry Gaillat (Université de La Réunion) * Eva Vetter (Universität Wien) f2q9i3j2p6urus5zlezgokp99ut46y9 0 329146 2817308 2808918 2026-06-29T17:01:23Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self-assessment */ 2817308 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} The CEFR is a council of european guideline that organises language skills in six levels: A1- C2. The contexts that concern the CEFR are educational and professional. It's very important for the evaluation of language skills in training and work environments. I have heard of language levels at school, because I'm a teacher, and now I teach italian to adult students in CPIA 4 of Rome.In my previous career experience in a primay school, I've worked with foreign kids. == Starting activity == Start by thinking about the following: * What do you know about the CEFR? * In what context is the CEFR discussed? You can search online to find information about the CEFR. * In what context have you heard of language levels (A1 to C2)? Consult the first edition of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of Europe, 2001). You will find different language versions [https://www.coe.int/fr/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages/cefr-and-its-language-versions on this page in French] and [https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages/cefr-and-its-language-versions this page in English]. Read the (short) section 1.3, which defines the term ‘plurilingualism’ for the authors of the CEFR. List what you consider important, for example: * the distinction made between multilingualism and plurilingualism; * what the plurilingual approach emphasises; * what a plurilingual person is capable of doing; * the objective of language teaching and learning according to the CEFR. == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to… * explain how the CEFR, in its original version and its Companion Volume (CEFR-CV), defines and addresses plurilingualism and plurilingual education; * identify the developments and differences between the original 2001 version and the Companion Volume; * provide a critical opinion on the status of plurilingualism in the CEFR and the CEFR-CV. == Key-words == Plurilingualism, CEFR, Companion Volume, plurilingual competence, plurilingual education == Introduction == In 2001, the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of Europe, 2001) proposed a new approach to language teaching and learning. It promoted an ‘action-oriented’ approach that has become widely adopted in Europe and beyond – at least in theory. It also provides (primarily) competence descriptors for various language activities. These have also become widely adopted internationally. The authors of the Framework make another suggestion that has been less successful. They propose changing the objective of language teaching and learning. The aim would no longer be to achieve proficiency in several languages, but to help learners develop plurilingual and pluricultural competence. This should enable them to * manage their entire language repertoire to communicate more effectively by drawing on all their resources; * and to activate their existing knowledge and skills to learn new languages. The authors thus aim to overcome the compartmentalisation of language teaching and learning. This could have been a revolution, but its implementation has remained limited in education systems. However, various projects have been funded by the Council of Europe through the European Centre for Modern Languages (in particular the development of a ''Framework of reference for pluralistic approaches'' (Candelier et al., 2007, 2012)) and others by the European Commission. The Council of Europe very quickly recognised the difficulty of moving from an educational language policy objective to the reality of language teaching and learning in institutions. It therefore published various guides and additional studies (Beacco, 2007; Beacco et al., 2016; Beacco & Byram, 2003; Coste et al., 2009; Lenz & Berthele, 2010) and, finally, a Companion Volume to the CEFR. This reaffirms the commitment to establishing plurilingual education and emphasises its importance. This section will highlight this evolution from the original volume to the Companion Volume. == History == Plurilingualism is both a human characteristic and a social practice. This phenomenon has existed for far longer than the terms used today to describe it. The history of humanity thus offers numerous examples of plurilingualism. Let us take just one illustrative example: Giovanni Pontano, known as the ‘Gran Pontano’. A politician and intellectual at the court of King Ferdinand in Naples (1458–1494), he practised plurilingualism in his daily life. His example also reflects a largely plurilingual society at the end of the 15th century (Bistagne, 2019). Similarly, the idea of teaching plurilingualism does not date from the Council of Europe’s recent language policies. It has deep historical roots. The educator Jan Amos Comenius is regarded as one of the first to have developed an educational approach to plurilingualism. In his *Didactica Magna* (1657), he recommends learning only those languages that will be useful in the future — such as the languages of neighbouring countries, academic or professional languages — in addition to one’s mother tongue. For him, the aim was not to achieve perfection in all languages, but to develop functional proficiency. Furthermore, many education systems have incorporated the use of multiple languages, but this does not always mean they aim for plurilingualism. Some models, such as the Utraquist schools in the Austrian part of the Habsburg Monarchy, facilitate transitions from one language to another, without seeking to keep all languages in use. Other approaches, however, explicitly aim to preserve a minority language. This is the case with the community schools established in France from the 1970s onwards, such as Diwan (in Breton), Ikastola (in Basque) or Calandreta (in Occitan), which are examples of plurilingual educational models. == From the original volume to the Companion Volume == === Definition of "plurilingualism" and goal of the CEFR === Let us go back for a moment to the first activity on the concept of plurilingualism in the CEFR (reading chapter 1.3). In the following chapter (1.4), the text establishes a link between language and culture. Plurilingualism is placed within a broader framework: that of pluriculturalism. Thus, plurilingual competence is presented as a component of pluricultural competence. To highlight this link, and drawing on a preparatory study for the Framework (Coste, Moore & Zarate, 2009, though an earlier version from 1997 exists), the CEFR defines the concept of plurilingual and pluricultural competence as follows (Chapter 8.1): the ability to use languages for the purposes of communication and to take part in intercultural interaction, where a person, viewed as a social agent has proficiency, of varying degrees, in several languages and experience of several cultures. This is not seen as the superposition or juxtaposition of distinct competences, but rather as the existence of a complex or even composite competence on which the user may draw (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 168). In other words, it is not about separate competences for each language or culture, but rather a single, holistic and flexible competence, within which a person can draw on different resources depending on the situation. This plurilingual and pluricultural competence encompasses all of an individual’s languages and cultural experiences — that is to say, their entire linguistic repertoire. With regard to language curricula, the CEFR recommends approaching different languages in relation to one another, rather than as separate entities. It identifies three main approaches to achieving this: * linking the learning of one language to the other languages offered, with a focus on linguistic diversity; * avoiding redundancy and encouraging the transfer of competences between languages; * providing for cross-curricular or transferable knowledge, as part of a holistic language education. The ultimate goal of the curriculum, according to the CEFR, is to enable learners to develop an early plurilingual and pluricultural repertoire, as well as greater awareness, knowledge and confidence in their own competences, so that they can actively draw upon them (Council of Europe, 2001, pp. 129–134). === The paradoxes of the CEFR (2001 version) === The CEFR promotes the development of plurilingual competence but provides no real guidance on how to achieve this, nor any descriptors relating to it. All the descriptors in the 2001 version can be used to assess levels of competence in specific languages, but they overlook plurilingual competence. The same applies to the grids of the European Language Portfolio (ELP), a Council of Europe project launched in line with the CEFR concept. The self-assessment section and the passport encourage learners to self-assess their competences in various languages. The passport allows users to visualise a profile of competences across various languages. It thus partly corresponds to the definition by Coste, Moore and Zarate adopted by the CEFR. This definition states that plurilingual and pluricultural competence is a “existence of a complex or even composite competence on which the social actor may draw (Coste et al. 2009, p. v). ”. The portfolio helps one recognise that one does not possess a homogeneous level in a single language or across different languages. However, this remains fairly close to a conception of plurilingualism that juxtaposes competences across different languages. The dynamic nature of plurilingual competence is particularly evident in the reflective section of the PEL. The Companion Volume aims to address the absence of this dimension by proposing specific descriptors for plurilingual competence and mediation. === Development of the Companion Volume (CEFR-CV) === The CEFR-CV is the result of in-depth reflection on the impact of the CEFR published in 2001, and on the need to incorporate more recent developments in the field of language teaching and learning. Five years after its publication, a survey showed that the CEFR had become the most important document in Europe for language teaching. It helped to harmonise approaches to language teaching and learning by creating a common metalanguage and common reference points. However, despite this success, it did not lead to a fundamental reform of language education based on the concepts it introduced. It is primarily the levels and descriptors that have attracted attention. Widely adopted, they are sometimes perceived not as a reference system, but as rigid standards. As Coste (2007, p. 4) observes:<blockquote>[…] the Framework was seen as a European standard, a kind of prescription or injunction, with contexts being forced, willy-nilly, to fit it - because it came from a European institution, and because other countries, regions, educational establishments, textbook publishers or authors, curriculum planners and test developers took its B2 or C1 as their target and benchmark.</blockquote>In contrast, other concepts have had less impact, such as the action-oriented approach, mediation and plurilingualism (North 2023, p. 2), or the view of the learner as a social actor (CEFR Expert Group, 2023, p. 17). Plurilingualism is thus one of the concepts whose adoption has remained limited since the publication of the CEFR. Several explanations, both conceptual and practical, can be put forward. The simplistic interpretation of the distinction between plurilingualism (individual) and multilingualism (society) does not reflect the complexity of the concept. The CEFR-CV therefore emphasises the idea that the addition of distinct languages (multilingualism) and the overcoming of the separation of languages (plurilingualism) can be achieved both in individuals and within communities (CEFR Expert Group, 2023, p. 32). The CEFR does not provide descriptors for plurilingual competence or for mediation. The operational contribution of the CEFR-CV fills this gap (Yüce, 2019, p. 96). The CEFR is sometimes regarded as complex and difficult to understand. The CEFR-CV has therefore been designed to be clearer, more accessible and easier to use than the previous version (Council of Europe, 2020, pp. 13–15; North, 2023, p. 1). === Plurilingualism in the Companion Volume === It should be noted from the outset that the CEFR-CV introduces a series of significant changes that go beyond the issue of plurilingualism alone. Among these changes is the adaptation to sign language, with the development of descriptors for signing proficiency. In this section, only the developments relating to plurilingualism will be presented. The CEFR-CV forms part of a broader framework: among the recent developments it takes into account (mentioned at the start of the previous section) is the Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture (RFCDC). For an overview of all the developments, please refer to section 2.2 of the 2023 Guide. The philosophy of the RFCDC plays a key role in the CEFR-CV: it broadens the scope of language education by promoting inclusive, plurilingual and intercultural education in the service of democracy, social justice and human rights (CEFR Expert Group, 2023, p. 3). Plurilingualism is highlighted in the CEFR-CV and addressed more explicitly than in the 2001 version. The CEFR-CV offers a broader vision of this, showing that plurilingualism can be understood in various ways: as a sociological and historical fact, as a personal characteristic or aspiration, as an educational philosophy or approach, or even as a socio-political objective aimed at preserving linguistic diversity. This broader vision is also reflected in the link established with the concept of ‘translanguaging’, which is considered here as part of plurilingualism (Council of Europe, 2021, p. 29). With regard to plurilingualism, perhaps the most significant contribution of the CEFR-CV is the introduction of illustrative descriptors for plurilingual and pluricultural competence — tools that were lacking in the original version (North, 2023, p. 4). This competence builds on the CEFR 2001, reaffirming ‘[…] that plurilinguals have a ''single'', interrelated, repertoire that they combine with their general competences and various strategies in order to accomplish tasks’, and that plurilingual competence “involves the ability to call flexibly upon an interrelated, uneven, plurilinguistic repertoire” (Council of Europe, 2020, p. 30). In Chapter 4, the new descriptors are presented. They are grouped into three distinct categories:<blockquote> * Building on plurilingual repertoire ** recognising and acting on cultural, socio-pragmatic and sociolinguistic conventions/cues; ** recognising and interpreting similarities and differences in perspectives, practices and events; ** evaluating neutrally and critically (Council of Europe, 2020, 124). * Plurilingual comprehension ** openness and flexibility to work with different elements from different languages; ** exploiting cues; ** exploiting similarities, recognising “false friends” (from B1 up); ** exploiting parallel sources in different languages (from B1 up); ** collating information from all available sources (in different languages) (Council of Europe, 2020, 126). * Building on plurilingual repertoire ** flexible adaptation to the situation; ** anticipation as to when and to what extent the use of several languages is useful and appropriate; ** adjusting language according to the linguistic skills of interlocutors; ** blending and alternating between languages where necessary; ** explaining and clarifying in different languages; ** encouraging people to use different languages by giving an example (Council of Europe, 2020, 127). </blockquote> === Pros and cons of the new developments: expected changes and criticism === The publication of the CEFR-V is accompanied by hopes of revitalising language teaching and learning, placing greater emphasis on key concepts such as plurilingual and pluricultural competence (as well as the action-oriented approach, mediation and the recognition of the learner as a social actor) — rather than continuing to focus solely on proficiency levels and descriptors. However, the CEFR-CV has also been the subject of criticism, with some even questioning its entire approach: for instance, Coste (2021) highlights the paradox of attempting to adapt something as dynamic as plurilingualism to fixed levels. Maurer and Puren’s (2019) critique focuses on conceptual ambiguities and confusions which they regard as structural, particularly in relation to the pluricultural competence grid. In their view, the CEFR-CV seeks above all to modernise the CEFR for the benefit of certification organisations (Maurer & Puren, p. 140). Volle (2022) goes further and refers to a dissolution of language in action. She sees the CEFR(-CV) as an ‘incredible tool for standardising and uniformising language teaching methods’ (Volle 2022, p. 144) within a managerial framework. == Take home messages == * The CEFR promotes the development of plurilingual (and pluricultural) competence as an objective of language teaching and learning. * The 2001 version does not provide descriptors for plurilingual competence. * This lack of specific descriptors and the difficulty in moving towards a policy objective of plurilingual education led to the drafting and publication of a Companion Volume to the CEFR. * The CEFR-CV is the result of in-depth reflection on the impact of the 2001 CEFR and on the need to incorporate more recent developments in the field of language teaching and learning (such as the CRCCD). * The CEFR-CV promotes plurilingualism (as well as mediation, the action-oriented approach, and sign language) and adds new descriptors for plurilingual education. * The new descriptors for plurilingual and pluricultural competence are grouped into three categories: pluricultural repertoire, plurilingual comprehension and plurilingual repertoire. * Critics argue that the CEFR-CV contributes to the standardisation of language learning on a questionable conceptual basis. == Self-assessment == === Multiple choice === <quiz display=simple> {Which of the recommendations made in the CEFR (2001) has been particularly successful in language teaching and learning in Europe?} +1. Proficiency levels -2. Plurilingualism -3. The action-oriented approach -4. Mediation -5. Pluriculturalism {Which new descriptors were introduced in the CEFR-CV (2020)?} +1. Descriptors for plurilingual competence +2. Descriptors for signing (using sign language) -3. Descriptors for communicative action -4. Descriptors for task-based teaching {Which of the following statements are correct?} -1. The CEFR-CV fundamentally modifies the concept of multilingualism proposed in the CEFR 2001. +2. In the CEFR-CV, plurilingualism is conceived as a component of a culture of democracy. -3. Sign languages are included in the CEFR 2001. +4. Sign languages are included in the CEFR-CV. +5. The CEFR-CV adopts the concept of a language repertoire. </quiz> === Reflection === Consider the criticisms directed at the CEFR. Is the CEFR-CV better suited to promoting reform in language teaching and learning than its previous version? Make a list of arguments ‘for’ and ‘against’. == Resources to go further == * Webinar "Aligning to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages – Companion Volume: a continuous process"   (19 Sep 2024): https://www.youtube.com/live/5xslG-J7NTw * Webinar "Opportunities and challenges for plurilingual and intercultural education in times of AI"  (04 Feb 2025) ** Webinar in English: https://youtube.com/live/byO8nno1jmk ** Webinar in French: https://youtube.com/live/Z-FtmjB9VBk * CEFR Expert Group. (2023). ''A guide to action-oriented, plurilingual and intercultural Education''. Council of Europe Publishing. https://rm.coe.int/a-guide-to-action-oriented-plurilingual-and-intercultural-education-en/1680b52354 * ECML: Plurilingual and intercultural education. https://www.ecml.at/en/Thematic-areas/Plurilingual-and-intercultural-education * Linguistic Diversity in the European Union. https://www.anefore.lu/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Linguistic-diversity-in-the-European-Union.pdf * PlurCur: https://www.ecml.at/en/ECML-Programme/Programme-2012-2015/PlurCur * Language friendly schools: https://languagefriendlyschool.org * Online-books in different languages / Bilderbücher in verschiedenen Sprachen: https://www.amira-lesen.de/# * Schule Merhsprachig Hefte. https://www.schule-mehrsprachig.at/trio/trio-ausgaben * ALL: http://all-literature.wikidot.com/multilingual-online-sources-of-texts * Lost Wor(l)ds: https://www.multilingualism-in-schools.net/category/activities/ == Bibliography == Beacco, J.-C. (2007). ''Guide pour le développement et la mise en oeuvre de curriculums pour une éducation plurilingue et interculturelle (version intégrale)''. Conseil de l’Europe. http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/Guide_Main_Beacco2007_FR.doc Beacco, J.-C., & Byram, M. (2003). ''De la diversité linguistique à l’éducation plurilingue. Guide pour l’élaboration des politiques linguistiques éducatives en Europe:'' Conseil de l’Europe. https://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/DisplayDCTMContent?documentId=09000016802fc3ab Beacco, J.-C., Byram, M., Cavalli, M., Coste, D., Cuenat, M. E., Goullier, F., & Panthier, J. (2016). ''Guide pour le développement et la mise en oeuvre de curriculums pour une éducation plurilingue et interculturelle''. Editions du Conseil de l’Europe. Bistagne, F (2019). Le plurilinguisme, objet d’histoire ? Le royaume de Naples et Giovanni Pontano. Étude de cas linguistique .In ''Écrire l’histoire - Histoire, Littérature, Esthétique'', 19, 117-125. https://hal.science/hal-02610631v1 Candelier, M., Camilleri-Grima, A., Castellotti, V., de Pietro, J.-F., Lörincz, I., Meißner, F.-J., Noguerol, A., & Schröder-Sura, A. (2007). ''CARAP : cadre de référence pour les approches plurielles des langues et des cultures''. Centre européen pour les langues vivantes. Candelier, M., Camilleri-Grima, A., Castellotti, V., de Pietro, J.-F., Lörincz, I., Meißner, F.-J., Noguerol, A., & Schröder-Sura, A. (with Molinié, M.). (2012). ''CARAP : cadre de référence pour les approches plurielles des langues et des cultures''. Centre européen pour les langues vivantes / Conseil de l’Europe. https://www.ecml.at/Portals/1/documents/ECML-resources/CARAP-FR.pdf?ver=2018-03-20-120658-740 Caravolas, J.A. (2011). J.A. Comenius (1592-1670) et le plurilinguisme. In ''Documents pour l’histoire du français langue étrangère ou seconde'' [En ligne], 43 | 2009. https://doi.org/10.4000/dhfles.826 CEFR Expert Group. (2023). A guide to action-oriented, plurilingual and intercultural Education. Editions du Conseil de l’Europe, Strasbourg. Council of Europe Publishing. https://rm.coe.int/a-guide-to-action-oriented-plurilingual-and-intercultural-education-en/1680b52354 Conseil de l’Europe. (2001). ''Un cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues : Apprendre, enseigner, évaluer''. Didier ; Conseil de l’Europe. https://rm.coe.int/16802fc3a8 Conseil de l’Europe. (2021). ''Un cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues : apprendre, enseigner, évaluer – Volume complémentaire''. Éditions du Conseil de l’Europe. https://www.coe.int/lang-cecr. Coste, D. (2007). Contextualising uses of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. In Council of Europe, ''The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) and the development of language policies: challenges and responsibilities''. Intergovernmental Language Policy Forum. Report. Council of Europe. Coste, D., Moore, D., & Zarate, G. (2009). ''Compétence plurilingue et pluriculturelle : Vers un cadre européen commun de référence pour l’enseignement et l’apprentissage des langues vivantes. Version révisée et enrichie d’un avant-propos et d’une bibliographie complémentaire''. Éditions du Conseil de l’Europe. https://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/SourcePublications/CompetencePlurilingue09web_FR.pdf Coste, D. (2021). De Rüschlikon au Volume complémentaire ou Du risque qu’il y a à passer sous les échelles. Vogt, K., & Quetz, J.(Éds.). ''Der neue Begleitband zum Gemeinsamen europäischen Referenzrahmen für Sprachen''. Peter Lang, 35-45. Council of Europe (Éd.). (2001). ''Common European framework of reference for languages : Learning, teaching, assessment''. Press syndicate of the University of Cambridge. Council of Europe. (2020). ''Common European framework of reference for languages : Learning, teaching, assessment. Companion volume''. Council of Europe. https://rm.coe.int/common-european-framework-of-reference-for-languages-learning-teaching/16809ea0d4. Lenz, P., & Berthele, R. (2010). ''Prise en compte des compétences plurilingue et interculturelle dans l’évaluation''. Conseil de l’Europe. https://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/Source2010_ForumGeneva/Assessment2010_Lenz_FRrev.pdf Maurer, B. & Puren, C. (2019). ''CECR : par ici la sortie !'' Éditions des archives contemporaines. https://eac.ac/publications/9782813003522 North, B. (2023). The CEFR companion volume and the action-oriented approach. In ''ItalianoLinguadue'', 14(2), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.54103/2037-3597/19566 Volle, R.-M. (2022): Le CECR: une conception instrumentale et managériale des langues. ''Didactique du FLES: Recherches et Pratiques 1(1):'' 139-145). Yüce, E. (2019). Plurilingualism and pluriculturalism in the CEFR companion volume. In ''Schriften zur Sprache und Literatur III'' (pp.93-99). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337243142 == Credits == This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) * Christian Ollivier (Université de La Réunion) * Eva Vetter (Universität Wien) edo4pa7z2dsgzdidvr7mpdobk2dr2nu 2817386 2817308 2026-06-30T11:54:58Z Vettere6 3097828 2817386 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == Start by thinking about the following: * What do you know about the CEFR? * In what context is the CEFR discussed? You can search online to find information about the CEFR. * In what context have you heard of language levels (A1 to C2)? Consult the first edition of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of Europe, 2001). You will find different language versions [https://www.coe.int/fr/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages/cefr-and-its-language-versions on this page in French] and [https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages/cefr-and-its-language-versions this page in English]. Read the (short) section 1.3, which defines the term ‘plurilingualism’ for the authors of the CEFR. List what you consider important, for example: * the distinction made between multilingualism and plurilingualism; * what the plurilingual approach emphasises; * what a plurilingual person is capable of doing; * the objective of language teaching and learning according to the CEFR. == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to… * explain how the CEFR, in its original version and its Companion Volume (CEFR-CV), defines and addresses plurilingualism and plurilingual education; * identify the developments and differences between the original 2001 version and the Companion Volume; * provide a critical opinion on the status of plurilingualism in the CEFR and the CEFR-CV. == Key-words == Plurilingualism, CEFR, Companion Volume, plurilingual competence, plurilingual education == Introduction == In 2001, the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of Europe, 2001) proposed a new approach to language teaching and learning. It promoted an ‘action-oriented’ approach that has become widely adopted in Europe and beyond – at least in theory. It also provides (primarily) competence descriptors for various language activities. These have also become widely adopted internationally. The authors of the Framework make another suggestion that has been less successful. They propose changing the objective of language teaching and learning. The aim would no longer be to achieve proficiency in several languages, but to help learners develop plurilingual and pluricultural competence. This should enable them to * manage their entire language repertoire to communicate more effectively by drawing on all their resources; * and to activate their existing knowledge and skills to learn new languages. The authors thus aim to overcome the compartmentalisation of language teaching and learning. This could have been a revolution, but its implementation has remained limited in education systems. However, various projects have been funded by the Council of Europe through the European Centre for Modern Languages (in particular the development of a ''Framework of reference for pluralistic approaches'' (Candelier et al., 2007, 2012)) and others by the European Commission. The Council of Europe very quickly recognised the difficulty of moving from an educational language policy objective to the reality of language teaching and learning in institutions. It therefore published various guides and additional studies (Beacco, 2007; Beacco et al., 2016; Beacco & Byram, 2003; Coste et al., 2009; Lenz & Berthele, 2010) and, finally, a Companion Volume to the CEFR. This reaffirms the commitment to establishing plurilingual education and emphasises its importance. This section will highlight this evolution from the original volume to the Companion Volume. == History == Plurilingualism is both a human characteristic and a social practice. This phenomenon has existed for far longer than the terms used today to describe it. The history of humanity thus offers numerous examples of plurilingualism. Let us take just one illustrative example: Giovanni Pontano, known as the ‘Gran Pontano’. A politician and intellectual at the court of King Ferdinand in Naples (1458–1494), he practised plurilingualism in his daily life. His example also reflects a largely plurilingual society at the end of the 15th century (Bistagne, 2019). Similarly, the idea of teaching plurilingualism does not date from the Council of Europe’s recent language policies. It has deep historical roots. The educator Jan Amos Comenius is regarded as one of the first to have developed an educational approach to plurilingualism. In his *Didactica Magna* (1657), he recommends learning only those languages that will be useful in the future — such as the languages of neighbouring countries, academic or professional languages — in addition to one’s mother tongue. For him, the aim was not to achieve perfection in all languages, but to develop functional proficiency. Furthermore, many education systems have incorporated the use of multiple languages, but this does not always mean they aim for plurilingualism. Some models, such as the Utraquist schools in the Austrian part of the Habsburg Monarchy, facilitate transitions from one language to another, without seeking to keep all languages in use. Other approaches, however, explicitly aim to preserve a minority language. This is the case with the community schools established in France from the 1970s onwards, such as Diwan (in Breton), Ikastola (in Basque) or Calandreta (in Occitan), which are examples of plurilingual educational models. == From the original volume to the Companion Volume == === Definition of "plurilingualism" and goal of the CEFR === Let us go back for a moment to the first activity on the concept of plurilingualism in the CEFR (reading chapter 1.3). In the following chapter (1.4), the text establishes a link between language and culture. Plurilingualism is placed within a broader framework: that of pluriculturalism. Thus, plurilingual competence is presented as a component of pluricultural competence. To highlight this link, and drawing on a preparatory study for the Framework (Coste, Moore & Zarate, 2009, though an earlier version from 1997 exists), the CEFR defines the concept of plurilingual and pluricultural competence as follows (Chapter 8.1): the ability to use languages for the purposes of communication and to take part in intercultural interaction, where a person, viewed as a social agent has proficiency, of varying degrees, in several languages and experience of several cultures. This is not seen as the superposition or juxtaposition of distinct competences, but rather as the existence of a complex or even composite competence on which the user may draw (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 168). In other words, it is not about separate competences for each language or culture, but rather a single, holistic and flexible competence, within which a person can draw on different resources depending on the situation. This plurilingual and pluricultural competence encompasses all of an individual’s languages and cultural experiences — that is to say, their entire linguistic repertoire. With regard to language curricula, the CEFR recommends approaching different languages in relation to one another, rather than as separate entities. It identifies three main approaches to achieving this: * linking the learning of one language to the other languages offered, with a focus on linguistic diversity; * avoiding redundancy and encouraging the transfer of competences between languages; * providing for cross-curricular or transferable knowledge, as part of a holistic language education. The ultimate goal of the curriculum, according to the CEFR, is to enable learners to develop an early plurilingual and pluricultural repertoire, as well as greater awareness, knowledge and confidence in their own competences, so that they can actively draw upon them (Council of Europe, 2001, pp. 129–134). === The paradoxes of the CEFR (2001 version) === The CEFR promotes the development of plurilingual competence but provides no real guidance on how to achieve this, nor any descriptors relating to it. All the descriptors in the 2001 version can be used to assess levels of competence in specific languages, but they overlook plurilingual competence. The same applies to the grids of the European Language Portfolio (ELP), a Council of Europe project launched in line with the CEFR concept. The self-assessment section and the passport encourage learners to self-assess their competences in various languages. The passport allows users to visualise a profile of competences across various languages. It thus partly corresponds to the definition by Coste, Moore and Zarate adopted by the CEFR. This definition states that plurilingual and pluricultural competence is a “existence of a complex or even composite competence on which the social actor may draw (Coste et al. 2009, p. v). ”. The portfolio helps one recognise that one does not possess a homogeneous level in a single language or across different languages. However, this remains fairly close to a conception of plurilingualism that juxtaposes competences across different languages. The dynamic nature of plurilingual competence is particularly evident in the reflective section of the PEL. The Companion Volume aims to address the absence of this dimension by proposing specific descriptors for plurilingual competence and mediation. === Development of the Companion Volume (CEFR-CV) === The CEFR-CV is the result of in-depth reflection on the impact of the CEFR published in 2001, and on the need to incorporate more recent developments in the field of language teaching and learning. Five years after its publication, a survey showed that the CEFR had become the most important document in Europe for language teaching. It helped to harmonise approaches to language teaching and learning by creating a common metalanguage and common reference points. However, despite this success, it did not lead to a fundamental reform of language education based on the concepts it introduced. It is primarily the levels and descriptors that have attracted attention. Widely adopted, they are sometimes perceived not as a reference system, but as rigid standards. As Coste (2007, p. 4) observes:<blockquote>[…] the Framework was seen as a European standard, a kind of prescription or injunction, with contexts being forced, willy-nilly, to fit it - because it came from a European institution, and because other countries, regions, educational establishments, textbook publishers or authors, curriculum planners and test developers took its B2 or C1 as their target and benchmark.</blockquote>In contrast, other concepts have had less impact, such as the action-oriented approach, mediation and plurilingualism (North 2023, p. 2), or the view of the learner as a social actor (CEFR Expert Group, 2023, p. 17). Plurilingualism is thus one of the concepts whose adoption has remained limited since the publication of the CEFR. Several explanations, both conceptual and practical, can be put forward. The simplistic interpretation of the distinction between plurilingualism (individual) and multilingualism (society) does not reflect the complexity of the concept. The CEFR-CV therefore emphasises the idea that the addition of distinct languages (multilingualism) and the overcoming of the separation of languages (plurilingualism) can be achieved both in individuals and within communities (CEFR Expert Group, 2023, p. 32). The CEFR does not provide descriptors for plurilingual competence or for mediation. The operational contribution of the CEFR-CV fills this gap (Yüce, 2019, p. 96). The CEFR is sometimes regarded as complex and difficult to understand. The CEFR-CV has therefore been designed to be clearer, more accessible and easier to use than the previous version (Council of Europe, 2020, pp. 13–15; North, 2023, p. 1). === Plurilingualism in the Companion Volume === It should be noted from the outset that the CEFR-CV introduces a series of significant changes that go beyond the issue of plurilingualism alone. Among these changes is the adaptation to sign language, with the development of descriptors for signing proficiency. In this section, only the developments relating to plurilingualism will be presented. The CEFR-CV forms part of a broader framework: among the recent developments it takes into account (mentioned at the start of the previous section) is the Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture (RFCDC). For an overview of all the developments, please refer to section 2.2 of the 2023 Guide. The philosophy of the RFCDC plays a key role in the CEFR-CV: it broadens the scope of language education by promoting inclusive, plurilingual and intercultural education in the service of democracy, social justice and human rights (CEFR Expert Group, 2023, p. 3). Plurilingualism is highlighted in the CEFR-CV and addressed more explicitly than in the 2001 version. The CEFR-CV offers a broader vision of this, showing that plurilingualism can be understood in various ways: as a sociological and historical fact, as a personal characteristic or aspiration, as an educational philosophy or approach, or even as a socio-political objective aimed at preserving linguistic diversity. This broader vision is also reflected in the link established with the concept of ‘translanguaging’, which is considered here as part of plurilingualism (Council of Europe, 2021, p. 29). With regard to plurilingualism, perhaps the most significant contribution of the CEFR-CV is the introduction of illustrative descriptors for plurilingual and pluricultural competence — tools that were lacking in the original version (North, 2023, p. 4). This competence builds on the CEFR 2001, reaffirming ‘[…] that plurilinguals have a ''single'', interrelated, repertoire that they combine with their general competences and various strategies in order to accomplish tasks’, and that plurilingual competence “involves the ability to call flexibly upon an interrelated, uneven, plurilinguistic repertoire” (Council of Europe, 2020, p. 30). In Chapter 4, the new descriptors are presented. They are grouped into three distinct categories:<blockquote> * Building on plurilingual repertoire ** recognising and acting on cultural, socio-pragmatic and sociolinguistic conventions/cues; ** recognising and interpreting similarities and differences in perspectives, practices and events; ** evaluating neutrally and critically (Council of Europe, 2020, 124). * Plurilingual comprehension ** openness and flexibility to work with different elements from different languages; ** exploiting cues; ** exploiting similarities, recognising “false friends” (from B1 up); ** exploiting parallel sources in different languages (from B1 up); ** collating information from all available sources (in different languages) (Council of Europe, 2020, 126). * Building on plurilingual repertoire ** flexible adaptation to the situation; ** anticipation as to when and to what extent the use of several languages is useful and appropriate; ** adjusting language according to the linguistic skills of interlocutors; ** blending and alternating between languages where necessary; ** explaining and clarifying in different languages; ** encouraging people to use different languages by giving an example (Council of Europe, 2020, 127). </blockquote> === Pros and cons of the new developments: expected changes and criticism === The publication of the CEFR-V is accompanied by hopes of revitalising language teaching and learning, placing greater emphasis on key concepts such as plurilingual and pluricultural competence (as well as the action-oriented approach, mediation and the recognition of the learner as a social actor) — rather than continuing to focus solely on proficiency levels and descriptors. However, the CEFR-CV has also been the subject of criticism, with some even questioning its entire approach: for instance, Coste (2021) highlights the paradox of attempting to adapt something as dynamic as plurilingualism to fixed levels. Maurer and Puren’s (2019) critique focuses on conceptual ambiguities and confusions which they regard as structural, particularly in relation to the pluricultural competence grid. In their view, the CEFR-CV seeks above all to modernise the CEFR for the benefit of certification organisations (Maurer & Puren, p. 140). Volle (2022) goes further and refers to a dissolution of language in action. She sees the CEFR(-CV) as an ‘incredible tool for standardising and uniformising language teaching methods’ (Volle 2022, p. 144) within a managerial framework. == Take home messages == * The CEFR promotes the development of plurilingual (and pluricultural) competence as an objective of language teaching and learning. * The 2001 version does not provide descriptors for plurilingual competence. * This lack of specific descriptors and the difficulty in moving towards a policy objective of plurilingual education led to the drafting and publication of a Companion Volume to the CEFR. * The CEFR-CV is the result of in-depth reflection on the impact of the 2001 CEFR and on the need to incorporate more recent developments in the field of language teaching and learning (such as the CRCCD). * The CEFR-CV promotes plurilingualism (as well as mediation, the action-oriented approach, and sign language) and adds new descriptors for plurilingual education. * The new descriptors for plurilingual and pluricultural competence are grouped into three categories: pluricultural repertoire, plurilingual comprehension and plurilingual repertoire. * Critics argue that the CEFR-CV contributes to the standardisation of language learning on a questionable conceptual basis. == Self-assessment == === Multiple choice === <quiz display=simple> {Which of the recommendations made in the CEFR (2001) has been particularly successful in language teaching and learning in Europe?} +1. Proficiency levels -2. Plurilingualism -3. The action-oriented approach -4. Mediation -5. Pluriculturalism {Which new descriptors were introduced in the CEFR-CV (2020)?} +1. Descriptors for plurilingual competence +2. Descriptors for signing (using sign language) -3. Descriptors for communicative action -4. Descriptors for task-based teaching {Which of the following statements are correct?} -1. The CEFR-CV fundamentally modifies the concept of multilingualism proposed in the CEFR 2001. +2. In the CEFR-CV, plurilingualism is conceived as a component of a culture of democracy. -3. Sign languages are included in the CEFR 2001. +4. Sign languages are included in the CEFR-CV. +5. The CEFR-CV adopts the concept of a language repertoire. </quiz> === Reflection === Consider the criticisms directed at the CEFR. Is the CEFR-CV better suited to promoting reform in language teaching and learning than its previous version? Make a list of arguments ‘for’ and ‘against’. == Resources to go further == * Webinar "Aligning to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages – Companion Volume: a continuous process"   (19 Sep 2024): https://www.youtube.com/live/5xslG-J7NTw * Webinar "Opportunities and challenges for plurilingual and intercultural education in times of AI"  (04 Feb 2025) ** Webinar in English: https://youtube.com/live/byO8nno1jmk ** Webinar in French: https://youtube.com/live/Z-FtmjB9VBk * CEFR Expert Group. (2023). ''A guide to action-oriented, plurilingual and intercultural Education''. Council of Europe Publishing. https://rm.coe.int/a-guide-to-action-oriented-plurilingual-and-intercultural-education-en/1680b52354 * ECML: Plurilingual and intercultural education. https://www.ecml.at/en/Thematic-areas/Plurilingual-and-intercultural-education * Linguistic Diversity in the European Union. https://www.anefore.lu/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Linguistic-diversity-in-the-European-Union.pdf * PlurCur: https://www.ecml.at/en/ECML-Programme/Programme-2012-2015/PlurCur * Language friendly schools: https://languagefriendlyschool.org * Online-books in different languages / Bilderbücher in verschiedenen Sprachen: https://www.amira-lesen.de/# * Schule Merhsprachig Hefte. https://www.schule-mehrsprachig.at/trio/trio-ausgaben * ALL: http://all-literature.wikidot.com/multilingual-online-sources-of-texts * Lost Wor(l)ds: https://www.multilingualism-in-schools.net/category/activities/ == Bibliography == Beacco, J.-C. (2007). ''Guide pour le développement et la mise en oeuvre de curriculums pour une éducation plurilingue et interculturelle (version intégrale)''. Conseil de l’Europe. http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/Guide_Main_Beacco2007_FR.doc Beacco, J.-C., & Byram, M. (2003). ''De la diversité linguistique à l’éducation plurilingue. Guide pour l’élaboration des politiques linguistiques éducatives en Europe:'' Conseil de l’Europe. https://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/DisplayDCTMContent?documentId=09000016802fc3ab Beacco, J.-C., Byram, M., Cavalli, M., Coste, D., Cuenat, M. E., Goullier, F., & Panthier, J. (2016). ''Guide pour le développement et la mise en oeuvre de curriculums pour une éducation plurilingue et interculturelle''. Editions du Conseil de l’Europe. Bistagne, F (2019). Le plurilinguisme, objet d’histoire ? Le royaume de Naples et Giovanni Pontano. Étude de cas linguistique .In ''Écrire l’histoire - Histoire, Littérature, Esthétique'', 19, 117-125. https://hal.science/hal-02610631v1 Candelier, M., Camilleri-Grima, A., Castellotti, V., de Pietro, J.-F., Lörincz, I., Meißner, F.-J., Noguerol, A., & Schröder-Sura, A. (2007). ''CARAP : cadre de référence pour les approches plurielles des langues et des cultures''. Centre européen pour les langues vivantes. Candelier, M., Camilleri-Grima, A., Castellotti, V., de Pietro, J.-F., Lörincz, I., Meißner, F.-J., Noguerol, A., & Schröder-Sura, A. (with Molinié, M.). (2012). ''CARAP : cadre de référence pour les approches plurielles des langues et des cultures''. Centre européen pour les langues vivantes / Conseil de l’Europe. https://www.ecml.at/Portals/1/documents/ECML-resources/CARAP-FR.pdf?ver=2018-03-20-120658-740 Caravolas, J.A. (2011). J.A. Comenius (1592-1670) et le plurilinguisme. In ''Documents pour l’histoire du français langue étrangère ou seconde'' [En ligne], 43 | 2009. https://doi.org/10.4000/dhfles.826 CEFR Expert Group. (2023). A guide to action-oriented, plurilingual and intercultural Education. Editions du Conseil de l’Europe, Strasbourg. Council of Europe Publishing. https://rm.coe.int/a-guide-to-action-oriented-plurilingual-and-intercultural-education-en/1680b52354 Conseil de l’Europe. (2001). ''Un cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues : Apprendre, enseigner, évaluer''. Didier ; Conseil de l’Europe. https://rm.coe.int/16802fc3a8 Conseil de l’Europe. (2021). ''Un cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues : apprendre, enseigner, évaluer – Volume complémentaire''. Éditions du Conseil de l’Europe. https://www.coe.int/lang-cecr. Coste, D. (2007). Contextualising uses of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. In Council of Europe, ''The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) and the development of language policies: challenges and responsibilities''. Intergovernmental Language Policy Forum. Report. Council of Europe. Coste, D., Moore, D., & Zarate, G. (2009). ''Compétence plurilingue et pluriculturelle : Vers un cadre européen commun de référence pour l’enseignement et l’apprentissage des langues vivantes. Version révisée et enrichie d’un avant-propos et d’une bibliographie complémentaire''. Éditions du Conseil de l’Europe. https://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/SourcePublications/CompetencePlurilingue09web_FR.pdf Coste, D. (2021). De Rüschlikon au Volume complémentaire ou Du risque qu’il y a à passer sous les échelles. Vogt, K., & Quetz, J.(Éds.). ''Der neue Begleitband zum Gemeinsamen europäischen Referenzrahmen für Sprachen''. Peter Lang, 35-45. Council of Europe (Éd.). (2001). ''Common European framework of reference for languages : Learning, teaching, assessment''. Press syndicate of the University of Cambridge. Council of Europe. (2020). ''Common European framework of reference for languages : Learning, teaching, assessment. Companion volume''. Council of Europe. https://rm.coe.int/common-european-framework-of-reference-for-languages-learning-teaching/16809ea0d4. Lenz, P., & Berthele, R. (2010). ''Prise en compte des compétences plurilingue et interculturelle dans l’évaluation''. Conseil de l’Europe. https://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/Source2010_ForumGeneva/Assessment2010_Lenz_FRrev.pdf Maurer, B. & Puren, C. (2019). ''CECR : par ici la sortie !'' Éditions des archives contemporaines. https://eac.ac/publications/9782813003522 North, B. (2023). The CEFR companion volume and the action-oriented approach. In ''ItalianoLinguadue'', 14(2), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.54103/2037-3597/19566 Volle, R.-M. (2022): Le CECR: une conception instrumentale et managériale des langues. ''Didactique du FLES: Recherches et Pratiques 1(1):'' 139-145). Yüce, E. (2019). Plurilingualism and pluriculturalism in the CEFR companion volume. In ''Schriften zur Sprache und Literatur III'' (pp.93-99). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337243142 == Credits == This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) * Christian Ollivier (Université de La Réunion) * Eva Vetter (Universität Wien) 1sst6vfpl97omia4eottgum7wuuwm0x 0 329147 2817280 2805104 2026-06-29T16:29:28Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self-assessment */ 2817280 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == Read this text: [https://www.observatoireplurilinguisme.eu/les-fondamentaux/multilinguismes-et-plurilinguismes/2210-les-ideologies-linguistiques-et-le-plurilinguisme-j-c-beacco Les idéologies linguistiques et le plurilinguisme] (J. C. Beacco) What do you remember about the three ideologies presented by Beacco, particularly the implications this has for the consideration of multilingualism? Watch [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/iqYfHf336SY this video]. * What did you learn (or were reminded of) from the video about how accents in the pool of African languages are viewed—within communities, by outsiders, or in media/literature? * Can you think of a moment in your own life (or your community) when someone was judged, praised, or responded to differently because of their accent or dialect? How did that feel or what was the outcome? * How might accent prejudice affect language learners? For instance, what pressures might learners feel to “sound right” or “erase” their own accent? * How can teachers help students value accent diversity and reduce stigma? = Objectives = By the end of this section, you should be able to: * understand the impact of colonisation on the recognition of different languages, particularly the languages of colonised populations; * identify and understand situations related to raciolinguistics; * develop a critical view of the Eurocentric vision often associated with different languages; * consider all languages on an equal footing, with a view to decolonisation. = Key words = Decolonisation - ideology - multilingual education - racial linguistics - Eurocentrism - language status - language policy. = Pre-requisites = * Knowledge of Western colonial movements; * Knowledge of so-called ‘colonisation languages’, often identified as hegemonic languages. = Introduction = Teaching languages has the potential and the responsibility to value all languages and most importantly all speakers of a language equally. This is not the case in societies based on racist structures that we find in our world. This is why it can be important to open the language classroom to decolonial approaches (Walsh, 2013) that can include linguistic varieties instead of only the most prestigious (often European) varieties, and reflections about the connection between racism and linguistic discrimination (raciolinguistics, cf. Flores & Rosa, 2015; Lavoie, 2022). This connection is based on the fact that language contributes to the construction of racial differences, with the potential for discrimination. It allows us to perceive that these practices are informed by ideologies that shape how individuals or groups are positioned. = History = When considering the history of language teaching, we must acknowledge that there have been ways all over the world to pass a language from one person to another, from one generation to another or from one group to another. In many Indigenous communities, this passing of languages was done through oral methods. However, we often refer to the documented, written ways of teaching a language, which were developed in Europe and not that much in Indigenous communities. The fact that we refer to it is due to (neo-)colonial ideologies, in which European and Westernised sciences are positioned as superior to any other sciences and epistemologies. For instance, language measurement follows European and Westernised ideologies (of monolingualism, see also “Concepts”) and does not include flexible forms of language use (see also Translanguaging). Kilomba (2019, p. 52, our translation) provides an example of how science is associated differently, illustrated in Table 1. {| class="wikitable" |Supposed associations of European and Westernised sciences |Supposed associations of non-European and Westernised sciences |- |“universal |specific |- |objective |subjective |- |neutral |personal |- |rational |emotional |- |impartial |partial |- |they have fact |we have opinions |- |they have knowledge |we have experiences” |} ''Table 1. Supposed associations of sciences'' Due to to the critical turn in language education, this ideology is more and more challenged, notably the pedagogy of the oppressed by Freire (1970) that aims to make students aware of structures and authorities “oppressing” them so that they can empower themselves and, in the best case, liberate themselves. Throughout history, linguistic discrimination and racism have not always been considered together. Instead, racialization has often been understood in the contexts of colonisation, nationalisation, or religion, sometimes excluding skin colour (Alim, 2022). The inclusion of decolonial approaches to the foreign language classroom has been addressed only in the last decade. = Definitions = To grasp decolonial perspectives in plurilingual education, we define decolonialization, ideologies and the specific ideologies of monolingualism as well as raciolinguistics. By decolonization, we understand a disruption with colonial remains, i.e. “stripping the structure and content of the colonially received cultural valuation in education curricula from what is offered, in an emancipating post-colonial context. It requires studious intellectual introspection and the deconstruction of the processes of knowledge production with pinpointed reflexivity. We must be able to stand outside ourselves and critically objectify ourselves as historical and cultural products” (Prah, 2022, pp. 13-14). Moreover, decolonisation means the acceptance of the mission of reform in education, e.g. through creating an inclusive space to educate about the historical and social backgrounds of marginalised groups. Approaching these goals requires multiprofessionality, multiperspectivity from Western and Non-Western communities, multilingualism, and acting “as local as it is global; which affirms the granulations of the way peoples name their worlds” (Phibs, 2019). In other words, decoloniality examines the lasting effects of colonialism on societies, epistemologies, and power dynamics (Mignolo & Walsh, 2018). Rather than outright dismissing Western knowledge frameworks, it challenges their dominance and seeks to incorporate Indigenous, local, and marginalized viewpoints. Currently, postcolonialism evoques to the fact that colonial structures have pertained and demonstrate themselves today in different forms but maintaining the same differences, e.g. regarding economics, value of a language and culture, educational opportunities, etc. Language ideologies can be understood as “cultural representations, whether explicit or implicit, of the intersection of language and human beings in a social world. Mediating between social structures and forms of talk, such ideologies are not only about language. Rather, they link language to identity, power, aesthetics, morality and epistemology.” (Schiffelin et al., 2023, p. 1). Monolingualism is an example of an ideology. Monolingualism is not the natural way of language use but a socially constructed one. As Gogolin (1994) shows, monolingual states were created in modernity, albeit their plurilingual past (and reality). This phenomenon is also known as historical linguistic amnesia. This ideology and others are framed by coloniality. Decolonisation is a way to challenge this widely present ideology. Raciolinguistics explore the links between race, language and power, in the sense that language is a vehicle for the social construction of racial differences, which can lead to discrimination that runs counter to inclusion. A terminology that is little developed as such in French-speaking countries, it is addressed in Quebec, notably by Lavoie (2022), and in the United States by Flores & Rosa (2015). It sheds light on the ideologies and language practices that are part of racial and linguistic inequalities, particularly in the context of dominant discourses that do or do not grant legitimacy to a particular language associated with a particular race. Taken as a critical approach, raciolinguistics analyses the way in which races and languages are co-constituted, acting as markers of identity. As such, schools and other educational settings are spaces where these markers can marginalise or legitimise certain social groups. = Take home messages = Need for : * deconstruct the Westernised - Eurocentric - vision of languages, through appropriate teaching that values all languages, especially those of the learners; * develop recognition of all the world's languages and their use in the same way, by implementing decolonial approaches to language teaching/learning; = Self-assessment= <quiz display="simple"> {Among the various existing languages …} -languages that are taught are superior to those that are not ; +taught and non-teached languages are of equal value; -languages that are not taught are superior to those that are. {Colonisation by European countries has had the following effects:} +hierarchisation of languages -recognition of all languages -recognition of the vernaculars of colonised countries. {Racism associated with languages…} -does not exist ; -is exceptional ; +is a phenomenon linked to the domination of one community over another. {The aim of raciolinguistics is to… } +highlight the link between linguistic and racial ideologies; -promote the colonial model of language vision; -support the hierarchisation of languages. </quiz> = Resources to go further = * [https://www.storybookscanada.ca/ Storybooks Canada] * [https://pressbooks.pub/livinginlanguages/ Decolonising the teaching of Speaking Spanish – Simple Book Publishing] = Bibliography = Alim, H. (2022). Introducing Raciolinguistics: Racing Language and Languaging Race in Hyperracial Times. In H. Alim, J. Rickford, & A. Ball (Eds.), ''Raciolinguistics: How Language Shapes Our Ideas About Race'' (pp. 1-30). Oxford Academic. Flores, N., & Rosa, J. (2015). Undoing appropriateness: Raciolinguistic ideologies and language diversity in education. ''Harvard Educational Review, 85''(2), 149–171. https://doi.org/10.17763/0017-8055.85.2.149 Freire, P. (1970). ''Pedagogy of the oppressed.'' Herder and Herder. Gogolin, I. (1994). ''Der monolinguale Habitus.'' Waxmann. Kilomba, G. (2019). ''Memórias da plantação''. ''Episódios de racismo cotidiano.'' Cobogó. Lavoie, E. (2022). La perspective raciolinguistique comme outil de réflexion critique sur certains discours dominants. ''Revue Éducation et francophonie, 50''(3), 1-17. https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/ef/2022-v50-n3-ef07163/1091115ar/ Mignolo, W. D., & Walsh, C. E. (2018). ''On decoloniality : Concepts, analytics, praxis.'' Duke University Press. Phibs, A., (2019), ''Decolonising multilingualism''. Multilingual Matters. Prah, K., (2022). Language and Decolonization in Institutions of Higher Learning in Africa. In S. Makoni, M. Madany-Saa & B. Antia (eds.), ''Decolonial Voices, Language and Race'' (pp. 13-24). Multilingual Matters. Schieffelin, B., Woolard, K. & Kroskrity, P. (Eds., 2023), ''Language Ideologies: Practice and Theory''. Oxford Academic, https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195105612.001.0001 Walsh, C. (2013). Introducción. Lo pedagógico y lo decolonial: Entretejiendo caminos. In C. Walsh (Ed.), ''Pedagogías decoloniales. Prácticas insurgentes de resistir, (re)existir y (re)vivir'' (pp. 23-68). Ediciones Abya-Yala. == Credits == This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) * Lisa Brinkmann (Universität Hamburg) * Thierry Gaillat (Université de La Réunion) fu8r65vdn3r9jlfy491lac1jyu12707 0 329148 2817315 2805110 2026-06-29T17:09:10Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self-Assessment */ 2817315 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting Activity == Imagine you are participating in an online language exchange with students from different countries. You and your peers speak different first languages, but you also share some knowledge of additional languages (e.g., English, Spanish, French, Italian). During your video meetings, group chats, and collaborative projects, you are encouraged to use all your linguistic resources to communicate, clarify, and co-construct meaning. '''Reflect and respond:''' # Which languages might you choose to use during the exchange? Why? # How would you draw on your knowledge of different languages to make yourself understood—and to understand others? # Have you ever used more than one language in a single interaction? What did you notice about how communication worked? # What strategies might help you deal with misunderstandings or unfamiliar words? # In your opinion, what are the potential benefits of using multiple languages in a collaborative learning setting? == Objectives == By the end of this module, you will be able to: * Define key concepts such as plurilingualism, telecollaboration, tandem learning, and linguistic mediation. * Explain how telecollaborative practices support plurilingual education and intercultural communication. * Identify digital tools and communicative strategies that facilitate meaningful multilingual interaction. * Analyze examples of telecollaborative projects through a plurilingual lens. * Reflect on your own linguistic repertoire and how it can be activated in virtual exchanges. == Keywords == Plurilingualism, telecollaboration, intercultural competence, digital language exchange, linguistic mediation, online interaction, tandem learning, virtual exchange. == Introduction == Telecollaboration is increasingly understood as an action-oriented and collaborative educational approach, rooted in real-world tasks that mirror authentic communicative and professional scenarios. In such contexts, learners are not merely exchanging language forms—they are co-constructing meaning, negotiating across linguistic and cultural repertoires, and developing transversal skills. Typical tasks include the reciprocal explanation of culturally embedded concepts, the co-creation of multilingual media (e.g., digital menus, promotional videos, brochures), and collaborative problem-solving that requires learners to navigate semantic ambiguity and cultural nuance. When informed by a plurilingual perspective, telecollaboration becomes a powerful tool to valorize learners’ entire linguistic repertoires. Rather than enforcing a shared lingua franca, educators may encourage for instance intercomprehension strategies, where participants communicate using different languages and rely on partial understanding, contextual cues, and mutual scaffolding. This approach, supported by projects like ''ComunicaRT'' and ''IOTT'' (Paone, 2024; Leone & Garbarino, 2019), affirms that effective communication is not about native-like proficiency, but about the ability to adapt, mediate, and collaborate across linguistic and cultural boundaries. Such plurilingual telecollaborative practices are closely aligned with inclusive, learner-centered pedagogy. They foster strategic competence, metalinguistic awareness, and a reflective attitude toward language use, all of which are essential for navigating complex multilingual societies. Learners develop as plurilingual agents who are equipped not only to communicate, but to mediate understanding between diverse linguistic and cultural communities. == History of the concept == Telecollaboration, often referred to as virtual exchange, originated in the early 1990s as a pedagogical response to the increasing accessibility of internet technologies. Its core idea was to connect language learners from different geographical and cultural backgrounds through online communication tools, thereby fostering both linguistic competence and intercultural awareness. Early implementations—typically based on email exchanges, discussion forums, and asynchronous writing tasks—were shaped by the emerging field of Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) and influenced by theories of network-based language learning (Warschauer, 1997; Kern, 1996). As digital technologies evolved, so too did the modalities of telecollaboration. Synchronous tools like video conferencing, collaborative platforms, wikis, blogs, and social media enabled more interactive, multimodal, and project-based exchanges. This led to the development of richer tasks that emphasized collaboration, co-construction of meaning, and intercultural reflection. Telecollaboration thus expanded from a tool for language practice into a comprehensive pedagogical model embedded in task-based and action-oriented learning. In the 2000s and 2010s, scholars such as Robert O’Dowd played a key role in conceptualizing and consolidating the field. O’Dowd (2018) distinguishes between telecollaboration as a more open-ended educational practice and virtual exchange, which often refers to institutionally supported and structured programmes, such as those sponsored by the European Union (e.g., Erasmus+ Virtual Exchange). These initiatives highlight the potential of online intercultural encounters not only for language development, but also for advancing global citizenship, digital literacy, and inclusivity in education. Telecollaboration’s evolution has also been supported by interdisciplinary insights from CALL (Computer-Assisted Language Learning), intercultural communication, and plurilingual education. With the growing focus on learner agency, plurilingual competence, and social constructivist approaches, telecollaboration is now widely regarded as a powerful action-oriented, learner-centered practice that promotes authentic communication across languages and cultures. == Definitions == Plurilingualism refers to an individual's capacity to flexibly and dynamically use multiple languages, integrating linguistic knowledge across various languages rather than viewing them as isolated systems. This holistic approach emphasizes the interconnectedness of languages within a person's repertoire, allowing for fluid movement between languages depending on the context and communicative needs. Telecollaboration involves the use of digital communication tools to connect learners from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds for educational purposes. This approach facilitates intercultural exchanges and language learning through online platforms, enabling participants to engage in collaborative projects, discussions, and activities that enhance both linguistic proficiency and cultural understanding. Tandem Learning is a (telecollaborative) method where two individuals with different native languages partner to assist each other in learning their respective languages. This reciprocal arrangement allows each learner to benefit from the native proficiency of their partner, promoting authentic language use and cultural exchange. Sessions typically involve equal time dedicated to each language, ensuring balanced learning opportunities. Linguistic Mediation encompasses the ability to interpret, facilitate, and relay information between speakers of different languages. It is a crucial component in plurilingual telecollaboration, as it enables effective communication and understanding in multilingual contexts. Mediators employ their linguistic skills to bridge language gaps, ensuring that meaning is accurately conveyed and comprehended across language barriers. Collectively, these concepts underscore the importance of integrating multiple languages and cultures in educational settings, leveraging digital tools and collaborative methods to enrich language learning and intercultural competence. == Practical examples == === '''Example 1: Intercomprehension in Telecollaborative Mentoring''' === In a transatlantic telecollaborative project, heritage Spanish speakers in California engaged in Italian language learning through mentoring sessions with Italian university students. These sessions encouraged the use of Spanish as a ''pivot language'' to support the acquisition of Italian, promoting '''intercomprehension''' based on the typological proximity of Romance languages. Learners were encouraged to draw on their plurilingual repertoires to negotiate meaning and build metalinguistic awareness during real-time Zoom interactions​ (Cortés Velásquez, Donato, & Ricciardelli, 2023). === '''Example 2: Intercomprehension and Teletandem in the IOTT Project''' === The IOTT project, a collaboration between the University of Lyon 2 and the University of Salento, implemented a telecollaborative learning scenario combining intercomprehension and teletandem methodologies. Students from different linguistic backgrounds engaged in synchronous oral sessions via VoIP technologies, utilizing their respective Romance languages to communicate. This approach emphasized the development of receptive skills in intercomprehension, allowing learners to understand related languages without prior formal instruction. The project also incorporated reflective practices, such as learning diaries and self-assessment tools, to enhance metalinguistic awareness and foster autonomous learning strategies. Findings indicated that this integrative model effectively promoted plurilingual competencies and intercultural understanding among participants (Garbarino & Leone, 2020). === '''Example 3: The Trans-Atlantic and Pacific Project (TAPP)''' === TAPP connects classes from Europe and the US in joint professional and linguistic projects. In multilingual group tasks, students collaborate on writing, usability testing, and translation. For example, US engineering students produced presentations peer-reviewed by European students. These exchanges promote '''co-writing and multilingual mediation''', with English often used as a lingua franca, but with growing attention to local languages and translation practices as tools for intercultural understanding (O’Dowd, 2018). === '''Example 4: Digital Storytelling in Multilingual Settings''' === In a university course, students participated in a virtual intercultural exchange via Google+ and Google Drive. One of the key tasks involved creating a '''digital story''' in teams. Learners used multiple languages for narration and subtitling, leveraging their full linguistic repertoires. These digital products were shared and peer-reviewed across institutions, showcasing the integration of '''multimodal literacy, plurilingual resources, and intercultural storytelling'''​ (Nicolaou & Sevilla-Pavón, 2016). === '''Example 5: Tandem Feedback and Plurilingual Awareness through Focus on Form''' === In a virtual exchange between heritage Spanish-speaking American students learning Italian and Italian university students studying foreign languages, participants were paired in plurilingual dyads to engage in peer feedback on written texts in their respective target languages. Each student revised their partner’s writing and then participated in oral discussions to explain and negotiate language use—doing so in their own L1 or stronger language. The exchange was designed to encourage indirect written corrective feedback combined with oral prompting, a strategy that proved especially effective in stimulating active negotiation of form. Crucially, the learners relied on their plurilingual repertoires—including Spanish, English, and Italian—to reflect on and compare linguistic structures. This interaction enabled not only grammatical development, but also the activation of metalinguistic awareness and cross-linguistic transfer, as participants explored differences and similarities among the languages they knew. The experience offered a concrete example of how telecollaboration can leverage multilingual identities to promote both language development and intercultural competence (Cortés Velásquez & Nuzzo, 2021). == Take-Home Messages == * Plurilingualism and telecollaboration enhance language learning by integrating real-world communication and intercultural experiences. * Digital tools (e.g., Zoom, Google Docs, Padlet, Flipgrid) facilitate authentic multilingual interactions. * Linguistic mediation and translanguaging strategies help learners navigate and negotiate meaning across languages. == Self-Assessment == === Multiple choice === <quiz display=simple> {What is the main advantage of using telecollaboration in plurilingual education?} -A) It ensures students only use their strongest language. +B) It promotes interaction with speakers of different languages and cultures. -C) It replaces traditional face-to-face language learning. +D) It eliminates the need for language teachers. {Which of the following is an example of linguistic mediation in telecollaboration?} -A) Memorizing vocabulary lists before an online exchange. +B) Helping a partner understand a complex idea by rephrasing it in simpler terms. -C) Using only one language to avoid confusion in communication. -D) Writing a summary of a conversation without using any digital tools. </quiz> === Reflection === Think about your own language repertoire. How could you use your different languages strategically in a virtual exchange to support communication and collaboration? == Resources to Go Further == * Erasmus+ Virtual Exchange: https://europa.eu/youth/erasmus-virtual * Council of Europe – Platform of resources and references for plurilingual nd intercultural education: https://www.coe.int/en/web/platform-plurilingual-intercultural-language-education * Tandem Language Learning Platforms: https://www.tandem.net/ * Series: Telecollaborative learning and Virtual Exchange in Education, edited by Melinda Ann Dooly Owen and Robert O'Dowd: https://www.peterlang.com/series/te == Bibliography == Cortés Velásquez, D., & Nuzzo, E. (2021). Minding the gap: A small-scale study on negotiation of form in telecollaborative tasks. ''Instructed Second Language Acquisition, 5''(2), 232–257. https://doi.org/10.1558/isla.19812 Cortés Velásquez, D., Donato, R., & Ricciardelli, R. (2023). ''Mentoring and intercomprehension in telecollaboration: A plurilingual approach to teaching Italian to heritage Spanish speakers'' [Manuscript in preparation]. Garbarino, S. (2019). Plurilingual practices and telecollaboration: Towards inclusive and learner-centered pedagogies. In P. Leone (Ed.), ''Plurilingual approaches to language learning and teaching'' (pp. 75–91). FrancoAngeli. Garbarino, S., & Leone, P. (2020). Innovation dans un projet de télécollaboration orale en intercompréhension : bilan et perspectives du projet IOTT. ''Alsic, 23''(2). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349002904 Kern, R. (1996). Computer-mediated communication: Using e-mail exchanges to explore personal histories in two cultures. In M. Warschauer (Ed.), ''Telecollaboration in foreign language learning'' (pp. 105–119). University of Hawai’i Press. Leone, P. (2023). Plurilingual telecollaboration: Mediation and intercomprehension in virtual exchanges. In P. Leone & S. Garbarino (Eds.), ''Plurilingualism in language education and content learning'' (pp. 143–158). Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Nicolaou, A., & Sevilla-Pavón, A. (2016). Exploring telecollaboration through the lens of university students: A Spanish-Cypriot telecollaborative exchange. In S. Jager, M. Kurek, & B. O’Rourke (Eds.), ''New directions in telecollaborative research and practice: Selected papers from the second conference on telecollaboration in higher education'' (pp. 113–119). Research-publishing.net. https://doi.org/10.14705/rpnet.2016.telecollab2016.497 O’Dowd, R. (2018). From telecollaboration to virtual exchange: State-of-the-art and the role of UNICollaboration in moving forward. ''Journal of Virtual Exchange, 1''(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.14705/rpnet.2018.jve.1 Paone, L. (2024). ''Plurilingual approaches and real-world tasks in language education: A pedagogical framework'' [Unpublished manuscript]. Warschauer, M. (1997). Computer-mediated collaborative learning: Theory and practice. ''The Modern Language Journal, 81''(4), 470–481. https://doi.org/10.2307/328890 == Credits == This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Diego Cortes Velasquez (Universitá Roma Tre). cm92e50wobod1g4a2zpf4ywvxsmm2na 0 329149 2817366 2805113 2026-06-30T08:46:10Z ~2026-37432-69 3097899 2817366 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Initial activity == Watch [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TPVDWGCJlg4 this video], which explains the concept of intercomprehension in several Romance languages. Then ask yourself a few questions: * What information did you understand? * In which languages was this information communicated in the video? * Why did you understand it? == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to... * define intercomprehension; * identify the factors that enable intercomprehension; * characterise different teaching approaches. == Keywords == Multilingualism, language family, language transfer, interlinguistic intelligibility, learning autonomy. == Prerequisites == You may wish to read the page on [[Theories and models of plurilingualism|theories and models of multilingualism]]. == Introduction == French linguist Jules Ronjat (1913) was the first to conceptualise the term ‘''intercomprehension''’. In his work, he described how speakers of different Provençal dialects were able to understand each other (Escudé, 2014, p. 46). Today, there are many terms used to describe this phenomenon and many definitions of the concept. However, these can be classified into three groups. Intercomprehension can thus be considered a communicative practice, a skill and a didactic approach. == Intercomprehension as a communicative practice == As a communicative practice, intercomprehension is a natural and widespread process characterised by the fact that communication partners use different languages while understanding each other's language. The writer and semiotician Umberto Eco (1994, p. 395) describes this type of communication as follows: A Europe of polyglots is not a Europe of people who speak many languages fluently, but, in the best case scenario, of '''people who can meet each other speaking their own language and understanding the other's''', but who, not knowing how to speak it fluently, would understand, even if with difficulty, the ‘genius’, the cultural universe that each person expresses when speaking the language of their ancestors and tradition. In fact, this form of communication has a long tradition. A frequently cited example is the intercomprehension in Scandinavian countries between speakers of Danish, Swedish and Norwegian, i.e. the continental Scandinavian languages (cf. Börestam Uhlmann, 2005; Braunmüller, 2006; Delsing, 2007). The following example illustrates the similarities between these languages using the question ''What is your name?'': * Swedish: ''Vad heter du?'' * Norwegian: ''Hva heter du?'' * Danish: ''Hvad hedder du?'' Other examples of language families in which intercomprehension is practised include the Romance languages (Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian, Romanian, Catalan, etc.), the Slavic languages (Russian, Ukrainian, Polish, Czech, Slovak, Slovenian, Croatian, Serbian, Bulgarian, etc.), Bantu languages (a group of languages spoken in southern Africa) and the languages of northern India (see Delsing, 2007, p. 231). Beyond its historical roots and empirical examples, intercomprehension deserves to be considered not only as a spontaneous practice between speakers of related languages, but also as a communicative skill that can be developed, taught and mobilised in multilingual contexts. This perspective opens up new avenues for language teaching and for the promotion of more inclusive communication. == Intercomprehension as a skill == All communicative practices involve underlying skills, the existence of which necessarily determines the success of the communicative act. With regard to intercomprehension, the analysis carried out as part of the EVAL-IC project, which proposes detailed reference frameworks for each linguistic activity in intercomprehension, clearly shows that intercomprehension is now understood as a multidimensional process that takes place in multilingual and multicultural contexts and promotes discursive encounters between multilingual speakers (see Ollivier et al., 2019; Ollivier et al., 2020; Bonvino et al., 2023). This conception of intercomprehension is close to that of Balboni (2007), who proposed the term ‘intercomunicazione’. From this perspective, intercomprehension is a global mode of communication that draws on potentially partial and unequal skills in various languages, as well as ''additional'' specific skills and dispositions towards communication. These skills are combined to ensure communication between individuals who speak different languages and have not necessarily learned each other's languages. This mode of communication involves various language activities: * oral and written reception of discourse in languages in which the speaker cannot necessarily express himself and in which he may have only partial comprehension skills; * oral and written production in one or more languages in which the speaker has sufficient skills to express themselves, using additional specific skills to adapt their speech to recipients who have not necessarily learned that language or those languages – this is known as interproduction (Balboni, 2009; Hédiard, 2009; Capucho, 2011); * oral and written interaction with speakers of different languages, using general reception and production skills and skills specific to multilingual interaction. Designed as a holistic multilingual communication skill, intercomprehension involves exploiting synergies between several dimensions: * strategic, which cuts across the entire process, * linguistic, which was at the heart of early approaches to intercomprehension (see below), * sociopragmatic, * psychological, * intercultural, * non-verbal, * ‘meta’ (linguistic, pragmatic, cognitive, etc.) * cognitive (Ollivier, et al., 2020). Intercomprehension competence is thus based on general communicative competence, using (above all) interlinguistic knowledge and psychological dimensions, which enable the link between knowledge and skills to be activated. It is not only a skill in foreign languages, but also, when necessary, in the mother tongue. Indeed, in its interproductive dimension, intercomprehension also relies on the ability to adapt one's speech to people who may never have learned the language being used. == Intercomprehension as a didactic approach == In the ''Framework for Plural Approaches to Languages and Cultures'' (CARAP, Candelier et al., 2012), intercomprehension is considered one of four plural approaches to language teaching and learning (Candelier et al. 2012, p. 6). However, from a didactic point of view, it was not until the 1990s that research and projects began to be carried out, particularly in the field of Romance and Germanic intercomprehension. In this context, special mention should be made of the major pioneering projects, strongly supported by the European Commission, which have since established specific priorities and approaches in the field of intercomprehension teaching and learning. Thus: * EuRom4 and IGLO represent strongly philological trends; * MINERVA pursues objectives related to communicative and social skills; * EuroComRom and EuroComDidact separately present a philological aspect and a didactic reflection; * GALATEA is a project with an entirely didactic focus. The same diversity can be seen in the aims and objectives of learning, which range from learning a partial skill in multilingual reading comprehension (GALATEA) to considering it as an initial stage in the development of productive skills (EuroComRom and MINERVA); the focus on words and sentences (EuRom4, EuroComRom and IGLO), the text (GALATEA) or the speech act (MINERVA); the focus on written reception (EuRom4, EuroComRom, IGLO, GALATEA) or the reception of oral interactions (MINERVA), integrating comprehension and translation simultaneously or not. The influence of each of these perspectives is evident in several subsequent projects which, in one way or another, explore and develop each of the pioneering approaches. Thus, today we find three main trends in intercomprehension teaching, which are determined by the basic theoretical framework of the various projects and the goals of intercomprehension learning: # a more ‘philological’ approach, following EuroComRom, where intercomprehension is seen primarily as a first step towards '''learning languages of the same family'''; # a philological and didactic approach, rooted in a reading or listening teaching perspective, where lexical and morphosyntactic elements and reception strategies are integrated to aid '''comprehension (general and specific) of written and/or spoken texts'''; # two approaches aimed at '''learning multilingual interaction skills''': 3.1. a highly didactic approach, where learning stems from learners' practice of intercomprehension (often through online interaction); 3.2. a ‘holistic’ approach, targeting different linguistic activities and simultaneously mobilising linguistic, pragmatic and non-verbal knowledge, as well as textual, discursive and experiential knowledge, derived from a second generation of projects, of which ''Echanger pour Changer'' was the first experiment in 1998–2001. Concrete examples of these three main types of approaches are given below: === Intercomprehension based on vocabulary learning, for the learning of all target languages === The EuroComRom team has extended its activities to other language families, offering EuroComGerm and EuroComSlav and, later, publishing English - the Bridge to the Romance Languages (Hemming et al., 2011), which establishes a strong relationship between English and the Romance languages. The main principles of the Eurocom approach are explained in an extract from the Introduction to the Didactics of Eurocomprehension (2004). In addition, a team of researchers from the Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen, led by Franz-Joseph Meißner and collaborating on the Miriadi project, has worked on the lexicological aspects of the basic vocabulary of Romance languages and published the volume ''Der Kernwortschatz der romanischen Mehrsprachigkeit'' (KrM) (Meißner, 2016; see also Meißner, 2018), as well as a computer application (''Acquiring Plurilingual Basic Vocabulary of French, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish - APLURIBAV''), offering exercises aimed at learning multilingual vocabulary. Unfortunately, this application is no longer available, but its presentation on this page still provides an understanding of the basic principles underlying the approach. === Parallel/simultaneous learning of comprehension (written and/or oral) in five Romance languages === Directly derived from the EuRom4 project, EuRom5, published in 2011 (and reissued several times since, Bonvino et al.), is intended for simultaneous receptive learning through intercomprehension of five Romance languages: Catalan, Spanish, French, Italian and Portuguese. In the presentation by the General Delegation for the French Language and the Languages of France (2010), three objectives are mentioned:<blockquote> * "to familiarise learners with Romance languages through increasingly refined comprehension; * to provide, through the technical aids accompanying the text, the essential linguistic knowledge of the five languages concerned; [...] * to develop in learners strategies for approaching the meaning of messages written in a language that is initially unfamiliar (or only slightly familiar), but which they realise has many more similarities with the language(s) they already speak than they suspected’ (DGLFLF, 2010, p. 4). * Below is an example of one of the lessons in Catalan (the same lesson exists in the four other target languages of the method): </blockquote>The team at Roma Tre University has also extended its activities to research on oral intercomprehension and its didactic applications, notably in the work of D. Cortés-Velázquez (2016). === Learning multilingual interaction skills === ==== Written multilingual interaction as a source of learning ==== All the approaches described above are part of what is currently known as receptive intercomprehension. It was not until the turn of the millennium and the rapid advances in communication technology that the interactive dimension was effectively explored in the educational applications of certain projects. It was therefore the development of the Internet as a means of interpersonal communication that led to the emergence of a ‘second generation’ of projects aimed at learning intercomprehension as multilingual interaction. A pioneer in this new field, the GALANET project (2001–2004), whose promoters were mostly researchers from GALATEA, created a training platform for intercomprehension in Romance languages, enabling real-time communication (synchronous (chat) and asynchronous (forum)) between speakers of different languages, so that multilingual interaction is both the means and the goal of learning. The GALANET approach is clearly based on a socio-cognitivist perspective: ‘This meaning implies that the concept of IC in multilingual interaction is defined as the result of the combination of different contextual ingredients (languages used at the time of interaction, number of interlocutors, objectives and issues of the encounter, spatial and temporal conditions of communication, etc.) and, at the same time, as the transforming element of this same context’ (Araújo e Sá et al., 2011, p. 288). Here is an example of a dialogue from a GALANET session, taken from Araújo e Sá & Melo (2006):<blockquote>'''Tavirapt diz''' QUEM VAI COMER AO BA? '''Viseupt says''' KEM PAGA O ALMOCO??? '''chave2 says''' What does ‘AO BA’ mean? '''froberta says''' Does comer mean to eat? '''Lisboapt says''' Are you going to the beach? '''Tavirapt says''' YES '''smelo1 says''' What's the best thing in France? '''Guardapt says''' I'm going to eat at the snack bar '''Guardapt says''' I don't speak French ''santonella enters galanet'' '''smelo1 says''' Mangiare means to eat :) '''froberta says''' What do you usually eat? '''chave2 says''' In France, the best thing is Camembert. '''Lisboapt says''' The Ba is the university association bar. '''smelo1 says''' Let's talk about our countries? '''Guardapt says''' I'm hungry!!! '''santonella says''' Hi visaup '''Tavirapt says''' NO '''cassino2 says''' Do you speak French? '''Guardapt says''' Portuguese '''froberta says''' Please forgive my ignorance of your language, but I like French '''csilvia1 says''' In Italy, Parmigiano '''Lisboapt says''' I agree with you I WANT TO KNOW WHO'S PAYING FOR LUNCH!!!!!!!! '''smelo1 says''' In Portugal, the best thing is Cozido à Portuguesa... '''Coimbrapt says''' BA is the academic bar</blockquote>Following on from GALANET, the same partnership also proposed GALAPRO (2008–2010) for the training of multilingual trainers in Romance languages using the same methodology: ‘Galapro aims to train intercomprehension through intercomprehension’ (Araújo e Sá, 2010, p. 27). Following this project, and in a broader consortium, the same researchers developed MIRIADI, which presented an initial proposal for specific reference frameworks for intercomprehension and a wide variety of resources for its learning. For more information, see the lesson ‘telecollaboration’. ==== A holistic approach to intercomprehension aimed at developing multilingual communication skills ==== Based on the experience gained by ''Échanger pour Changer'', where trainers participating in European mobility programmes were invited to reflect on the knowledge and strategies they used to understand a language they did not know during their stay in a foreign country, a diverse team of researchers continued the work aimed at constructing a holistic approach, simultaneously mobilising the different dimensions of IC. This perspective has been developed in a wide range of projects that have produced activities aimed at the progressive learning of written and oral comprehension, so as to subsequently enable written and oral interaction and written and oral interproduction. Teaching resources corresponding to activities that enable the progressive development of multilingual communication skills are currently available on the Intermove+ Project website - Module 5 (units 5 to 24). All these more recent projects thus represent a scientific and educational journey that has lasted for more than 25 years. Their differences lie in the basic concepts that underpin them, their pedagogical approaches, the communicative goals to be achieved and the learning objectives that derive from them. However, they share a common feature: they all respond to the urgent need to meet the multilingual training needs of European citizens in the 21st century. == Take home messages == * The various definitions that exist for the concept of intercomprehension can be classified into three groups. Intercomprehension can thus be considered as a (spontaneous) communicative practice between speakers of different languages, a skill and a teaching approach. * Among the language families in which intercomprehension is practised in Europe, the Romance, Slavic and Germanic languages are particularly noteworthy. * Intercomprehension competence is based on general communicative competence, supplemented by specific skills specific to this mode of communication. * Today, three main trends can be distinguished in the teaching of intercomprehension. A more ‘philological’ approach, a philological/didactic approach with a focus on reception, and approaches aimed at learning interaction skills or even multilingual communication. == Self-assessment == * How can intercomprehension be defined? * Where is (spontaneous) intercomprehension practised? Give examples. * Why are intercomprehension skills not limited to foreign language skills? * What are the objectives of the different teaching approaches to intercomprehension? == Resources for further study == * Araújo e Sá, M.H. & Pinho, A.S. (2015). ''Intercompreensão em contexto educativo . Resultados da investigação''. UA Editora. https://www.miriadi.net/sites/default/files/livro-book_miriadi_-_v.01-08_-_final.pdf * Blanche-Benveniste, C. & Valli, A. (1997) (Eds.). L'intercompréhension. Le cas des langues romanes. ''Le Français dans le Monde'', ''special issue''. * Bonvino, E., Cognigni, E., & Garbarino, S. (2025). ''La didattica dell'intercomprensione tra lingue affini. Ricerca, contesti e proposte operative''. Mondadori Università. * Bonvino, E., & Garbarino, S. (2022) ''Intercomprensione''. Caissa Italia. * Caddéo, S., & Jamet, M.-C. (2013). ''L'intercompréhension. Une autre approche pour l'enseignement des langues''. Hachette FLE. * Capucho, F. (2008) Is intercomprehension a fad? From citizen linguist to multilingual citizen. ''Pratiques. Linguistics, literature, teaching,'' 139/140, 238-250. https://doi.org/10.4000/pratiques.1252 * Capucho, F. Silva, M. P., & Chenoll, A., (2018). Co-constructing meaning in international meetings - an approach to plurilingual interactions. ''International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism''. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2018.1474849 * Doyé, P. (2005). Intercomprehension. Guide for the development of educational language policies in Europe. From linguistic diversity to plurilingual education. Reference study. Council of Europe. * Doyé, P., & Meißner, F.-J. (2010). ''Lernerautonomie durch Interkomprehension. Promoting Learner Autonomy Through Intercomprehension. L'autonomie de l'apprenant par l'intercompréhension''. Narr. * Meißner, F.-J., Capucho F., Degache, C., Martins, A., Spiţa, D., & Trost, M. (2011). ''Intercomprehension.'' ''Learning, teaching, research. Apprentissage, enseignement, recherche. Lernen, Lehren, Forschung.'' Narr. * Ollivier, C., & Strasser, M. (2013). ''Interkomprehension in Theorie und Praxis''. Präsens. == Bibliography == Araújo e Sá, M. H. (2010). Training in intercomprehension through intercomprehension. Principles, proposals and challenges. In D. Spiţă & C. Tărnăuceanu (Eds.), ''‘GALAPRO’ or Despre intercomprehensiune în limbi romanice'' (pp. 13–42). Editura Universităţii Alexandru Ioan Cuza. Araújo e Sá, M. H., De Carlo, M., & Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2011). L'intercomprensione nell'interazione plurilingue. In M. De Carlo (Ed.), ''Intercomprensione e educazione al plurilinguismo'' (pp. 287–301). Wizarts. Araujo e Sá, M. H., & Melo, S. (2006). Del caos a la creatividad: los chats entre lingüistas y didactas. ''Estudios de lingüística del español, 24''. http://elies.rediris.es/elies24/araujo.htm Balboni, P. (2007). From intercomprehension to Romance intercommunication. In F. Capucho, A. Martins P. Alves, C. Degache & M. Tost (Eds.), ''Dialogues in intercomprehension'' (pp. 447–459)''.'' Católica Editora. Balboni, P. (2009). Per una glottodidattica dell'intercomunicazione romanza. In M.-C. Jamet (Ed.), ''Orale e intercomprensione tra lingue romanze'' (pp. 197–203). Cafoscarina Bonvino, E., Caddéo, S., Vilaginés Serra, E., & Pippa, S. (2011). EuRom5. Ler y comprender 5 lenguas románicas. Leer y entender en 5 lenguas románicas. Llegir i entendre 5 llengües romàniques. Leggere e capire 5 lingue romanze. Lire et comprendre 5 langues romanes. Hoepli. Bonvino, E., Capucho, F., & Strasser, M., (2023). EVAL-IC an integrated approach to plurilingual competences. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Assessment of plurilingual competence and plurilingual learners in educational settings: Educative issues and empirical approaches'' (pp. 194–204). Routledge Börestam Uhlmann, U. (2005). Interscandinavian language contact I: Internal communication and comprehensibility problems. In O. Bandle, K. Braunmüller, E. Håkon Jahr, A. Karker, H.-P. Naumann & U. Teleman (Eds.), ''The Nordic languages: An international handbook of the history of the North Germanic languages.'' ''Volume 2'' (pp. 2025–2031). De Gruyter. Braunmüller, K. (2006). Vorbild Skandinavien? Zur Relevanz der rezeptiven Mehrsprachigkeit in Europa. In K. Ehlich & A. Hornung (Eds.), ''Praxen der Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 11-29). Waxmann. Candelier, M., Camilleri-Grima, A., Castellotti, V. De Pietro, J.-F., Lörincz, I., Meißner, F.-J., … Schröder-Sura, A. (2012), ''Le CARAP. Un cadre de référence pour les approches plurielles des langues et des cultures. Compétences et ressources''. European Centre for Modern Languages. https://carap.ecml.at/Portals/11/documents/CARAP-FR-web.pdf Capucho, M. F. (2011). IC fra lingue appartenenti a diverse famiglie linguistiche. In M. De Carlo (Ed.). ''Intercomprensione e educazione al plurilinguismo'' (pp. 223-241). Wizart. Cortés-Velázquez, D. (2016). ''Intercomprensione orale. Ricerca e pratiche didattiche.'' Le Lettere. General Delegation for the French Language and the Languages of France (2010). ''EuRom 5. A method for intercomprehension.'' DGLFLF. Delsing, L.-O. (2007). Scandinavian intercomprehension today. In J.D. ten Thije & L. Zeevaert (Eds.), ''Receptive Multilingualism. Linguistic analyses, language policies and didactic concepts'' (pp. 231–246). Benjamins. Eco, Umberto (1994). ''The search for the perfect language in European culture''. Seuil. Escudé, P. (2014). Intercomprehension as a driver of classroom activities. ''Tréma'', 42, 46–53. https://doi.org/10.4000/trema.3187 Hédiard, M. (2009). From intercomprehension to interproduction: the impact of language use in the mother tongue. In M. H. Araújo e Sá, R. Hidalgo Downing, S. Melo-Pfeifer, A. Séré & C. Vela Delfa (Eds.). ''A Intercompreensão em Línguas Românicas'' (pp. 213 – 223). Galapro. Hemming, E., Klein, H., & Reissner, C. (2011). English. The Bridge to the Romance Languages. Shaker Verlag. Meißner, F.-J. (2016). Der Kernwortschatz der romanischen Mehrsprachigkeit (KrM). https://eurocomdidact.eu/?page_id=2372 Meißner, F.-J. (2018): The ‘Core Vocabulary of Romance Plurilingualism’ (the CVRP-Project). In: T. Ambrosch-Baroua, A. Kropp& J. Müller-Lancés (Eds.): ''Mehrsprachigkeit und Ökonomie'' (pp. 91-106). Open Access LMU. https://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/40520/1/Meissner_The_Core_Vocabulary_of_Romance_Plurilingualism.pdf Meißner, F.-J., Meissner, C., Klein, H., & Stegmann, T. (2004). ''EuroComRom. The Seven Sieves. Reading Romance Languages from the Start''. ''With an introduction to the didactics of Eurocomprehension''. Editiones EuroCom. Ollivier, C., Capucho, F., & Araújo e Sá, M.H. (2019). Defining IC Competencies as prerequisites for their assessment, ''RiPLa, 2'', 15–30. Ollivier, C., Capucho, F., & Araújo e Sá, M. H. (2020). Les compétences en interaction plurilingue. Trois dimensions saillantes. In C. Hülsmann, C. Ollivier & M. Strasser (Eds.), ''Lehr- und Lernkompetenzen für die Interkomprehension. Perspektiven für die mehrsprachige Bildung''. (p. 69–86). Waxmann. Ronjat, J. (1913). ''Essai de syntaxe des parlers provençaux modernes.'' Protat frères. https://dn790008.ca.archive.org/0/items/essaidesyntaxede00ronjuoft/essaidesyntaxede00ronjuoft.pdf == Credits == This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Filomena Capucho (Universidade Católica Portuguesa) * Christoph Hülsmann (Universität Salzburg) htnlwgwyak1sd8mhk9rdc0y38shangy 2817368 2817366 2026-06-30T09:00:05Z ~2026-37432-69 3097899 2817368 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Initial activity == Watch [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TPVDWGCJlg4 this video], which explains the concept of intercomprehension in several Romance languages. Then ask yourself a few questions: * What information did you understand? * In which languages was this information communicated in the video? * Why did you understand it? == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to... * define intercomprehension; * identify the factors that enable intercomprehension; * characterise different teaching approaches. == Keywords == Multilingualism, language family, language transfer, interlinguistic intelligibility, learning autonomy. == Prerequisites == You may wish to read the page on [[Theories and models of plurilingualism|theories and models of multilingualism]]. == Introduction == French linguist Jules Ronjat (1913) was the first to conceptualise the term ‘''intercomprehension''’. In his work, he described how speakers of different Provençal dialects were able to understand each other (Escudé, 2014, p. 46). Today, there are many terms used to describe this phenomenon and many definitions of the concept. However, these can be classified into three groups. Intercomprehension can thus be considered a communicative practice, a skill and a didactic approach. == Intercomprehension as a communicative practice == As a communicative practice, intercomprehension is a natural and widespread process characterised by the fact that communication partners use different languages while understanding each other's language. The writer and semiotician Umberto Eco (1994, p. 395) describes this type of communication as follows: A Europe of polyglots is not a Europe of people who speak many languages fluently, but, in the best case scenario, of '''people who can meet each other speaking their own language and understanding the other's''', but who, not knowing how to speak it fluently, would understand, even if with difficulty, the ‘genius’, the cultural universe that each person expresses when speaking the language of their ancestors and tradition. In fact, this form of communication has a long tradition. A frequently cited example is the intercomprehension in Scandinavian countries between speakers of Danish, Swedish and Norwegian, i.e. the continental Scandinavian languages (cf. Börestam Uhlmann, 2005; Braunmüller, 2006; Delsing, 2007). The following example illustrates the similarities between these languages using the question ''What is your name?'': * Swedish: ''Vad heter du?'' * Norwegian: ''Hva heter du?'' * Danish: ''Hvad hedder du?'' Other examples of language families in which intercomprehension is practised include the Romance languages (Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian, Romanian, Catalan, etc.), the Slavic languages (Russian, Ukrainian, Polish, Czech, Slovak, Slovenian, Croatian, Serbian, Bulgarian, etc.), Bantu languages (a group of languages spoken in southern Africa) and the languages of northern India (see Delsing, 2007, p. 231). Beyond its historical roots and empirical examples, intercomprehension deserves to be considered not only as a spontaneous practice between speakers of related languages, but also as a communicative skill that can be developed, taught and mobilised in multilingual contexts. This perspective opens up new avenues for language teaching and for the promotion of more inclusive communication. == Intercomprehension as a skill == All communicative practices involve underlying skills, the existence of which necessarily determines the success of the communicative act. With regard to intercomprehension, the analysis carried out as part of the EVAL-IC project, which proposes detailed reference frameworks for each linguistic activity in intercomprehension, clearly shows that intercomprehension is now understood as a multidimensional process that takes place in multilingual and multicultural contexts and promotes discursive encounters between multilingual speakers (see Ollivier et al., 2019; Ollivier et al., 2020; Bonvino et al., 2023). This conception of intercomprehension is close to that of Balboni (2007), who proposed the term ‘intercomunicazione’. From this perspective, intercomprehension is a global mode of communication that draws on potentially partial and unequal skills in various languages, as well as ''additional'' specific skills and dispositions towards communication. These skills are combined to ensure communication between individuals who speak different languages and have not necessarily learned each other's languages. This mode of communication involves various language activities: * oral and written reception of discourse in languages in which the speaker cannot necessarily express himself and in which he may have only partial comprehension skills; * oral and written production in one or more languages in which the speaker has sufficient skills to express themselves, using additional specific skills to adapt their speech to recipients who have not necessarily learned that language or those languages – this is known as interproduction (Balboni, 2009; Hédiard, 2009; Capucho, 2011); * oral and written interaction with speakers of different languages, using general reception and production skills and skills specific to multilingual interaction. Designed as a holistic multilingual communication skill, intercomprehension involves exploiting synergies between several dimensions: * strategic, which cuts across the entire process, * linguistic, which was at the heart of early approaches to intercomprehension (see below), * sociopragmatic, * psychological, * intercultural, * non-verbal, * ‘meta’ (linguistic, pragmatic, cognitive, etc.) * cognitive (Ollivier, et al., 2020). Intercomprehension competence is thus based on general communicative competence, using (above all) interlinguistic knowledge and psychological dimensions, which enable the link between knowledge and skills to be activated. It is not only a skill in foreign languages, but also, when necessary, in the mother tongue. Indeed, in its interproductive dimension, intercomprehension also relies on the ability to adapt one's speech to people who may never have learned the language being used. == Intercomprehension as a didactic approach == In the ''Framework for Plural Approaches to Languages and Cultures'' (CARAP, Candelier et al., 2012), intercomprehension is considered one of four plural approaches to language teaching and learning (Candelier et al. 2012, p. 6). However, from a didactic point of view, it was not until the 1990s that research and projects began to be carried out, particularly in the field of Romance and Germanic intercomprehension. In this context, special mention should be made of the major pioneering projects, strongly supported by the European Commission, which have since established specific priorities and approaches in the field of intercomprehension teaching and learning. Thus: * EuRom4 and IGLO represent strongly philological trends; * MINERVA pursues objectives related to communicative and social skills; * EuroComRom and EuroComDidact separately present a philological aspect and a didactic reflection; * GALATEA is a project with an entirely didactic focus. The same diversity can be seen in the aims and objectives of learning, which range from learning a partial skill in multilingual reading comprehension (GALATEA) to considering it as an initial stage in the development of productive skills (EuroComRom and MINERVA); the focus on words and sentences (EuRom4, EuroComRom and IGLO), the text (GALATEA) or the speech act (MINERVA); the focus on written reception (EuRom4, EuroComRom, IGLO, GALATEA) or the reception of oral interactions (MINERVA), integrating comprehension and translation simultaneously or not. The influence of each of these perspectives is evident in several subsequent projects which, in one way or another, explore and develop each of the pioneering approaches. Thus, today we find three main trends in intercomprehension teaching, which are determined by the basic theoretical framework of the various projects and the goals of intercomprehension learning: # a more ‘philological’ approach, following EuroComRom, where intercomprehension is seen primarily as a first step towards '''learning languages of the same family'''; # a philological and didactic approach, rooted in a reading or listening teaching perspective, where lexical and morphosyntactic elements and reception strategies are integrated to aid '''comprehension (general and specific) of written and/or spoken texts'''; # two approaches aimed at '''learning multilingual interaction skills''': #* 3.1. a highly didactic approach, where learning stems from learners' practice of intercomprehension (often through online interaction); #* 3.2. a ‘holistic’ approach, targeting different linguistic activities and simultaneously mobilising linguistic, pragmatic and non-verbal knowledge, as well as textual, discursive and experiential knowledge, derived from a second generation of projects, of which ''Echanger pour Changer'' was the first experiment in 1998–2001. Concrete examples of these three main types of approaches are given below: === Intercomprehension based on vocabulary learning, for the learning of all target languages === The EuroComRom team has extended its activities to other language families, offering EuroComGerm and EuroComSlav and, later, publishing ''English - the Bridge to the Romance Languages'' (Hemming et al., 2011), which establishes a strong relationship between English and the Romance languages. The main principles of the Eurocom approach are explained in an extract from the Introduction to the Didactics of Eurocomprehension (2004). In addition, a team of researchers from the Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen, led by Franz-Joseph Meißner and collaborating on the Miriadi project, has worked on the lexicological aspects of the basic vocabulary of Romance languages and published the volume ''Der Kernwortschatz der romanischen Mehrsprachigkeit'' (KrM) (Meißner, 2016; see also Meißner, 2018), as well as a computer application (''Acquiring Plurilingual Basic Vocabulary of French, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish - APLURIBAV''), offering exercises aimed at learning multilingual vocabulary. Unfortunately, this application is no longer available, but its presentation on this page still provides an understanding of the basic principles underlying the approach. === Parallel/simultaneous learning of comprehension (written and/or oral) in five Romance languages === Directly derived from the EuRom4 project, EuRom5, published in 2011 (and reissued several times since, Bonvino et al.), is intended for simultaneous receptive learning through intercomprehension of five Romance languages: Catalan, Spanish, French, Italian and Portuguese. In the presentation by the General Delegation for the French Language and the Languages of France (2010), three objectives are mentioned:<blockquote> * "to familiarise learners with Romance languages through increasingly refined comprehension; * to provide, through the technical aids accompanying the text, the essential linguistic knowledge of the five languages concerned; [...] * to develop in learners strategies for approaching the meaning of messages written in a language that is initially unfamiliar (or only slightly familiar), but which they realise has many more similarities with the language(s) they already speak than they suspected’ (DGLFLF, 2010, p. 4). Below is an example of one of the lessons in Catalan (the same lesson exists in the four other target languages of the method):</blockquote>The team at Roma Tre University has also extended its activities to research on oral intercomprehension and its didactic applications, notably in the work of D. Cortés-Velázquez (2016). === Learning multilingual interaction skills === ==== Written multilingual interaction as a source of learning ==== All the approaches described above are part of what is currently known as receptive intercomprehension. It was not until the turn of the millennium and the rapid advances in communication technology that the interactive dimension was effectively explored in the educational applications of certain projects. It was therefore the development of the Internet as a means of interpersonal communication that led to the emergence of a ‘second generation’ of projects aimed at learning intercomprehension as multilingual interaction. A pioneer in this new field, the GALANET project (2001–2004), whose promoters were mostly researchers from GALATEA, created a training platform for intercomprehension in Romance lanuages, enabling real-time communication (synchronous (chat) and asynchronous (forum)) between speakers of different languages, so that multilingual interaction is both the means and the goal of learning. The GALANET approach is clearly based on a socio-cognitivist perspective: ‘This meaning implies that the concept of IC in multilingual interaction is defined as the result of the combination of different contextual ingredients (languages used at the time of interaction, number of interlocutors, objectives and issues of the encounter, spatial and temporal conditions of communication, etc.) and, at the same time, as the transforming element of this same context’ (Araújo e Sá et al., 2011, p. 288). Here is an example of a dialogue from a GALANET session, taken from Araújo e Sá & Melo (2006):<blockquote>'''Tavirapt diz''' QUEM VAI COMER AO BA? '''Viseupt says''' KEM PAGA O ALMOCO??? '''chave2 says''' What does ‘AO BA’ mean? '''froberta says''' Does comer mean to eat? '''Lisboapt says''' Are you going to the beach? '''Tavirapt says''' YES '''smelo1 says''' What's the best thing in France? '''Guardapt says''' I'm going to eat at the snack bar '''Guardapt says''' I don't speak French ''santonella enters galanet'' '''smelo1 says''' Mangiare means to eat :) '''froberta says''' What do you usually eat? '''chave2 says''' In France, the best thing is Camembert. '''Lisboapt says''' The Ba is the university association bar. '''smelo1 says''' Let's talk about our countries? '''Guardapt says''' I'm hungry!!! '''santonella says''' Hi visaup '''Tavirapt says''' NO '''cassino2 says''' Do you speak French? '''Guardapt says''' Portuguese '''froberta says''' Please forgive my ignorance of your language, but I like French '''csilvia1 says''' In Italy, Parmigiano '''Lisboapt says''' I agree with you I WANT TO KNOW WHO'S PAYING FOR LUNCH!!!!!!!! '''smelo1 says''' In Portugal, the best thing is Cozido à Portuguesa... '''Coimbrapt says''' BA is the academic bar</blockquote>Following on from GALANET, the same partnership also proposed GALAPRO (2008–2010) for the training of multilingual trainers in Romance languages using the same methodology: ‘Galapro aims to train intercomprehension through intercomprehension’ (Araújo e Sá, 2010, p. 27). Following this project, and in a broader consortium, the same researchers developed MIRIADI, which presented an initial proposal for specific reference frameworks for intercomprehension and a wide variety of resources for its learning. For more information, see the lesson ‘[[telecollaboration and plurilingualism]]’. ==== A holistic approach to intercomprehension aimed at developing multilingual communication skills ==== Based on the experience gained by ''Échanger pour Changer'', where trainers participating in European mobility programmes were invited to reflect on the knowledge and strategies they used to understand a language they did not know during their stay in a foreign country, a diverse team of researchers continued the work aimed at constructing a holistic approach, simultaneously mobilising the different dimensions of IC. This perspective has been developed in a wide range of projects that have produced activities aimed at the progressive learning of written and oral comprehension, so as to subsequently enable written and oral interaction and written and oral interproduction. Teaching resources corresponding to activities that enable the progressive development of multilingual communication skills are currently available on the [https://inter-move.eu/ Intermove+ Project website] - Module 5 (units 5 to 24). All these more recent projects thus represent a scientific and educational journey that has lasted for more than 25 years. Their differences lie in the basic concepts that underpin them, their pedagogical approaches, the communicative goals to be achieved and the learning objectives that derive from them. However, they share a common feature: they all respond to the urgent need to meet the multilingual training needs of European citizens in the 21st century. == Take-home messages == * The various definitions that exist for the concept of intercomprehension can be classified into three groups. Intercomprehension can thus be considered as a (spontaneous) communicative practice between speakers of different languages, a skill and a teaching approach. * Among the language families in which intercomprehension is practised in Europe, the Romance, Slavic and Germanic languages are particularly noteworthy. * Intercomprehension competence is based on general communicative competence, supplemented by specific skills specific to this mode of communication. * Today, three main trends can be distinguished in the teaching of intercomprehension. A more ‘philological’ approach, a philological/didactic approach with a focus on reception, and approaches aimed at learning interaction skills or even multilingual communication. == Self-assessment == * How can intercomprehension be defined? * Where is (spontaneous) intercomprehension practised? Give examples. * Why are intercomprehension skills not limited to foreign language skills? * What are the objectives of the different teaching approaches to intercomprehension? == Resources for further study == * Araújo e Sá, M.H. & Pinho, A.S. (2015). ''Intercompreensão em contexto educativo . Resultados da investigação''. UA Editora. https://www.miriadi.net/sites/default/files/livro-book_miriadi_-_v.01-08_-_final.pdf * Blanche-Benveniste, C. & Valli, A. (1997) (Eds.). L'intercompréhension. Le cas des langues romanes. ''Le Français dans le Monde'', ''special issue''. * Bonvino, E., Cognigni, E., & Garbarino, S. (2025). ''La didattica dell'intercomprensione tra lingue affini. Ricerca, contesti e proposte operative''. Mondadori Università. * Bonvino, E., & Garbarino, S. (2022) ''Intercomprensione''. Caissa Italia. * Caddéo, S., & Jamet, M.-C. (2013). ''L'intercompréhension. Une autre approche pour l'enseignement des langues''. Hachette FLE. * Capucho, F. (2008) Is intercomprehension a fad? From citizen linguist to multilingual citizen. ''Pratiques. Linguistics, literature, teaching,'' 139/140, 238-250. https://doi.org/10.4000/pratiques.1252 * Capucho, F. Silva, M. P., & Chenoll, A., (2018). Co-constructing meaning in international meetings - an approach to plurilingual interactions. ''International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism''. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2018.1474849 * Doyé, P. (2005). Intercomprehension. Guide for the development of educational language policies in Europe. From linguistic diversity to plurilingual education. Reference study. Council of Europe. * Doyé, P., & Meißner, F.-J. (2010). ''Lernerautonomie durch Interkomprehension. Promoting Learner Autonomy Through Intercomprehension. L'autonomie de l'apprenant par l'intercompréhension''. Narr. * Meißner, F.-J., Capucho F., Degache, C., Martins, A., Spiţa, D., & Trost, M. (2011). ''Intercomprehension.'' ''Learning, teaching, research. Apprentissage, enseignement, recherche. Lernen, Lehren, Forschung.'' Narr. * Ollivier, C., & Strasser, M. (2013). ''Interkomprehension in Theorie und Praxis''. Präsens. == Bibliography == Araújo e Sá, M. H. (2010). Training in intercomprehension through intercomprehension. Principles, proposals and challenges. In D. Spiţă & C. Tărnăuceanu (Eds.), ''‘GALAPRO’ or Despre intercomprehensiune în limbi romanice'' (pp. 13–42). Editura Universităţii Alexandru Ioan Cuza. Araújo e Sá, M. H., De Carlo, M., & Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2011). L'intercomprensione nell'interazione plurilingue. In M. De Carlo (Ed.), ''Intercomprensione e educazione al plurilinguismo'' (pp. 287–301). Wizarts. Araujo e Sá, M. H., & Melo, S. (2006). Del caos a la creatividad: los chats entre lingüistas y didactas. ''Estudios de lingüística del español, 24''. http://elies.rediris.es/elies24/araujo.htm Balboni, P. (2007). From intercomprehension to Romance intercommunication. In F. Capucho, A. Martins P. Alves, C. Degache & M. Tost (Eds.), ''Dialogues in intercomprehension'' (pp. 447–459)''.'' Católica Editora. Balboni, P. (2009). Per una glottodidattica dell'intercomunicazione romanza. In M.-C. Jamet (Ed.), ''Orale e intercomprensione tra lingue romanze'' (pp. 197–203). Cafoscarina Bonvino, E., Caddéo, S., Vilaginés Serra, E., & Pippa, S. (2011). EuRom5. Ler y comprender 5 lenguas románicas. Leer y entender en 5 lenguas románicas. Llegir i entendre 5 llengües romàniques. Leggere e capire 5 lingue romanze. Lire et comprendre 5 langues romanes. Hoepli. Bonvino, E., Capucho, F., & Strasser, M., (2023). EVAL-IC an integrated approach to plurilingual competences. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Assessment of plurilingual competence and plurilingual learners in educational settings: Educative issues and empirical approaches'' (pp. 194–204). Routledge Börestam Uhlmann, U. (2005). Interscandinavian language contact I: Internal communication and comprehensibility problems. In O. Bandle, K. Braunmüller, E. Håkon Jahr, A. Karker, H.-P. Naumann & U. Teleman (Eds.), ''The Nordic languages: An international handbook of the history of the North Germanic languages.'' ''Volume 2'' (pp. 2025–2031). De Gruyter. Braunmüller, K. (2006). Vorbild Skandinavien? Zur Relevanz der rezeptiven Mehrsprachigkeit in Europa. In K. Ehlich & A. Hornung (Eds.), ''Praxen der Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 11-29). Waxmann. Candelier, M., Camilleri-Grima, A., Castellotti, V. De Pietro, J.-F., Lörincz, I., Meißner, F.-J., … Schröder-Sura, A. (2012), ''Le CARAP. Un cadre de référence pour les approches plurielles des langues et des cultures. Compétences et ressources''. European Centre for Modern Languages. https://carap.ecml.at/Portals/11/documents/CARAP-FR-web.pdf Capucho, M. F. (2011). IC fra lingue appartenenti a diverse famiglie linguistiche. In M. De Carlo (Ed.). ''Intercomprensione e educazione al plurilinguismo'' (pp. 223-241). Wizart. Cortés-Velázquez, D. (2016). ''Intercomprensione orale. Ricerca e pratiche didattiche.'' Le Lettere. General Delegation for the French Language and the Languages of France (2010). ''EuRom 5. A method for intercomprehension.'' DGLFLF. Delsing, L.-O. (2007). Scandinavian intercomprehension today. In J.D. ten Thije & L. Zeevaert (Eds.), ''Receptive Multilingualism. Linguistic analyses, language policies and didactic concepts'' (pp. 231–246). Benjamins. Eco, Umberto (1994). ''The search for the perfect language in European culture''. Seuil. Escudé, P. (2014). Intercomprehension as a driver of classroom activities. ''Tréma'', 42, 46–53. https://doi.org/10.4000/trema.3187 Hédiard, M. (2009). From intercomprehension to interproduction: the impact of language use in the mother tongue. In M. H. Araújo e Sá, R. Hidalgo Downing, S. Melo-Pfeifer, A. Séré & C. Vela Delfa (Eds.). ''A Intercompreensão em Línguas Românicas'' (pp. 213 – 223). Galapro. Hemming, E., Klein, H., & Reissner, C. (2011). English. The Bridge to the Romance Languages. Shaker Verlag. Meißner, F.-J. (2016). Der Kernwortschatz der romanischen Mehrsprachigkeit (KrM). https://eurocomdidact.eu/?page_id=2372 Meißner, F.-J. (2018): The ‘Core Vocabulary of Romance Plurilingualism’ (the CVRP-Project). In: T. Ambrosch-Baroua, A. Kropp& J. Müller-Lancés (Eds.): ''Mehrsprachigkeit und Ökonomie'' (pp. 91-106). Open Access LMU. https://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/40520/1/Meissner_The_Core_Vocabulary_of_Romance_Plurilingualism.pdf Meißner, F.-J., Meissner, C., Klein, H., & Stegmann, T. (2004). ''EuroComRom. The Seven Sieves. Reading Romance Languages from the Start''. ''With an introduction to the didactics of Eurocomprehension''. Editiones EuroCom. Ollivier, C., Capucho, F., & Araújo e Sá, M.H. (2019). Defining IC Competencies as prerequisites for their assessment, ''RiPLa, 2'', 15–30. Ollivier, C., Capucho, F., & Araújo e Sá, M. H. (2020). Les compétences en interaction plurilingue. Trois dimensions saillantes. In C. Hülsmann, C. Ollivier & M. Strasser (Eds.), ''Lehr- und Lernkompetenzen für die Interkomprehension. Perspektiven für die mehrsprachige Bildung''. (p. 69–86). Waxmann. Ronjat, J. (1913). ''Essai de syntaxe des parlers provençaux modernes.'' Protat frères. https://dn790008.ca.archive.org/0/items/essaidesyntaxede00ronjuoft/essaidesyntaxede00ronjuoft.pdf == Credits == This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Filomena Capucho (Universidade Católica Portuguesa) * Christoph Hülsmann (Universität Salzburg) p55mi46hxa5whk5qjc15vksa4kn738x 0 329150 2817264 2805117 2026-06-29T16:13:13Z Gaillat Thierry 3097834 /* Activity 2 */ 2817264 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Initial activities == === '''Activity 1''' === You are interested in professional mobility and will soon be moving to a new area (foreign country, overseas territory or cross-border region) where several languages are spoken. You are wondering how to adapt your teaching to include the specific linguistic features of the context in your teaching practices. You will soon be welcoming Ömer, Mây, Hassan and Alida, all non-native speakers from different linguistic backgrounds. You are wondering how to include these learners in your class in order to value their first languages and facilitate their entry into the learning provided in the language of schooling... List all the questions raised by these two situations, in relation to the multilingual and multicultural realities associated with them. === '''Activity 2''' === * Look at the following diagram (cf. Figure 1)[[:fr:Fichier:Inclusion,_exclusion,_ségrégation,_intégration.png|[[Fichier:Inclusion,_exclusion,_ségrégation,_intégration.png|link=|alt=Représentation des notions d'inclusion, exclusion, ségrégation et intégration|class=mw-file-element|250x250px]]]] * What differences can you see between the terms ‘integration’ and ‘inclusion’? (You can start by analysing the other two representations, exclusion and segregation). * What does the term ‘language inclusion’ mean in relation to this set of representations? == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to... * develop your teaching skills related to approaches to openness to linguistic diversity in a school context; * better understand the importance of including your learners' first languages in your teaching and learning approaches; * better understand concrete situations of language inclusion in the classroom through examples adapted to different socio-didactic contexts. == Keywords == Language and linguistic inclusion / First languages / Plural approaches / Comparative approaches to languages / Translanguaging practices. == Prerequisites == * Knowledge of language acquisition processes, particularly plurilingual acquisition; * Teaching knowledge related to the specificities of second language teaching/learning. == Introduction: Language inclusion at the heart of teaching practices == Language inclusion refers to a teaching approach that aims to recognise and include the communication practices of plurilingual speakers, particularly in educational settings. After briefly reviewing the evolution of this teaching concept, we will outline the different pedagogical approaches that teachers can use to better take into account the language practices of their learners within an inclusive approach. Finally, we will present the various challenges that educators and practitioners need to consider in order to optimize its implementation in the classroom. == Definition and history of the concept == The concept of language inclusion has gradually gained ground in the field of language teaching and, more broadly, in the field of education sciences: firstly, in line with the work carried out by Eddy Roulet in the 1980s, which encouraged teachers to make close links between pupils' mother tongues and the languages learned at school, and then in the wake of the work carried out by the Council of Europe on the development of plurilingual skills in the 2000s. While the concept of linguistic inclusion focuses on the recognition of the plurality of languages within society (and ultimately within the school environment), the concept of language inclusion takes a broader view, taking into account the specific characteristics inherent in individuals' communication practices: when they use different language registers, resort to social and regional variations, and use other languages in the course of their exchanges. Language inclusion therefore focuses on how speakers/writers combine their different linguistic resources and skills to interact, both orally and in writing. In education, this approach aims to value the diversity of learners' linguistic knowledge and language skills rather than limiting classroom interactions to a single reference model: communication exclusively in the language of schooling. In short, language inclusion seeks to make learning more equitable and enriching: it offers all learners, whether native or non-native speakers, an opening to linguistic and cultural diversity. == Implementation in the classroom == Language inclusion aims to adapt teaching approaches by valuing the language repertoire of ''all'' learners and allowing them to draw on their plurilingual skills in order to facilitate their access to subject knowledge. Several approaches can be used to achieve this: * ''Plural approaches'' (CARAP, 2012): ** language awareness (Balsiger, Bétrix Kölher & De Pietro, 2012), which enables learners, from an early age, to discover different cultural worlds and language systems (those of their classmates or from other geographical backgrounds); ** intercomprehension between related languages (Castagne & Monneret, 2021), which encourages connections between users of the same language family (e.g. speakers/writers of Slavic languages); ** the intercultural approach, which aims at making the classroom a place of exchange and learning enriched by cultural diversity (Causa, 2023); ** integrated teaching (Candelier, Manno & Escudé, 2023), which seeks to create synergy between the different modern languages taught in a school (e.g. Italian, French and English in a secondary school in Italy); * ''Translanguaging practices'' (Dall'Aglio and Pogranova, 2022), which promote the complementary use of several languages, enabling learners to use all the languages they know in different learning situations (e.g. to reformulate the course of a scientific experiment). == Didactic challenges == The implementation of language inclusion in educational practices raises several challenges and requires a number of adjustments: * ''Increased training for teachers'' so that they can better understand the phenomena of plurlingual language acquisition and the foundations of plurilingual teaching, and so that they can gradually develop concrete teaching practices (Galligani & Vlad, 2020); * ''A focus on teaching tools'' so that teachers can better include, during learning and assessment phases, the languages of first socialisation of learners and those they are learning concurrently in school (Penloup, Miguel Addisu & Kervyn, 2022); * ''The involvement of the entire educational community and families'' in building strong partnerships (both inside and outside school), in order to show that the inclusion of linguistic and cultural identities is everyone's business (Auger & Le Pichon, 2021). == Take home messages == In a school context, language inclusion is a teaching approach that enables learners to use all their language skills to learn more effectively. It values language variation and plurilingual practices in order to make education more enriching and equitable. == Self-assessment == * Make sure you understand the nuances between the concepts of ‘linguistic inclusion’ and ‘language inclusion’. What is the difference between them? ** ''Linguistic inclusion contributes to the identification and recognition of the languages'' ''of plurilingual learners through educational activities that engage and showcase them.'' ** ''Language inclusion, on the other hand, emphasises the ability of students to use their pluilingual skills in a complementary and transferable way between languages, so that they feel included in all the tasks proposed, with a focus on accessibility to knowledge, particularly in a target language other than their first language of socialisation.'' * What teaching approaches promote the inclusion of learners' first languages throughout the teaching and learning cycles? ** ''integrated language teaching'' ** ''intercomprehension'' ** ''language awareness'' ** ''the intercultural approach'' ** ''support for translanguaging practices'' * What challenges must the education sector address to ensure that teachers‘ teaching practices are increasingly inclusive of learners’ linguistic and cultural diversity? ** ''Train teachers in approaches that enable the linguistic inclusion of all learners'' ** ''Take into account the diverse multicultural and plurlingual contexts of classrooms'' ** ''Involve parents and the entire educational community in this inclusive implementation'' == Resources for further reading == * Auger, N. &  Le Pichon, E. (2021). ''Défis et richesses des classes multilingues : Construire des ponts entre les cultures.'' ESF sciences humaines. * Auger, N. (2020). Enseigner à des élèves plurilingues : vers une didactique inclusive. In C. Mendonça-Dias, B. Azaoui & F. Chnane-Davin (Eds.), ''Allophonie. Inclusion et langues des enfants migrants à l’école'' (pp. 171-183). Éditions Lambert-Lucas. * Benavente Ferrera, S., Calvo del Olmo, F.,Frisan, E.H., Manole, V., Marielly Rocha da Cunha, K. & Sheeren, H. (2024). ''Voyage en langues romanes. Plurilinguisme, interculturel, intercompréhension.'' Didier. * Blanchet, P. & Clerc Conan, S.  (2015). ''Passer de l’exclusion à l’inclusion : des expériences réussies d’éducation à et par la diversité linguistique à l’école''. ''Migrations Société, 162''(6), 49-70. * Châteaureynaud M-A., & Piot, C. (2022). ''Penser la didactique du plurilinguisme : quel enjeu pour une école plus inclusive ? Dossier thématique''. ''Revue Reliance'', 1. INSPE Bordeaux. * Mendonça-Diaz, C., Azzaoui, B., & Chnane-Davin, F. (Eds.) (2020). ''Allophone. Inclusion et langues des enfants migrants à l’école.'' Éditions Lambert-Lucas. * Stratilaki-Klein, S., & Nicolas, Cl. (2020). ''Plurilinguisme et inclusion scolaire''. GIP-FCIP de Paris. * UNESCO. (1994). ''Déclaration de Salamanque et cadre d’action pour l’éducation et les besoins spéciaux''. Unesco. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000098427_fre     == Bibliography == Balsiger, C., Bétrix Köhler, D. & De Pietro, J-F. (2012). ''Eveil aux langues et approches plurielles. De la formation des enseignants aux pratiques de classe.'' L’harmattan. Candelier, M., Manno, G. & Escudé, P. (2023). ''La didactique intégrée des langues : Apprendre une langue avec d’autres langues ?'' ADEB. http://www.adeb-asso.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/2023-La-didactique-Int%C3%A9gr%C3%A9e-des-langues.pdf Candelier, M., Camilleri-Grima, A., Castellotti, V., de Pietro, J. F., Lörincz, I., Meissner, F. J., ... & Noguerol, A. (2007). Cadre de Référence pour les Approches Plurielles des Langues et des Cultures. Strasbourg: Centre Européen pour les Langues Vivantes/Conseil de l’Europe. Castagne, E. & Monneret, P. (2021). ''Intercompréhension et analogie.'' De Boeck supérieur. Causa, M. (2003). « Éducation plurilingue et interculturelle et transmission de/en langues : quel discours formatif ? », ''Didactique du FLES'' [Online], Hors-série 1 | 2023, Online since 20 juin 2023. https://www.ouvroir.fr/dfles/index.php?id=587   Dall’Aglio, V. & Pogranova, S. (2022). ''Translanguaging. Constats et enjeux de terrain'' ''in'' Geiger-Jaillet, A; Fonseca Favre, M. Vaissière, S. & Verney, Y (dir.) (2022). ''Abécédaire des gestes professionnels dans l’enseignement bi/plurilingue''. ADEB. https://www.adeb-asso.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Translanguaging.pdf Galligani, S. & Vlad, M. (2020). ''Didactique du plurilinguisme et formation des enseignants : contextes, dispositifs et perspectives -'' Le Français dans le monde : Recherches et applications, n°67. CLE International. Penloup, M-C., Miguel Addisu, V. & Kervyn,B. (dir.) (2022). ''Élèves plurilingues en classes ordinaires : outils et questions pour la didactique du français''. ''Repères'', n° 65, 2022, 252 p., Lyon, ENS Éditions. Roulet, E. (1980). ''Langue maternelle et langues secondes : vers une pédagogie intégrée''. Paris : Hatier : CREDIF. == Credits == This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Thierry Gaillat (université de La Réunion) * Laura Uribe (université de La Réunion et université de Mayotte). mz6b4246x6lwuuwomgegsh8xzlhmpk8 2817268 2817264 2026-06-29T16:16:10Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Activity 1 */ 2817268 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Initial activities == === '''Activity 1''' === You are interested in professional mobility and will soon be moving to a new area (foreign country, overseas territory or cross-border region) where several languages are spoken. You are wondering how to adapt your teaching to include the specific linguistic features of the context in your teaching practices. You will soon be welcoming Ömer, Mây, Hassan and Alida, all non-native speakers from different linguistic backgrounds. You are wondering how to include these learners in your class in order to value their first languages and facilitate their entry into the learning provided in the language of schooling... List all the questions raised by these two situations, in relation to the multilingual and multicultural realities associated with them. === '''Activity 2''' === * [[File:Inclusion, exclusion, ségrégation, intégration.png|alt=Inclusion, exclusion, ségrégation, intégration|thumb|'''Inclusion, exclusion, ségrégation, intégration''']]Look at the following diagram (cf. Figure 1) * What differences can you see between the terms ‘integration’ and ‘inclusion’? (You can start by analysing the other two representations, exclusion and segregation). * What does the term ‘language inclusion’ mean in relation to this set of representations? == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to... * develop your teaching skills related to approaches to openness to linguistic diversity in a school context; * better understand the importance of including your learners' first languages in your teaching and learning approaches; * better understand concrete situations of language inclusion in the classroom through examples adapted to different socio-didactic contexts. == Keywords == Language and linguistic inclusion / First languages / Plural approaches / Comparative approaches to languages / Translanguaging practices. == Prerequisites == * Knowledge of language acquisition processes, particularly plurilingual acquisition; * Teaching knowledge related to the specificities of second language teaching/learning. == Introduction: Language inclusion at the heart of teaching practices == Language inclusion refers to a teaching approach that aims to recognise and include the communication practices of plurilingual speakers, particularly in educational settings. After briefly reviewing the evolution of this teaching concept, we will outline the different pedagogical approaches that teachers can use to better take into account the language practices of their learners within an inclusive approach. Finally, we will present the various challenges that educators and practitioners need to consider in order to optimize its implementation in the classroom. == Definition and history of the concept == The concept of language inclusion has gradually gained ground in the field of language teaching and, more broadly, in the field of education sciences: firstly, in line with the work carried out by Eddy Roulet in the 1980s, which encouraged teachers to make close links between pupils' mother tongues and the languages learned at school, and then in the wake of the work carried out by the Council of Europe on the development of plurilingual skills in the 2000s. While the concept of linguistic inclusion focuses on the recognition of the plurality of languages within society (and ultimately within the school environment), the concept of language inclusion takes a broader view, taking into account the specific characteristics inherent in individuals' communication practices: when they use different language registers, resort to social and regional variations, and use other languages in the course of their exchanges. Language inclusion therefore focuses on how speakers/writers combine their different linguistic resources and skills to interact, both orally and in writing. In education, this approach aims to value the diversity of learners' linguistic knowledge and language skills rather than limiting classroom interactions to a single reference model: communication exclusively in the language of schooling. In short, language inclusion seeks to make learning more equitable and enriching: it offers all learners, whether native or non-native speakers, an opening to linguistic and cultural diversity. == Implementation in the classroom == Language inclusion aims to adapt teaching approaches by valuing the language repertoire of ''all'' learners and allowing them to draw on their plurilingual skills in order to facilitate their access to subject knowledge. Several approaches can be used to achieve this: * ''Plural approaches'' (CARAP, 2012): ** language awareness (Balsiger, Bétrix Kölher & De Pietro, 2012), which enables learners, from an early age, to discover different cultural worlds and language systems (those of their classmates or from other geographical backgrounds); ** intercomprehension between related languages (Castagne & Monneret, 2021), which encourages connections between users of the same language family (e.g. speakers/writers of Slavic languages); ** the intercultural approach, which aims at making the classroom a place of exchange and learning enriched by cultural diversity (Causa, 2023); ** integrated teaching (Candelier, Manno & Escudé, 2023), which seeks to create synergy between the different modern languages taught in a school (e.g. Italian, French and English in a secondary school in Italy); * ''Translanguaging practices'' (Dall'Aglio and Pogranova, 2022), which promote the complementary use of several languages, enabling learners to use all the languages they know in different learning situations (e.g. to reformulate the course of a scientific experiment). == Didactic challenges == The implementation of language inclusion in educational practices raises several challenges and requires a number of adjustments: * ''Increased training for teachers'' so that they can better understand the phenomena of plurlingual language acquisition and the foundations of plurilingual teaching, and so that they can gradually develop concrete teaching practices (Galligani & Vlad, 2020); * ''A focus on teaching tools'' so that teachers can better include, during learning and assessment phases, the languages of first socialisation of learners and those they are learning concurrently in school (Penloup, Miguel Addisu & Kervyn, 2022); * ''The involvement of the entire educational community and families'' in building strong partnerships (both inside and outside school), in order to show that the inclusion of linguistic and cultural identities is everyone's business (Auger & Le Pichon, 2021). == Take home messages == In a school context, language inclusion is a teaching approach that enables learners to use all their language skills to learn more effectively. It values language variation and plurilingual practices in order to make education more enriching and equitable. == Self-assessment == * Make sure you understand the nuances between the concepts of ‘linguistic inclusion’ and ‘language inclusion’. What is the difference between them? ** ''Linguistic inclusion contributes to the identification and recognition of the languages'' ''of plurilingual learners through educational activities that engage and showcase them.'' ** ''Language inclusion, on the other hand, emphasises the ability of students to use their pluilingual skills in a complementary and transferable way between languages, so that they feel included in all the tasks proposed, with a focus on accessibility to knowledge, particularly in a target language other than their first language of socialisation.'' * What teaching approaches promote the inclusion of learners' first languages throughout the teaching and learning cycles? ** ''integrated language teaching'' ** ''intercomprehension'' ** ''language awareness'' ** ''the intercultural approach'' ** ''support for translanguaging practices'' * What challenges must the education sector address to ensure that teachers‘ teaching practices are increasingly inclusive of learners’ linguistic and cultural diversity? ** ''Train teachers in approaches that enable the linguistic inclusion of all learners'' ** ''Take into account the diverse multicultural and plurlingual contexts of classrooms'' ** ''Involve parents and the entire educational community in this inclusive implementation'' == Resources for further reading == * Auger, N. &  Le Pichon, E. (2021). ''Défis et richesses des classes multilingues : Construire des ponts entre les cultures.'' ESF sciences humaines. * Auger, N. (2020). Enseigner à des élèves plurilingues : vers une didactique inclusive. In C. Mendonça-Dias, B. Azaoui & F. Chnane-Davin (Eds.), ''Allophonie. Inclusion et langues des enfants migrants à l’école'' (pp. 171-183). Éditions Lambert-Lucas. * Benavente Ferrera, S., Calvo del Olmo, F.,Frisan, E.H., Manole, V., Marielly Rocha da Cunha, K. & Sheeren, H. (2024). ''Voyage en langues romanes. Plurilinguisme, interculturel, intercompréhension.'' Didier. * Blanchet, P. & Clerc Conan, S.  (2015). ''Passer de l’exclusion à l’inclusion : des expériences réussies d’éducation à et par la diversité linguistique à l’école''. ''Migrations Société, 162''(6), 49-70. * Châteaureynaud M-A., & Piot, C. (2022). ''Penser la didactique du plurilinguisme : quel enjeu pour une école plus inclusive ? Dossier thématique''. ''Revue Reliance'', 1. INSPE Bordeaux. * Mendonça-Diaz, C., Azzaoui, B., & Chnane-Davin, F. (Eds.) (2020). ''Allophone. Inclusion et langues des enfants migrants à l’école.'' Éditions Lambert-Lucas. * Stratilaki-Klein, S., & Nicolas, Cl. (2020). ''Plurilinguisme et inclusion scolaire''. GIP-FCIP de Paris. * UNESCO. (1994). ''Déclaration de Salamanque et cadre d’action pour l’éducation et les besoins spéciaux''. Unesco. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000098427_fre     == Bibliography == Balsiger, C., Bétrix Köhler, D. & De Pietro, J-F. (2012). ''Eveil aux langues et approches plurielles. De la formation des enseignants aux pratiques de classe.'' L’harmattan. Candelier, M., Manno, G. & Escudé, P. (2023). ''La didactique intégrée des langues : Apprendre une langue avec d’autres langues ?'' ADEB. http://www.adeb-asso.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/2023-La-didactique-Int%C3%A9gr%C3%A9e-des-langues.pdf Candelier, M., Camilleri-Grima, A., Castellotti, V., de Pietro, J. F., Lörincz, I., Meissner, F. J., ... & Noguerol, A. (2007). Cadre de Référence pour les Approches Plurielles des Langues et des Cultures. Strasbourg: Centre Européen pour les Langues Vivantes/Conseil de l’Europe. Castagne, E. & Monneret, P. (2021). ''Intercompréhension et analogie.'' De Boeck supérieur. Causa, M. (2003). « Éducation plurilingue et interculturelle et transmission de/en langues : quel discours formatif ? », ''Didactique du FLES'' [Online], Hors-série 1 | 2023, Online since 20 juin 2023. https://www.ouvroir.fr/dfles/index.php?id=587   Dall’Aglio, V. & Pogranova, S. (2022). ''Translanguaging. Constats et enjeux de terrain'' ''in'' Geiger-Jaillet, A; Fonseca Favre, M. Vaissière, S. & Verney, Y (dir.) (2022). ''Abécédaire des gestes professionnels dans l’enseignement bi/plurilingue''. ADEB. https://www.adeb-asso.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Translanguaging.pdf Galligani, S. & Vlad, M. (2020). ''Didactique du plurilinguisme et formation des enseignants : contextes, dispositifs et perspectives -'' Le Français dans le monde : Recherches et applications, n°67. CLE International. Penloup, M-C., Miguel Addisu, V. & Kervyn,B. (dir.) (2022). ''Élèves plurilingues en classes ordinaires : outils et questions pour la didactique du français''. ''Repères'', n° 65, 2022, 252 p., Lyon, ENS Éditions. Roulet, E. (1980). ''Langue maternelle et langues secondes : vers une pédagogie intégrée''. Paris : Hatier : CREDIF. == Credits == This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Thierry Gaillat (université de La Réunion) * Laura Uribe (université de La Réunion et université de Mayotte). epgx717ybxl74d5asy1gjm84cyy9ask 2817291 2817268 2026-06-29T16:38:02Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self-assessment */ 2817291 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Initial activities == === '''Activity 1''' === You are interested in professional mobility and will soon be moving to a new area (foreign country, overseas territory or cross-border region) where several languages are spoken. You are wondering how to adapt your teaching to include the specific linguistic features of the context in your teaching practices. You will soon be welcoming Ömer, Mây, Hassan and Alida, all non-native speakers from different linguistic backgrounds. You are wondering how to include these learners in your class in order to value their first languages and facilitate their entry into the learning provided in the language of schooling... List all the questions raised by these two situations, in relation to the multilingual and multicultural realities associated with them. === '''Activity 2''' === * [[File:Inclusion, exclusion, ségrégation, intégration.png|alt=Inclusion, exclusion, ségrégation, intégration|thumb|'''Inclusion, exclusion, ségrégation, intégration''']]Look at the following diagram (cf. Figure 1) * What differences can you see between the terms ‘integration’ and ‘inclusion’? (You can start by analysing the other two representations, exclusion and segregation). * What does the term ‘language inclusion’ mean in relation to this set of representations? == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to... * develop your teaching skills related to approaches to openness to linguistic diversity in a school context; * better understand the importance of including your learners' first languages in your teaching and learning approaches; * better understand concrete situations of language inclusion in the classroom through examples adapted to different socio-didactic contexts. == Keywords == Language and linguistic inclusion / First languages / Plural approaches / Comparative approaches to languages / Translanguaging practices. == Prerequisites == * Knowledge of language acquisition processes, particularly plurilingual acquisition; * Teaching knowledge related to the specificities of second language teaching/learning. == Introduction: Language inclusion at the heart of teaching practices == Language inclusion refers to a teaching approach that aims to recognise and include the communication practices of plurilingual speakers, particularly in educational settings. After briefly reviewing the evolution of this teaching concept, we will outline the different pedagogical approaches that teachers can use to better take into account the language practices of their learners within an inclusive approach. Finally, we will present the various challenges that educators and practitioners need to consider in order to optimize its implementation in the classroom. == Definition and history of the concept == The concept of language inclusion has gradually gained ground in the field of language teaching and, more broadly, in the field of education sciences: firstly, in line with the work carried out by Eddy Roulet in the 1980s, which encouraged teachers to make close links between pupils' mother tongues and the languages learned at school, and then in the wake of the work carried out by the Council of Europe on the development of plurilingual skills in the 2000s. While the concept of linguistic inclusion focuses on the recognition of the plurality of languages within society (and ultimately within the school environment), the concept of language inclusion takes a broader view, taking into account the specific characteristics inherent in individuals' communication practices: when they use different language registers, resort to social and regional variations, and use other languages in the course of their exchanges. Language inclusion therefore focuses on how speakers/writers combine their different linguistic resources and skills to interact, both orally and in writing. In education, this approach aims to value the diversity of learners' linguistic knowledge and language skills rather than limiting classroom interactions to a single reference model: communication exclusively in the language of schooling. In short, language inclusion seeks to make learning more equitable and enriching: it offers all learners, whether native or non-native speakers, an opening to linguistic and cultural diversity. == Implementation in the classroom == Language inclusion aims to adapt teaching approaches by valuing the language repertoire of ''all'' learners and allowing them to draw on their plurilingual skills in order to facilitate their access to subject knowledge. Several approaches can be used to achieve this: * ''Plural approaches'' (CARAP, 2012): ** language awareness (Balsiger, Bétrix Kölher & De Pietro, 2012), which enables learners, from an early age, to discover different cultural worlds and language systems (those of their classmates or from other geographical backgrounds); ** intercomprehension between related languages (Castagne & Monneret, 2021), which encourages connections between users of the same language family (e.g. speakers/writers of Slavic languages); ** the intercultural approach, which aims at making the classroom a place of exchange and learning enriched by cultural diversity (Causa, 2023); ** integrated teaching (Candelier, Manno & Escudé, 2023), which seeks to create synergy between the different modern languages taught in a school (e.g. Italian, French and English in a secondary school in Italy); * ''Translanguaging practices'' (Dall'Aglio and Pogranova, 2022), which promote the complementary use of several languages, enabling learners to use all the languages they know in different learning situations (e.g. to reformulate the course of a scientific experiment). == Didactic challenges == The implementation of language inclusion in educational practices raises several challenges and requires a number of adjustments: * ''Increased training for teachers'' so that they can better understand the phenomena of plurlingual language acquisition and the foundations of plurilingual teaching, and so that they can gradually develop concrete teaching practices (Galligani & Vlad, 2020); * ''A focus on teaching tools'' so that teachers can better include, during learning and assessment phases, the languages of first socialisation of learners and those they are learning concurrently in school (Penloup, Miguel Addisu & Kervyn, 2022); * ''The involvement of the entire educational community and families'' in building strong partnerships (both inside and outside school), in order to show that the inclusion of linguistic and cultural identities is everyone's business (Auger & Le Pichon, 2021). == Take home messages == In a school context, language inclusion is a teaching approach that enables learners to use all their language skills to learn more effectively. It values language variation and plurilingual practices in order to make education more enriching and equitable. == Self-assessment == Make sure you understand the nuances between the concepts of ‘linguistic inclusion’ and ‘language inclusion’. What is the difference between them? * ''Linguistic inclusion contributes to the identification and recognition of the languages of plurilingual learners through educational activities that engage and showcase them.'' * ''Language inclusion, on the other hand, emphasises the ability of students to use their pluilingual skills in a complementary and transferable way between languages, so that they feel included in all the tasks proposed, with a focus on accessibility to knowledge, particularly in a target language other than their first language of socialisation.'' What teaching approaches promote the inclusion of learners' first languages throughout the teaching and learning cycles? * ''integrated language teaching'' * ''intercomprehension'' * ''language awareness'' * ''the intercultural approach'' * ''support for translanguaging practices'' What challenges must the education sector address to ensure that teachers‘ teaching practices are increasingly inclusive of learners’ linguistic and cultural diversity? * ''Train teachers in approaches that enable the linguistic inclusion of all learners'' * ''Take into account the diverse multicultural and plurlingual contexts of classrooms'' * ''Involve parents and the entire educational community in this inclusive implementation''<br /> == Resources for further reading == * Auger, N. &  Le Pichon, E. (2021). ''Défis et richesses des classes multilingues : Construire des ponts entre les cultures.'' ESF sciences humaines. * Auger, N. (2020). Enseigner à des élèves plurilingues : vers une didactique inclusive. In C. Mendonça-Dias, B. Azaoui & F. Chnane-Davin (Eds.), ''Allophonie. Inclusion et langues des enfants migrants à l’école'' (pp. 171-183). Éditions Lambert-Lucas. * Benavente Ferrera, S., Calvo del Olmo, F.,Frisan, E.H., Manole, V., Marielly Rocha da Cunha, K. & Sheeren, H. (2024). ''Voyage en langues romanes. Plurilinguisme, interculturel, intercompréhension.'' Didier. * Blanchet, P. & Clerc Conan, S.  (2015). ''Passer de l’exclusion à l’inclusion : des expériences réussies d’éducation à et par la diversité linguistique à l’école''. ''Migrations Société, 162''(6), 49-70. * Châteaureynaud M-A., & Piot, C. (2022). ''Penser la didactique du plurilinguisme : quel enjeu pour une école plus inclusive ? Dossier thématique''. ''Revue Reliance'', 1. INSPE Bordeaux. * Mendonça-Diaz, C., Azzaoui, B., & Chnane-Davin, F. (Eds.) (2020). ''Allophone. Inclusion et langues des enfants migrants à l’école.'' Éditions Lambert-Lucas. * Stratilaki-Klein, S., & Nicolas, Cl. (2020). ''Plurilinguisme et inclusion scolaire''. GIP-FCIP de Paris. * UNESCO. (1994). ''Déclaration de Salamanque et cadre d’action pour l’éducation et les besoins spéciaux''. Unesco. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000098427_fre     == Bibliography == Balsiger, C., Bétrix Köhler, D. & De Pietro, J-F. (2012). ''Eveil aux langues et approches plurielles. De la formation des enseignants aux pratiques de classe.'' L’harmattan. Candelier, M., Manno, G. & Escudé, P. (2023). ''La didactique intégrée des langues : Apprendre une langue avec d’autres langues ?'' ADEB. http://www.adeb-asso.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/2023-La-didactique-Int%C3%A9gr%C3%A9e-des-langues.pdf Candelier, M., Camilleri-Grima, A., Castellotti, V., de Pietro, J. F., Lörincz, I., Meissner, F. J., ... & Noguerol, A. (2007). Cadre de Référence pour les Approches Plurielles des Langues et des Cultures. Strasbourg: Centre Européen pour les Langues Vivantes/Conseil de l’Europe. Castagne, E. & Monneret, P. (2021). ''Intercompréhension et analogie.'' De Boeck supérieur. Causa, M. (2003). « Éducation plurilingue et interculturelle et transmission de/en langues : quel discours formatif ? », ''Didactique du FLES'' [Online], Hors-série 1 | 2023, Online since 20 juin 2023. https://www.ouvroir.fr/dfles/index.php?id=587   Dall’Aglio, V. & Pogranova, S. (2022). ''Translanguaging. Constats et enjeux de terrain'' ''in'' Geiger-Jaillet, A; Fonseca Favre, M. Vaissière, S. & Verney, Y (dir.) (2022). ''Abécédaire des gestes professionnels dans l’enseignement bi/plurilingue''. ADEB. https://www.adeb-asso.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Translanguaging.pdf Galligani, S. & Vlad, M. (2020). ''Didactique du plurilinguisme et formation des enseignants : contextes, dispositifs et perspectives -'' Le Français dans le monde : Recherches et applications, n°67. CLE International. Penloup, M-C., Miguel Addisu, V. & Kervyn,B. (dir.) (2022). ''Élèves plurilingues en classes ordinaires : outils et questions pour la didactique du français''. ''Repères'', n° 65, 2022, 252 p., Lyon, ENS Éditions. Roulet, E. (1980). ''Langue maternelle et langues secondes : vers une pédagogie intégrée''. Paris : Hatier : CREDIF. == Credits == This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Thierry Gaillat (université de La Réunion) * Laura Uribe (université de La Réunion et université de Mayotte). di7c8sm7j5k2ef0ljogbm0y8g04czr7 2817292 2817291 2026-06-29T16:40:07Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self-assessment */ 2817292 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Initial activities == === '''Activity 1''' === You are interested in professional mobility and will soon be moving to a new area (foreign country, overseas territory or cross-border region) where several languages are spoken. You are wondering how to adapt your teaching to include the specific linguistic features of the context in your teaching practices. You will soon be welcoming Ömer, Mây, Hassan and Alida, all non-native speakers from different linguistic backgrounds. You are wondering how to include these learners in your class in order to value their first languages and facilitate their entry into the learning provided in the language of schooling... List all the questions raised by these two situations, in relation to the multilingual and multicultural realities associated with them. === '''Activity 2''' === * [[File:Inclusion, exclusion, ségrégation, intégration.png|alt=Inclusion, exclusion, ségrégation, intégration|thumb|'''Inclusion, exclusion, ségrégation, intégration''']]Look at the following diagram (cf. Figure 1) * What differences can you see between the terms ‘integration’ and ‘inclusion’? (You can start by analysing the other two representations, exclusion and segregation). * What does the term ‘language inclusion’ mean in relation to this set of representations? == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to... * develop your teaching skills related to approaches to openness to linguistic diversity in a school context; * better understand the importance of including your learners' first languages in your teaching and learning approaches; * better understand concrete situations of language inclusion in the classroom through examples adapted to different socio-didactic contexts. == Keywords == Language and linguistic inclusion / First languages / Plural approaches / Comparative approaches to languages / Translanguaging practices. == Prerequisites == * Knowledge of language acquisition processes, particularly plurilingual acquisition; * Teaching knowledge related to the specificities of second language teaching/learning. == Introduction: Language inclusion at the heart of teaching practices == Language inclusion refers to a teaching approach that aims to recognise and include the communication practices of plurilingual speakers, particularly in educational settings. After briefly reviewing the evolution of this teaching concept, we will outline the different pedagogical approaches that teachers can use to better take into account the language practices of their learners within an inclusive approach. Finally, we will present the various challenges that educators and practitioners need to consider in order to optimize its implementation in the classroom. == Definition and history of the concept == The concept of language inclusion has gradually gained ground in the field of language teaching and, more broadly, in the field of education sciences: firstly, in line with the work carried out by Eddy Roulet in the 1980s, which encouraged teachers to make close links between pupils' mother tongues and the languages learned at school, and then in the wake of the work carried out by the Council of Europe on the development of plurilingual skills in the 2000s. While the concept of linguistic inclusion focuses on the recognition of the plurality of languages within society (and ultimately within the school environment), the concept of language inclusion takes a broader view, taking into account the specific characteristics inherent in individuals' communication practices: when they use different language registers, resort to social and regional variations, and use other languages in the course of their exchanges. Language inclusion therefore focuses on how speakers/writers combine their different linguistic resources and skills to interact, both orally and in writing. In education, this approach aims to value the diversity of learners' linguistic knowledge and language skills rather than limiting classroom interactions to a single reference model: communication exclusively in the language of schooling. In short, language inclusion seeks to make learning more equitable and enriching: it offers all learners, whether native or non-native speakers, an opening to linguistic and cultural diversity. == Implementation in the classroom == Language inclusion aims to adapt teaching approaches by valuing the language repertoire of ''all'' learners and allowing them to draw on their plurilingual skills in order to facilitate their access to subject knowledge. Several approaches can be used to achieve this: * ''Plural approaches'' (CARAP, 2012): ** language awareness (Balsiger, Bétrix Kölher & De Pietro, 2012), which enables learners, from an early age, to discover different cultural worlds and language systems (those of their classmates or from other geographical backgrounds); ** intercomprehension between related languages (Castagne & Monneret, 2021), which encourages connections between users of the same language family (e.g. speakers/writers of Slavic languages); ** the intercultural approach, which aims at making the classroom a place of exchange and learning enriched by cultural diversity (Causa, 2023); ** integrated teaching (Candelier, Manno & Escudé, 2023), which seeks to create synergy between the different modern languages taught in a school (e.g. Italian, French and English in a secondary school in Italy); * ''Translanguaging practices'' (Dall'Aglio and Pogranova, 2022), which promote the complementary use of several languages, enabling learners to use all the languages they know in different learning situations (e.g. to reformulate the course of a scientific experiment). == Didactic challenges == The implementation of language inclusion in educational practices raises several challenges and requires a number of adjustments: * ''Increased training for teachers'' so that they can better understand the phenomena of plurlingual language acquisition and the foundations of plurilingual teaching, and so that they can gradually develop concrete teaching practices (Galligani & Vlad, 2020); * ''A focus on teaching tools'' so that teachers can better include, during learning and assessment phases, the languages of first socialisation of learners and those they are learning concurrently in school (Penloup, Miguel Addisu & Kervyn, 2022); * ''The involvement of the entire educational community and families'' in building strong partnerships (both inside and outside school), in order to show that the inclusion of linguistic and cultural identities is everyone's business (Auger & Le Pichon, 2021). == Take home messages == In a school context, language inclusion is a teaching approach that enables learners to use all their language skills to learn more effectively. It values language variation and plurilingual practices in order to make education more enriching and equitable. == Self-assessment == === Reflection === A. Make sure you understand the nuances between the concepts of ‘linguistic inclusion’ and ‘language inclusion’. What is the difference between them? B. What teaching approaches promote the inclusion of learners' first languages throughout the teaching and learning cycles? C. What challenges must the education sector address to ensure that teachers‘ teaching practices are increasingly inclusive of learners’ linguistic and cultural diversity? === Possible answers === ==== Question A ==== * ''Linguistic inclusion contributes to the identification and recognition of the languages of plurilingual learners through educational activities that engage and showcase them.'' * ''Language inclusion, on the other hand, emphasises the ability of students to use their pluilingual skills in a complementary and transferable way between languages, so that they feel included in all the tasks proposed, with a focus on accessibility to knowledge, particularly in a target language other than their first language of socialisation.'' ==== Question B ==== * ''integrated language teaching'' * ''intercomprehension'' * ''language awareness'' * ''the intercultural approach'' * ''support for translanguaging practices'' ==== Question C ==== * ''Train teachers in approaches that enable the linguistic inclusion of all learners'' * ''Take into account the diverse multicultural and plurlingual contexts of classrooms'' * ''Involve parents and the entire educational community in this inclusive implementation''<br /> == Resources for further reading == * Auger, N. &  Le Pichon, E. (2021). ''Défis et richesses des classes multilingues : Construire des ponts entre les cultures.'' ESF sciences humaines. * Auger, N. (2020). Enseigner à des élèves plurilingues : vers une didactique inclusive. In C. Mendonça-Dias, B. Azaoui & F. Chnane-Davin (Eds.), ''Allophonie. Inclusion et langues des enfants migrants à l’école'' (pp. 171-183). Éditions Lambert-Lucas. * Benavente Ferrera, S., Calvo del Olmo, F.,Frisan, E.H., Manole, V., Marielly Rocha da Cunha, K. & Sheeren, H. (2024). ''Voyage en langues romanes. Plurilinguisme, interculturel, intercompréhension.'' Didier. * Blanchet, P. & Clerc Conan, S.  (2015). ''Passer de l’exclusion à l’inclusion : des expériences réussies d’éducation à et par la diversité linguistique à l’école''. ''Migrations Société, 162''(6), 49-70. * Châteaureynaud M-A., & Piot, C. (2022). ''Penser la didactique du plurilinguisme : quel enjeu pour une école plus inclusive ? Dossier thématique''. ''Revue Reliance'', 1. INSPE Bordeaux. * Mendonça-Diaz, C., Azzaoui, B., & Chnane-Davin, F. (Eds.) (2020). ''Allophone. Inclusion et langues des enfants migrants à l’école.'' Éditions Lambert-Lucas. * Stratilaki-Klein, S., & Nicolas, Cl. (2020). ''Plurilinguisme et inclusion scolaire''. GIP-FCIP de Paris. * UNESCO. (1994). ''Déclaration de Salamanque et cadre d’action pour l’éducation et les besoins spéciaux''. Unesco. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000098427_fre     == Bibliography == Balsiger, C., Bétrix Köhler, D. & De Pietro, J-F. (2012). ''Eveil aux langues et approches plurielles. De la formation des enseignants aux pratiques de classe.'' L’harmattan. Candelier, M., Manno, G. & Escudé, P. (2023). ''La didactique intégrée des langues : Apprendre une langue avec d’autres langues ?'' ADEB. http://www.adeb-asso.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/2023-La-didactique-Int%C3%A9gr%C3%A9e-des-langues.pdf Candelier, M., Camilleri-Grima, A., Castellotti, V., de Pietro, J. F., Lörincz, I., Meissner, F. J., ... & Noguerol, A. (2007). Cadre de Référence pour les Approches Plurielles des Langues et des Cultures. Strasbourg: Centre Européen pour les Langues Vivantes/Conseil de l’Europe. Castagne, E. & Monneret, P. (2021). ''Intercompréhension et analogie.'' De Boeck supérieur. Causa, M. (2003). « Éducation plurilingue et interculturelle et transmission de/en langues : quel discours formatif ? », ''Didactique du FLES'' [Online], Hors-série 1 | 2023, Online since 20 juin 2023. https://www.ouvroir.fr/dfles/index.php?id=587   Dall’Aglio, V. & Pogranova, S. (2022). ''Translanguaging. Constats et enjeux de terrain'' ''in'' Geiger-Jaillet, A; Fonseca Favre, M. Vaissière, S. & Verney, Y (dir.) (2022). ''Abécédaire des gestes professionnels dans l’enseignement bi/plurilingue''. ADEB. https://www.adeb-asso.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Translanguaging.pdf Galligani, S. & Vlad, M. (2020). ''Didactique du plurilinguisme et formation des enseignants : contextes, dispositifs et perspectives -'' Le Français dans le monde : Recherches et applications, n°67. CLE International. Penloup, M-C., Miguel Addisu, V. & Kervyn,B. (dir.) (2022). ''Élèves plurilingues en classes ordinaires : outils et questions pour la didactique du français''. ''Repères'', n° 65, 2022, 252 p., Lyon, ENS Éditions. Roulet, E. (1980). ''Langue maternelle et langues secondes : vers une pédagogie intégrée''. Paris : Hatier : CREDIF. == Credits == This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Thierry Gaillat (université de La Réunion) * Laura Uribe (université de La Réunion et université de Mayotte). 6ekngnyg4bqkfc7clwwri9rao5xfajl 0 329159 2817295 2805282 2026-06-29T16:44:32Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self-assessment */ 2817295 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == Read the following short scenario:<blockquote>''A parent approaches you after class and says, “At home we only speak Arabic, but my child is learning Italian and studying English too. I’m afraid they’re getting confused. Should we stop using Arabic at home?”''</blockquote> * What would you say to this parent? Why? * How can educators support both the student and the family in a situation like this? * What does this scenario tell us about the relationship between home language practices and school expectations? '''Personal Reflection:''' * Which languages did you study at school? Why? * Which languages were offered at your school? Do you know why? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * comment on  the role of language policies in education; * explain how family language policies can promote and/or hinder plurilingualism; * mention tensions and contradictions in language policies. == Key Words == Language policy, educational language policy, family language policy, CLIL == Introduction == Language policies are implicit or explicit decisions, expressed in formal or informal instances, dealing with the management of languages at society, at micro (individual), meso (such as families) and macro (such as the educational systems) levels (Shohamy, 2006; Spolsky, 2007). At the meso level, such policies are known under family language policies (FLP; see Curd-Christiansen & Lanza, 2018; Curd-Christiansen, 2025). At the macro level, they are called educational language policies (ELP), and they include regulations about the use of languages at school, as well as which languages are expected to be taught and learnt (see Cenoz & Gorter, 2012; Shohamy, 2006). Depending on their formulations and scope, language policies might become key tools for fostering equity and participation in increasingly multilingual and mobile societies. Nevertheless, in contexts where language and family education policies are narrowly defined and implemented forcefully, they might become instruments of control and of discrimination. Indeed, language, ELP and FLP might also be formulated and implemented in ways that seek to homogenise students and families. In other words, rather than promoting the development of individual plurilingual competence and maintaining societal linguistic diversity, such policies may contribute to their erasure and eradication. When linguistic diversity is seen as a problem to be solved, rather than a resource to be valued, ideologies at the political level and educational systems risk reproducing inequalities and undermining the linguistic identities of families, in general, and learners, more specifically. In a school setting, effective linguistic integration enables all learners to develop their linguistic, academic, social and interpersonal skills to their full potential. In this context, families play an essential active role, not as mere observers, but as partners in shaping linguistic and educational outcomes. From this introduction, we can infer that the language policies at different levels are interconnected, but not always coherently and there may be tensions between the language policies of the nation state, educational language policies, and family language policies. == A Brief History == Language education policies have long been central to state-building (Gogolin, 1994) and educational planning, at least in Europe. In 19th-century Europe, language policies often aimed to consolidate national identities through the imposition of standard national languages in schools (De Fornel, 2023). These policies prioritized homogeneity of one single standard language and often marginalized regional and minority languages. In terms of ELP in Europe, post-second world war language policies tended to favour English as a ''lingua franca''. Indeed, even when policies promoted linguistic diversity in regulatory documents, English was still the preferred language. For instance, when foreign languages are included in the school curriculum, English is usually the language taught. From the late 20th century onward, due to globalization and increased migration, language policies began to shift toward more inclusive approaches that recognize linguistic diversity. Key reference texts such as the “Common European Framework of Reference for Languages” (CEFR) reflect this shift by promoting plurilingual competence as a valuable educational and social asset. Nevertheless, despite this plurilingual stance, some some fallacies can be identified in current ELP, as critically noted by Melo-Pfeifer (2018): including two foreign languages in the curriculum usually favours English as the first foreign language, early language teaching tends to be limited to English, and curricula tend to separate languages, which are taught and learned in a monoglot manner. Additionally, in the university context, Higher Education internationalization programs mainly involve English as a Medium of Instruction (Yanaprasart & Melo-Pfeifer, forthcoming). Contemporary views on language policies invite us to rethink language and family education policies not just as top-down decisions but as dynamic, negotiated and contested processes that reflect broader social, cultural, and political dynamics. == Definitions == A “language policy” is the set of measures implemented by public authorities to explicitly or implicitly influence the corpus, functions, or acquisition of a language. A language policy is considered a “public policy” when it is used to specifically address issues that are politically defined as collective in nature (Knoepfel et al. 2001), such as the provision of public services in multiple languages, the management of communication between speakers of different languages, the lack of competence in foreign languages, and the insufficient proficiency in the dominant local language among adult migrants and asylum seekers. Language policy “has three interrelated but independently describable components: practices, beliefs, and management” (Spolsky, 2007, p. 3). According to the same author, * Language practices are the observable behaviors and choices – what people actually do (p. 3). * Beliefs include the values assigned to the different languages, linguistic varieties and features. * Management refers to “the explicit and observable effort by someone or some group that has or claims to have authority over the participants in the domain to modify their practices or beliefs” (p. 4) Some ELP aim at fostering the knowledge and use of foreign languages and are therefore the object of educational language policies. This is the case of policies addressing the development of plurilingual repertoires at school. In parallel, the notion of family language policy (FLP) has gained prominence since the early 2000s (King et al., 2008; Spolsky, 2009). It was defined by King et al. as “explicit and overt planning in relation to language use within the home among family members” (2008, p. 907), which also includes analysing how linguistic home environments are created to support literacy development in the heritage language (see Boibin, 2021, Melo-Pfeifer, 2022, and Wang & Yu2024, on Homescapes). It explores the implicit and explicit decisions families make about which languages to use at home and how these affect children’s linguistic development. Despite this focus, FLP studies usually focus on mothers’ beliefs and tend to overwhelmingly rely on middle class and educated families’ perspectives. In common, FLP studies highlight that families do not merely respond to official language policies, but actively interpret, negotiate, or even resist them, shaping their own “micro-policies” of language use. It should also be considered that families, even if they have positive attitudes toward their languages, may still adopt practices that do not always promote their use at home. It is also important to note that family language beliefs and practices can change according to family dynamics (death of a spouse, family separation, migration, etc.). Recent scholarship (Rose, Armon-Lotem & Altman, 2023) emphasizes that FLPs are key mediators between the societal and familial spheres, and they play a significant role in determining bilingual children's outcomes. These policies can be influenced by ideologies (beliefs about the status and value of languages), management strategies (e.g., "one parent, one language"), and everyday language practices. They may also be constrained or supported by external factors such as school policies, media, and peer group influences. == Practical examples == === '''Practical Example (1): CLIL as ELP''' === One example of public policy and educational initiative to ensure the expansion of language education is the CLIL approach (Content and Language Integrated Learning). It combines the teaching of non-linguistic subjects with a foreign language, typically English, allowing students to learn subject content and language skills simultaneously. The CLIL approach offers several potential advantages, including improving foreign language proficiency, intercultural sensitivity, critical thinking, and preparing students for studying and working in international contexts. However, some challenges and critics are also associated to CLIL (Bonnet & Breidbach, 2026): the need for highly qualified teachers in both the subject and the language of instruction (which differs from the mother tongue), the risk that students with weaker language skills may struggle with subject comprehension, the possibility of reducing the depth of content covered due to language barriers, the overtly neoliberal and capitalist ideologies promoted by some CLIL programs, the  elitist status of some CLIL initiatives, and the fact that it did not, in fact, promote plurilingual education, rather favouring English at the European level. Where CLIL proves difficult for students with weak foundations in the medium of CLIL instruction, pedagogical translanguaging comes into play. This method allows students to use all their linguistic resources to learn, creating a more inclusive educational environment. In schools with migrant children or linguistic inequalities, translanguaging is essential: it enables students to use their first languages as a support for learning the language of schooling and other subjects. This strategy not only improves understanding but also strengthens students’ linguistic identity, preventing insecurity or abandonment of their heritage language. === '''Practical Example (2): Supportive ELP for plurilingual families''' === Another key aspect of language acquisition is the role of families in promoting bilingualism and plurilingualism, especially when this process begins at an early age, with the intergenerational transmission of heritage languages (Audras, 2025). Early childhood bilingualism offers numerous advantages: young children are naturally exposed to two or more languages, allowing them to acquire them gradually and without pressure. Family language policies, often implicit and informal, play a crucial role here. As previously stated, these refer to the beliefs, practices, and strategies families adopt - explicitly or tacitly - to manage language use at home. Encouraging children to talk about school experiences in their home language, for instance, helps them reprocess concepts, deepen understanding, and strengthen memory. It also allows parents to participate actively in their children's education, even if they do not master the school language. At the same time, FLP and policies favouring plurilingual families should recognize and reinforce the value of home language practices. This includes providing access to bilingual resources, community support programs, and school-family collaboration initiatives that help preserve heritage languages and foster plurilingual identities. When seeking to actively promote plurilingualism and multilingualism, ELP and FLP can be complementary: the former seek to guarantee quality language education, while the latter should provide the foundation for effective acquisition starting at home. Nevertheless, ELP, mainly those limiting and constraining the use of different languages at the state level, and FLP might also be contradictory and leave families uncertain on which languages to use (namely in school communication), on their multilingual parenting and on the (legal) risks and benefits associated to intergenerational language transmission. == Take-home messages == * Language policies at the meso (nation state), macro (school and family levels) and micro (individual) levels might be inconsistent and be characterized by various tensions in terms of practices, beliefs, and management; * The intentions of ELP in favor of plurilingual education can have unexpected contradictory effects; * The parental role is crucial for language maintenance and transmission, and it can be supported or jeopardised by educational language policies and societal discourses; == Self-assessment == <quiz display=simple> {What is the main goal of language education policies?} -A) To encourage students to abandon their mother tongues -B) To impose the use of the national language as much as possible +C) To promote the learning of multiple languages and cultures at school {Which of the following strategies is most effective for learning multiple languages at school?} -A) Prohibiting the use of home languages +B) Integrating plurilingualism with specific methods -C) Limiting foreign language teaching to dedicated lessons only {What are the main reported advantages of CLIL projects?} -A)Foster the acquisition of multiple languages. -B) Reduce language learning drop-outs. -C) Favour heritage and home language use and transmission +D) None of the above -E) All of the above. </quiz> == Resources to go further == * Balboni, P. E. (2008). ''Fare educazione linguistica''. UTET. * Bruner, J. (1996). ''La cultura dell’educazione.'' Feltrinelli. * Spolsky, B. (2023). ''Rethinking Language Policy''. Edinburgh University Press. * Spolsky, B. (2012) (Ed.), ''The Cambridge Handbook of Language Policy''. Cambridge University Press. * Shohamy, E. (2006). ''Language Policy Hidden Agendas and New Approaches''. Routledge. == Bibliography == Audras, I. (2025). Politiques linguistiques familiales. In Ch. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue / Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education''. (pp. 262-264). Peter Lang. Boivin, N. (2021). Homescape: Agentic space for transmigrant families’ multisensory discourse of identity. ''Linguistic Landscape. An International Journal'', ''7''(1), 37–59. https://doi.org/10.1075/ll.19019.boi Bonnet, A., & Breidbach, A. (2026). CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning). In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue - Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education'' (pp. 74-76)''.'' Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. Cenoz, J., & Gorter, D. (2012). Language policy in education: additional languages. In B. Spolsky (Ed.), ''The Cambridge Handbook of Language Policy''. Cambridge University Press. Curd-Christiansen, X. L. (2025), Family language policies. In Ch. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue / Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education''. (pp. 265-267). Peter Lang. Curd-Christiansen, X. L., & Lanza, E. (Eds.). (2018) ''Multilingual Family Language Management: Efforts, Measures and Choices. Multilingual Journal of Cross-Cultural and Interlanguage Communication,'' 37 (2). Special Issue: https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/multi-2017-0132/html. De Fornel, T. (2023). ''De l'intercompréhension entre langues romanes : sources, tensions et variations épistémologiques''. Université de Bordeaux. https://theses.hal.science/tel-04417897 De Mauro T., (2014). ''In Europa son già 103. Troppe lingue per una democrazia'' Gogolin, I. (1994). ''Der monolinguale Habitus der multilingualen Schule''. Waxmann Verlag. King, K. A., Fogle, L., & Logan-Terry, A. (2008). Family Language Policy. ''Language and Linguistics Compass'', 2, 907–922. https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00076.x Knoepfel, P., Larrue, C., Varone, F, & Hill, M. (2001). ''Public Policy Analysis''. The Policy Press. Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2022). Linguistic landscapes in the home: multilingual children’s toys, books and games. In A. Stavans & U. Jessner (eds.), ''The Cambridge Handbook of Childhood Multilingualism''. (pp.  605-622).Cambridge University Press Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2018). The multilingual turn in foreign language education. Facts and fallacies. In A. Bonnet & P. Siemund (Eds.), ''Foreign Language Education in Multilingual Classrooms''. (pp. 191-212). John Benjamins. Rose, K., Armon-Lotem, S., & Altman, C. (2023). Family language policy and vocabulary of bilingual children across different ages. ''Ampersand'', 100154, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2215039023000474. Shohamy, E. (2006). ''Language Policy Hidden Agendas and New Approaches''. Routledge. Spolsky, B. (2007). Towards a Theory of Language Policy. ''Working Papers in Educational Linguistics'', 22(1), 1-14. Wang, N., & Yu, Y. (2024). Family language policy and the design of homescape in transnational families. ''Linguistic Landscape. An International Journal'', ''11''(1), 47–75. https://doi.org/10.1075/ll.23073.wan Yanaprasart, P., & Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2026). ''Learning and Teaching  Multilingually in Higher Education''. Multilingual Matters. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Diego Cortes Velasquez (Universitá Roma Tre) * Sílvia Melo-Pfeifer (Universität Hamburg). [[Portal:Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Learning]] dk30ahmg83zevrwkfdeacrjutpl5ziz 0 329307 2817226 2811098 2026-06-29T12:19:19Z Vettere6 3097828 /* Introduction */ 2817226 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}} == Starting activity == '''Activity A''' Visualise your own language constellations by following the steps below: [[File:Dominant language constellation - Activity 1.png|alt=Dominant language constellation - Activity 1|thumb|Figure 1 - Dominant language constellation - Activity 1]] 1. Copy the exercise onto a worksheet (cf. Figure 1). 2. Name each language, dialect or variety that you use in your daily life (write them in the coloured bubbles). 3. Complete the sentences in the boxes. For example: * I use it at home with my grandmother. * For example, I say: “Wie geht es dir?”  (= How are you?) 4. List your languages, dialects and varieties and write the number in the central square '''Activity B''' [[File:Dominant language constellation - Activity 2.png|alt=Dominant language constellation - Activity 2|thumb|Figure 2 - Dominant language constellation - Activity 2]] 1. Copy the exercise onto a sheet of paper (cf. Figure 2). 2.&nbsp;Place the languages / dialects / varieties you listed earlier into the three circles below * Circle A: Languages, dialects and varieties that you use frequently. * Circle B: Languages, dialects and varieties that you use occasionally. * Circle C: Languages, dialects and varieties that you rarely use, but which you sometimes hear or know people who speak them. 3.&nbsp;Write down why you have placed them in each circle. '''Activity C''' Think about the results: * How proficient are you in the languages, dialects and varieties of the circles A, B and C? To what extent can you understand them (in writing and orally), write them and speak them?  * Does anything surprise you? What might that mean? (Exercise adapted from Xu & Krulatz, 2024, p. 283) == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to… * distinguish the dominant language constellation from other concepts related to plurilingualism/multilingualism (e.g. the linguistic repertoire) * describe and analyse the DLC (and its development) * apply the DLC theory in an educational context == Keywords == plurilinguism, multilinguism, linguistic repertoire, communicative practices, institutional linguistic policy == Pre-requisites == There are no prerequisites, but an understanding of concepts such as linguistic repertoire or ''translanguaging'' will help you gain a deeper understanding of the content. == Introduction == The Dominant Language Constellation (DLC) was proposed by Larissa Aronin and her colleagues (2006, 2016, 2019; Aronin & Singleton 2012) as a way of addressing the dynamic diversity of globalised language practices. A DLC refers to the group of languages, dialects and/or varieties most relevant to an individual or a group for meeting all their linguistic needs in a multilingual environment. The components of a DLC function as a unit. In other words, the DLC describes the inner circle of personal languages that ‘fulfil the most vital functions of language” (Aronin, 2016, p.147). == History of the concept == The DLC is one of many critical responses to the challenge  to the historically and culturally entrenched notion that monolingualism is ‘natural’ or preferable, whether at the level of individuals, groups or nations. This kind of monolingual ideology has been widely propagated by nationalism, Romanticism and state education systems.<blockquote>''A short historical example:'' ''A key example of this link between language policy and nation-building is Talleyrand’s speech in 1791, during the French Revolution, in which he argued for the exclusive use of the national language in schools. Dialects and regional languages were described in it as “corrupted languages”, associated with a “feudal order that must be abolished” (Talleyrand-Périgord, 1791, p. 472, our translation).''</blockquote>Even today, monolingualism remains a deeply entrenched social and political system, underpinned by nationalist ideologies, notions of modernised rationality and efficiency-driven approaches (one might cite, for example, certain language policies in the United States under the Trump administration, such as the designation of English as the official language of the United States (White House online, March 2025). Linguistic practices, however, are diverse and multilingual, and have been so long before globalisation. DLC, therefore, reflects the plurilingual realities experienced in everyday life. By identifying the languages actually used in the various contexts of an individual’s life, DLC proposes a model of plurilingual identity, distributed across different domains of use and rooted in concrete communication practices. This is a relatively recent concept, which has become particularly prominent in the field of multilingualism studies since the 21st century. Examples of edited volumes devoted to DLCs include the 2020 collection ''Dominant Language Constellations: A New Perspective on Multilingualism'', edited by Joseph Lo Bianco and Larissa Aronin. Four further volumes have since followed (Aronin & Vetter, 2021; Aronin & Melo-Pfeifer, 2023; Aronin & Vetter, 2025), all available on the website dedicated to the CLD approach (Dominant Language Constellations (DLC)). == Definition == Given that DLC focuses on language practices, it is an inherently pluralistic and dynamic concept, based on the idea that contemporary social practices draw upon multiple modes of communication, different forms of literacy and a variety of languages (Aronin & Vetter, 2021, p. 7).  To put it simply, the following brief definition could be proposed: CLD refers to the set of languages—often three—that play a particularly important role for an individual or a group in order to meet their linguistic needs in a multilingual environment (Lo Bianco & Aronin, 2020, pp. 15-18). At this point, it is necessary to distinguish DLC from the concept of the linguistic repertoire, which has been used to refer to the totality of languages, dialects, styles, registers, codes and routines that characterise interaction in everyday life (Gumperz, 1968; Busch, 2017). Whilst the linguistic repertoire aims to account for the entirety of an individual’s linguistic experiences, the DLC refers exclusively to the components considered most essential (Lo Bianco & Aronin, 2020, pp. 15–18). The two concepts can thus be regarded as complementary. Furthermore, a constellation such as that proposed by DLC always forms within a specific multilingual context, and as this context may change throughout life, the DLC may also change. It can evolve according to geographical, social or cultural frameworks – a diversity clearly highlighted by international studies on local language practices (Vetter, 2024, pp. 229–231). The characteristics of a DLC are not, however, limited to the sum of the languages, dialects and varieties that comprise it.  It must also be regarded as a unit that extends beyond the sum of its parts (which, in any case, cannot be viewed as strictly separate from one another). == Conceptions == Currently, DLC is emerging as a new perspective on multilingualism (Lo Bianco & Aronin 2020) and research method to explore it (Aronin 2019), reflecting the many developments in the field. To clarify these two perspectives, let’s look at them in more detail: * As an innovative approach to multilingualism, it is used to study complex linguistic situations. One example is Karpava’s (2020) study of the Russian community in Cyprus, which highlights the individual and social factors that influence the dynamics of DLCs (composed of the same languages). * As a research method, DLC opens the door to new research questions, as demonstrated by Aronin (2019, 19f). To give an example, DLC can serve as a starting point for describing the linguistic composition of a country, an organisation or the world. Questions arise regarding languages leaving the DLC or returning to it. Just as with conceptual perspectives, the themes addressed by research on DLC have diversified over time and cover a wide range of issues, from multilingual syntactic development (Fernández-Berkes & Flynn, 2019) to educational contexts (Björklund et al., 2019). Others focus on the impact of identity, emotions and attitudes in different minority and majority contexts (Nightingale, 2020; Vetter, 2024). Language policy in the broadest sense is one of the areas in which DLC research yields particularly promising results: a DLC perspective opens up interesting avenues for understanding institutional language policy, particularly in the field of education, where it proves to be a powerful tool for raising awareness and fostering critical reflection (Vetter, 2021). On a more general political level, DLC encourages the involvement of language activists, policy-makers and researchers in a dialogue on appropriate language policy. It can thus serve as a framework for language policy in multilingual communities facing controversial political directions. == Take home messages == The concept of DLC encompasses only the most significant languages, dialects and varieties through which an individual or group can meet their communicative needs. It is, therefore, a concept rooted in practical communication and real needs. The DLC represents a critical response to the notion of ‘natural’ or preferred monolingualism and forms part of modern theories on multilingualism and calls for multicultural practices. It can be interpreted as an innovative perspective to understand multilingualism and a research method, showing particular promise for institutional language policy and the field of education. == Self-assessment == * How can the concept of the Dominant Language Constellation (DLC) be defined? * What is the difference between the concept of a repertoire and the DLC? * What topics can be addressed by research into DLCs? == Further readings == * Official website of the DLC-approach: <nowiki>https://www.dominant-language-constellations.com/</nowiki> * Aronin, L. (2019). Challenges of multilingual education : streamlining affordances through Dominant Language Constellations. ''Stellenbosch Papers in Linguistics Plus'', ''2019''(58), 235–256. https://doi.org/10.5842/58-0-845 * Aronin, L. & Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2023). ''Language Awareness and Identity. Insights via Dominant Language Constellation Approach''. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37027-4. * Aronin, L. & Vetter, E. (Eds.) (2025 in print). ''Dominant Language Constellations for Teachers: A practical dimension''.  Springer. * Vetter, E., & Jessner, U. (2019). ''International research on multilingualism: breaking with the monolingual perspective''. Springer. == References == Aronin, L. (2006). Dominant language constellations: An approach to multilingualism studies. In M. Ó Laoire (Ed.), ''Multilingualism in educational settings'' (pp. 140–159). Schneider Publications. Aronin, L. & Singleton, D. (2012). ''Multilingualism''. John Benjamins. Aronin, L. (2016). Multicompetence and dominant language constellation. In V. Cook &  Li Wei (Eds.), ''The Cambridge Handbook of Linguistic Multicompetence'' (pp.142-163). Cambridge University Press. Aronin, L. (2019). Dominant language constellation as a method of research. In E. Vetter & U. Jessner (Eds.), ''International research on multilingualism. Breaking with the monolingual perspective'' (pp. 13–26). Springer. Aronin, L., & Vetter, E. (2021). ''Dominant Language Constellations Approach in Education and Language Acquisition'' (1st Edition 2021, Vol. 51). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-70769-9 Björklund, S., Björklund, M. & Sjöholm, K. (2020). Societal Versus Individual Patterns of DLCs in a Finnish Educational Context – Present State and Challenges for the Future. In J. Lo Bianco, L. Aronin (Eds.), ''Dominant Language Constellations: A New Perspective on Multilingualism'' (pp. 97–115). Springer. Busch, B. (2017). Expanding the Notion of the Linguistic Repertoire: On the Concept of Spracherleben —The Lived Experience of Language. ''Applied Linguistics'', ''38''(3),  340-358. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amv030 Fernández-Berkes, É. & Flynn, S. (2020). Where DLC Meets Multilingual Syntactic Development. In J. Lo Bianco, L. Aronin (Eds.), ''Dominant Language Constellations: A New Perspective on'' ''Multilingualism'' (pp. 57-74). Springer. Gumperz, J. J. (1968). The speech community. In Sills, D. L. & Merton, R. K. (Eds.), ''International encyclopedia of the social sciences'' (pp. 381-386). Macmillan Company & the Free Press. Karpava, S. (2020). Dominant Language Constellations of Russian Speakers in Cyprus. ​​In J. Lo Bianco & L. Aronin (Eds.), ''Dominant language constellations. A new perspective on multilingualism'' (pp. 228-257). Springer.   Lo Bianco, J., & Aronin, L. (Eds.) (2020). ''Dominant language constellations. A new perspective on multilingualism''. Springer. Nightingale, R. (2020). A Dominant Language Constellations Case Study on Language Use and the Affective Domain. In: ''Dominant language constellations. A new perspective'' ''on multilingualism'' (pp. 231-259). Springer. OJ  2018/C 189/01, Recommandation du Conseil du 22 mai 2018 relative aux compétences clés pour l’éducation et la formation tout au long de la vie. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/FR/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32018H0604(01) Talleyrand-Périgord, C. M. de. (1791). Rapport par M. Talleyrand-Périgord, ancien évêque d’Autun, sur l’instruction publique, en annexe de la séance du 10 septembre 1791. In ''Archives Parlementaires de 1787 à 1860.'' Tome XXX (pp. 447-480). https://www.persee.fr/doc/arcpa_0000-0000_1888_num_30_1_12472_t1_0447_0000_8 The White House. (March 2025). Designating English as the Official Language of The United States. https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/03/designating-english-as-the-official-language-of-the-united-states/ UNESCO.  (2025).  ''Les langues comptent : orientations mondiales pour l’éducation multilingue''. https://doi.org/10.54675/UTXF6991 Vetter, E. (2021). Language Education Policy Through a DLC Lens: The Case of Urban Multilingualism. In Aronin, L., & Vetter, E. (Eds.) ''Dominant Language Constellations Approach in Education and Language Acquisition.'' Springer. Vetter, E. (2024). Dominant Instead of Hidden? A Critical Discussion on a European DLC Including Endangered Languages. In ''Modern Approaches to Researching Multilingualism'' (pp. 227–247). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52371-7_14 Xu, Y., Krulatz, A., Gabryś-Barker, D., & Vetter, E. (2024). Employing Dominant Language Constellation in Teacher Professional Development: The Impact on EAL Teachers’ Beliefs, Practices, and Multilingual Identity. In ''Modern Approaches to Researching Multilingualism'' (pp. 271–293). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52371-7_16 1e2soi8vt26sj23sgnkw5hqwidultbz 2817246 2817226 2026-06-29T15:55:39Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* References */ 2817246 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}} == Starting activity == '''Activity A''' Visualise your own language constellations by following the steps below: [[File:Dominant language constellation - Activity 1.png|alt=Dominant language constellation - Activity 1|thumb|Figure 1 - Dominant language constellation - Activity 1]] 1. Copy the exercise onto a worksheet (cf. Figure 1). 2. Name each language, dialect or variety that you use in your daily life (write them in the coloured bubbles). 3. Complete the sentences in the boxes. For example: * I use it at home with my grandmother. * For example, I say: “Wie geht es dir?”  (= How are you?) 4. List your languages, dialects and varieties and write the number in the central square '''Activity B''' [[File:Dominant language constellation - Activity 2.png|alt=Dominant language constellation - Activity 2|thumb|Figure 2 - Dominant language constellation - Activity 2]] 1. Copy the exercise onto a sheet of paper (cf. Figure 2). 2.&nbsp;Place the languages / dialects / varieties you listed earlier into the three circles below * Circle A: Languages, dialects and varieties that you use frequently. * Circle B: Languages, dialects and varieties that you use occasionally. * Circle C: Languages, dialects and varieties that you rarely use, but which you sometimes hear or know people who speak them. 3.&nbsp;Write down why you have placed them in each circle. '''Activity C''' Think about the results: * How proficient are you in the languages, dialects and varieties of the circles A, B and C? To what extent can you understand them (in writing and orally), write them and speak them?  * Does anything surprise you? What might that mean? (Exercise adapted from Xu & Krulatz, 2024, p. 283) == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to… * distinguish the dominant language constellation from other concepts related to plurilingualism/multilingualism (e.g. the linguistic repertoire) * describe and analyse the DLC (and its development) * apply the DLC theory in an educational context == Keywords == plurilinguism, multilinguism, linguistic repertoire, communicative practices, institutional linguistic policy == Pre-requisites == There are no prerequisites, but an understanding of concepts such as linguistic repertoire or ''translanguaging'' will help you gain a deeper understanding of the content. == Introduction == The Dominant Language Constellation (DLC) was proposed by Larissa Aronin and her colleagues (2006, 2016, 2019; Aronin & Singleton 2012) as a way of addressing the dynamic diversity of globalised language practices. A DLC refers to the group of languages, dialects and/or varieties most relevant to an individual or a group for meeting all their linguistic needs in a multilingual environment. The components of a DLC function as a unit. In other words, the DLC describes the inner circle of personal languages that ‘fulfil the most vital functions of language” (Aronin, 2016, p.147). == History of the concept == The DLC is one of many critical responses to the challenge  to the historically and culturally entrenched notion that monolingualism is ‘natural’ or preferable, whether at the level of individuals, groups or nations. This kind of monolingual ideology has been widely propagated by nationalism, Romanticism and state education systems.<blockquote>''A short historical example:'' ''A key example of this link between language policy and nation-building is Talleyrand’s speech in 1791, during the French Revolution, in which he argued for the exclusive use of the national language in schools. Dialects and regional languages were described in it as “corrupted languages”, associated with a “feudal order that must be abolished” (Talleyrand-Périgord, 1791, p. 472, our translation).''</blockquote>Even today, monolingualism remains a deeply entrenched social and political system, underpinned by nationalist ideologies, notions of modernised rationality and efficiency-driven approaches (one might cite, for example, certain language policies in the United States under the Trump administration, such as the designation of English as the official language of the United States (White House online, March 2025). Linguistic practices, however, are diverse and multilingual, and have been so long before globalisation. DLC, therefore, reflects the plurilingual realities experienced in everyday life. By identifying the languages actually used in the various contexts of an individual’s life, DLC proposes a model of plurilingual identity, distributed across different domains of use and rooted in concrete communication practices. This is a relatively recent concept, which has become particularly prominent in the field of multilingualism studies since the 21st century. Examples of edited volumes devoted to DLCs include the 2020 collection ''Dominant Language Constellations: A New Perspective on Multilingualism'', edited by Joseph Lo Bianco and Larissa Aronin. Four further volumes have since followed (Aronin & Vetter, 2021; Aronin & Melo-Pfeifer, 2023; Aronin & Vetter, 2025), all available on the website dedicated to the CLD approach (Dominant Language Constellations (DLC)). == Definition == Given that DLC focuses on language practices, it is an inherently pluralistic and dynamic concept, based on the idea that contemporary social practices draw upon multiple modes of communication, different forms of literacy and a variety of languages (Aronin & Vetter, 2021, p. 7).  To put it simply, the following brief definition could be proposed: CLD refers to the set of languages—often three—that play a particularly important role for an individual or a group in order to meet their linguistic needs in a multilingual environment (Lo Bianco & Aronin, 2020, pp. 15-18). At this point, it is necessary to distinguish DLC from the concept of the linguistic repertoire, which has been used to refer to the totality of languages, dialects, styles, registers, codes and routines that characterise interaction in everyday life (Gumperz, 1968; Busch, 2017). Whilst the linguistic repertoire aims to account for the entirety of an individual’s linguistic experiences, the DLC refers exclusively to the components considered most essential (Lo Bianco & Aronin, 2020, pp. 15–18). The two concepts can thus be regarded as complementary. Furthermore, a constellation such as that proposed by DLC always forms within a specific multilingual context, and as this context may change throughout life, the DLC may also change. It can evolve according to geographical, social or cultural frameworks – a diversity clearly highlighted by international studies on local language practices (Vetter, 2024, pp. 229–231). The characteristics of a DLC are not, however, limited to the sum of the languages, dialects and varieties that comprise it.  It must also be regarded as a unit that extends beyond the sum of its parts (which, in any case, cannot be viewed as strictly separate from one another). == Conceptions == Currently, DLC is emerging as a new perspective on multilingualism (Lo Bianco & Aronin 2020) and research method to explore it (Aronin 2019), reflecting the many developments in the field. To clarify these two perspectives, let’s look at them in more detail: * As an innovative approach to multilingualism, it is used to study complex linguistic situations. One example is Karpava’s (2020) study of the Russian community in Cyprus, which highlights the individual and social factors that influence the dynamics of DLCs (composed of the same languages). * As a research method, DLC opens the door to new research questions, as demonstrated by Aronin (2019, 19f). To give an example, DLC can serve as a starting point for describing the linguistic composition of a country, an organisation or the world. Questions arise regarding languages leaving the DLC or returning to it. Just as with conceptual perspectives, the themes addressed by research on DLC have diversified over time and cover a wide range of issues, from multilingual syntactic development (Fernández-Berkes & Flynn, 2019) to educational contexts (Björklund et al., 2019). Others focus on the impact of identity, emotions and attitudes in different minority and majority contexts (Nightingale, 2020; Vetter, 2024). Language policy in the broadest sense is one of the areas in which DLC research yields particularly promising results: a DLC perspective opens up interesting avenues for understanding institutional language policy, particularly in the field of education, where it proves to be a powerful tool for raising awareness and fostering critical reflection (Vetter, 2021). On a more general political level, DLC encourages the involvement of language activists, policy-makers and researchers in a dialogue on appropriate language policy. It can thus serve as a framework for language policy in multilingual communities facing controversial political directions. == Take home messages == The concept of DLC encompasses only the most significant languages, dialects and varieties through which an individual or group can meet their communicative needs. It is, therefore, a concept rooted in practical communication and real needs. The DLC represents a critical response to the notion of ‘natural’ or preferred monolingualism and forms part of modern theories on multilingualism and calls for multicultural practices. It can be interpreted as an innovative perspective to understand multilingualism and a research method, showing particular promise for institutional language policy and the field of education. == Self-assessment == * How can the concept of the Dominant Language Constellation (DLC) be defined? * What is the difference between the concept of a repertoire and the DLC? * What topics can be addressed by research into DLCs? == Further readings == * Official website of the DLC-approach: <nowiki>https://www.dominant-language-constellations.com/</nowiki> * Aronin, L. (2019). Challenges of multilingual education : streamlining affordances through Dominant Language Constellations. ''Stellenbosch Papers in Linguistics Plus'', ''2019''(58), 235–256. https://doi.org/10.5842/58-0-845 * Aronin, L. & Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2023). ''Language Awareness and Identity. Insights via Dominant Language Constellation Approach''. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37027-4. * Aronin, L. & Vetter, E. (Eds.) (2025 in print). ''Dominant Language Constellations for Teachers: A practical dimension''.  Springer. * Vetter, E., & Jessner, U. (2019). ''International research on multilingualism: breaking with the monolingual perspective''. Springer. == References == Aronin, L. (2006). Dominant language constellations: An approach to multilingualism studies. In M. Ó Laoire (Ed.), ''Multilingualism in educational settings'' (pp. 140–159). Schneider Publications. Aronin, L. & Singleton, D. (2012). ''Multilingualism''. John Benjamins. Aronin, L. (2016). Multicompetence and dominant language constellation. In V. Cook &  Li Wei (Eds.), ''The Cambridge Handbook of Linguistic Multicompetence'' (pp.142-163). Cambridge University Press. Aronin, L. (2019). Dominant language constellation as a method of research. In E. Vetter & U. Jessner (Eds.), ''International research on multilingualism. Breaking with the monolingual perspective'' (pp. 13–26). Springer. Aronin, L., & Vetter, E. (2021). ''Dominant Language Constellations Approach in Education and Language Acquisition'' (1st Edition 2021, Vol. 51). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-70769-9 Björklund, S., Björklund, M. & Sjöholm, K. (2020). Societal Versus Individual Patterns of DLCs in a Finnish Educational Context – Present State and Challenges for the Future. In J. Lo Bianco, L. Aronin (Eds.), ''Dominant Language Constellations: A New Perspective on Multilingualism'' (pp. 97–115). Springer. Busch, B. (2017). Expanding the Notion of the Linguistic Repertoire: On the Concept of Spracherleben —The Lived Experience of Language. ''Applied Linguistics'', ''38''(3),  340-358. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amv030 Fernández-Berkes, É. & Flynn, S. (2020). Where DLC Meets Multilingual Syntactic Development. In J. Lo Bianco, L. Aronin (Eds.), ''Dominant Language Constellations: A New Perspective on'' ''Multilingualism'' (pp. 57-74). Springer. Gumperz, J. J. (1968). The speech community. In Sills, D. L. & Merton, R. K. (Eds.), ''International encyclopedia of the social sciences'' (pp. 381-386). Macmillan Company & the Free Press. Karpava, S. (2020). Dominant Language Constellations of Russian Speakers in Cyprus. ​​In J. Lo Bianco & L. Aronin (Eds.), ''Dominant language constellations. A new perspective on multilingualism'' (pp. 228-257). Springer.   Lo Bianco, J., & Aronin, L. (Eds.) (2020). ''Dominant language constellations. A new perspective on multilingualism''. Springer. Nightingale, R. (2020). A Dominant Language Constellations Case Study on Language Use and the Affective Domain. In: ''Dominant language constellations. A new perspective'' ''on multilingualism'' (pp. 231-259). Springer. OJ  2018/C 189/01, Recommandation du Conseil du 22 mai 2018 relative aux compétences clés pour l’éducation et la formation tout au long de la vie. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/FR/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32018H0604(01) Talleyrand-Périgord, C. M. de. (1791). Rapport par M. Talleyrand-Périgord, ancien évêque d’Autun, sur l’instruction publique, en annexe de la séance du 10 septembre 1791. In ''Archives Parlementaires de 1787 à 1860.'' Tome XXX (pp. 447-480). https://www.persee.fr/doc/arcpa_0000-0000_1888_num_30_1_12472_t1_0447_0000_8 The White House. (March 2025). Designating English as the Official Language of The United States. https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/03/designating-english-as-the-official-language-of-the-united-states/ UNESCO.  (2025).  ''Les langues comptent : orientations mondiales pour l’éducation multilingue''. https://doi.org/10.54675/UTXF6991 Vetter, E. (2021). Language Education Policy Through a DLC Lens: The Case of Urban Multilingualism. In Aronin, L., & Vetter, E. (Eds.) ''Dominant Language Constellations Approach in Education and Language Acquisition.'' Springer. Vetter, E. (2024). Dominant Instead of Hidden? A Critical Discussion on a European DLC Including Endangered Languages. In ''Modern Approaches to Researching Multilingualism'' (pp. 227–247). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52371-7_14 Xu, Y., Krulatz, A., Gabryś-Barker, D., & Vetter, E. (2024). Employing Dominant Language Constellation in Teacher Professional Development: The Impact on EAL Teachers’ Beliefs, Practices, and Multilingual Identity. In ''Modern Approaches to Researching Multilingualism'' (pp. 271–293). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52371-7_16 == Crédits == ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Lena Kratochwill (Universität Wien) * Eva Vetter (Universität Wien) [[Portal:Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] [[Category:Technology]] krt17cysnk91nowv9yhqruhqxbc7u1f 2817374 2817246 2026-06-30T10:38:39Z Vettere6 3097828 2817374 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}} == Starting activity == '''Activity A''' Visualise your own language constellations by following the steps below: [[File:Dominant language constellation - Activity 1.png|alt=Dominant language constellation - Activity 1|thumb|Figure 1 - Dominant language constellation - Activity 1]] 1. Copy the exercise onto a worksheet (cf. Figure 1). 2. Name each language, dialect or variety that you use in your daily life (write them in the coloured bubbles). 3. Complete the sentences in the boxes. For example: * I use it at home with my grandmother. * For example, I say: “Wie geht es dir?”  (= How are you?) 4. List your languages, dialects and varieties and write the number in the central square '''Activity B''' [[File:Dominant language constellation - Activity 2.png|alt=Dominant language constellation - Activity 2|thumb|Figure 2 - Dominant language constellation - Activity 2]] 1. Copy the exercise onto a sheet of paper (cf. Figure 2). 2.&nbsp;Place the languages / dialects / varieties you listed earlier into the three circles below * Circle A: Languages, dialects and varieties that you use frequently. * Circle B: Languages, dialects and varieties that you use occasionally. * Circle C: Languages, dialects and varieties that you rarely use, but which you sometimes hear or know people who speak them. 3.&nbsp;Write down why you have placed them in each circle. '''Activity C''' Think about the results: * How proficient are you in the languages, dialects and varieties of the circles A, B and C? To what extent can you understand them (in writing and orally), write them and speak them?  * Does anything surprise you? What might that mean? (Exercise adapted from Xu & Krulatz, 2024, p. 283) == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to… * distinguish the dominant language constellation from other concepts related to plurilingualism/multilingualism (e.g. the linguistic repertoire) * describe and analyse the DLC (and its development) * apply the DLC theory in an educational context == Keywords == plurilinguism, multilinguism, linguistic repertoire, communicative practices, institutional language policy == Pre-requisites == There are no prerequisites, but an understanding of concepts such as linguistic repertoire or ''translanguaging'' will help you gain a deeper understanding of the content. == Introduction == The Dominant Language Constellation (DLC) was proposed by Larissa Aronin and her colleagues (2006, 2016, 2019; Aronin & Singleton 2012) as a way of addressing the dynamic diversity of globalised language practices. A DLC refers to the group of languages, dialects and/or varieties most relevant to an individual or a group for meeting all their linguistic needs in a multilingual environment. The components of a DLC function as a unit. In other words, the DLC describes the inner circle of personal languages that ‘fulfil the most vital functions of language” (Aronin, 2016, p.147). == History of the concept == The DLC is one of many critical responses to the challenge  to the historically and culturally entrenched notion that monolingualism is ‘natural’ or preferable, whether at the level of individuals, groups or nations. This kind of monolingual ideology has been widely propagated by nationalism, Romanticism and state education systems.<blockquote>''A short historical example:'' ''A key example of this link between language policy and nation-building is Talleyrand’s speech in 1791, during the French Revolution, in which he argued for the exclusive use of the national language in schools. Dialects and regional languages were described in it as “corrupted languages”, associated with a “feudal order that must be abolished” (Talleyrand-Périgord, 1791, p. 472, our translation).''</blockquote>Even today, monolingualism remains a deeply entrenched social and political system, underpinned by nationalist ideologies, notions of modernised rationality and efficiency-driven approaches (one might cite, for example, certain language policies in the United States under the Trump administration, such as the designation of English as the official language of the United States (White House online, March 2025). Linguistic practices, however, are diverse and multilingual, and have been so long before globalisation. DLC, therefore, reflects the plurilingual realities experienced in everyday life. By identifying the languages actually used in the various contexts of an individual’s life, DLC proposes a model of plurilingual identity, distributed across different domains of use and rooted in concrete communication practices. This is a relatively recent concept, which has become particularly prominent in the field of multilingualism studies since the 21st century. Examples of edited volumes devoted to DLCs include the 2020 collection ''Dominant Language Constellations: A New Perspective on Multilingualism'', edited by Joseph Lo Bianco and Larissa Aronin. Four further volumes have since followed (Aronin & Vetter, 2021; Aronin & Melo-Pfeifer, 2023; Aronin & Vetter, 2025), all available on the website dedicated to the CLD approach (Dominant Language Constellations (DLC)). == Definition == Given that DLC focuses on language practices, it is an inherently pluralistic and dynamic concept, based on the idea that contemporary social practices draw upon multiple modes of communication, different forms of literacy and a variety of languages (Aronin & Vetter, 2021, p. 7).  To put it simply, the following brief definition could be proposed: CLD refers to the set of languages—often three—that play a particularly important role for an individual or a group in order to meet their linguistic needs in a multilingual environment (Lo Bianco & Aronin, 2020, pp. 15-18). At this point, it is necessary to distinguish DLC from the concept of the linguistic repertoire, which has been used to refer to the totality of languages, dialects, styles, registers, codes and routines that characterise interaction in everyday life (Gumperz, 1968; Busch, 2017). Whilst the linguistic repertoire aims to account for the entirety of an individual’s linguistic experiences, the DLC refers exclusively to the components considered most essential (Lo Bianco & Aronin, 2020, pp. 15–18). The two concepts can thus be regarded as complementary. Furthermore, a constellation such as that proposed by DLC always forms within a specific multilingual context, and as this context may change throughout life, the DLC may also change. It can evolve according to geographical, social or cultural frameworks – a diversity clearly highlighted by international studies on local language practices (Vetter, 2024, pp. 229–231). The characteristics of a DLC are not, however, limited to the sum of the languages, dialects and varieties that comprise it.  It must also be regarded as a unit that extends beyond the sum of its parts (which, in any case, cannot be viewed as strictly separate from one another). == Conceptions == Currently, DLC is emerging as a new perspective on multilingualism (Lo Bianco & Aronin 2020) and research method to explore it (Aronin 2019), reflecting the many developments in the field. To clarify these two perspectives, let’s look at them in more detail: * As an innovative approach to multilingualism, it is used to study complex linguistic situations. One example is Karpava’s (2020) study of the Russian community in Cyprus, which highlights the individual and social factors that influence the dynamics of DLCs (composed of the same languages). * As a research method, DLC opens the door to new research questions, as demonstrated by Aronin (2019, 19f). To give an example, DLC can serve as a starting point for describing the linguistic composition of a country, an organisation or the world. Questions arise regarding languages leaving the DLC or returning to it. Just as with conceptual perspectives, the themes addressed by research on DLC have diversified over time and cover a wide range of issues, from multilingual syntactic development (Fernández-Berkes & Flynn, 2019) to educational contexts (Björklund et al., 2019). Others focus on the impact of identity, emotions and attitudes in different minority and majority contexts (Nightingale, 2020; Vetter, 2024). Language policy in the broadest sense is one of the areas in which DLC research yields particularly promising results: a DLC perspective opens up interesting avenues for understanding institutional language policy, particularly in the field of education, where it proves to be a powerful tool for raising awareness and fostering critical reflection (Vetter, 2021). On a more general political level, DLC encourages the involvement of language activists, policy-makers and researchers in a dialogue on appropriate language policy. It can thus serve as a framework for language policy in multilingual communities facing controversial political directions. == Take home messages == The concept of DLC encompasses only the most significant languages, dialects and varieties through which an individual or group can meet their communicative needs. It is, therefore, a concept rooted in practical communication and real needs. The DLC represents a critical response to the notion of ‘natural’ or preferred monolingualism and forms part of modern theories on multilingualism and calls for multicultural practices. It can be interpreted as an innovative perspective to understand multilingualism and a research method, showing particular promise for institutional language policy and the field of education. == Self-assessment == * How can the concept of the Dominant Language Constellation (DLC) be defined? * What is the difference between the concept of a repertoire and the DLC? * What topics can be addressed by research into DLCs? == Further readings == * Official website of the DLC-approach: <nowiki>https://www.dominant-language-constellations.com/</nowiki> * Aronin, L. (2019). Challenges of multilingual education : streamlining affordances through Dominant Language Constellations. ''Stellenbosch Papers in Linguistics Plus'', ''2019''(58), 235–256. https://doi.org/10.5842/58-0-845 * Aronin, L. & Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2023). ''Language Awareness and Identity. Insights via Dominant Language Constellation Approach''. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37027-4. * Aronin, L. & Vetter, E. (Eds.) (2025 in print). ''Dominant Language Constellations for Teachers: A practical dimension''.  Springer. * Vetter, E., & Jessner, U. (2019). ''International research on multilingualism: breaking with the monolingual perspective''. Springer. == References == Aronin, L. (2006). Dominant language constellations: An approach to multilingualism studies. In M. Ó Laoire (Ed.), ''Multilingualism in educational settings'' (pp. 140–159). Schneider Publications. Aronin, L. & Singleton, D. (2012). ''Multilingualism''. John Benjamins. Aronin, L. (2016). Multicompetence and dominant language constellation. In V. Cook &  Li Wei (Eds.), ''The Cambridge Handbook of Linguistic Multicompetence'' (pp.142-163). Cambridge University Press. Aronin, L. (2019). Dominant language constellation as a method of research. In E. Vetter & U. Jessner (Eds.), ''International research on multilingualism. Breaking with the monolingual perspective'' (pp. 13–26). Springer. Aronin, L., & Vetter, E. (2021). ''Dominant Language Constellations Approach in Education and Language Acquisition'' (1st Edition 2021, Vol. 51). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-70769-9 Björklund, S., Björklund, M. & Sjöholm, K. (2020). Societal Versus Individual Patterns of DLCs in a Finnish Educational Context – Present State and Challenges for the Future. In J. Lo Bianco, L. Aronin (Eds.), ''Dominant Language Constellations: A New Perspective on Multilingualism'' (pp. 97–115). Springer. Busch, B. (2017). Expanding the Notion of the Linguistic Repertoire: On the Concept of Spracherleben —The Lived Experience of Language. ''Applied Linguistics'', ''38''(3),  340-358. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amv030 Fernández-Berkes, É. & Flynn, S. (2020). Where DLC Meets Multilingual Syntactic Development. In J. Lo Bianco, L. Aronin (Eds.), ''Dominant Language Constellations: A New Perspective on'' ''Multilingualism'' (pp. 57-74). Springer. Gumperz, J. J. (1968). The speech community. In Sills, D. L. & Merton, R. K. (Eds.), ''International encyclopedia of the social sciences'' (pp. 381-386). Macmillan Company & the Free Press. Karpava, S. (2020). Dominant Language Constellations of Russian Speakers in Cyprus. ​​In J. Lo Bianco & L. Aronin (Eds.), ''Dominant language constellations. A new perspective on multilingualism'' (pp. 228-257). Springer.   Lo Bianco, J., & Aronin, L. (Eds.) (2020). ''Dominant language constellations. A new perspective on multilingualism''. Springer. Nightingale, R. (2020). A Dominant Language Constellations Case Study on Language Use and the Affective Domain. In: ''Dominant language constellations. A new perspective'' ''on multilingualism'' (pp. 231-259). Springer. OJ  2018/C 189/01, Recommandation du Conseil du 22 mai 2018 relative aux compétences clés pour l’éducation et la formation tout au long de la vie. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/FR/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32018H0604(01) Talleyrand-Périgord, C. M. de. (1791). Rapport par M. Talleyrand-Périgord, ancien évêque d’Autun, sur l’instruction publique, en annexe de la séance du 10 septembre 1791. In ''Archives Parlementaires de 1787 à 1860.'' Tome XXX (pp. 447-480). https://www.persee.fr/doc/arcpa_0000-0000_1888_num_30_1_12472_t1_0447_0000_8 The White House. (March 2025). Designating English as the Official Language of The United States. https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/03/designating-english-as-the-official-language-of-the-united-states/ UNESCO.  (2025).  ''Les langues comptent : orientations mondiales pour l’éducation multilingue''. https://doi.org/10.54675/UTXF6991 Vetter, E. (2021). Language Education Policy Through a DLC Lens: The Case of Urban Multilingualism. In Aronin, L., & Vetter, E. (Eds.) ''Dominant Language Constellations Approach in Education and Language Acquisition.'' Springer. Vetter, E. (2024). Dominant Instead of Hidden? A Critical Discussion on a European DLC Including Endangered Languages. In ''Modern Approaches to Researching Multilingualism'' (pp. 227–247). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52371-7_14 Xu, Y., Krulatz, A., Gabryś-Barker, D., & Vetter, E. (2024). Employing Dominant Language Constellation in Teacher Professional Development: The Impact on EAL Teachers’ Beliefs, Practices, and Multilingual Identity. In ''Modern Approaches to Researching Multilingualism'' (pp. 271–293). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52371-7_16 == Crédits == ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Lena Kratochwill (Universität Wien) * Eva Vetter (Universität Wien) [[Portal:Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] [[Category:Technology]] 0kgpa28cddncnc31gwt1s3wo345nolp 2817375 2817374 2026-06-30T10:44:43Z Vettere6 3097828 links added 2817375 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}} == Starting activity == '''Activity A''' Visualise your own language constellations by following the steps below: [[File:Dominant language constellation - Activity 1.png|alt=Dominant language constellation - Activity 1|thumb|Figure 1 - Dominant language constellation - Activity 1]] 1. Copy the exercise onto a worksheet (cf. Figure 1). 2. Name each language, dialect or variety that you use in your daily life (write them in the coloured bubbles). 3. Complete the sentences in the boxes. For example: * I use it at home with my grandmother. * For example, I say: “Wie geht es dir?”  (= How are you?) 4. List your languages, dialects and varieties and write the number in the central square '''Activity B''' [[File:Dominant language constellation - Activity 2.png|alt=Dominant language constellation - Activity 2|thumb|Figure 2 - Dominant language constellation - Activity 2]] 1. Copy the exercise onto a sheet of paper (cf. Figure 2). 2.&nbsp;Place the languages / dialects / varieties you listed earlier into the three circles below * Circle A: Languages, dialects and varieties that you use frequently. * Circle B: Languages, dialects and varieties that you use occasionally. * Circle C: Languages, dialects and varieties that you rarely use, but which you sometimes hear or know people who speak them. 3.&nbsp;Write down why you have placed them in each circle. '''Activity C''' Think about the results: * How proficient are you in the languages, dialects and varieties of the circles A, B and C? To what extent can you understand them (in writing and orally), write them and speak them?  * Does anything surprise you? What might that mean? (Exercise adapted from Xu & Krulatz, 2024, p. 283) == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to… * distinguish the dominant language constellation from other concepts related to plurilingualism/multilingualism (e.g. the linguistic repertoire) * describe and analyse the DLC (and its development) * apply the DLC theory in an educational context == Keywords == plurilinguism, multilinguism, linguistic repertoire, communicative practices, institutional language policy == Pre-requisites == There are no prerequisites, but an understanding of concepts such as linguistic repertoire or ''translanguaging'' will help you gain a deeper understanding of the content. == Introduction == The Dominant Language Constellation (DLC) was proposed by Larissa Aronin and her colleagues (2006, 2016, 2019; Aronin & Singleton 2012) as a way of addressing the dynamic diversity of globalised language practices. A DLC refers to the group of languages, dialects and/or varieties most relevant to an individual or a group for meeting all their linguistic needs in a multilingual environment. The components of a DLC function as a unit. In other words, the DLC describes the inner circle of personal languages that ‘fulfil the most vital functions of language” (Aronin, 2016, p.147). == History of the concept == The DLC is one of many critical responses to the challenge  to the historically and culturally entrenched notion that monolingualism is ‘natural’ or preferable, whether at the level of individuals, groups or nations. This kind of monolingual ideology has been widely propagated by nationalism, Romanticism and state education systems.<blockquote>''A short historical example:'' ''A key example of this link between language policy and nation-building is Talleyrand’s speech in 1791, during the French Revolution, in which he argued for the exclusive use of the national language in schools. Dialects and regional languages were described in it as “corrupted languages”, associated with a “feudal order that must be abolished” (Talleyrand-Périgord, 1791, p. 472, our translation).''</blockquote>Even today, monolingualism remains a deeply entrenched social and political system, underpinned by nationalist ideologies, notions of modernised rationality and efficiency-driven approaches (one might cite, for example, certain language policies in the United States under the Trump administration, such as the designation of English as the official language of the United States ([https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/03/designating-english-as-the-official-language-of-the-united-states/ White House online, March 2025]). Linguistic practices, however, are diverse and multilingual, and have been so long before globalisation. DLC, therefore, reflects the plurilingual realities experienced in everyday life. By identifying the languages actually used in the various contexts of an individual’s life, DLC proposes a model of plurilingual identity, distributed across different domains of use and rooted in concrete communication practices. This is a relatively recent concept, which has become particularly prominent in the field of multilingualism studies since the 21st century. Examples of edited volumes devoted to DLCs include the 2020 collection ''Dominant Language Constellations: A New Perspective on Multilingualism'', edited by Joseph Lo Bianco and Larissa Aronin. Four further volumes have since followed (Aronin & Vetter, 2021; Aronin & Melo-Pfeifer, 2023; Aronin & Vetter, 2025), all available on the website dedicated to the CLD approach ([https://www.dominant-language-constellations.com Dominant Language Constellations (DLC)]). == Definition == Given that DLC focuses on language practices, it is an inherently pluralistic and dynamic concept, based on the idea that contemporary social practices draw upon multiple modes of communication, different forms of literacy and a variety of languages (Aronin & Vetter, 2021, p. 7).  To put it simply, the following brief definition could be proposed: CLD refers to the set of languages—often three—that play a particularly important role for an individual or a group in order to meet their linguistic needs in a multilingual environment (Lo Bianco & Aronin, 2020, pp. 15-18). At this point, it is necessary to distinguish DLC from the concept of the linguistic repertoire, which has been used to refer to the totality of languages, dialects, styles, registers, codes and routines that characterise interaction in everyday life (Gumperz, 1968; Busch, 2017). Whilst the linguistic repertoire aims to account for the entirety of an individual’s linguistic experiences, the DLC refers exclusively to the components considered most essential (Lo Bianco & Aronin, 2020, pp. 15–18). The two concepts can thus be regarded as complementary. Furthermore, a constellation such as that proposed by DLC always forms within a specific multilingual context, and as this context may change throughout life, the DLC may also change. It can evolve according to geographical, social or cultural frameworks – a diversity clearly highlighted by international studies on local language practices (Vetter, 2024, pp. 229–231). The characteristics of a DLC are not, however, limited to the sum of the languages, dialects and varieties that comprise it.  It must also be regarded as a unit that extends beyond the sum of its parts (which, in any case, cannot be viewed as strictly separate from one another). == Conceptions == Currently, DLC is emerging as a new perspective on multilingualism (Lo Bianco & Aronin 2020) and research method to explore it (Aronin 2019), reflecting the many developments in the field. To clarify these two perspectives, let’s look at them in more detail: * As an innovative approach to multilingualism, it is used to study complex linguistic situations. One example is Karpava’s (2020) study of the Russian community in Cyprus, which highlights the individual and social factors that influence the dynamics of DLCs (composed of the same languages). * As a research method, DLC opens the door to new research questions, as demonstrated by Aronin (2019, 19f). To give an example, DLC can serve as a starting point for describing the linguistic composition of a country, an organisation or the world. Questions arise regarding languages leaving the DLC or returning to it. Just as with conceptual perspectives, the themes addressed by research on DLC have diversified over time and cover a wide range of issues, from multilingual syntactic development (Fernández-Berkes & Flynn, 2019) to educational contexts (Björklund et al., 2019). Others focus on the impact of identity, emotions and attitudes in different minority and majority contexts (Nightingale, 2020; Vetter, 2024). Language policy in the broadest sense is one of the areas in which DLC research yields particularly promising results: a DLC perspective opens up interesting avenues for understanding institutional language policy, particularly in the field of education, where it proves to be a powerful tool for raising awareness and fostering critical reflection (Vetter, 2021). On a more general political level, DLC encourages the involvement of language activists, policy-makers and researchers in a dialogue on appropriate language policy. It can thus serve as a framework for language policy in multilingual communities facing controversial political directions. == Take home messages == The concept of DLC encompasses only the most significant languages, dialects and varieties through which an individual or group can meet their communicative needs. It is, therefore, a concept rooted in practical communication and real needs. The DLC represents a critical response to the notion of ‘natural’ or preferred monolingualism and forms part of modern theories on multilingualism and calls for multicultural practices. It can be interpreted as an innovative perspective to understand multilingualism and a research method, showing particular promise for institutional language policy and the field of education. == Self-assessment == * How can the concept of the Dominant Language Constellation (DLC) be defined? * What is the difference between the concept of a repertoire and the DLC? * What topics can be addressed by research into DLCs? == Further readings == * Official website of the DLC-approach: <nowiki>https://www.dominant-language-constellations.com/</nowiki> * Aronin, L. (2019). Challenges of multilingual education : streamlining affordances through Dominant Language Constellations. ''Stellenbosch Papers in Linguistics Plus'', ''2019''(58), 235–256. https://doi.org/10.5842/58-0-845 * Aronin, L. & Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2023). ''Language Awareness and Identity. Insights via Dominant Language Constellation Approach''. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37027-4. * Aronin, L. & Vetter, E. (Eds.) (2025 in print). ''Dominant Language Constellations for Teachers: A practical dimension''.  Springer. * Vetter, E., & Jessner, U. (2019). ''International research on multilingualism: breaking with the monolingual perspective''. Springer. == References == Aronin, L. (2006). Dominant language constellations: An approach to multilingualism studies. In M. Ó Laoire (Ed.), ''Multilingualism in educational settings'' (pp. 140–159). Schneider Publications. Aronin, L. & Singleton, D. (2012). ''Multilingualism''. John Benjamins. Aronin, L. (2016). Multicompetence and dominant language constellation. In V. Cook &  Li Wei (Eds.), ''The Cambridge Handbook of Linguistic Multicompetence'' (pp.142-163). Cambridge University Press. Aronin, L. (2019). Dominant language constellation as a method of research. In E. Vetter & U. Jessner (Eds.), ''International research on multilingualism. Breaking with the monolingual perspective'' (pp. 13–26). Springer. Aronin, L., & Vetter, E. (2021). ''Dominant Language Constellations Approach in Education and Language Acquisition'' (1st Edition 2021, Vol. 51). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-70769-9 Björklund, S., Björklund, M. & Sjöholm, K. (2020). Societal Versus Individual Patterns of DLCs in a Finnish Educational Context – Present State and Challenges for the Future. In J. Lo Bianco, L. Aronin (Eds.), ''Dominant Language Constellations: A New Perspective on Multilingualism'' (pp. 97–115). Springer. Busch, B. (2017). Expanding the Notion of the Linguistic Repertoire: On the Concept of Spracherleben —The Lived Experience of Language. ''Applied Linguistics'', ''38''(3),  340-358. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amv030 Fernández-Berkes, É. & Flynn, S. (2020). Where DLC Meets Multilingual Syntactic Development. In J. Lo Bianco, L. Aronin (Eds.), ''Dominant Language Constellations: A New Perspective on'' ''Multilingualism'' (pp. 57-74). Springer. Gumperz, J. J. (1968). The speech community. In Sills, D. L. & Merton, R. K. (Eds.), ''International encyclopedia of the social sciences'' (pp. 381-386). Macmillan Company & the Free Press. Karpava, S. (2020). Dominant Language Constellations of Russian Speakers in Cyprus. ​​In J. Lo Bianco & L. Aronin (Eds.), ''Dominant language constellations. A new perspective on multilingualism'' (pp. 228-257). Springer.   Lo Bianco, J., & Aronin, L. (Eds.) (2020). ''Dominant language constellations. A new perspective on multilingualism''. Springer. Nightingale, R. (2020). A Dominant Language Constellations Case Study on Language Use and the Affective Domain. In: ''Dominant language constellations. A new perspective'' ''on multilingualism'' (pp. 231-259). Springer. OJ  2018/C 189/01, Recommandation du Conseil du 22 mai 2018 relative aux compétences clés pour l’éducation et la formation tout au long de la vie. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/FR/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32018H0604(01) Talleyrand-Périgord, C. M. de. (1791). Rapport par M. Talleyrand-Périgord, ancien évêque d’Autun, sur l’instruction publique, en annexe de la séance du 10 septembre 1791. In ''Archives Parlementaires de 1787 à 1860.'' Tome XXX (pp. 447-480). https://www.persee.fr/doc/arcpa_0000-0000_1888_num_30_1_12472_t1_0447_0000_8 The White House. (March 2025). Designating English as the Official Language of The United States. https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/03/designating-english-as-the-official-language-of-the-united-states/ UNESCO.  (2025).  ''Les langues comptent : orientations mondiales pour l’éducation multilingue''. https://doi.org/10.54675/UTXF6991 Vetter, E. (2021). Language Education Policy Through a DLC Lens: The Case of Urban Multilingualism. In Aronin, L., & Vetter, E. (Eds.) ''Dominant Language Constellations Approach in Education and Language Acquisition.'' Springer. Vetter, E. (2024). Dominant Instead of Hidden? A Critical Discussion on a European DLC Including Endangered Languages. In ''Modern Approaches to Researching Multilingualism'' (pp. 227–247). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52371-7_14 Xu, Y., Krulatz, A., Gabryś-Barker, D., & Vetter, E. (2024). Employing Dominant Language Constellation in Teacher Professional Development: The Impact on EAL Teachers’ Beliefs, Practices, and Multilingual Identity. In ''Modern Approaches to Researching Multilingualism'' (pp. 271–293). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52371-7_16 == Crédits == ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Lena Kratochwill (Universität Wien) * Eva Vetter (Universität Wien) [[Portal:Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] [[Category:Technology]] i2bwea5ubwqzug6633v3f9j4d1kjh3o 2817376 2817375 2026-06-30T10:54:12Z Vettere6 3097828 /* Definition */ 2817376 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}} == Starting activity == '''Activity A''' Visualise your own language constellations by following the steps below: [[File:Dominant language constellation - Activity 1.png|alt=Dominant language constellation - Activity 1|thumb|Figure 1 - Dominant language constellation - Activity 1]] 1. Copy the exercise onto a worksheet (cf. Figure 1). 2. Name each language, dialect or variety that you use in your daily life (write them in the coloured bubbles). 3. Complete the sentences in the boxes. For example: * I use it at home with my grandmother. * For example, I say: “Wie geht es dir?”  (= How are you?) 4. List your languages, dialects and varieties and write the number in the central square '''Activity B''' [[File:Dominant language constellation - Activity 2.png|alt=Dominant language constellation - Activity 2|thumb|Figure 2 - Dominant language constellation - Activity 2]] 1. Copy the exercise onto a sheet of paper (cf. Figure 2). 2.&nbsp;Place the languages / dialects / varieties you listed earlier into the three circles below * Circle A: Languages, dialects and varieties that you use frequently. * Circle B: Languages, dialects and varieties that you use occasionally. * Circle C: Languages, dialects and varieties that you rarely use, but which you sometimes hear or know people who speak them. 3.&nbsp;Write down why you have placed them in each circle. '''Activity C''' Think about the results: * How proficient are you in the languages, dialects and varieties of the circles A, B and C? To what extent can you understand them (in writing and orally), write them and speak them?  * Does anything surprise you? What might that mean? (Exercise adapted from Xu & Krulatz, 2024, p. 283) == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to… * distinguish the dominant language constellation from other concepts related to plurilingualism/multilingualism (e.g. the linguistic repertoire) * describe and analyse the DLC (and its development) * apply the DLC theory in an educational context == Keywords == plurilinguism, multilinguism, linguistic repertoire, communicative practices, institutional language policy == Pre-requisites == There are no prerequisites, but an understanding of concepts such as linguistic repertoire or ''translanguaging'' will help you gain a deeper understanding of the content. == Introduction == The Dominant Language Constellation (DLC) was proposed by Larissa Aronin and her colleagues (2006, 2016, 2019; Aronin & Singleton 2012) as a way of addressing the dynamic diversity of globalised language practices. A DLC refers to the group of languages, dialects and/or varieties most relevant to an individual or a group for meeting all their linguistic needs in a multilingual environment. The components of a DLC function as a unit. In other words, the DLC describes the inner circle of personal languages that ‘fulfil the most vital functions of language” (Aronin, 2016, p.147). == History of the concept == The DLC is one of many critical responses to the challenge  to the historically and culturally entrenched notion that monolingualism is ‘natural’ or preferable, whether at the level of individuals, groups or nations. This kind of monolingual ideology has been widely propagated by nationalism, Romanticism and state education systems.<blockquote>''A short historical example:'' ''A key example of this link between language policy and nation-building is Talleyrand’s speech in 1791, during the French Revolution, in which he argued for the exclusive use of the national language in schools. Dialects and regional languages were described in it as “corrupted languages”, associated with a “feudal order that must be abolished” (Talleyrand-Périgord, 1791, p. 472, our translation).''</blockquote>Even today, monolingualism remains a deeply entrenched social and political system, underpinned by nationalist ideologies, notions of modernised rationality and efficiency-driven approaches (one might cite, for example, certain language policies in the United States under the Trump administration, such as the designation of English as the official language of the United States ([https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/03/designating-english-as-the-official-language-of-the-united-states/ White House online, March 2025]). Linguistic practices, however, are diverse and multilingual, and have been so long before globalisation. DLC, therefore, reflects the plurilingual realities experienced in everyday life. By identifying the languages actually used in the various contexts of an individual’s life, DLC proposes a model of plurilingual identity, distributed across different domains of use and rooted in concrete communication practices. This is a relatively recent concept, which has become particularly prominent in the field of multilingualism studies since the 21st century. Examples of edited volumes devoted to DLCs include the 2020 collection ''Dominant Language Constellations: A New Perspective on Multilingualism'', edited by Joseph Lo Bianco and Larissa Aronin. Four further volumes have since followed (Aronin & Vetter, 2021; Aronin & Melo-Pfeifer, 2023; Aronin & Vetter, 2025), all available on the website dedicated to the CLD approach ([https://www.dominant-language-constellations.com Dominant Language Constellations (DLC)]). == Definition == Given that DLC focuses on language practices, it is an inherently pluralistic and dynamic concept, based on the idea that contemporary social practices draw upon multiple modes of communication, different forms of literacy and a variety of languages (Aronin & Vetter, 2021, p. 7). To put it simply, the following brief definition could be proposed: CLD refers to the set of languages—often three—that play a particularly important role for an individual or a group in order to meet their linguistic needs in a multilingual environment (Lo Bianco & Aronin, 2020, pp. 3-5). At this point, it is necessary to distinguish DLC from the concept of the linguistic repertoire, which has been used to refer to the totality of languages, dialects, styles, registers, codes and routines that characterise interaction in everyday life (Gumperz, 1968; Busch, 2017). Whilst the linguistic repertoire aims to account for the entirety of an individual’s linguistic experiences, the DLC refers exclusively to the components considered most essential (Lo Bianco & Aronin, 2020, pp. 15–18). The two concepts can thus be regarded as complementary. Furthermore, a constellation such as that proposed by DLC always forms within a specific multilingual context, and as this context may change throughout life, the DLC may also change. It can evolve according to geographical, social or cultural frameworks – a diversity clearly highlighted by international studies on local language practices (Vetter, 2024, pp. 229–231). The characteristics of a DLC are not, however, limited to the sum of the languages, dialects and varieties that comprise it.  It must also be regarded as a unit that extends beyond the sum of its parts (which, in any case, cannot be viewed as strictly separate from one another). == Conceptions == Currently, DLC is emerging as a new perspective on multilingualism (Lo Bianco & Aronin 2020) and research method to explore it (Aronin 2019), reflecting the many developments in the field. To clarify these two perspectives, let’s look at them in more detail: * As an innovative approach to multilingualism, it is used to study complex linguistic situations. One example is Karpava’s (2020) study of the Russian community in Cyprus, which highlights the individual and social factors that influence the dynamics of DLCs (composed of the same languages). * As a research method, DLC opens the door to new research questions, as demonstrated by Aronin (2019, 19f). To give an example, DLC can serve as a starting point for describing the linguistic composition of a country, an organisation or the world. Questions arise regarding languages leaving the DLC or returning to it. Just as with conceptual perspectives, the themes addressed by research on DLC have diversified over time and cover a wide range of issues, from multilingual syntactic development (Fernández-Berkes & Flynn, 2019) to educational contexts (Björklund et al., 2019). Others focus on the impact of identity, emotions and attitudes in different minority and majority contexts (Nightingale, 2020; Vetter, 2024). Language policy in the broadest sense is one of the areas in which DLC research yields particularly promising results: a DLC perspective opens up interesting avenues for understanding institutional language policy, particularly in the field of education, where it proves to be a powerful tool for raising awareness and fostering critical reflection (Vetter, 2021). On a more general political level, DLC encourages the involvement of language activists, policy-makers and researchers in a dialogue on appropriate language policy. It can thus serve as a framework for language policy in multilingual communities facing controversial political directions. == Take home messages == The concept of DLC encompasses only the most significant languages, dialects and varieties through which an individual or group can meet their communicative needs. It is, therefore, a concept rooted in practical communication and real needs. The DLC represents a critical response to the notion of ‘natural’ or preferred monolingualism and forms part of modern theories on multilingualism and calls for multicultural practices. It can be interpreted as an innovative perspective to understand multilingualism and a research method, showing particular promise for institutional language policy and the field of education. == Self-assessment == * How can the concept of the Dominant Language Constellation (DLC) be defined? * What is the difference between the concept of a repertoire and the DLC? * What topics can be addressed by research into DLCs? == Further readings == * Official website of the DLC-approach: <nowiki>https://www.dominant-language-constellations.com/</nowiki> * Aronin, L. (2019). Challenges of multilingual education : streamlining affordances through Dominant Language Constellations. ''Stellenbosch Papers in Linguistics Plus'', ''2019''(58), 235–256. https://doi.org/10.5842/58-0-845 * Aronin, L. & Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2023). ''Language Awareness and Identity. Insights via Dominant Language Constellation Approach''. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37027-4. * Aronin, L. & Vetter, E. (Eds.) (2025 in print). ''Dominant Language Constellations for Teachers: A practical dimension''.  Springer. * Vetter, E., & Jessner, U. (2019). ''International research on multilingualism: breaking with the monolingual perspective''. Springer. == References == Aronin, L. (2006). Dominant language constellations: An approach to multilingualism studies. In M. Ó Laoire (Ed.), ''Multilingualism in educational settings'' (pp. 140–159). Schneider Publications. Aronin, L. & Singleton, D. (2012). ''Multilingualism''. John Benjamins. Aronin, L. (2016). Multicompetence and dominant language constellation. In V. Cook &  Li Wei (Eds.), ''The Cambridge Handbook of Linguistic Multicompetence'' (pp.142-163). Cambridge University Press. Aronin, L. (2019). Dominant language constellation as a method of research. In E. Vetter & U. Jessner (Eds.), ''International research on multilingualism. Breaking with the monolingual perspective'' (pp. 13–26). Springer. Aronin, L., & Vetter, E. (2021). ''Dominant Language Constellations Approach in Education and Language Acquisition'' (1st Edition 2021, Vol. 51). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-70769-9 Björklund, S., Björklund, M. & Sjöholm, K. (2020). Societal Versus Individual Patterns of DLCs in a Finnish Educational Context – Present State and Challenges for the Future. In J. Lo Bianco, L. Aronin (Eds.), ''Dominant Language Constellations: A New Perspective on Multilingualism'' (pp. 97–115). Springer. Busch, B. (2017). Expanding the Notion of the Linguistic Repertoire: On the Concept of Spracherleben —The Lived Experience of Language. ''Applied Linguistics'', ''38''(3),  340-358. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amv030 Fernández-Berkes, É. & Flynn, S. (2020). Where DLC Meets Multilingual Syntactic Development. In J. Lo Bianco, L. Aronin (Eds.), ''Dominant Language Constellations: A New Perspective on'' ''Multilingualism'' (pp. 57-74). Springer. Gumperz, J. J. (1968). The speech community. In Sills, D. L. & Merton, R. K. (Eds.), ''International encyclopedia of the social sciences'' (pp. 381-386). Macmillan Company & the Free Press. Karpava, S. (2020). Dominant Language Constellations of Russian Speakers in Cyprus. ​​In J. Lo Bianco & L. Aronin (Eds.), ''Dominant language constellations. A new perspective on multilingualism'' (pp. 228-257). Springer.   Lo Bianco, J., & Aronin, L. (Eds.) (2020). ''Dominant language constellations. A new perspective on multilingualism''. Springer. Nightingale, R. (2020). A Dominant Language Constellations Case Study on Language Use and the Affective Domain. In: ''Dominant language constellations. A new perspective'' ''on multilingualism'' (pp. 231-259). Springer. OJ  2018/C 189/01, Recommandation du Conseil du 22 mai 2018 relative aux compétences clés pour l’éducation et la formation tout au long de la vie. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/FR/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32018H0604(01) Talleyrand-Périgord, C. M. de. (1791). Rapport par M. Talleyrand-Périgord, ancien évêque d’Autun, sur l’instruction publique, en annexe de la séance du 10 septembre 1791. In ''Archives Parlementaires de 1787 à 1860.'' Tome XXX (pp. 447-480). https://www.persee.fr/doc/arcpa_0000-0000_1888_num_30_1_12472_t1_0447_0000_8 The White House. (March 2025). Designating English as the Official Language of The United States. https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/03/designating-english-as-the-official-language-of-the-united-states/ UNESCO.  (2025).  ''Les langues comptent : orientations mondiales pour l’éducation multilingue''. https://doi.org/10.54675/UTXF6991 Vetter, E. (2021). Language Education Policy Through a DLC Lens: The Case of Urban Multilingualism. In Aronin, L., & Vetter, E. (Eds.) ''Dominant Language Constellations Approach in Education and Language Acquisition.'' Springer. Vetter, E. (2024). Dominant Instead of Hidden? A Critical Discussion on a European DLC Including Endangered Languages. In ''Modern Approaches to Researching Multilingualism'' (pp. 227–247). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52371-7_14 Xu, Y., Krulatz, A., Gabryś-Barker, D., & Vetter, E. (2024). Employing Dominant Language Constellation in Teacher Professional Development: The Impact on EAL Teachers’ Beliefs, Practices, and Multilingual Identity. In ''Modern Approaches to Researching Multilingualism'' (pp. 271–293). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52371-7_16 == Crédits == ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Lena Kratochwill (Universität Wien) * Eva Vetter (Universität Wien) [[Portal:Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] [[Category:Technology]] nu2wfet1fayu0bnadhnqkgvpmjejvfr 2817377 2817376 2026-06-30T11:01:33Z Vettere6 3097828 2817377 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}} == Starting activity == '''Activity A''' Visualise your own language constellations by following the steps below: [[File:Dominant language constellation - Activity 1.png|alt=Dominant language constellation - Activity 1|thumb|Figure 1 - Dominant language constellation - Activity 1]] 1. Copy the exercise onto a worksheet (cf. Figure 1). 2. Name each language, dialect or variety that you use in your daily life (write them in the coloured bubbles). 3. Complete the sentences in the boxes. For example: * I use it at home with my grandmother. * For example, I say: “Wie geht es dir?”  (= How are you?) 4. List your languages, dialects and varieties and write the number in the central square '''Activity B''' [[File:Dominant language constellation - Activity 2.png|alt=Dominant language constellation - Activity 2|thumb|Figure 2 - Dominant language constellation - Activity 2]] 1. Copy the exercise onto a sheet of paper (cf. Figure 2). 2.&nbsp;Place the languages / dialects / varieties you listed earlier into the three circles below * Circle A: Languages, dialects and varieties that you use frequently. * Circle B: Languages, dialects and varieties that you use occasionally. * Circle C: Languages, dialects and varieties that you rarely use, but which you sometimes hear or know people who speak them. 3.&nbsp;Write down why you have placed them in each circle. '''Activity C''' Think about the results: * How proficient are you in the languages, dialects and varieties of the circles A, B and C? To what extent can you understand them (in writing and orally), write them and speak them?  * Does anything surprise you? What might that mean? (Exercise adapted from Xu & Krulatz, 2024, p. 283) == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to… * distinguish the dominant language constellation from other concepts related to plurilingualism/multilingualism (e.g. the linguistic repertoire) * describe and analyse the DLC (and its development) * apply the DLC theory in an educational context == Keywords == plurilinguism, multilinguism, linguistic repertoire, communicative practices, institutional language policy == Pre-requisites == There are no prerequisites, but an understanding of concepts such as linguistic repertoire or ''translanguaging'' will help you gain a deeper understanding of the content. == Introduction == The Dominant Language Constellation (DLC) was proposed by Larissa Aronin and her colleagues (2006, 2016, 2019; Aronin & Singleton 2012) as a way of addressing the dynamic diversity of globalised language practices. A DLC refers to the group of languages, dialects and/or varieties most relevant to an individual or a group for meeting all their linguistic needs in a multilingual environment. The components of a DLC function as a unit. In other words, the DLC describes the inner circle of personal languages that ‘fulfil the most vital functions of language” (Aronin, 2016, p.147). == History of the concept == The DLC is one of many critical responses to the challenge  to the historically and culturally entrenched notion that monolingualism is ‘natural’ or preferable, whether at the level of individuals, groups or nations. This kind of monolingual ideology has been widely propagated by nationalism, Romanticism and state education systems.<blockquote>''A short historical example:'' ''A key example of this link between language policy and nation-building is Talleyrand’s speech in 1791, during the French Revolution, in which he argued for the exclusive use of the national language in schools. Dialects and regional languages were described in it as “corrupted languages”, associated with a “feudal order that must be abolished” (Talleyrand-Périgord, 1791, p. 472, our translation).''</blockquote>Even today, monolingualism remains a deeply entrenched social and political system, underpinned by nationalist ideologies, notions of modernised rationality and efficiency-driven approaches (one might cite, for example, certain language policies in the United States under the Trump administration, such as the designation of English as the official language of the United States ([https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/03/designating-english-as-the-official-language-of-the-united-states/ White House online, March 2025]). Linguistic practices, however, are diverse and multilingual, and have been so long before globalisation. DLC, therefore, reflects the plurilingual realities experienced in everyday life. By identifying the languages actually used in the various contexts of an individual’s life, DLC proposes a model of plurilingual identity, distributed across different domains of use and rooted in concrete communication practices. This is a relatively recent concept, which has become particularly prominent in the field of multilingualism studies since the 21st century. Examples of edited volumes devoted to DLCs include the 2020 collection ''Dominant Language Constellations: A New Perspective on Multilingualism'', edited by Joseph Lo Bianco and Larissa Aronin. Four further volumes have since followed (Aronin & Vetter, 2021; Aronin & Melo-Pfeifer, 2023; Aronin & Vetter, 2025), all available on the website dedicated to the CLD approach ([https://www.dominant-language-constellations.com Dominant Language Constellations (DLC)]). == Definition == Given that DLC focuses on language practices, it is an inherently pluralistic and dynamic concept, based on the idea that contemporary social practices draw upon multiple modes of communication, different forms of literacy and a variety of languages (Aronin & Vetter, 2021, p. 7). To put it simply, the following brief definition could be proposed: CLD refers to the set of languages—often three—that play a particularly important role for an individual or a group in order to meet their linguistic needs in a multilingual environment (Lo Bianco & Aronin, 2020, pp. 3-5). At this point, it is necessary to distinguish DLC from the concept of the linguistic repertoire, which has been used to refer to the totality of languages, dialects, styles, registers, codes and routines that characterise interaction in everyday life (Gumperz, 1968; Busch, 2017). Whilst the linguistic repertoire aims to account for the entirety of an individual’s linguistic experiences, the DLC refers exclusively to the components considered most essential (Lo Bianco & Aronin, 2020, pp. 15–18). The two concepts can thus be regarded as complementary. Furthermore, a constellation such as that proposed by DLC always forms within a specific multilingual context, and as this context may change throughout life, the DLC may also change. It can evolve according to geographical, social or cultural frameworks – a dynamic clearly highlighted by international studies on local language practices (Vetter, 2024, pp. 229–231). The characteristics of a DLC are not, however, limited to the sum of the languages, dialects and varieties that comprise it.  It must also be regarded as a unit that extends beyond the sum of its parts (which, in any case, cannot be viewed as strictly separate from one another). == Conceptions == Currently, DLC is emerging as a new perspective on multilingualism (Lo Bianco & Aronin 2020) and research method to explore it (Aronin 2019), reflecting the many developments in the field. To clarify these two perspectives, let’s look at them in more detail: * As an innovative approach to multilingualism, it is used to study complex linguistic situations. One example is Karpava’s (2020) study of the Russian community in Cyprus, which highlights the individual and social factors that influence the dynamics of DLCs (composed of the same languages). * As a research method, DLC opens the door to new research questions, as demonstrated by Aronin (2019, 19f). To give an example, DLC can serve as a starting point for describing the linguistic composition of a country, an organisation or the world. Questions arise regarding languages leaving the DLC or returning to it. Just as with conceptual perspectives, the themes addressed by research on DLC have diversified over time and cover a wide range of issues, from multilingual syntactic development (Fernández-Berkes & Flynn, 2019) to educational contexts (Björklund et al., 2019). Others focus on the impact of identity, emotions and attitudes in different minority and majority contexts (Nightingale, 2020; Vetter, 2024). Language policy in the broadest sense is one of the areas in which DLC research yields particularly promising results: a DLC perspective opens up interesting avenues for understanding institutional language policy, particularly in the field of education, where it proves to be a powerful tool for raising awareness and fostering critical reflection (Vetter, 2021). On a more general political level, DLC encourages the involvement of language activists, policy-makers and researchers in a dialogue on appropriate language policy. It can thus serve as a framework for language policy in multilingual communities facing controversial political directions. == Take home messages == The concept of DLC encompasses only the most significant languages, dialects and varieties through which an individual or group can meet their communicative needs. It is, therefore, a concept rooted in practical communication and real needs. The DLC represents a critical response to the notion of ‘natural’ or preferred monolingualism and forms part of modern theories on multilingualism and calls for multicultural practices. It can be interpreted as an innovative perspective to understand multilingualism and a research method, showing particular promise for institutional language policy and the field of education. == Self-assessment == * How can the concept of the Dominant Language Constellation (DLC) be defined? * What is the difference between the concept of a repertoire and the DLC? * What topics can be addressed by research into DLCs? == Further readings == * Official website of the DLC-approach: <nowiki>https://www.dominant-language-constellations.com/</nowiki> * Aronin, L. (2019). Challenges of multilingual education : streamlining affordances through Dominant Language Constellations. ''Stellenbosch Papers in Linguistics Plus'', ''2019''(58), 235–256. https://doi.org/10.5842/58-0-845 * Aronin, L. & Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2023). ''Language Awareness and Identity. Insights via Dominant Language Constellation Approach''. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37027-4. * Aronin, L. & Vetter, E. (Eds.) (2025 in print). ''Dominant Language Constellations for Teachers: A practical dimension''.  Springer. * Vetter, E., & Jessner, U. (2019). ''International research on multilingualism: breaking with the monolingual perspective''. Springer. == References == Aronin, L. (2006). Dominant language constellations: An approach to multilingualism studies. In M. Ó Laoire (Ed.), ''Multilingualism in educational settings'' (pp. 140–159). Schneider Publications. Aronin, L. & Singleton, D. (2012). ''Multilingualism''. John Benjamins. Aronin, L. (2016). Multicompetence and dominant language constellation. In V. Cook &  Li Wei (Eds.), ''The Cambridge Handbook of Linguistic Multicompetence'' (pp.142-163). Cambridge University Press. Aronin, L. (2019). Dominant language constellation as a method of research. In E. Vetter & U. Jessner (Eds.), ''International research on multilingualism. Breaking with the monolingual perspective'' (pp. 13–26). Springer. Aronin, L., & Vetter, E. (2021). ''Dominant Language Constellations Approach in Education and Language Acquisition'' (1st Edition 2021, Vol. 51). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-70769-9 Björklund, S., Björklund, M. & Sjöholm, K. (2020). Societal Versus Individual Patterns of DLCs in a Finnish Educational Context – Present State and Challenges for the Future. In J. Lo Bianco, L. Aronin (Eds.), ''Dominant Language Constellations: A New Perspective on Multilingualism'' (pp. 97–115). Springer. Busch, B. (2017). Expanding the Notion of the Linguistic Repertoire: On the Concept of Spracherleben —The Lived Experience of Language. ''Applied Linguistics'', ''38''(3),  340-358. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amv030 Fernández-Berkes, É. & Flynn, S. (2020). Where DLC Meets Multilingual Syntactic Development. In J. Lo Bianco, L. Aronin (Eds.), ''Dominant Language Constellations: A New Perspective on'' ''Multilingualism'' (pp. 57-74). Springer. Gumperz, J. J. (1968). The speech community. In Sills, D. L. & Merton, R. K. (Eds.), ''International encyclopedia of the social sciences'' (pp. 381-386). Macmillan Company & the Free Press. Karpava, S. (2020). Dominant Language Constellations of Russian Speakers in Cyprus. ​​In J. Lo Bianco & L. Aronin (Eds.), ''Dominant language constellations. A new perspective on multilingualism'' (pp. 228-257). Springer.   Lo Bianco, J., & Aronin, L. (Eds.) (2020). ''Dominant language constellations. A new perspective on multilingualism''. Springer. Nightingale, R. (2020). A Dominant Language Constellations Case Study on Language Use and the Affective Domain. In: ''Dominant language constellations. A new perspective'' ''on multilingualism'' (pp. 231-259). Springer. OJ  2018/C 189/01, Recommandation du Conseil du 22 mai 2018 relative aux compétences clés pour l’éducation et la formation tout au long de la vie. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/FR/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32018H0604(01) Talleyrand-Périgord, C. M. de. (1791). Rapport par M. Talleyrand-Périgord, ancien évêque d’Autun, sur l’instruction publique, en annexe de la séance du 10 septembre 1791. In ''Archives Parlementaires de 1787 à 1860.'' Tome XXX (pp. 447-480). https://www.persee.fr/doc/arcpa_0000-0000_1888_num_30_1_12472_t1_0447_0000_8 The White House. (March 2025). Designating English as the Official Language of The United States. https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/03/designating-english-as-the-official-language-of-the-united-states/ UNESCO.  (2025).  ''Les langues comptent : orientations mondiales pour l’éducation multilingue''. https://doi.org/10.54675/UTXF6991 Vetter, E. (2021). Language Education Policy Through a DLC Lens: The Case of Urban Multilingualism. In Aronin, L., & Vetter, E. (Eds.) ''Dominant Language Constellations Approach in Education and Language Acquisition.'' Springer. Vetter, E. (2024). Dominant Instead of Hidden? A Critical Discussion on a European DLC Including Endangered Languages. In ''Modern Approaches to Researching Multilingualism'' (pp. 227–247). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52371-7_14 Xu, Y., Krulatz, A., Gabryś-Barker, D., & Vetter, E. (2024). Employing Dominant Language Constellation in Teacher Professional Development: The Impact on EAL Teachers’ Beliefs, Practices, and Multilingual Identity. In ''Modern Approaches to Researching Multilingualism'' (pp. 271–293). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52371-7_16 == Crédits == ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Lena Kratochwill (Universität Wien) * Eva Vetter (Universität Wien) [[Portal:Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] [[Category:Technology]] 7x1zf5d6u2dmaxinjh9owgirtwtwp0h 2817383 2817377 2026-06-30T11:36:45Z Vettere6 3097828 /* Further readings */ 2817383 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}} == Starting activity == '''Activity A''' Visualise your own language constellations by following the steps below: [[File:Dominant language constellation - Activity 1.png|alt=Dominant language constellation - Activity 1|thumb|Figure 1 - Dominant language constellation - Activity 1]] 1. Copy the exercise onto a worksheet (cf. Figure 1). 2. Name each language, dialect or variety that you use in your daily life (write them in the coloured bubbles). 3. Complete the sentences in the boxes. For example: * I use it at home with my grandmother. * For example, I say: “Wie geht es dir?”  (= How are you?) 4. List your languages, dialects and varieties and write the number in the central square '''Activity B''' [[File:Dominant language constellation - Activity 2.png|alt=Dominant language constellation - Activity 2|thumb|Figure 2 - Dominant language constellation - Activity 2]] 1. Copy the exercise onto a sheet of paper (cf. Figure 2). 2.&nbsp;Place the languages / dialects / varieties you listed earlier into the three circles below * Circle A: Languages, dialects and varieties that you use frequently. * Circle B: Languages, dialects and varieties that you use occasionally. * Circle C: Languages, dialects and varieties that you rarely use, but which you sometimes hear or know people who speak them. 3.&nbsp;Write down why you have placed them in each circle. '''Activity C''' Think about the results: * How proficient are you in the languages, dialects and varieties of the circles A, B and C? To what extent can you understand them (in writing and orally), write them and speak them?  * Does anything surprise you? What might that mean? (Exercise adapted from Xu & Krulatz, 2024, p. 283) == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to… * distinguish the dominant language constellation from other concepts related to plurilingualism/multilingualism (e.g. the linguistic repertoire) * describe and analyse the DLC (and its development) * apply the DLC theory in an educational context == Keywords == plurilinguism, multilinguism, linguistic repertoire, communicative practices, institutional language policy == Pre-requisites == There are no prerequisites, but an understanding of concepts such as linguistic repertoire or ''translanguaging'' will help you gain a deeper understanding of the content. == Introduction == The Dominant Language Constellation (DLC) was proposed by Larissa Aronin and her colleagues (2006, 2016, 2019; Aronin & Singleton 2012) as a way of addressing the dynamic diversity of globalised language practices. A DLC refers to the group of languages, dialects and/or varieties most relevant to an individual or a group for meeting all their linguistic needs in a multilingual environment. The components of a DLC function as a unit. In other words, the DLC describes the inner circle of personal languages that ‘fulfil the most vital functions of language” (Aronin, 2016, p.147). == History of the concept == The DLC is one of many critical responses to the challenge  to the historically and culturally entrenched notion that monolingualism is ‘natural’ or preferable, whether at the level of individuals, groups or nations. This kind of monolingual ideology has been widely propagated by nationalism, Romanticism and state education systems.<blockquote>''A short historical example:'' ''A key example of this link between language policy and nation-building is Talleyrand’s speech in 1791, during the French Revolution, in which he argued for the exclusive use of the national language in schools. Dialects and regional languages were described in it as “corrupted languages”, associated with a “feudal order that must be abolished” (Talleyrand-Périgord, 1791, p. 472, our translation).''</blockquote>Even today, monolingualism remains a deeply entrenched social and political system, underpinned by nationalist ideologies, notions of modernised rationality and efficiency-driven approaches (one might cite, for example, certain language policies in the United States under the Trump administration, such as the designation of English as the official language of the United States ([https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/03/designating-english-as-the-official-language-of-the-united-states/ White House online, March 2025]). Linguistic practices, however, are diverse and multilingual, and have been so long before globalisation. DLC, therefore, reflects the plurilingual realities experienced in everyday life. By identifying the languages actually used in the various contexts of an individual’s life, DLC proposes a model of plurilingual identity, distributed across different domains of use and rooted in concrete communication practices. This is a relatively recent concept, which has become particularly prominent in the field of multilingualism studies since the 21st century. Examples of edited volumes devoted to DLCs include the 2020 collection ''Dominant Language Constellations: A New Perspective on Multilingualism'', edited by Joseph Lo Bianco and Larissa Aronin. Four further volumes have since followed (Aronin & Vetter, 2021; Aronin & Melo-Pfeifer, 2023; Aronin & Vetter, 2025), all available on the website dedicated to the CLD approach ([https://www.dominant-language-constellations.com Dominant Language Constellations (DLC)]). == Definition == Given that DLC focuses on language practices, it is an inherently pluralistic and dynamic concept, based on the idea that contemporary social practices draw upon multiple modes of communication, different forms of literacy and a variety of languages (Aronin & Vetter, 2021, p. 7). To put it simply, the following brief definition could be proposed: CLD refers to the set of languages—often three—that play a particularly important role for an individual or a group in order to meet their linguistic needs in a multilingual environment (Lo Bianco & Aronin, 2020, pp. 3-5). At this point, it is necessary to distinguish DLC from the concept of the linguistic repertoire, which has been used to refer to the totality of languages, dialects, styles, registers, codes and routines that characterise interaction in everyday life (Gumperz, 1968; Busch, 2017). Whilst the linguistic repertoire aims to account for the entirety of an individual’s linguistic experiences, the DLC refers exclusively to the components considered most essential (Lo Bianco & Aronin, 2020, pp. 15–18). The two concepts can thus be regarded as complementary. Furthermore, a constellation such as that proposed by DLC always forms within a specific multilingual context, and as this context may change throughout life, the DLC may also change. It can evolve according to geographical, social or cultural frameworks – a dynamic clearly highlighted by international studies on local language practices (Vetter, 2024, pp. 229–231). The characteristics of a DLC are not, however, limited to the sum of the languages, dialects and varieties that comprise it.  It must also be regarded as a unit that extends beyond the sum of its parts (which, in any case, cannot be viewed as strictly separate from one another). == Conceptions == Currently, DLC is emerging as a new perspective on multilingualism (Lo Bianco & Aronin 2020) and research method to explore it (Aronin 2019), reflecting the many developments in the field. To clarify these two perspectives, let’s look at them in more detail: * As an innovative approach to multilingualism, it is used to study complex linguistic situations. One example is Karpava’s (2020) study of the Russian community in Cyprus, which highlights the individual and social factors that influence the dynamics of DLCs (composed of the same languages). * As a research method, DLC opens the door to new research questions, as demonstrated by Aronin (2019, 19f). To give an example, DLC can serve as a starting point for describing the linguistic composition of a country, an organisation or the world. Questions arise regarding languages leaving the DLC or returning to it. Just as with conceptual perspectives, the themes addressed by research on DLC have diversified over time and cover a wide range of issues, from multilingual syntactic development (Fernández-Berkes & Flynn, 2019) to educational contexts (Björklund et al., 2019). Others focus on the impact of identity, emotions and attitudes in different minority and majority contexts (Nightingale, 2020; Vetter, 2024). Language policy in the broadest sense is one of the areas in which DLC research yields particularly promising results: a DLC perspective opens up interesting avenues for understanding institutional language policy, particularly in the field of education, where it proves to be a powerful tool for raising awareness and fostering critical reflection (Vetter, 2021). On a more general political level, DLC encourages the involvement of language activists, policy-makers and researchers in a dialogue on appropriate language policy. It can thus serve as a framework for language policy in multilingual communities facing controversial political directions. == Take home messages == The concept of DLC encompasses only the most significant languages, dialects and varieties through which an individual or group can meet their communicative needs. It is, therefore, a concept rooted in practical communication and real needs. The DLC represents a critical response to the notion of ‘natural’ or preferred monolingualism and forms part of modern theories on multilingualism and calls for multicultural practices. It can be interpreted as an innovative perspective to understand multilingualism and a research method, showing particular promise for institutional language policy and the field of education. == Self-assessment == * How can the concept of the Dominant Language Constellation (DLC) be defined? * What is the difference between the concept of a repertoire and the DLC? * What topics can be addressed by research into DLCs? == Further readings == * Official website of the DLC-approach: <nowiki>https://www.dominant-language-constellations.com/</nowiki> * Aronin, L. (2019). Challenges of multilingual education : streamlining affordances through Dominant Language Constellations. ''Stellenbosch Papers in Linguistics Plus'', ''2019''(58), 235–256. https://doi.org/10.5842/58-0-845 * Aronin, L. & Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2023). ''Language Awareness and Identity. Insights via Dominant Language Constellation Approach''. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37027-4. * Aronin, L. & Vetter, E. (Eds.) (2026). ''Dominant Language Constellations for Teachers: A Practical Dimension''. Springer. * Vetter, E., & Jessner, U. (Eds.) (2019). ''International research on multilingualism: breaking with the monolingual perspective''. Springer. == References == Aronin, L. (2006). Dominant language constellations: An approach to multilingualism studies. In M. Ó Laoire (Ed.), ''Multilingualism in educational settings'' (pp. 140–159). Schneider Publications. Aronin, L. & Singleton, D. (2012). ''Multilingualism''. John Benjamins. Aronin, L. (2016). Multicompetence and dominant language constellation. In V. Cook &  Li Wei (Eds.), ''The Cambridge Handbook of Linguistic Multicompetence'' (pp.142-163). Cambridge University Press. Aronin, L. (2019). Dominant language constellation as a method of research. In E. Vetter & U. Jessner (Eds.), ''International research on multilingualism. Breaking with the monolingual perspective'' (pp. 13–26). Springer. Aronin, L., & Vetter, E. (2021). ''Dominant Language Constellations Approach in Education and Language Acquisition'' (1st Edition 2021, Vol. 51). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-70769-9 Björklund, S., Björklund, M. & Sjöholm, K. (2020). Societal Versus Individual Patterns of DLCs in a Finnish Educational Context – Present State and Challenges for the Future. In J. Lo Bianco, L. Aronin (Eds.), ''Dominant Language Constellations: A New Perspective on Multilingualism'' (pp. 97–115). Springer. Busch, B. (2017). Expanding the Notion of the Linguistic Repertoire: On the Concept of Spracherleben —The Lived Experience of Language. ''Applied Linguistics'', ''38''(3),  340-358. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amv030 Fernández-Berkes, É. & Flynn, S. (2020). Where DLC Meets Multilingual Syntactic Development. In J. Lo Bianco, L. Aronin (Eds.), ''Dominant Language Constellations: A New Perspective on'' ''Multilingualism'' (pp. 57-74). Springer. Gumperz, J. J. (1968). The speech community. In Sills, D. L. & Merton, R. K. (Eds.), ''International encyclopedia of the social sciences'' (pp. 381-386). Macmillan Company & the Free Press. Karpava, S. (2020). Dominant Language Constellations of Russian Speakers in Cyprus. ​​In J. Lo Bianco & L. Aronin (Eds.), ''Dominant language constellations. A new perspective on multilingualism'' (pp. 228-257). Springer.   Lo Bianco, J., & Aronin, L. (Eds.) (2020). ''Dominant language constellations. A new perspective on multilingualism''. Springer. Nightingale, R. (2020). A Dominant Language Constellations Case Study on Language Use and the Affective Domain. In: ''Dominant language constellations. A new perspective'' ''on multilingualism'' (pp. 231-259). Springer. OJ  2018/C 189/01, Recommandation du Conseil du 22 mai 2018 relative aux compétences clés pour l’éducation et la formation tout au long de la vie. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/FR/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32018H0604(01) Talleyrand-Périgord, C. M. de. (1791). Rapport par M. Talleyrand-Périgord, ancien évêque d’Autun, sur l’instruction publique, en annexe de la séance du 10 septembre 1791. In ''Archives Parlementaires de 1787 à 1860.'' Tome XXX (pp. 447-480). https://www.persee.fr/doc/arcpa_0000-0000_1888_num_30_1_12472_t1_0447_0000_8 The White House. (March 2025). Designating English as the Official Language of The United States. https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/03/designating-english-as-the-official-language-of-the-united-states/ UNESCO.  (2025).  ''Les langues comptent : orientations mondiales pour l’éducation multilingue''. https://doi.org/10.54675/UTXF6991 Vetter, E. (2021). Language Education Policy Through a DLC Lens: The Case of Urban Multilingualism. In Aronin, L., & Vetter, E. (Eds.) ''Dominant Language Constellations Approach in Education and Language Acquisition.'' Springer. Vetter, E. (2024). Dominant Instead of Hidden? A Critical Discussion on a European DLC Including Endangered Languages. In ''Modern Approaches to Researching Multilingualism'' (pp. 227–247). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52371-7_14 Xu, Y., Krulatz, A., Gabryś-Barker, D., & Vetter, E. (2024). Employing Dominant Language Constellation in Teacher Professional Development: The Impact on EAL Teachers’ Beliefs, Practices, and Multilingual Identity. In ''Modern Approaches to Researching Multilingualism'' (pp. 271–293). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52371-7_16 == Crédits == ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Lena Kratochwill (Universität Wien) * Eva Vetter (Universität Wien) [[Portal:Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] [[Category:Technology]] h7i0oc0t3005mez5w71hhzpeyed942g 2817384 2817383 2026-06-30T11:47:31Z Vettere6 3097828 /* History of the concept */ 2817384 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}} == Starting activity == '''Activity A''' Visualise your own language constellations by following the steps below: [[File:Dominant language constellation - Activity 1.png|alt=Dominant language constellation - Activity 1|thumb|Figure 1 - Dominant language constellation - Activity 1]] 1. Copy the exercise onto a worksheet (cf. Figure 1). 2. Name each language, dialect or variety that you use in your daily life (write them in the coloured bubbles). 3. Complete the sentences in the boxes. For example: * I use it at home with my grandmother. * For example, I say: “Wie geht es dir?”  (= How are you?) 4. List your languages, dialects and varieties and write the number in the central square '''Activity B''' [[File:Dominant language constellation - Activity 2.png|alt=Dominant language constellation - Activity 2|thumb|Figure 2 - Dominant language constellation - Activity 2]] 1. Copy the exercise onto a sheet of paper (cf. Figure 2). 2.&nbsp;Place the languages / dialects / varieties you listed earlier into the three circles below * Circle A: Languages, dialects and varieties that you use frequently. * Circle B: Languages, dialects and varieties that you use occasionally. * Circle C: Languages, dialects and varieties that you rarely use, but which you sometimes hear or know people who speak them. 3.&nbsp;Write down why you have placed them in each circle. '''Activity C''' Think about the results: * How proficient are you in the languages, dialects and varieties of the circles A, B and C? To what extent can you understand them (in writing and orally), write them and speak them?  * Does anything surprise you? What might that mean? (Exercise adapted from Xu & Krulatz, 2024, p. 283) == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to… * distinguish the dominant language constellation from other concepts related to plurilingualism/multilingualism (e.g. the linguistic repertoire) * describe and analyse the DLC (and its development) * apply the DLC theory in an educational context == Keywords == plurilinguism, multilinguism, linguistic repertoire, communicative practices, institutional language policy == Pre-requisites == There are no prerequisites, but an understanding of concepts such as linguistic repertoire or ''translanguaging'' will help you gain a deeper understanding of the content. == Introduction == The Dominant Language Constellation (DLC) was proposed by Larissa Aronin and her colleagues (2006, 2016, 2019; Aronin & Singleton 2012) as a way of addressing the dynamic diversity of globalised language practices. A DLC refers to the group of languages, dialects and/or varieties most relevant to an individual or a group for meeting all their linguistic needs in a multilingual environment. The components of a DLC function as a unit. In other words, the DLC describes the inner circle of personal languages that ‘fulfil the most vital functions of language” (Aronin, 2016, p.147). == History of the concept == The DLC is one of many critical responses to the challenge  to the historically and culturally entrenched notion that monolingualism is ‘natural’ or preferable, whether at the level of individuals, groups or nations. This kind of monolingual ideology has been widely propagated by nationalism, Romanticism and state education systems.<blockquote>''A short historical example:'' ''A key example of this link between language policy and nation-building is Talleyrand’s speech in 1791, during the French Revolution, in which he argued for the exclusive use of the national language in schools. Dialects and regional languages were described in it as “corrupted languages”, associated with a “feudal order that must be abolished” (Talleyrand-Périgord, 1791, p. 472, our translation).''</blockquote>Even today, monolingualism remains a deeply entrenched social and political system, underpinned by nationalist ideologies, notions of modernised rationality and efficiency-driven approaches (one might cite, for example, certain language policies in the United States under the Trump administration, such as the designation of English as the official language of the United States ([https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/03/designating-english-as-the-official-language-of-the-united-states/ White House online, March 2025]). Linguistic practices, however, are diverse and multilingual, and have been so long before globalisation. DLC, therefore, reflects the plurilingual realities experienced in everyday life. By identifying the languages actually used in the various contexts of an individual’s life, DLC proposes a model of plurilingual identity, distributed across different domains of use and rooted in concrete communication practices. This is a relatively recent concept, which has become particularly prominent in the field of multilingualism studies since the 21st century. Examples of edited volumes devoted to DLCs include the 2020 collection ''Dominant Language Constellations: A New Perspective on Multilingualism'', edited by Joseph Lo Bianco and Larissa Aronin. Four further volumes have since followed (Aronin & Vetter, 2021; Aronin & Melo-Pfeifer, 2023; Aronin & Vetter, 2026), all available on the website dedicated to the CLD approach ([https://www.dominant-language-constellations.com Dominant Language Constellations (DLC)]). == Definition == Given that DLC focuses on language practices, it is an inherently pluralistic and dynamic concept, based on the idea that contemporary social practices draw upon multiple modes of communication, different forms of literacy and a variety of languages (Aronin & Vetter, 2021, p. 7). To put it simply, the following brief definition could be proposed: CLD refers to the set of languages—often three—that play a particularly important role for an individual or a group in order to meet their linguistic needs in a multilingual environment (Lo Bianco & Aronin, 2020, pp. 3-5). At this point, it is necessary to distinguish DLC from the concept of the linguistic repertoire, which has been used to refer to the totality of languages, dialects, styles, registers, codes and routines that characterise interaction in everyday life (Gumperz, 1968; Busch, 2017). Whilst the linguistic repertoire aims to account for the entirety of an individual’s linguistic experiences, the DLC refers exclusively to the components considered most essential (Lo Bianco & Aronin, 2020, pp. 15–18). The two concepts can thus be regarded as complementary. Furthermore, a constellation such as that proposed by DLC always forms within a specific multilingual context, and as this context may change throughout life, the DLC may also change. It can evolve according to geographical, social or cultural frameworks – a dynamic clearly highlighted by international studies on local language practices (Vetter, 2024, pp. 229–231). The characteristics of a DLC are not, however, limited to the sum of the languages, dialects and varieties that comprise it.  It must also be regarded as a unit that extends beyond the sum of its parts (which, in any case, cannot be viewed as strictly separate from one another). == Conceptions == Currently, DLC is emerging as a new perspective on multilingualism (Lo Bianco & Aronin 2020) and research method to explore it (Aronin 2019), reflecting the many developments in the field. To clarify these two perspectives, let’s look at them in more detail: * As an innovative approach to multilingualism, it is used to study complex linguistic situations. One example is Karpava’s (2020) study of the Russian community in Cyprus, which highlights the individual and social factors that influence the dynamics of DLCs (composed of the same languages). * As a research method, DLC opens the door to new research questions, as demonstrated by Aronin (2019, 19f). To give an example, DLC can serve as a starting point for describing the linguistic composition of a country, an organisation or the world. Questions arise regarding languages leaving the DLC or returning to it. Just as with conceptual perspectives, the themes addressed by research on DLC have diversified over time and cover a wide range of issues, from multilingual syntactic development (Fernández-Berkes & Flynn, 2019) to educational contexts (Björklund et al., 2019). Others focus on the impact of identity, emotions and attitudes in different minority and majority contexts (Nightingale, 2020; Vetter, 2024). Language policy in the broadest sense is one of the areas in which DLC research yields particularly promising results: a DLC perspective opens up interesting avenues for understanding institutional language policy, particularly in the field of education, where it proves to be a powerful tool for raising awareness and fostering critical reflection (Vetter, 2021). On a more general political level, DLC encourages the involvement of language activists, policy-makers and researchers in a dialogue on appropriate language policy. It can thus serve as a framework for language policy in multilingual communities facing controversial political directions. == Take home messages == The concept of DLC encompasses only the most significant languages, dialects and varieties through which an individual or group can meet their communicative needs. It is, therefore, a concept rooted in practical communication and real needs. The DLC represents a critical response to the notion of ‘natural’ or preferred monolingualism and forms part of modern theories on multilingualism and calls for multicultural practices. It can be interpreted as an innovative perspective to understand multilingualism and a research method, showing particular promise for institutional language policy and the field of education. == Self-assessment == * How can the concept of the Dominant Language Constellation (DLC) be defined? * What is the difference between the concept of a repertoire and the DLC? * What topics can be addressed by research into DLCs? == Further readings == * Official website of the DLC-approach: <nowiki>https://www.dominant-language-constellations.com/</nowiki> * Aronin, L. (2019). Challenges of multilingual education : streamlining affordances through Dominant Language Constellations. ''Stellenbosch Papers in Linguistics Plus'', ''2019''(58), 235–256. https://doi.org/10.5842/58-0-845 * Aronin, L. & Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2023). ''Language Awareness and Identity. Insights via Dominant Language Constellation Approach''. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37027-4. * Aronin, L. & Vetter, E. (Eds.) (2026). ''Dominant Language Constellations for Teachers: A Practical Dimension''. Springer. * Vetter, E., & Jessner, U. (Eds.) (2019). ''International research on multilingualism: breaking with the monolingual perspective''. Springer. == References == Aronin, L. (2006). Dominant language constellations: An approach to multilingualism studies. In M. Ó Laoire (Ed.), ''Multilingualism in educational settings'' (pp. 140–159). Schneider Publications. Aronin, L. & Singleton, D. (2012). ''Multilingualism''. John Benjamins. Aronin, L. (2016). Multicompetence and dominant language constellation. In V. Cook &  Li Wei (Eds.), ''The Cambridge Handbook of Linguistic Multicompetence'' (pp.142-163). Cambridge University Press. Aronin, L. (2019). Dominant language constellation as a method of research. In E. Vetter & U. Jessner (Eds.), ''International research on multilingualism. Breaking with the monolingual perspective'' (pp. 13–26). Springer. Aronin, L., & Vetter, E. (2021). ''Dominant Language Constellations Approach in Education and Language Acquisition'' (1st Edition 2021, Vol. 51). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-70769-9 Björklund, S., Björklund, M. & Sjöholm, K. (2020). Societal Versus Individual Patterns of DLCs in a Finnish Educational Context – Present State and Challenges for the Future. In J. Lo Bianco, L. Aronin (Eds.), ''Dominant Language Constellations: A New Perspective on Multilingualism'' (pp. 97–115). Springer. Busch, B. (2017). Expanding the Notion of the Linguistic Repertoire: On the Concept of Spracherleben —The Lived Experience of Language. ''Applied Linguistics'', ''38''(3),  340-358. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amv030 Fernández-Berkes, É. & Flynn, S. (2020). Where DLC Meets Multilingual Syntactic Development. In J. Lo Bianco, L. Aronin (Eds.), ''Dominant Language Constellations: A New Perspective on'' ''Multilingualism'' (pp. 57-74). Springer. Gumperz, J. J. (1968). The speech community. In Sills, D. L. & Merton, R. K. (Eds.), ''International encyclopedia of the social sciences'' (pp. 381-386). Macmillan Company & the Free Press. Karpava, S. (2020). Dominant Language Constellations of Russian Speakers in Cyprus. ​​In J. Lo Bianco & L. Aronin (Eds.), ''Dominant language constellations. A new perspective on multilingualism'' (pp. 228-257). Springer.   Lo Bianco, J., & Aronin, L. (Eds.) (2020). ''Dominant language constellations. A new perspective on multilingualism''. Springer. Nightingale, R. (2020). A Dominant Language Constellations Case Study on Language Use and the Affective Domain. In: ''Dominant language constellations. A new perspective'' ''on multilingualism'' (pp. 231-259). Springer. OJ  2018/C 189/01, Recommandation du Conseil du 22 mai 2018 relative aux compétences clés pour l’éducation et la formation tout au long de la vie. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/FR/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32018H0604(01) Talleyrand-Périgord, C. M. de. (1791). Rapport par M. Talleyrand-Périgord, ancien évêque d’Autun, sur l’instruction publique, en annexe de la séance du 10 septembre 1791. In ''Archives Parlementaires de 1787 à 1860.'' Tome XXX (pp. 447-480). https://www.persee.fr/doc/arcpa_0000-0000_1888_num_30_1_12472_t1_0447_0000_8 The White House. (March 2025). Designating English as the Official Language of The United States. https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/03/designating-english-as-the-official-language-of-the-united-states/ UNESCO.  (2025).  ''Les langues comptent : orientations mondiales pour l’éducation multilingue''. https://doi.org/10.54675/UTXF6991 Vetter, E. (2021). Language Education Policy Through a DLC Lens: The Case of Urban Multilingualism. In Aronin, L., & Vetter, E. (Eds.) ''Dominant Language Constellations Approach in Education and Language Acquisition.'' Springer. Vetter, E. (2024). Dominant Instead of Hidden? A Critical Discussion on a European DLC Including Endangered Languages. In ''Modern Approaches to Researching Multilingualism'' (pp. 227–247). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52371-7_14 Xu, Y., Krulatz, A., Gabryś-Barker, D., & Vetter, E. (2024). Employing Dominant Language Constellation in Teacher Professional Development: The Impact on EAL Teachers’ Beliefs, Practices, and Multilingual Identity. In ''Modern Approaches to Researching Multilingualism'' (pp. 271–293). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52371-7_16 == Crédits == ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Lena Kratochwill (Universität Wien) * Eva Vetter (Universität Wien) [[Portal:Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] [[Category:Technology]] qqcykk5aap8kf0q8np882bd73rbnhyx 0 329357 2817258 2807101 2026-06-29T16:09:33Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* References */ 2817258 wikitext text/x-wiki == Starting activity == Watch [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ITThmEXn1zc this video] about theatre and art activities in prison. Now, ask yourself a few questions: * What makes the prison environment particularly marginalized? * Why are theatre and other artistic activities important in the lives of inmates? * What other approaches could have the same effect? * Are there other contexts where the marginalization of social groups is just as significant? Which ones? == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to… * identify socially marginalized contexts * characterize these contexts from a social and linguistic perspective * analyze the needs for plurilingual education in these contexts * describe concrete practices aimed at developing plurilingualism in marginalized contexts * outline the individual and social benefits of these practices == Keywords == Marginalized contexts, human dignity, inclusion, plurilingual communication, intercomprehension, translanguaging, carceral environment == Prerequisites == You may  want to check out the pages on [[theories and models of plurilingualism]], [[intercomprehension]], and [[translanguaging]]. == Introduction == The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) highlights the risk of exclusion faced by people who do not speak the “useful” languages in an increasingly interconnected society. For example, linguistic minorities, such as speakers of Catalan, Basque, or Galician in Spain, have often been stigmatized or silenced in the past, and revitalizing their languages remains a challenge. In disadvantaged neighborhoods, people from immigrant backgrounds or precarious circumstances face a double disadvantage: their native language is devalued, and access to learning dominant languages is limited. Marginalized contexts, such as prisons, depopulated rural areas, or communities where people with disabilities live, also illustrate these inequalities. In prison, for example, inmates have few educational opportunities tailored to their language, which exacerbates their exclusion. Similarly, immigrants and refugees face obstacles in having their credentials recognized or accessing essential information in their language. Finally, power dynamics between languages create hierarchies: institutional languages (such as English or French) are privileged, while minority languages are often relegated to a lower status. This can discourage speakers of these languages from using or passing them on, reinforcing their marginalization. To combat the inequalities named above, the CEFR promotes plurilingual and intercultural education, which values all languages and cultures, and trains teachers and professionals on issues of diversity. Initiatives exist, such as language enrichment programs for immigrant students or intercomprehension courses in prisons, but they remain insufficient given the scale of the needs. The challenge, therefore, is to recognize and actively support this diversity to build a more inclusive society. Plurilingualism develops through measures that strengthen linguistic and intercultural skills, which are essential in multicultural societies. It encourages the learning of multiple languages and fosters intercultural awareness to promote mutual understanding. Plurilingual education, by integrating diverse pedagogical approaches, becomes a tool for social inclusion. It adapts educational programs to the needs of learners from varied backgrounds, particularly in disadvantaged neighborhoods and marginalized contexts such as prisons or rural areas. Intercomprehension courses are offered there, often in partnership with associations and universities. Appropriate language policies are necessary to support these initiatives and allocate the required resources. Examples, such as programs for immigrant students in the Basque Country or integration measures in Quebec, demonstrate a commitment to a more equitable society. Raising awareness of linguistic diversity and protecting minority languages remain crucial to ensuring an environment that respects all cultures. == History/Concept == If we take a European national context as an example, the foreign inmates in Spanish correctional facilities  account for 29.5% and live in an environment characterized by linguistic and cultural diversity. This diversity gives rise to complex communication situations, where language poses a major obstacle in three distinct levels: * An administrative setting, where Spanish is the dominant language, which can exclude non-Spanish-speaking inmates. * Interactions among foreign inmates, whose diverse backgrounds involve languages belonging to different linguistic families, make communication difficult. * Interactions between foreign and Spanish inmates in common areas, where linguistic and cultural differences can hinder mutual understanding. Added to this linguistic diversity is cultural diversity, as each individual brings a unique linguistic and cultural background. Some inmates lack access to basic education or do not speak any language other than their L1. Thus, the language barrier is not the only challenge they face in their interpersonal relationships and their integration within the facility. == Concepts / Practical Applications == A module of plurilingual intercomprehension was implemented in prisons in Spain as a 20-hour summer course offered by the Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (National University of Distance Education), bringing together external students, inmates, and prison staff. The method combined oral materials (advertisements, films, TV shows) and written materials (authentic texts) in five Romance languages (Portuguese, Italian, French, Catalan, Romanian), with a strong cultural focus (gastronomy, native stories, plurilingual workshops). The teaching team, composed of L1-speakers (Spanish, Italian, French, Portuguese), created an immediate linguistic immersion. The benefits include the development of active listening and textual analysis, enabling learners to acquire linguistic structures that can be reused in other contexts. == Take Home messages == * Plurilingual and intercultural communication in the prison setting is part of an effort to adapt to contemporary trends in mobility and societal diversity. * Prisons house a population characterized by significant linguistic and cultural diversity, making it essential to establish communication models tailored to this pluralistic reality. * Taking this linguistic and cultural diversity into account within the prison setting is a fundamental challenge for ensuring effective and inclusive communication. * The plurilingual approach promotes linguistic understanding and respect for sociocultural differences, ensuring inmates’ equitable access to their rights and instilling fundamental values such as respect and tolerance. * This approach strengthens inmates’ autonomy and cooperation while reducing their dependence on institutions. It fosters values such as tolerance and linguistic and cultural mutual understanding, and develops their skills for more effective and appropriate communication. == Self-assessment == # How can effective and inclusive communication be ensured in prisons? # What types of communication models could be implemented in prisons to address linguistic and cultural diversity, and how do they differ from traditional methods? # How does a plurilingual  approach promote equity in prisoners’ access to their rights? # What concrete impacts does this approach have on inmates’ autonomy, cooperation, and institutional dependence? == Further reading == * Benucci, A. (2007). ''Italiano libera-mente. L’insegnamento dell’italiano a stranieri in carcere''. Guerra Edizioni. * Benucci, A. & Monaci, V. (2025). ''Questioni di genere, lingue e culture in carcere. Tutela della differenze contrasto all’emarginazione e all’esclusione in carcere''. Edizioni Ca’ Foscari. * Gómez Fernández, A. (2023). Educación y centros penitenciarios. Comunicación plurilingüe e intercultural como modo de inclusión. In J. L. Muñoz de Baena Simón & J. M. Enríquez Sánchez (Eds.), ''Vigilar y Educar: buenas prácticas formativas en centros penitenciarios'' (pp. 207 - 227). Tirant lo Blanch, Colección Márgenes. * Pacini Volpe, P. (2021).  ''L’enseignement universitaire en milieu carcéral. Expériences comparées entre la France et l’Italie''. Champ social éditions. = References = Audras, I. (2014). Impact de séances d’éveil aux langues au sein d’un atelier parents-enfants dans une “Maison pour tous” : entretiens avec les acteurs de la structure. In C. Troncy (Ed.), ''Didactique du plurilinguisme. Approches plurielles des langues et des cultures. Autour de Michel Candelier'' (pp. 355-361). Presses Universitaires de Rennes. Béacco, J-C. (2000). ''Les dimensions culturelles des enseignements de langue : des mots aux discours''. Hachette. Conseil de l’Europe (2011). ''Cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues : apprendre, enseigner, évaluer'' – Volume complémentaire. Conseil de l’Europe. Coste, D. (2010). Diversité des plurilinguismes et formes de l’éducation plurilingue et interculturelle. ''Recherches en didactique des langues et des cultures''.  [online], ''Les Cahiers de l’Acedle'', 7-1. https://doi.org/10.4000/rdlc.2031 ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Filomena Capucho (Universidade Católica Portuguesa) * Araceli Gomez Fernandez (UNED) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] [[Category:Education]] 3xv9wemt68zd9ndg6kv9dgufhzk11uw 0 329548 2817237 2816558 2026-06-29T14:07:16Z Athena241 3071380 /* Data */ newest progress 2817237 wikitext text/x-wiki {{mathematics}} '''Athena problem''' is an [[:w:List of unsolved problems in mathematics|unsolved problem]] in [[:w:Number theory|number theory]] and [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] and [[:w:Order theory|order theory]], this problem is named after the ancient Greek goddess [[:w:Athena|Athena]] (which is associated with [[:w:Wisdom|wisdom]]). Athena problem is: Give a [[:w:Natural number|natural number]] ''b'' > 1, find the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the set of the "[[:w:Prime number|prime number]] [[:w:Greater than|>]] ''b''" [[:w:Numerical digit|digit]] [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s in the [[:w:Positional numeral system|positional numeral system]] with [[:w:Radix|base]] ''b'' for the [[:w:Subsequence|subsequence]] [[:w:Partially ordered set|ordering]]. (A string ''x'' is a subsequence of another string ''y'', if ''x'' can be obtained from ''y'' by deleting zero or more of the [[:w:Character (computing)|character]]s in ''y''. For example, 514 is a subsequence of 352148, "string" is a subsequence of "meistersinger". In contrast, 758 is not a subsequence of 378259, "abc" is not a subsequence of "cbacacba", since the characters must be in the same order) (Unlike [[:w:Substring|substring]], subsequence is not required to occupy consecutive positions within the original sequences, e.g. the [[:w:Longest common subsequence|longest common subsequence problem]] is different from the [[:w:Longest common substring|longest common substring problem]]) Using [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] terminology, Athena problem is finding the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the [[:w:Formal language|language]] of base-''b'' [[:w:Representation (mathematics)|representation]]s of the [[:w:Prime number|prime number]]s [[:w:Greater than|>]] ''b'' (which is a set of [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s of [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s over the [[:w:Alphabet (formal languages)|alphabet]] ''Σ''_''b'' := {0, 1, ..., ''b''−1}), under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] "is a subsequence of", which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), for a given natural number ''b'' > 1. (You can draw this partial ordering as [[:w:Hasse diagram|Hasse diagram]] to find all [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s) By [[:w:Higman's lemma|Higman's lemma]], there are no [[:w:Infinite set|infinite]] [[:w:Antichain|antichain]]s for the subsequence ordering (i.e. the subsequence ordering is always a [[:w:Well-quasi-ordering|well quasi order]]) (i.e. under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] "is a subsequence of", which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), every set of pairwise incomparable (i.e. not [[:w:Comparability|comparable]]) strings is finite), thus there must be only finitely many such minimal elements. In other words, the set of such minimal elements must be a [[:w:Finite set|finite set]], e.g. in [[:w:Decimal|decimal]] (base ''b'' = 10), this set has exactly 77 [[:w:Element of a set|element]]s: {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027}. For bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36, Athena problem is fully solved in bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 18, 20, 24, and also solved in bases ''b'' = 11, 13, 16, 22, 30 if [[:w:Probable prime|probable prime]]s are allowed. For the unsolved bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, Athena problem is solved (if probable primes are allowed) except 771 [[:w:Indexed family|families]] of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be [[:w:Empty string|empty]]) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') = sequence {''xz'', ''xyz'', ''xyyz'', ''xyyyz'', ''xyyyyz'', ''xyyyyyz'', ...} (i.e. "''xy''⁺''z''" in [[:w:Regular expression|regular expression]]), all of these 771 families contain no primes > ''b'' or probable primes > ''b'' with length ≤ 100000. == Solve the problem == To solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', we must [[:w:Computing|compute]] the elements up to families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), and find the smallest prime > ''b'' in all such families. We call families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') "linear" families, and we reduce these families by removing all trailing digits ''y'' from ''x'', and removing all leading digits ''y'' from ''z'', to make the families be easier, e.g. family 12333{3}33345 in base ''b'' is reduced to family 12{3}45 in base ''b'', since they are in fact the same family. Our [[:w:Algorithm|algorithm]] then proceeds as follows: * 1. ''M'' := {minimal primes in base ''b'' of length 2 or 3}, ''L'' := union of all ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'') such that ''x'' ≠ 0 and ''gcd''(''z'', ''b'') = 1 and ''Y'' is the set of digits ''y'' in base ''b'' such that ''xyz'' has no subsequence in ''M''. * 2. While ''L'' contains nonlinear families (families which are not linear families): Explore each family of ''L'', and update ''L''. Examine each family of ''L'' by: * 2.1. Let ''w'' be the shortest string in the family. If ''w'' has a subsequence in ''M'', then remove the family from ''L''. If ''w'' represents a prime, then add ''w'' to ''M'' and remove the family from ''L''. * 2.2. If possible, simplify the family. * 2.3. Using the techniques below (covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), check if the family can be proven to only contain composites (only count the numbers > ''b''), and if so then remove the family from ''L''. * 3. Update ''L'', after each split examine the new families as in step 2. e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10): ''M'' := {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991} ''L'' := {2{0,2}1, 2{0,8}7, 3{0,3,6,9}3, 3{0,3,6,9}9, 4{6}9, 5{0,5,8}1, 5{0,2}7, 6{0,3,6,9}3, 6{0,3,4,6,9}9, 7{0,7}7, 8{0,5}1, 8{0}7, 9{0,2,5,8}1, 9{0,3,6,9}3, 9{0,3,4,6,9}9} and since 2221 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1 and since the family 2{0}1 can be proven to contain no primes > base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed and since 20201 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0}2{0}1 splits into the families 2{0}21 and 22{0}1 221 and 2021 are composites, but 20021 is prime, thus add 20021 to ''L'' none of 221, 2201, 22001, 220001, 2200001 are primes, but 22000001 is prime, thus add 22000001 to ''L'' and since the family 3{0,3,6,9}3 can be proven to contain no primes > base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed etc. Shrinking the family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'') * If ''y'' ∈ ''Y'' and the string ''xyyz'' represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''y''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z''. * If ''y''₁ ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''₂ ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''₁ ≠ ''y''₂ and the string ''xy''₁''y''₂''z'' represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''₁}{''Y'' \ ''y''₂}''z''. * If ''y''₁ ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''₂ ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''₁ ≠ ''y''₂ and both the strings ''xy''₁''y''₂''z'' and ''xy''₂''y''₁''z'' represent a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or have a subsequence which represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''₁}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''₂}''z''. e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10): * 2221 is a prime > 10, thus the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the two families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1. * 227 is a prime > 10, and it is a subsequence of 5227, thus the family 5{0,2}7 splits into the two families 5{0}7 and 5{0}2{0}7. * 449 is a prime > 10, and it is a subsequence of 6449, thus the family 6{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 6{0,3,6,9}9 and 6{0,3,6,9}4{0,3,6,9}9. * Both 5051 and 5501 are primes > 10, thus the family 5{0,5}1 splits into the two families 5{0}1 and 5{5}1 = {5}1. * 8501 is a prime > 10, thus the family 8{0,5}1 splits into the family 8{0}{5}1. * 887 is a prime > 10, and it is a subsequence of 2887, also 2087 is a prime > 10, thus the family 2{0,8}7 splits into the two families 2{0}7 and 28{0}7. * 349 and 449 are primes > 10, and they are subsequences of 9349 and 9449, respectively, also 9049, 9649, 9949 are primes > 10, thus the family 9{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 9{0,3,6,9}9 and 94{0,3,6,9}9. * 251, 281, 521, 821, 881 are primes > 10, and they are subsequences of 9251, 9281, 9521, 9821, 9881, respectively, also 9001, 9221, 9551, 9851 are primes > 10, thus the family 9{0,2,5,8}1 splits into the numbers {91, 901, 921, 951, 981, 9021, 9051, 9081, 9201, 9501, 9581, 9801, 90581, 95081, 95801}. If the methods we have discussed cannot be used to rule out or shrink ''x''{''Y''}''z'' where ''Y'' = {''y''₁, ''y''₂, ..., ''y''_''n''}, then we can replace ''x''{''Y''}''z'' by ''xy''₁{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ''xy''₂{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ... ∪ ''xy''_''n''{''Y''}''z'' and re-run the methods on this new [[:w:Formal language|language]]. If all remain families are linear families (i.e. of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), then we search the smallest (probable) primes in these families and add these primes to the list. e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10): * The smallest prime in the family 5{0}27 is 5000000000000000000000000000027. * The smallest prime in the family {5}1 is 555555555551. * The smallest prime in the family 8{5}1 is 8555555555555555555551, but 8555555555555555555551 is not a minimal element since 555555555551 is a subsequence of 8555555555555555555551. There is no guarantee that the techniques discussed will ever terminate, but in practice they often do. They are able to determine the set of the minimal elements in base ''b'' for 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 16 and ''b'' = 18, 20, 22, 24, 30. The bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 29, 31 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 are solved with the exception of 771 families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''). The following is a "[[:w:Semi-algorithm|semi-algorithm]]" that is guaranteed to solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', but it is not so easy to implement: # ''M'' = ''[[:w:Empty string|∅]]'' # while (''L'' ≠ ''∅'') do # choose ''x'', a shortest string in ''L'' # ''M'' := ''M'' ∪ {''x''} # ''L'' := ''L'' − ''sup''({''x''}) In practice, for arbitrary ''L'', we cannot feasibly carry out step 5. Instead, we work with ''L''&#39;, some regular overapproximation to ''L'', until we can show ''L''&#39; = ''∅'' (which implies ''L'' = ''∅''). In practice, ''L''&#39; is usually chosen to be a finite [[:w:Union (set theory)|union]] of sets of the form ''L''₁{''L''₂}''L''₃, where each of ''L''₁, ''L''₂, ''L''₃ is finite. In the case we consider in this project, we then have to determine whether such a family contains a prime or not. Thus, Athena problem in bases ''b'' around 500 may be [[:w:NP-complete|NP-complete]] or [[:w:NP-hard|NP-hard]], or an [[:w:Undecidable problem|undecidable problem]], or an example of [[:w:Gödel's incompleteness theorems|Gödel's incompleteness theorems]] (like the [[:w:Continuum hypothesis|continuum hypothesis]] and the [[:w:Halting problem|halting problem]]). To solve the Athena problem, we need to determine whether a given family contains a prime. In practice, if family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'') could not be ruled out as only containing composites and ''Y'' contains two or more digits, then a relatively small prime > ''b'' could always be found in this family. Intuitively, this is because there are a large number of small strings in such a family, and at least one is likely to be prime (e.g. there are 2^''n''−2 strings of length ''n'' in the family 1{3,7}9, and there are over a thousand strings of length 12 in the family 1{3,7}9, thus it is very impossible that these numbers are all composite). In the case ''Y'' contains only one digit, this family is of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', and there is only a single string of each length > (the length of ''x'' + the length of ''z''), and it is not known if the following [[:w:Decision problem|decision problem]] is recursively solvable (just like [[:w:Sierpiński number|Sierpiński problem]] and [[:w:Riesel number|Riesel problem]], Sierpiński problem and Riesel problem can be generalized to other bases ''b'', in fact, Athena problem in base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem in base ''b'' and the Riesel problem in base ''b'' with ''k'' < ''b'', i.e. finding the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''^''n''+1 and ''k''×''b''^''n''−1 (or prove such prime does not exist) with ''k'' < ''b'' (specially, for bases ''b'' such that the conjectured smallest Sierpiński number or the conjectured smallest Riesel number is < ''b'', Athena problem in base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem in base ''b'' or the Riesel problem in base ''b'', respectively), since the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''^''n''+1 and ''k''×''b''^''n''−1 (if exists) must be a minimal element in base ''b''): Problem: Given strings ''x'', ''z'' (may be empty), a digit ''y'', and a base ''b'' (''x'' does not [[:w:Leading zero|start with the digit 0]], ''z'' ends with a digit which [[:w:Coprime integers|coprime]] to ''b'', ''y'' is not 0 if ''x'' is empty, ''y'' is coprime to ''b'' if ''z'' is empty), does there exist a prime number whose base-''b'' expansion is of the form ''xy''_''n''''z'' for some ''n'' ≥ 0? Some families can be ruled out to contain no prime > ''b'' by [[:w:Covering set|covering congruence]], [[:w:Factorization of polynomials|algebraic factorization]] (e.g. [[:w:Difference of two squares|difference of two squares]], [[:w:Sum of two cubes|sum of two cubes]], [[:w:Sophie Germain's identity|Sophie Germain's identity of ''x''⁴+4×''y''⁴]]), or combine of them, e.g. * The base 9 family 2{7}: Always divisible by 2 or 5 * The base 16 family {8}F: Always divisible by 3, 7, or 13 * The base 21 family {7}D: Always divisible by 2, 13, or 17 * The base 23 family {D}GA: Always divisible by 2, 5, 7, 37, or 79 * The base 9 family 3{8}: Can be written as 4×9^''n''−1 and can be factored as (2×3^''n''−1) × (2×3^''n''+1) * The base 8 family 1{0}1: Can be written as 8^''n''+1 and can be factored as (2^''n''+1) × (4^''n''−2^''n''+1) * The base 16 family {4}1: Can be written as (4×16^''n''−49)/15 and can be factored as (2×3^''n''−7) × (2×3^''n''+7) / 15 * The base 16 family {C}D: Can be written as (4×16^''n''+1)/5 and can be factored as (2×4^''n''−2×2^''n''+1) × (2×4^''n''+2×2^''n''+1) / 5 * The base 14 family 8{D}: Can be written as 9×14^''n''−1, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (3×14^''n''/2−1) × (3×14^''n''/2+1) if ''n'' is even * The base 12 family {B}9B: Can be written as 12^''n''−25, it is divisible by 13 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (12^''n''/2−5) × (12^''n''/2+5) if ''n'' is even * The base 17 family 1{9}: Can be written as (25×17^''n''−9)/16, it is divisible by 2 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (5×17^''n''/2−3) × (5×17^''n''/2+3) / 16 if ''n'' is even * The base 19 family 1{6}: Can be written as (4×19^''n''−1)/3, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (2×19^''n''/2−1) × (2×19^''n''/2+1) / 3 if ''n'' is even By the [[:w:Prime number theorem|prime number theorem]], the [[:w:Probability|chance]] that a [[:w:Random number|random]] ''n''-digit base ''b'' number is prime is [[:w:Asymptotic analysis|approximately]] 1/''n'' (more accurately, the chance is approximately 1/(''n''×''ln''(''b'')), where ''ln'' is the [[:w:Natural logarithm|natural logarithm]]). If one conjectures the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' behave similarly (i.e. the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' is a [[:w:Pseudorandomness|pseudorandom sequence]]) you would expect [[:w:Harmonic_series (mathematics)|1/1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/4 + ... = ∞]] primes of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (of course, this does not always happen, since some ''x''{''y''}''z'' families can be ruled out to contain no prime > ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), but it is at least a reasonable conjecture in the absence of evidence to the contrary. Hence, the [[:w:Heuristic argument|heuristic argument]] suggests there are always infinitely many primes in family ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') if it cannot be ruled out to contain no prime or only contain finitely many primes, by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them. However, some families ''x''{''y''}''z'' could not be proven to contain no primes > ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them) but no primes > ''b'' could be found in the family, even after searching through numbers with over 100000 digits. In such a case, the only way to proceed is to [[:w:Primality test|test the primality]] of larger and larger numbers of such form and hope a prime is eventually discovered. e.g. the smallest (probable) prime in the family A{3}A in base ''b'' = 13 is A3₅₉₂₁₉₇A, its algebraic form is (41×13⁵⁹²¹⁹⁸+27)/4, when written in decimal contains 659677 digits (it is only probable prime, i.e. not definitely prime). == Data == These are the results of the Athena problem in bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 (we stop at base 36 since this base is the maximum base for which it is possible to write the numbers with the [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s 0, 1, 2, ..., 9 and A, B, C, ..., Z (i.e. the 10 [[:w:Arabic numerals|Arabic numerals]] and the 26 [[:w:Latin script|Latin letters]]): (some large primes are only probable primes, i.e. not definitely primes, since they are too large to be [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proved]] and [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|neither ''N''−1 nor ''N''+1 can be ≥ 1/3 factored]], all of them pass the [[:w:Baillie–PSW primality test|Baillie–PSW primality test]] and the [[:w:Strong pseudoprime|strong primality test]] (i.e. the [[:w:Miller–Rabin primality test|Miller–Rabin primality test]]) with all prime bases ''p'' ≤ 61, however, all primes < 10²⁵⁰⁰⁰ for bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 36 are definitely primes, most of them > 10²⁹⁹ are proven primes with [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proving]], others > 10²⁹⁹ are proven primes with [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|''N''−1 or ''N''+1 proving]]) All numbers are written in base ''b'', [[:w:Senary#Base 36 as senary compression|using A to Z to represent digit values 10 to 35]], "{}" means repeating, e.g. family 12{3}45 means the sequence {1245, 12345, 123345, 1233345, 12333345, 123333345, ...} (where the members are expressed as base ''b'' strings), subscripts are used to indicate repetitions of digits, e.g. 123₄567 means 123333567 (all subscripts are written in decimal). Base 2: 1 prime (the largest of which has 2 digits (it is 11, and its value is 3 in decimal)): {11} Base 3: 3 primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 111, and its value is 13 in decimal)): {12, 21, 111} Base 4: 5 primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 221, and its value is 41 in decimal)): {11, 13, 23, 31, 221} Base 5: 22 primes (the largest of which has 96 digits (it is 10₉₃13, and its algebraic form is 5⁹⁵+8)): {12, 21, 23, 32, 34, 43, 104, 111, 131, 133, 313, 401, 414, 3101, 10103, 14444, 30301, 33001, 33331, 44441, 300031, 100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000013} Base 6: 11 primes (the largest of which has 5 digits (it is 40041, and its value is 5209 in decimal)): {11, 15, 21, 25, 31, 35, 45, 51, 4401, 4441, 40041} Base 7: 71 primes (the largest of which has 17 digits (it is 3₁₆1, and its algebraic form is (7¹⁷−5)/2)): {14, 16, 23, 25, 32, 41, 43, 52, 56, 61, 65, 113, 115, 131, 133, 155, 212, 221, 304, 313, 335, 344, 346, 364, 445, 515, 533, 535, 544, 551, 553, 1022, 1051, 1112, 1202, 1211, 1222, 2111, 3031, 3055, 3334, 3503, 3505, 3545, 4504, 4555, 5011, 5455, 5545, 5554, 6034, 6634, 11111, 11201, 30011, 30101, 31001, 31111, 33001, 33311, 35555, 40054, 100121, 150001, 300053, 351101, 531101, 1100021, 33333301, 5100000001, 33333333333333331} Base 8: 75 primes (the largest of which has 221 digits (it is 4₂₂₀7, and its algebraic form is (4×8²²¹+17)/7)): {13, 15, 21, 23, 27, 35, 37, 45, 51, 53, 57, 65, 73, 75, 107, 111, 117, 141, 147, 161, 177, 225, 255, 301, 343, 361, 401, 407, 417, 431, 433, 463, 467, 471, 631, 643, 661, 667, 701, 711, 717, 747, 767, 3331, 3411, 4043, 4443, 4611, 5205, 6007, 6101, 6441, 6477, 6707, 6777, 7461, 7641, 47777, 60171, 60411, 60741, 444641, 500025, 505525, 3344441, 4444477, 5500525, 5550525, 55555025, 444444441, 744444441, 77774444441, 7777777777771, 555555555555525, 44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444447} Base 9: 151 primes (the largest of which has 1161 digits (it is 30₁₁₅₈11, and its algebraic form is 3×9¹¹⁶⁰+10)): {12, 14, 18, 21, 25, 32, 34, 41, 45, 47, 52, 58, 65, 67, 74, 78, 81, 87, 117, 131, 135, 151, 155, 175, 177, 238, 272, 308, 315, 331, 337, 355, 371, 375, 377, 438, 504, 515, 517, 531, 537, 557, 564, 601, 638, 661, 702, 711, 722, 735, 737, 751, 755, 757, 771, 805, 838, 1011, 1015, 1101, 1701, 2027, 2207, 3017, 3057, 3101, 3501, 3561, 3611, 3688, 3868, 5035, 5051, 5071, 5101, 5501, 5554, 5705, 5707, 7017, 7075, 7105, 7301, 8535, 8544, 8555, 8854, 20777, 22227, 22777, 30161, 33388, 50161, 50611, 53335, 55111, 55535, 55551, 57061, 57775, 70631, 71007, 77207, 100037, 100071, 100761, 105007, 270707, 301111, 305111, 333035, 333385, 333835, 338885, 350007, 500075, 530005, 555611, 631111, 720707, 2770007, 3030335, 7776662, 30300005, 30333335, 38333335, 51116111, 70000361, 300030005, 300033305, 351111111, 1300000007, 5161111111, 8333333335, 300000000035, 311111111161, 544444444444, 2000000000007, 5700000000001, 7270000000007, 88888888833335, 100000000000507, 5111111111111161, 7277777777777777707, 8888888888888888888335, 30000000000000000000051, 1000000000000000000000000057, 56111111111111111111111111111111111111, 7666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666662, 27777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777707, 300000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000011} Base 10: 77 primes (the largest of which has 31 digits (it is 50₂₈27, and its algebraic form is 5×10³⁰+27)): {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027} Base 11: 1068 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: 57₆₂₆₆₈), the largest of which has 62669 digits (it is 57₆₂₆₆₈, and its algebraic form is (57×11⁶²⁶⁶⁸−7)/10), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel11 Data of Athena problem base 11] Base 12: 106 primes (the largest of which has 42 digits (it is 40₃₉77, and its algebraic form is 4×12⁴¹+91)): {11, 15, 17, 1B, 25, 27, 31, 35, 37, 3B, 45, 4B, 51, 57, 5B, 61, 67, 6B, 75, 81, 85, 87, 8B, 91, 95, A7, AB, B5, B7, 221, 241, 2A1, 2B1, 2BB, 401, 421, 447, 471, 497, 565, 655, 665, 701, 70B, 721, 747, 771, 77B, 797, 7A1, 7BB, 907, 90B, 9BB, A41, B21, B2B, 2001, 200B, 202B, 222B, 229B, 292B, 299B, 4441, 4707, 4777, 6A05, 6AA5, 729B, 7441, 7B41, 929B, 9777, 992B, 9947, 997B, 9997, A0A1, A201, A605, A6A5, AA65, B001, B0B1, BB01, BB41, 600A5, 7999B, 9999B, AAAA1, B04A1, B0B9B, BAA01, BAAA1, BB09B, BBBB1, 44AAA1, A00065, BBBAA1, AAA0001, B00099B, AA000001, BBBBBB99B, B0000000000000000000000000009B, 400000000000000000000000000000000000000077} Base 13: 3197 primes (including 4 unproven probable primes: C5₂₃₇₅₅C, 80₃₂₀₁₇111, 95₁₉₇₄₂₀, A3₅₉₂₁₉₇A), the largest of which has 592199 digits (it is A3₅₉₂₁₉₇A, and its algebraic form is (41×13⁵⁹²¹⁹⁸+27)/4), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel13 Data of Athena problem base 13] Base 14: 650 primes, the largest of which has 19699 digits (it is 4D₁₉₆₉₈, and its algebraic form is 5×14¹⁹⁶⁹⁸−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel14 Data of Athena problem base 14] Base 15: 1284 primes, the largest of which has 157 digits (it is 7₁₅₅97, and its algebraic form is (15¹⁵⁷+59)/2), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel15 Data of Athena problem base 15] Base 16: 2347 primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: DB₃₂₂₃₄, 4₇₂₇₈₅DD, 3₁₁₆₁₃₇AF), the largest of which has 116139 digits (it is 3₁₁₆₁₃₇AF, and its algebraic form is (16¹¹⁶¹³⁹+619)/5), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel16 Data of Athena problem base 16] Base 17: 10415 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 12 unsolved families (1{7}, 1F{0}7, 4{7}A, 70F{0}D, 8{B}9, 9{5}9, A{D}F, B{0}B3, {B}E9, {B}EE, F1{9}, FD0{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel17 Data of Athena problem base 17] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left17 Data of unsolved families for base 17] Base 18: 549 primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is C0₆₂₆₈C5, and its algebraic form is 12×18⁶²⁷⁰+221), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel18 Data of Athena problem base 18] Base 19: 31417 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 17 unsolved families (4B5{0}H, {5}3, 5{H}05, 5{H}0H, 5{H}5, 66{B}, 71{0}177, 7AF{0}H, 97{0}3, C{H}C, EE1{6}, F{7}5, F{B}G, F{D}F, H0F{0}7A, HB{0}5B5, II{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel19 Data of Athena problem base 19] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left19 Data of unsolved families for base 19] Base 20: 3314 primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is G0₆₂₆₉D, and its algebraic form is 16×20⁶²⁷⁰+13), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel20 Data of Athena problem base 20] Base 21: 13386 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 8 unsolved families (5{0}DJ, {9}D, B3{0}EB, B{H}6H, C{F}0K, {F}35, G{0}FK, H{0}7771, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel21 Data of Athena problem base 21] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left21 Data of unsolved families for base 21] Base 22: 8003 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: BK₂₂₀₀₁5), the largest of which has 22003 digits (it is BK₂₂₀₀₁5, and its algebraic form is (251×22²²⁰⁰²−335)/21), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel22 Data of Athena problem base 22] Base 23: 65178 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 87 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel23 Data of Athena problem base 23] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left23 Data of unsolved families for base 23] Base 24: 3409 primes, the largest of which has 8134 digits (it is N00N₈₁₂₉LN, and its algebraic form is 13249×24⁸¹³¹−49), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel24 Data of Athena problem base 24] Base 25: 133639 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 85 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel25 Data of Athena problem base 25] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left25 Data of unsolved families for base 25] Base 26: 25256 known primes (including 7 unproven probable primes: 5₁₉₃₉₁6F, 7₂₀₂₇₉OL, LD0₂₀₉₇₅7, 6K₂₃₃₀₀5, J0₄₄₃₀₃KCB, M0₆₁₁₈₆2BB, 85M₁₉₇₀₆₀B) and 3 unsolved families ({A}6F, {H}MH, {I}GL, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel26 Data of Athena problem base 26] Base 27: 102852 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 44 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel27 Data of Athena problem base 27] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left27 Data of unsolved families for base 27] Base 28: 25528 known primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: N6₂₄₀₅₁LR, 5OA₃₁₂₃₈F, O4O₉₄₅₃₅9) and 1 unsolved family (O{A}F, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 900000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel28 Data of Athena problem base 28] Base 29: 355242 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 125 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel29 Data of Athena problem base 29] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left29 Data of unsolved families for base 29] Base 30: 2619 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: I0₂₄₆₀₈D), the largest of which has 34206 digits (it is OT₃₄₂₀₅, and its algebraic form is 25×30³⁴²⁰⁵−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel30 Data of Athena problem base 30] Base 31: 569323 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 77 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel31 Data of Athena problem base 31] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left31 Data of unsolved families for base 31] Base 32: 168882 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 120 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel32 Data of Athena problem base 32] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left32 Data of unsolved families for base 32] Base 33: 280012 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 81 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel33 Data of Athena problem base 33] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left33 Data of unsolved families for base 33] Base 34: 184785 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 47 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel34 Data of Athena problem base 34] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left34 Data of unsolved families for base 34] Base 35: 720002 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 60 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel35 Data of Athena problem base 35] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left35 Data of unsolved families for base 35] Base 36: 35286 known primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: 7K₂₆₅₆₇Z, S0₇₅₀₀₇8H, P₈₁₉₉₃SZ) and 4 unsolved families (B{0}EUV, HM{0}N, N{0}YYN, O{L}Z, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel36 Data of Athena problem base 36] == The fully proof of Athena problem in decimal (base ''b'' = 10) == '''Bold''' for the minimal elements, ''x'' ◁ ''y'' means ''x'' is a subsequence of ''y''. Assume ''p'' is a prime > 10, and the last digit of ''p'' must lie in {1,3,7,9}. Case 1: ''p'' ends with 1. In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''1. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 7, then (respectively) '''11''' ◁ ''p'', '''31''' ◁ ''p'', '''41''' ◁ ''p'', '''61''' ◁ ''p'', or '''71''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 8, or 9. Case 1.1: ''p'' begins with 2. In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''1. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''251''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''281''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 29 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''2221''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's. If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 2''z''2''w''1, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''20201''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty. If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1 is '''22000001'''. If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21 is '''20021'''. Case 1.2: ''p'' begins with 5. In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''521''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 59 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 5, or 8. If 05 ◁ ''y'', then '''5051''' ◁ ''p''. If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''5081''' ◁ ''p''. If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''5501''' ◁ ''p''. If 58 ◁ ''y'', then '''5581''' ◁ ''p''. If 80 ◁ ''y'', then '''5801''' ◁ ''p''. If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''5851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ {8}. If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 6, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If ''y'' ∈ {5}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1 is '''555555555551'''. If ''y'' ∈ {8}, since if 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',8}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {51,581}, but 51 and 581 are both composite. Case 1.3: ''p'' begins with 8. In this case we can write p = 8''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''821''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''881''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 89 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 5. If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''8501''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0}{5}. If 005 ◁ ''y'', then '''80051''' ◁ p. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ 0{5}. If y ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 8{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If y ∈ {5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 5, 55, 555, 5555, 55555, 555555, 5555555, 55555555, 555555555, 5555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {81, 851, 8551, 85551, 855551, 8555551, 85555551, 855555551, 8555555551, 85555555551, 855555555551}, but all of these numbers are composite. If y ∈ 0{5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0, 05, 055, 0555, 05555, 055555, 0555555, 05555555, 055555555, 0555555555, 05555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {801, 8051, 80551, 805551, 8055551, 80555551, 805555551, 8055555551, 80555555551, 805555555551, 8055555555551}, and of these numbers only 80555551 and 8055555551 are primes, but 80555551 ◁ 8055555551, thus only '''80555551''' is a minimal element. Case 1.4: ''p'' begins with 9. In this case we can write p = 9''y''1. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''991''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 2, 5, or 8. If 00 ◁ ''y'', then '''9001''' ◁ ''p''. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''9221''' ◁ ''p''. If 55 ◁ ''y'', then '''9551''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at most one 0, at most one 2, at most one 5, and at most one 8. If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and does not contain any of {2,5,8}, then ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {91,901}, but 91 and 901 are both composite. If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and only one of {2,5,8}, then the sum of the digits of ''p'' is divisible by 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at least two of {2,5,8}. If 25 ◁ ''y'', then 251 ◁ ''p''. If 28 ◁ ''y'', then 281 ◁ ''p''. If 52 ◁ ''y'', then 521 ◁ ''p''. If 82 ◁ ''y'', then 821 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains no 2's (since if ''y'' contains 2, then ''y'' cannot contain either 5's or 8's, which is a contradiction). If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''9851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {58,580,508,058}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {9581,95801,95081,90581}, and of these numbers only 95801 is prime, but 95801 is not a minimal element since 5801 ◁ 95801. Case 2: ''p'' ends with 3. In this case we can write p = ''x''3. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''13''' ◁ ''p'', '''23''' ◁ ''p'', '''43''' ◁ ''p'', '''53''' ◁ ''p'', '''73''' ◁ ''p'', or '''83''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Case 3: ''p'' ends with 7. In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''7. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 9, then (respectively) '''17''' ◁ ''p'', '''37''' ◁ ''p'', '''47''' ◁ ''p'', '''67''' ◁ ''p'', or '''97''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 7, or 8. Case 3.1: ''p'' begins with 2. In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''227''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''257''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''277''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 8. If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''2087''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 887 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ 8{0}. If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If y ∈ 8{0}, then ''p'' ∈ 28{0}7. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 40_''n''1 = 280_''n''7. Case 3.2: ''p'' begins with 5. In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''7. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''557''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''577''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''587''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then 227 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's. If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 12, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 5''z''2''w''7, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''50207''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty. If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7 is '''5200007'''. If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27 is '''5000000000000000000000000000027'''. Case 3.3: ''p'' begins with 7. In this case we can write ''p'' = 7''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''727''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''757''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''787''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 7, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0 or 7. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 7, ''p'' is divisible by 7, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Case 3.4: ''p'' begins with 8. In this case we can write ''p'' = 8''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''827''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''857''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''877''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''887''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 8{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 15, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Case 4: ''p'' ends with 9. In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''9. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''19''' ◁ ''p'', '''29''' ◁ ''p'', '''59''' ◁ ''p'', '''79''' ◁ ''p'', or '''89''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 4, 6, or 9. If 44 ◁ ''x'', then '''449''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''x'' contains zero or one 4's. If x contains no 4's, then all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume that ''x'' contains exactly one 4. Case 4.1: ''p'' begins with 3. In this case we can write ''p'' = 3''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. We must have '''349''' ◁ ''p''. Case 4.2: ''p'' begins with 4. In this case we can write ''p'' = 4''y''9, where all digits of ''y'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''409''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''499''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 4{6}9. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 6_''n''7 = 46_''n''9. Case 4.3: ''p'' begins with 6. In this case we can write p = 6''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''z'', then '''6469''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' is empty. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''6949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 6. If 06 ◁ ''y'', then '''60649''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}{0}. If 666 ◁ ''y'', then '''666649''' ◁ ''p''. If 00000 ◁ ''y'', then '''60000049''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 0, 00, 000, 0000, 6, 60, 600, 6000, 60000, 66, 660, 6600, 66000, 660000}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {649, 6049, 60049, 600049, 6000049, 6649, 66049, 660049, 6600049, 66000049, 66649, 666049, 6660049, 66600049, 666000049}, and of these numbers only '''66000049''' and '''66600049''' are primes. Case 4.4: ''p'' begins with 9. In this case we can write p = 9''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''9049''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''y'', then '''9649''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''9949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' is empty. If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9 is 946669. [[Category:Number theory]] eo5vp19dc40cp92cgefbpzym6eob5y6 0 330088 2817254 2814860 2026-06-29T16:03:37Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Bibliography */ 2817254 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}} == Starting activity == * Map out your linguistic background on a timeline, noting when you learnt or came across each language or variety you know. * From there, identify which of the languages or varieties listed you use in your daily life (to a greater or lesser extent) and specify the contexts in which you use them (private, public, professional, digital, cultural, religious…). This will give you your current ''[[Dominant language constellation]]'' (DLC). * Now think about the following questions: ** Is there one (or more) language or variety that clearly dominates? ** Are there contexts where you switch between languages or varieties, or mix them together? ** Compare your current DLC with your DLC from an earlier point in time. What has changed? Are there any languages/varieties that you once learned but hardly ever use or no longer use at all? * Given all these formalised elements, what is your view (or views) of your plurilingualism? == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to: * recognise that there are different views on plurilingualism; * understand the different stages of the multilingual turn; * understand the implications that this shift towards multilingualism has on language teaching and learning. == Keywords == monolingualism – plurilingualism – multilingualism – approaches to plurilingualism == Introduction == The multilingual turn should be seen as a major development in the way languages and their uses have been viewed since the 1980s. The term ‘turn’ (May, 2013) is used in the sense that plurilingual approaches to teaching have moved away from a compartmentalised, static view of languages – which was previously emphasised – towards a more dynamic, integrated and individualised conception of the linguistic and cultural diversity of individuals and communities. == History == For a long time, in language teaching theory underpinned by research, monolingualism (with a dominant language) was contrasted with bilingualism (conceived as perfect and symmetrical mastery of two languages, for example, as described by Bloomfield, 1993, Penfield & Roberts, 1959, and the code-switching theory) or multilingualism (the presence of several languages within a society or in an individual’s practice, but in a compartmentalised manner). The multilingual turn, which reached its peak in the 2010s, marked a transition from approaches emphasising the need to isolate languages for learning (monolingual immersion was the norm) to the development of a more open, inclusive perspective that takes into account the plurality – particularly the linguistic diversity – of learners. The ideal of the native speaker has thus been set aside as a central element of various teaching approaches and methods (the direct method, the audio-oral method, etc.), in favour of a greater focus on the plurilingual learner. We are therefore at a turning point that forms part of a critical perspective on language teaching and learning. In support of the concept of plurilingual and inter/transcultural competence developed notably under the auspices of the Council of Europe through the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR; Council of Europe, 2001), the multilingual turn has become institutionalised, initially nourished by the work of pioneers such as Grosjean (1982, 1993) and Lüdi & Py (1986). As Macaire (2025, p. 315) points out, « le tournant plurilingue se décline selon une triple orientation en éducation. La première explore une compétence unifiante ; la deuxième en discute les enjeux pour l’éducation ; la troisième s’intéresse à l’apprenant-sujet dans l’écologie des diversités ».  – “The shift towards multilingualism takes three distinct forms in education. The first explores a unifying competency; the second examines the implications for education; the third focuses on the individual learner within the context of diversity.” [own translation] == Conceptualisation of the multilingual turn == This turning point marks a conceptual shift centred on four key dimensions, which completely transform the way in which we view multilingualism and the associated multiculturalism. '''An integrated view of languages''': The multilingual turn recognises that an individual’s languages and language varieties are not compartmentalised, but form a single, evolving repertoire from which they draw depending on context and needs. We are moving towards a unifying approach to language competencies. '''Dynamic dimension''': Languages are used in a complementary manner, alternately, and sometimes mixed together depending on the social, educational or family contexts, or on the needs of speakers in various areas of use (see the concept of multiliteracy; Cook, 1991). '''Recognition of partial language competence''': One of the hallmarks of the shift towards plurilingualism lies in the recognition of all language competencies, whether partial or receptive, moving away from a view of plurilingualism that aims to achieve ‘native’ proficiency in every language. Being plurilingual should no longer be equated with being equally competent in each language one knows or uses. '''Relationship with cultural diversity''': Another dimension is involved, namely the cultural dimension, through the recognition of multiple cultural identities and the ability to navigate between different cultures. The multicultural dimension is valued. == Educational and social implications == '''A conceptual paradigm shift''': As the term suggests, the multilingual turn represents a paradigm shift, in the sense that it offers a new perspective on linguistic and cultural diversity. We are thus moving away from viewing multilingualism as an obstacle towards recognising it as a source of richness and an asset for learning languages and citizenship. This conceptual shift inevitably leads to changes in educational practices, such as recognising the value of learners' linguistic repertoires and developing innovative teaching methods. '''Valuing linguistic repertoires''': The multilingual turn is prompting schools and society to recognise and actively foster learners’ linguistic repertoires, enabling learners  to draw on and develop them – especially those from plurilingual families, including migrant backgrounds. This includes activities built around [[Language biography and identity texts|language biographies]] (Molinié, 2006; Auger, 2024), which contribute to this promotion. '''Innovative teaching approaches''': Taking this into account makes it necessary to implement new teaching approaches, particularly within the framework of [[Pluralistic approach|pluralistic approaches]] (Integrated didactic approach to languages, Awakening to languages, intercomprehension, and the Intercultural approach). Teaching approaches based on  [[translanguaging]] (García & Lin, 2017) are also fully part of this shift. The first four approaches can incorporate students’ home languages or other languages they know – whether learnt as foreign or second languages, or acquired in other ways – in order to build on them,  for example by comparing languages, and to promote practices aligned with [[language inclusion]] (Auger, 2020). '''Institutional recognition''': Despite this shift and the arguments associated with it, the promotion of plurilingualism sometimes struggles to take shape within school systems, for various reasons. Consequently, the idea of a pluralistic society is often challenged by political and/or individual ideologies, as well as the strongly held, identity-based views of certain governments. The value placed on [[English as a Lingua Franca (ELF)|English as a lingua franca]] may also contribute to this difficulty in recognition. Even when states are willing to promote this diversity, implementation is complex, due to a lack of teacher training and suitable educational resources and tools. == Take-home messages == The multilingual turn refers to a shift from an additive, compartmentalised, and static view of languages to a dynamic, integrated and value-affirming conception of individuals’ and societies’ linguistic and cultural diversity. It invites us to rethink education, citizenship, and language policies in an era of globalisation and mobility. The multilingual turn also challenges the traditional notions of mother tongue/first language and foreign language, encouraging us to focus more on linguistic repertoires and less on individual languages. == Self-assessment == <quiz> {The multilingual turn holds that:} - plurilingualism is a “handicap” for language learning; - plurilingualism is an obstacle to the development of citizenship; - plurilingualism is positive only if each language is mastered equally; + plurilingualism is an asset for language learning. {From the perspective of pedagogical practices in language learning, following the multilingual turn, it is considered:} - counterproductive to emphasize learners’ home languages ; + necessary to build on the languages learners already know; - that a foreign language should only be learnt through full immersion; + inadvisable to rely on translation or on simply linking to other languages. {With the multilingual turn, in the context of language teaching and learning, we have moved:} - from taking learners’ languages into account to focusing solely on the target language; + from a compartmentalised view of languages to a unified view; - from the necessary consideration of learners’ languages to a purely immersive target-language approach; - from a holistic view of languages to a compartmentalised one. {To implement the educational guidelines resulting from the multilingual turn, it is necessary} - that all teachers are familiar with all their students’ languages; + that learners of the same origin be grouped in the same classes; - that teachers be trained to implement pluralistic approaches; - that teachers use AI-based automatic translators. </quiz> == Resources to go further == * Conteh, J., & Meier, G, (Eds.) (2014). ''The multilingual turn in language education: Opportunities and challenges''. Multilingual Matters. * Cook, V. J. (1991). The poverty-of-the-stimulus argument and multi-competence. ''Second Language Research'', ''7''(2), 103–17. * Finex, N., & Makalela, L. (2021). ''Decolonising multilingualism in Africa: Recentering silenced voices from the global south''. Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/NDHLOV3354 * Kramsch, C. (2022). Afterword: The multilingual turn in language teacher education. ''Language and Education'', ''36''(5), 467–471. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500782.2022.2118542   == Bibliography == Auger, N. (2020). Enseigner à des élèves plurilingues: vers une didactique inclusive. In C. Mendonça-Dias, B. Azaoui, & F. Chnane-Davin (Eds.), ''Allophonie. Inclusion et langues des enfants migrants à l’école'' (pp. 171–183). Éditions Lambert-Lucas. Auger, N. (2024). ''Le diamant langagier''. French, English subtitles: (1h47) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=artl-xcTDJc     Bloomfield, L. (1933). ''Language''. Holt. Coste, D., Moore, D., & Zarate, G. (1997, 2009). ''Compétence plurilingue et pluriculturelle, Vers un Cadre Européen Commun de Référence pour l'enseignement et l'apprentissage des langues vivantes: études préparatoires.'' Conseil de l’Europe, Division des politiques linguistiques. https://rm.coe.int/168069d29c Council of Europe (Ed.). (2001). ''Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment''. Council of Europe Publishing. https://rm.coe.int/16802fc1bf García, O., & Lin, A.M.Y. (2017). Translanguaging in bilingual education. In O. García, A.M.Y. Lin., & S. May (Ed.). ''Bilingual and multilingual education''. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02258-1_9 Grosjean, F (1982). ''Life with two Languages: An introduction to bilingualism''. Harvard University Press. Grosjean, F. (1993). Le bilinguisme et le biculturalisme. Essai de définition. ''Travaux neuchâtelois de linguistique'', (19), 13–41. https://doi.org/10.26034/tranel.1993.2342 Lüdi, G., & Py, B. (2003). ''Être bilingue'' (3rd revised edition). Lang. Lüdi, G., & Py, B. (2009). To be or not to be... a plurilingual speaker. ''International Journal of Multilingualism'', ''6''(2), 154–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/14790710902846715 Macaire, D. (2025). Le tournant plurilingue. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l'éducation plurilingue'' (pp. 305–307).  Peter Lang. https://doi.org/10.3726/b23455   May, S. (2013). ''The multilingual turn : Implications for SLA, TESOL, and bilingual education.'' Taylor & Francis Group. Meier, G. S. (2017).  The multilingual turn as a critical movement in education: assumptions, challenges and a need for reflection. ''Applied Linguistics Review'', ''8''(1), 131–161. https://doi.org/10.1515/applirev-2016-2010 Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2018). The multilingual turn in foreign language education. Facts and fallacies. In A. Bonnet & P. Siemund (Eds.), ''Foreign language education in multilingual classrooms'' (pp. 191–210). John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/hsld.7 Molinié, M. (2006). Une approche biographique des trajectoires linguistiques et culturelles. In M. Molinié (Ed.), Biographie ''langagière et apprentissage plurilingue. Le français dans le monde. Recherches et applications, 39'', 8–11. https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01224908/document Montagne-Macaire, D. (2008). D’une didactique des langues à une didactique des plurilinguismes ? Réflexions pour la recherche. ''Recherches en didactique des langues et des cultures'', ''5''(1), 2–40. https://doi.org/10.4000/rdlc.6245 Moore, D., & Gajo, L. (2009). Introduction. French voices on plurilingualism and pluriculturalism: Significance and perspectives. ''International Journal of Multilingualism'', ''6''(2), 137–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/14790710902846707 Penfield, W., & Roberts, L. (1959). ''Speech and brain mechanisms''. Princeton University Press. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Thierry Gaillat (Université de La Réunion) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] 455g9ar381k8q7hi7c0va50222f0eq9 2817301 2817254 2026-06-29T16:55:28Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self-assessment */ 2817301 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}} == Starting activity == * Map out your linguistic background on a timeline, noting when you learnt or came across each language or variety you know. * From there, identify which of the languages or varieties listed you use in your daily life (to a greater or lesser extent) and specify the contexts in which you use them (private, public, professional, digital, cultural, religious…). This will give you your current ''[[Dominant language constellation]]'' (DLC). * Now think about the following questions: ** Is there one (or more) language or variety that clearly dominates? ** Are there contexts where you switch between languages or varieties, or mix them together? ** Compare your current DLC with your DLC from an earlier point in time. What has changed? Are there any languages/varieties that you once learned but hardly ever use or no longer use at all? * Given all these formalised elements, what is your view (or views) of your plurilingualism? == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to: * recognise that there are different views on plurilingualism; * understand the different stages of the multilingual turn; * understand the implications that this shift towards multilingualism has on language teaching and learning. == Keywords == monolingualism – plurilingualism – multilingualism – approaches to plurilingualism == Introduction == The multilingual turn should be seen as a major development in the way languages and their uses have been viewed since the 1980s. The term ‘turn’ (May, 2013) is used in the sense that plurilingual approaches to teaching have moved away from a compartmentalised, static view of languages – which was previously emphasised – towards a more dynamic, integrated and individualised conception of the linguistic and cultural diversity of individuals and communities. == History == For a long time, in language teaching theory underpinned by research, monolingualism (with a dominant language) was contrasted with bilingualism (conceived as perfect and symmetrical mastery of two languages, for example, as described by Bloomfield, 1993, Penfield & Roberts, 1959, and the code-switching theory) or multilingualism (the presence of several languages within a society or in an individual’s practice, but in a compartmentalised manner). The multilingual turn, which reached its peak in the 2010s, marked a transition from approaches emphasising the need to isolate languages for learning (monolingual immersion was the norm) to the development of a more open, inclusive perspective that takes into account the plurality – particularly the linguistic diversity – of learners. The ideal of the native speaker has thus been set aside as a central element of various teaching approaches and methods (the direct method, the audio-oral method, etc.), in favour of a greater focus on the plurilingual learner. We are therefore at a turning point that forms part of a critical perspective on language teaching and learning. In support of the concept of plurilingual and inter/transcultural competence developed notably under the auspices of the Council of Europe through the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR; Council of Europe, 2001), the multilingual turn has become institutionalised, initially nourished by the work of pioneers such as Grosjean (1982, 1993) and Lüdi & Py (1986). As Macaire (2025, p. 315) points out, « le tournant plurilingue se décline selon une triple orientation en éducation. La première explore une compétence unifiante ; la deuxième en discute les enjeux pour l’éducation ; la troisième s’intéresse à l’apprenant-sujet dans l’écologie des diversités ».  – “The shift towards multilingualism takes three distinct forms in education. The first explores a unifying competency; the second examines the implications for education; the third focuses on the individual learner within the context of diversity.” [own translation] == Conceptualisation of the multilingual turn == This turning point marks a conceptual shift centred on four key dimensions, which completely transform the way in which we view multilingualism and the associated multiculturalism. '''An integrated view of languages''': The multilingual turn recognises that an individual’s languages and language varieties are not compartmentalised, but form a single, evolving repertoire from which they draw depending on context and needs. We are moving towards a unifying approach to language competencies. '''Dynamic dimension''': Languages are used in a complementary manner, alternately, and sometimes mixed together depending on the social, educational or family contexts, or on the needs of speakers in various areas of use (see the concept of multiliteracy; Cook, 1991). '''Recognition of partial language competence''': One of the hallmarks of the shift towards plurilingualism lies in the recognition of all language competencies, whether partial or receptive, moving away from a view of plurilingualism that aims to achieve ‘native’ proficiency in every language. Being plurilingual should no longer be equated with being equally competent in each language one knows or uses. '''Relationship with cultural diversity''': Another dimension is involved, namely the cultural dimension, through the recognition of multiple cultural identities and the ability to navigate between different cultures. The multicultural dimension is valued. == Educational and social implications == '''A conceptual paradigm shift''': As the term suggests, the multilingual turn represents a paradigm shift, in the sense that it offers a new perspective on linguistic and cultural diversity. We are thus moving away from viewing multilingualism as an obstacle towards recognising it as a source of richness and an asset for learning languages and citizenship. This conceptual shift inevitably leads to changes in educational practices, such as recognising the value of learners' linguistic repertoires and developing innovative teaching methods. '''Valuing linguistic repertoires''': The multilingual turn is prompting schools and society to recognise and actively foster learners’ linguistic repertoires, enabling learners  to draw on and develop them – especially those from plurilingual families, including migrant backgrounds. This includes activities built around [[Language biography and identity texts|language biographies]] (Molinié, 2006; Auger, 2024), which contribute to this promotion. '''Innovative teaching approaches''': Taking this into account makes it necessary to implement new teaching approaches, particularly within the framework of [[Pluralistic approach|pluralistic approaches]] (Integrated didactic approach to languages, Awakening to languages, intercomprehension, and the Intercultural approach). Teaching approaches based on  [[translanguaging]] (García & Lin, 2017) are also fully part of this shift. The first four approaches can incorporate students’ home languages or other languages they know – whether learnt as foreign or second languages, or acquired in other ways – in order to build on them,  for example by comparing languages, and to promote practices aligned with [[language inclusion]] (Auger, 2020). '''Institutional recognition''': Despite this shift and the arguments associated with it, the promotion of plurilingualism sometimes struggles to take shape within school systems, for various reasons. Consequently, the idea of a pluralistic society is often challenged by political and/or individual ideologies, as well as the strongly held, identity-based views of certain governments. The value placed on [[English as a Lingua Franca (ELF)|English as a lingua franca]] may also contribute to this difficulty in recognition. Even when states are willing to promote this diversity, implementation is complex, due to a lack of teacher training and suitable educational resources and tools. == Take-home messages == The multilingual turn refers to a shift from an additive, compartmentalised, and static view of languages to a dynamic, integrated and value-affirming conception of individuals’ and societies’ linguistic and cultural diversity. It invites us to rethink education, citizenship, and language policies in an era of globalisation and mobility. The multilingual turn also challenges the traditional notions of mother tongue/first language and foreign language, encouraging us to focus more on linguistic repertoires and less on individual languages. == Self-assessment == <quiz display=simple> {The multilingual turn holds that:} - plurilingualism is a “handicap” for language learning; - plurilingualism is an obstacle to the development of citizenship; - plurilingualism is positive only if each language is mastered equally; + plurilingualism is an asset for language learning. {From the perspective of pedagogical practices in language learning, following the multilingual turn, it is considered:} - counterproductive to emphasize learners’ home languages ; + necessary to build on the languages learners already know; - that a foreign language should only be learnt through full immersion; + inadvisable to rely on translation or on simply linking to other languages. {With the multilingual turn, in the context of language teaching and learning, we have moved:} - from taking learners’ languages into account to focusing solely on the target language; + from a compartmentalised view of languages to a unified view; - from the necessary consideration of learners’ languages to a purely immersive target-language approach; - from a holistic view of languages to a compartmentalised one. {To implement the educational guidelines resulting from the multilingual turn, it is necessary} - that all teachers are familiar with all their students’ languages; + that learners of the same origin be grouped in the same classes; - that teachers be trained to implement pluralistic approaches; - that teachers use AI-based automatic translators. </quiz> == Resources to go further == * Conteh, J., & Meier, G, (Eds.) (2014). ''The multilingual turn in language education: Opportunities and challenges''. Multilingual Matters. * Cook, V. J. (1991). The poverty-of-the-stimulus argument and multi-competence. ''Second Language Research'', ''7''(2), 103–17. * Finex, N., & Makalela, L. (2021). ''Decolonising multilingualism in Africa: Recentering silenced voices from the global south''. Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/NDHLOV3354 * Kramsch, C. (2022). Afterword: The multilingual turn in language teacher education. ''Language and Education'', ''36''(5), 467–471. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500782.2022.2118542   == Bibliography == Auger, N. (2020). Enseigner à des élèves plurilingues: vers une didactique inclusive. In C. Mendonça-Dias, B. Azaoui, & F. Chnane-Davin (Eds.), ''Allophonie. Inclusion et langues des enfants migrants à l’école'' (pp. 171–183). Éditions Lambert-Lucas. Auger, N. (2024). ''Le diamant langagier''. French, English subtitles: (1h47) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=artl-xcTDJc     Bloomfield, L. (1933). ''Language''. Holt. Coste, D., Moore, D., & Zarate, G. (1997, 2009). ''Compétence plurilingue et pluriculturelle, Vers un Cadre Européen Commun de Référence pour l'enseignement et l'apprentissage des langues vivantes: études préparatoires.'' Conseil de l’Europe, Division des politiques linguistiques. https://rm.coe.int/168069d29c Council of Europe (Ed.). (2001). ''Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment''. Council of Europe Publishing. https://rm.coe.int/16802fc1bf García, O., & Lin, A.M.Y. (2017). Translanguaging in bilingual education. In O. García, A.M.Y. Lin., & S. May (Ed.). ''Bilingual and multilingual education''. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02258-1_9 Grosjean, F (1982). ''Life with two Languages: An introduction to bilingualism''. Harvard University Press. Grosjean, F. (1993). Le bilinguisme et le biculturalisme. Essai de définition. ''Travaux neuchâtelois de linguistique'', (19), 13–41. https://doi.org/10.26034/tranel.1993.2342 Lüdi, G., & Py, B. (2003). ''Être bilingue'' (3rd revised edition). Lang. Lüdi, G., & Py, B. (2009). To be or not to be... a plurilingual speaker. ''International Journal of Multilingualism'', ''6''(2), 154–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/14790710902846715 Macaire, D. (2025). Le tournant plurilingue. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l'éducation plurilingue'' (pp. 305–307).  Peter Lang. https://doi.org/10.3726/b23455   May, S. (2013). ''The multilingual turn : Implications for SLA, TESOL, and bilingual education.'' Taylor & Francis Group. Meier, G. S. (2017).  The multilingual turn as a critical movement in education: assumptions, challenges and a need for reflection. ''Applied Linguistics Review'', ''8''(1), 131–161. https://doi.org/10.1515/applirev-2016-2010 Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2018). The multilingual turn in foreign language education. Facts and fallacies. In A. Bonnet & P. Siemund (Eds.), ''Foreign language education in multilingual classrooms'' (pp. 191–210). John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/hsld.7 Molinié, M. (2006). Une approche biographique des trajectoires linguistiques et culturelles. In M. Molinié (Ed.), Biographie ''langagière et apprentissage plurilingue. Le français dans le monde. Recherches et applications, 39'', 8–11. https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01224908/document Montagne-Macaire, D. (2008). D’une didactique des langues à une didactique des plurilinguismes ? Réflexions pour la recherche. ''Recherches en didactique des langues et des cultures'', ''5''(1), 2–40. https://doi.org/10.4000/rdlc.6245 Moore, D., & Gajo, L. (2009). Introduction. French voices on plurilingualism and pluriculturalism: Significance and perspectives. ''International Journal of Multilingualism'', ''6''(2), 137–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/14790710902846707 Penfield, W., & Roberts, L. (1959). ''Speech and brain mechanisms''. Princeton University Press. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Thierry Gaillat (Université de La Réunion) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] qd6l1iqja4s2xzo9r17vabn9vkr4r93 0 330094 2817255 2814878 2026-06-29T16:05:16Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Bibliography */ 2817255 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}} == Initial activity == Examine the following language profiles: * '''Melissa''', born in Berlin to an Albanian father and an Italian mother. At home, she speaks Albanian with her father and Italian with her mother. With her sister, she mainly speaks German, the language in which they have been educated since kindergarten. At school, she learns English and French, which are part of the curriculum. * '''Teresa''', who is Portuguese, has been living in France for 18 years, having emigrated there as an adult. She learned French as an adult through daily interactions. She learned German and English at school before emigrating. She speaks Portuguese with her children. Try to answer these questions: * What is Melissa's mother tongue? * What is the difference in the status of German in the two language profiles? * What is the status of English in the two profiles? == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to... * understand the difficulty of classifying and naming the status of languages present in individuals' language biographies; * understand that classifications of relationships to languages are more sociolinguistic and subjective than based on stable linguistic and scientific criteria- == Keywords == Language biography - Mother tongue - L1 - Foreign language - Host language - Language of origin - Border language - Minority language - Linguistic profiles. == Prerequisites == Prior knowledge of the concept of [[Language biography and identity texts|language biography]]. == Introduction == Concepts are not neutral and imply worldviews, either implicitly or explicitly. More specifically, linguistic concepts, although they may seem neutral and imbued with objectivity and scientificity, are polysemic and lend themselves to different interpretations depending on the context, even among researchers. Concepts may have a linguistic basis, based on the order of acquisition, for example, as in the case of L1, or they may refer to the sociolinguistic contexts in which they are learned/acquired, as in the case of “language of origin” or “host language,” which refer to situations of immigration, whether forced or not. Other classifications refer to the geographical contexts in which linguistic contacts occur (“border languages”), or to power relations (“minority language”, “majority language”), and still others to classifications related to typology (such as “languages of the same family”). In other words, when we talk about languages, we use concepts that draw on different disciplines, discourses, representations of what a language is, and even what a speaker is, their skills, and their communication needs. Thus, when we use the term “mother tongue” in the singular, we tend to imagine the designated speaker as a native speaker with advanced skills in a given language. But this concept draws on ideologies related to the very process of language transmission, from mother to child. In this section, we will learn how to designate different relationships between subjects and languages, and we will realize that the designations that subjects give to the languages they come into contact with do not always correspond to criteria considered scientific and “linguistic”. Given the complexity of addressing all potential designations and polysemies, we will focus on the most common ones in discourses on  plurilingualism and  plurilingual education, emphasizing the most consensual conceptions in research (Lisboa, data). == Concepts == Concepts of language are not static. The same could be said of concepts used to describe different relationships with languages. These concepts are functional and dynamic in nature, continually being revised, redefined, and updated in response to the demands and advances of research. They are also closely linked to sociolinguistic and identity contexts, which, by their very nature, are constantly evolving. In this process, new concepts emerge, old ones are rethought, while others become inoperative or unsuitable for certain contexts or research frameworks (Lisboa, 2024). Conceptions of languages can be analyzed using, for example, dictionaries specific to disciplinary fields (Cuq, 2003; Galisson & Coste, 1976; Surkamp, 2010) or meta-analyses of scientific texts in these fields, attempting to understand the common uses associated with each term and the variations. This is what Lisboa (2024) did in a study in which he analyzed published scientific articles. The author concludes: "The terminology of fields dealing with the interrelationships between languages, individuals, and societies, such as language teaching and language policy, is permeated with concepts such as ''mother tongue'', ''first language'', ''non-mother tongue'', ''additional language'', ''official language'', ''foreign language'', ''second language'', ''language of origin'', and ''host language'', among many others. These concepts are used to classify, describe, represent, and specify the roles played by languages, the social functions attributed to them, and the relationships between different languages in the same sociolinguistic space and in individuals' linguistic repertoires." (Lisboa, 2025, our translation) For this section, we have translated and reproduced the definitions from the meta-analytical work mentioned above (Lisboa, 2024), although some contextualization is still needed, as not all terms have the same academic traditions. For the definition of the host language, which does not appear in the entries produced by Lisboa (2024), we turn to Lopez & Diniz (2018). In any case, it should be noted that meta-analytic work reflects the practices of researchers, which may vary between epistemological, research, and linguistic traditions. Thus, Lisboa refers to the concepts most commonly used in the Brazilian context. For example, “non-native language” is often used in Portuguese, mainly because of the difficulties in differentiating the relationships and statuses of languages that come after the so-called ‘first’ or “native” languages. This concept is largely absent from English-language research. {| class="wikitable" |Concept |Definition |- |Mother tongue |“The language first acquired around the age of five” (p. 260), i.e., during the early years of primary socialization. It can also be understood as “the language of greatest mastery and affirmation of an individual's identity” (p. 271). From a sociolinguistic point of view, this designation can also refer to the majority language in a given linguistic community (p. 273). Regarding this attribution, the author adds: “This meaning is oriented towards an imaginary of national, regional, cultural, and/or ethnic identity and unity. It is also closely linked to the concepts of national language and majority language” (p. 273). |- |Non-native language |“A language acquired after the acquisition of the native language, whether in a formal or informal context, immersive or non-immersive, and regardless of the sociopolitical status of the language” (p. 275). |- |L1 |“The language first acquired up to the age of about five” (p. 313). This may be the “language of greatest proficiency and affirmation of an individual's identity” (p. 316), although the degree of proficiency may change over the course of a lifetime. |- |Heritage language |“Language acquired in early childhood, usually within the family, which, due to migration, usually during childhood, becomes a minority language in relation to the majority language of the host society and, as a result, restricted in terms of contexts and opportunities for use and spaces of circulation, which can gradually lead to a weakening of linguistic proficiency or even to the individual forgetting the language” (p. 237). It can also refer to “the language with which the individual maintains a sense of belonging and cultural and identity ties, regardless of the context or order of acquisition, the minority or majority status of the language, or the level of proficiency” (p. 245). The author adds “a non-native language taught, learned, and/or used in non-immersion contexts, i.e., when the language in question is not the majority language in the place of teaching, use, and/or learning and/or does not have official sociopolitical status” (p. 252; for a third, more political-administrative meaning, see p. 257). |- |Host language |A subdomain of additional language that refers to the language acquired or to be acquired by migrants, with an emphasis on forced displacement, who are in a situation of vulnerability (Lopez & Diniz, 2018, n/p.). |- |L2 (or Second Language) |“A non-native or non-majority language that has been given (co)official status in bilingual or multilingual countries and is therefore the language or one of the languages of public administration, education, and common means of communication in the country” (p. 290). It can also refer to “a non-native language taught, learned, and/or used in language immersion contexts, i.e., when the language in question is the majority language in the place of teaching, use, and/or learning and/or has official sociopolitical status” (p. 300). A third concept, which does not enjoy international consensus, particularly in the German context (see definitions in Surkamp, 2010), refers to “a language acquired after the acquisition of the mother tongue, regardless of the formal, informal, immersive or non-immersive context, the socio-political status of the language or its position in the chronological order of language acquisition” (p. 307) or “a language acquired first after the partial or complete acquisition of the mother tongue, i.e., from the point of view of the chronology of language acquisition, it is the second language to constitute the speaker's linguistic repertoire” (p. 309). |- |Foreign Language |This is a language learned in an institutional context and in a guided manner. “A language acquired after the acquisition of the mother tongue, whether in a formal or informal context, immersive or non-immersive, and regardless of the sociopolitical status of the language” (p. 250). |- |Additional language |“A language acquired after the acquisition of the mother tongue, regardless of the formal or informal context, immersive or non-immersive, the sociopolitical status of the language, or the chronology of acquisition” (Lisboa, 2024, p. 231). It can also refer to “a non-native language acquired after the acquisition of the mother tongue and at least one other non-native language” (p. 236). |- |Language(s) of schooling |Languages of schooling cover two dimensions: languages taught as a subject (such as foreign languages in the curriculum) and languages used for and in teaching. These are often the national and majority languages of a country (Portuguese in Portugal) or regional or minority languages, depending on local education and language policies. (<nowiki>https://www.coe.int/fr/web/language-policy/languages-of-schooling</nowiki>) |} The language of origin is also often referred to as the “home language”, “identity language”, or “family language” (Stratilaki-Klein, 2025). However, speakers of a language of origin do not always consider that this language best defines their identity. Sometimes families choose not to speak their language of origin at home. Furthermore, a speaker may have two languages of origin, as in the case of Melissa, presented in the initial activity. The term “neighboring language” has both linguistic and geographical connotations and may coincide. From a linguistic point of view, it is a language belonging to the same language family (for example, Romance or Slavic languages, to name just two examples). From a geographical point of view, these are languages of neighboring territories, with more or less fluid borders (the French-German border or between Brazil and Argentina, for example). The concept of linguistic proximity or “border language” (Araújo e Sá et al, 2024) is used to refer to languages that coexist in border regions. Regardless of the connotation chosen, we can clearly see how important this concept is for thinking about plurilingual education: either it generally refers to teaching approaches that aim to develop receptive skills in several languages of the same language family (see entry “intercomprehension” in this Wikiversity), or it refers to cross-border linguistic contacts aimed at developing plurilingual and intercultural competence (Putsche, 2022). It is important to remember that most language designations take the so-called native speaker as the implicit norm (Bono, 2025), below which speakers of other designations are ranked, giving rise to situations of linguistic prejudice and discrimination in society in general, and in schools in particular. == Take away messages == * Language classifications can be based on linguistic, sociolinguistic, geographical, economic, curricular, and individual aspects. * The concepts used to name languages are polysemous and are not neutral, but rather convey discourses and ideologies that must be (re)constructed in order to understand the objectives set in plurilingual education. * Language designations and their associated connotations may depend on the linguistic and academic traditions in which they circulate. == Self-assessment == <quiz> {In the first situation presented in the initial activity, Melissa's mother tongue is German:} -true +false {In the second linguistic profile presented in the initial activity, Portuguese is the language of origin of Teresa's children.} +true -false {The host language generally refers to:} +the language that people in situations of mobility acquire in order to meet their most basic and urgent needs. -the language that parents and educators in situations of mobility (forced or otherwise) pass on to their children in order to maintain a link with their country of origin. -the language in which learners feel welcome when on vacation abroad and which makes them feel “at home”. {Which of these concepts refers to the language that parents and educators in situations of migration and mobility (forced or otherwise) pass on to their children in the host country, in a situation where that language is a minority language?} -Host language. -Mother tongue. +Language of origin. </quiz> == Resources to go further == * Araújo e Sá, M.H., Carinhas, R., Carlos, V., Kremer, M., Lourenço, M., Pinto, S., Simões, C., Teixeira, M., & Ulhôa, A. (2024). ''Linguistic and cultural management in border regions''. https://www.eu-bold.com/linguistic-and-cultural-management-in-border-regions/ * Dabène, L. (1994). ''Repères sociolinguistiques pour l’enseignement des langues''. Hachette. * Dewaele, J.-M.; Bak, T.; Ortega, L. (2022). Why the mythical “native speaker” has mud on its face. In N. Slavkov, S. Melo-Pfeifer & N. Kerschhofer-Puhalo (Eds.), ''The Changing Face of the “Native Speaker”. Perspectives from Multilingualism and Globalization'' (pp. 25-45). De Gruyter. * Lisboa, J. (2024). ''Vocabulário terminológico de conceitos de Língua''. Tese de doutoramento. Universididade da Uberlândia. URL: https://repositorio.ufu.br/bitstream/123456789/43065/1/VocabularioConceitosLingua.pdf == Bibliography == Bono, M. (2025). Mother tongue, native language, first language, heritage language. In Ch. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue / Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education''. Peter Lang. Cuq, J.-P. (dir.) (2003). ''Dictionnaire de didactique du français langue étrangère et seconde''. Cle International. Galisson, R., & Coste, D. (1976). ''Dictionnaire de Didactique des Langues''. Hachette. Lisboa, J. (2024). ''Vocabulário terminológico de conceitos de Língua''. Tese de doutoramento. Universidade da Uberlândia. URL: https://repositorio.ufu.br/bitstream/123456789/43065/1/VocabularioConceitosLingua.pdf Lisboa, J. (2025). A criação do Vocabulário Terminológico de Conceitos de Língua. ''Domínios de Lingu@gem'', 19, p. e019025. DOI: 10.14393/DLv19a2025-25. URL:  https://seer.ufu.br/index.php/dominiosdelinguagem/article/view/76903. Lopez, A.P.A., & Diniz, L. R. (2018). Iniciativas jurídicas e académicas para o acolhimento no Brasil de deslocados forçados. Revista da Sociedade Internacional do Português Língua Estrangeira, 9, s/p.  https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330635043_Iniciativas_Juridicas_e_Academicas_Brasileiras_para_o_Acolhimento_de_Imigrantes_Deslocados_Forcados Putsche, J. (2022). ''L’interculturel contextualisé : franco-allemand, frontalier, transculturel – Une approche sociodidactique''. [Dossier presentado para habilitación a la dirección de investigadores, Université de Lorraine]. https://hal.science/tel-03882905/document Stratilaki-Klein, S. (2025). La galaxie des langues et leurs désignations. In Ch. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue / Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education''. Peter Lang. Surkamp, C. (Ed.) (2010). ''Metzler Lexikon Fremdsprachendidaktik''. J.B. Metzler. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Diego Cortes Velasquez (Universitá Roma Tre) * Sílvia Melo-Pfeifer (Universität Hamburg) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] i0gh7sc35gv1hgwx4ofq5hov1bbvm0s 2817302 2817255 2026-06-29T16:55:51Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Self-assessment */ 2817302 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}} == Initial activity == Examine the following language profiles: * '''Melissa''', born in Berlin to an Albanian father and an Italian mother. At home, she speaks Albanian with her father and Italian with her mother. With her sister, she mainly speaks German, the language in which they have been educated since kindergarten. At school, she learns English and French, which are part of the curriculum. * '''Teresa''', who is Portuguese, has been living in France for 18 years, having emigrated there as an adult. She learned French as an adult through daily interactions. She learned German and English at school before emigrating. She speaks Portuguese with her children. Try to answer these questions: * What is Melissa's mother tongue? * What is the difference in the status of German in the two language profiles? * What is the status of English in the two profiles? == Objectives == By the end of this section, you should be able to... * understand the difficulty of classifying and naming the status of languages present in individuals' language biographies; * understand that classifications of relationships to languages are more sociolinguistic and subjective than based on stable linguistic and scientific criteria- == Keywords == Language biography - Mother tongue - L1 - Foreign language - Host language - Language of origin - Border language - Minority language - Linguistic profiles. == Prerequisites == Prior knowledge of the concept of [[Language biography and identity texts|language biography]]. == Introduction == Concepts are not neutral and imply worldviews, either implicitly or explicitly. More specifically, linguistic concepts, although they may seem neutral and imbued with objectivity and scientificity, are polysemic and lend themselves to different interpretations depending on the context, even among researchers. Concepts may have a linguistic basis, based on the order of acquisition, for example, as in the case of L1, or they may refer to the sociolinguistic contexts in which they are learned/acquired, as in the case of “language of origin” or “host language,” which refer to situations of immigration, whether forced or not. Other classifications refer to the geographical contexts in which linguistic contacts occur (“border languages”), or to power relations (“minority language”, “majority language”), and still others to classifications related to typology (such as “languages of the same family”). In other words, when we talk about languages, we use concepts that draw on different disciplines, discourses, representations of what a language is, and even what a speaker is, their skills, and their communication needs. Thus, when we use the term “mother tongue” in the singular, we tend to imagine the designated speaker as a native speaker with advanced skills in a given language. But this concept draws on ideologies related to the very process of language transmission, from mother to child. In this section, we will learn how to designate different relationships between subjects and languages, and we will realize that the designations that subjects give to the languages they come into contact with do not always correspond to criteria considered scientific and “linguistic”. Given the complexity of addressing all potential designations and polysemies, we will focus on the most common ones in discourses on  plurilingualism and  plurilingual education, emphasizing the most consensual conceptions in research (Lisboa, data). == Concepts == Concepts of language are not static. The same could be said of concepts used to describe different relationships with languages. These concepts are functional and dynamic in nature, continually being revised, redefined, and updated in response to the demands and advances of research. They are also closely linked to sociolinguistic and identity contexts, which, by their very nature, are constantly evolving. In this process, new concepts emerge, old ones are rethought, while others become inoperative or unsuitable for certain contexts or research frameworks (Lisboa, 2024). Conceptions of languages can be analyzed using, for example, dictionaries specific to disciplinary fields (Cuq, 2003; Galisson & Coste, 1976; Surkamp, 2010) or meta-analyses of scientific texts in these fields, attempting to understand the common uses associated with each term and the variations. This is what Lisboa (2024) did in a study in which he analyzed published scientific articles. The author concludes: "The terminology of fields dealing with the interrelationships between languages, individuals, and societies, such as language teaching and language policy, is permeated with concepts such as ''mother tongue'', ''first language'', ''non-mother tongue'', ''additional language'', ''official language'', ''foreign language'', ''second language'', ''language of origin'', and ''host language'', among many others. These concepts are used to classify, describe, represent, and specify the roles played by languages, the social functions attributed to them, and the relationships between different languages in the same sociolinguistic space and in individuals' linguistic repertoires." (Lisboa, 2025, our translation) For this section, we have translated and reproduced the definitions from the meta-analytical work mentioned above (Lisboa, 2024), although some contextualization is still needed, as not all terms have the same academic traditions. For the definition of the host language, which does not appear in the entries produced by Lisboa (2024), we turn to Lopez & Diniz (2018). In any case, it should be noted that meta-analytic work reflects the practices of researchers, which may vary between epistemological, research, and linguistic traditions. Thus, Lisboa refers to the concepts most commonly used in the Brazilian context. For example, “non-native language” is often used in Portuguese, mainly because of the difficulties in differentiating the relationships and statuses of languages that come after the so-called ‘first’ or “native” languages. This concept is largely absent from English-language research. {| class="wikitable" |Concept |Definition |- |Mother tongue |“The language first acquired around the age of five” (p. 260), i.e., during the early years of primary socialization. It can also be understood as “the language of greatest mastery and affirmation of an individual's identity” (p. 271). From a sociolinguistic point of view, this designation can also refer to the majority language in a given linguistic community (p. 273). Regarding this attribution, the author adds: “This meaning is oriented towards an imaginary of national, regional, cultural, and/or ethnic identity and unity. It is also closely linked to the concepts of national language and majority language” (p. 273). |- |Non-native language |“A language acquired after the acquisition of the native language, whether in a formal or informal context, immersive or non-immersive, and regardless of the sociopolitical status of the language” (p. 275). |- |L1 |“The language first acquired up to the age of about five” (p. 313). This may be the “language of greatest proficiency and affirmation of an individual's identity” (p. 316), although the degree of proficiency may change over the course of a lifetime. |- |Heritage language |“Language acquired in early childhood, usually within the family, which, due to migration, usually during childhood, becomes a minority language in relation to the majority language of the host society and, as a result, restricted in terms of contexts and opportunities for use and spaces of circulation, which can gradually lead to a weakening of linguistic proficiency or even to the individual forgetting the language” (p. 237). It can also refer to “the language with which the individual maintains a sense of belonging and cultural and identity ties, regardless of the context or order of acquisition, the minority or majority status of the language, or the level of proficiency” (p. 245). The author adds “a non-native language taught, learned, and/or used in non-immersion contexts, i.e., when the language in question is not the majority language in the place of teaching, use, and/or learning and/or does not have official sociopolitical status” (p. 252; for a third, more political-administrative meaning, see p. 257). |- |Host language |A subdomain of additional language that refers to the language acquired or to be acquired by migrants, with an emphasis on forced displacement, who are in a situation of vulnerability (Lopez & Diniz, 2018, n/p.). |- |L2 (or Second Language) |“A non-native or non-majority language that has been given (co)official status in bilingual or multilingual countries and is therefore the language or one of the languages of public administration, education, and common means of communication in the country” (p. 290). It can also refer to “a non-native language taught, learned, and/or used in language immersion contexts, i.e., when the language in question is the majority language in the place of teaching, use, and/or learning and/or has official sociopolitical status” (p. 300). A third concept, which does not enjoy international consensus, particularly in the German context (see definitions in Surkamp, 2010), refers to “a language acquired after the acquisition of the mother tongue, regardless of the formal, informal, immersive or non-immersive context, the socio-political status of the language or its position in the chronological order of language acquisition” (p. 307) or “a language acquired first after the partial or complete acquisition of the mother tongue, i.e., from the point of view of the chronology of language acquisition, it is the second language to constitute the speaker's linguistic repertoire” (p. 309). |- |Foreign Language |This is a language learned in an institutional context and in a guided manner. “A language acquired after the acquisition of the mother tongue, whether in a formal or informal context, immersive or non-immersive, and regardless of the sociopolitical status of the language” (p. 250). |- |Additional language |“A language acquired after the acquisition of the mother tongue, regardless of the formal or informal context, immersive or non-immersive, the sociopolitical status of the language, or the chronology of acquisition” (Lisboa, 2024, p. 231). It can also refer to “a non-native language acquired after the acquisition of the mother tongue and at least one other non-native language” (p. 236). |- |Language(s) of schooling |Languages of schooling cover two dimensions: languages taught as a subject (such as foreign languages in the curriculum) and languages used for and in teaching. These are often the national and majority languages of a country (Portuguese in Portugal) or regional or minority languages, depending on local education and language policies. (<nowiki>https://www.coe.int/fr/web/language-policy/languages-of-schooling</nowiki>) |} The language of origin is also often referred to as the “home language”, “identity language”, or “family language” (Stratilaki-Klein, 2025). However, speakers of a language of origin do not always consider that this language best defines their identity. Sometimes families choose not to speak their language of origin at home. Furthermore, a speaker may have two languages of origin, as in the case of Melissa, presented in the initial activity. The term “neighboring language” has both linguistic and geographical connotations and may coincide. From a linguistic point of view, it is a language belonging to the same language family (for example, Romance or Slavic languages, to name just two examples). From a geographical point of view, these are languages of neighboring territories, with more or less fluid borders (the French-German border or between Brazil and Argentina, for example). The concept of linguistic proximity or “border language” (Araújo e Sá et al, 2024) is used to refer to languages that coexist in border regions. Regardless of the connotation chosen, we can clearly see how important this concept is for thinking about plurilingual education: either it generally refers to teaching approaches that aim to develop receptive skills in several languages of the same language family (see entry “intercomprehension” in this Wikiversity), or it refers to cross-border linguistic contacts aimed at developing plurilingual and intercultural competence (Putsche, 2022). It is important to remember that most language designations take the so-called native speaker as the implicit norm (Bono, 2025), below which speakers of other designations are ranked, giving rise to situations of linguistic prejudice and discrimination in society in general, and in schools in particular. == Take away messages == * Language classifications can be based on linguistic, sociolinguistic, geographical, economic, curricular, and individual aspects. * The concepts used to name languages are polysemous and are not neutral, but rather convey discourses and ideologies that must be (re)constructed in order to understand the objectives set in plurilingual education. * Language designations and their associated connotations may depend on the linguistic and academic traditions in which they circulate. == Self-assessment == <quiz display=simple> {In the first situation presented in the initial activity, Melissa's mother tongue is German:} -true +false {In the second linguistic profile presented in the initial activity, Portuguese is the language of origin of Teresa's children.} +true -false {The host language generally refers to:} +the language that people in situations of mobility acquire in order to meet their most basic and urgent needs. -the language that parents and educators in situations of mobility (forced or otherwise) pass on to their children in order to maintain a link with their country of origin. -the language in which learners feel welcome when on vacation abroad and which makes them feel “at home”. {Which of these concepts refers to the language that parents and educators in situations of migration and mobility (forced or otherwise) pass on to their children in the host country, in a situation where that language is a minority language?} -Host language. -Mother tongue. +Language of origin. </quiz> == Resources to go further == * Araújo e Sá, M.H., Carinhas, R., Carlos, V., Kremer, M., Lourenço, M., Pinto, S., Simões, C., Teixeira, M., & Ulhôa, A. (2024). ''Linguistic and cultural management in border regions''. https://www.eu-bold.com/linguistic-and-cultural-management-in-border-regions/ * Dabène, L. (1994). ''Repères sociolinguistiques pour l’enseignement des langues''. Hachette. * Dewaele, J.-M.; Bak, T.; Ortega, L. (2022). Why the mythical “native speaker” has mud on its face. In N. Slavkov, S. Melo-Pfeifer & N. Kerschhofer-Puhalo (Eds.), ''The Changing Face of the “Native Speaker”. Perspectives from Multilingualism and Globalization'' (pp. 25-45). De Gruyter. * Lisboa, J. (2024). ''Vocabulário terminológico de conceitos de Língua''. Tese de doutoramento. Universididade da Uberlândia. URL: https://repositorio.ufu.br/bitstream/123456789/43065/1/VocabularioConceitosLingua.pdf == Bibliography == Bono, M. (2025). Mother tongue, native language, first language, heritage language. In Ch. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue / Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education''. Peter Lang. Cuq, J.-P. (dir.) (2003). ''Dictionnaire de didactique du français langue étrangère et seconde''. Cle International. Galisson, R., & Coste, D. (1976). ''Dictionnaire de Didactique des Langues''. Hachette. Lisboa, J. (2024). ''Vocabulário terminológico de conceitos de Língua''. Tese de doutoramento. Universidade da Uberlândia. URL: https://repositorio.ufu.br/bitstream/123456789/43065/1/VocabularioConceitosLingua.pdf Lisboa, J. (2025). A criação do Vocabulário Terminológico de Conceitos de Língua. ''Domínios de Lingu@gem'', 19, p. e019025. DOI: 10.14393/DLv19a2025-25. URL:  https://seer.ufu.br/index.php/dominiosdelinguagem/article/view/76903. Lopez, A.P.A., & Diniz, L. R. (2018). Iniciativas jurídicas e académicas para o acolhimento no Brasil de deslocados forçados. Revista da Sociedade Internacional do Português Língua Estrangeira, 9, s/p.  https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330635043_Iniciativas_Juridicas_e_Academicas_Brasileiras_para_o_Acolhimento_de_Imigrantes_Deslocados_Forcados Putsche, J. (2022). ''L’interculturel contextualisé : franco-allemand, frontalier, transculturel – Une approche sociodidactique''. [Dossier presentado para habilitación a la dirección de investigadores, Université de Lorraine]. https://hal.science/tel-03882905/document Stratilaki-Klein, S. (2025). La galaxie des langues et leurs désignations. In Ch. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l’éducation plurilingue / Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education''. Peter Lang. Surkamp, C. (Ed.) (2010). ''Metzler Lexikon Fremdsprachendidaktik''. J.B. Metzler. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Diego Cortes Velasquez (Universitá Roma Tre) * Sílvia Melo-Pfeifer (Universität Hamburg) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] taevzh0fjel2k6tipg8lkko3z50o66a 0 330317 2817276 2817196 2026-06-29T16:27:58Z James500 297601 /* Japanese */ Add 2817276 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages. World *Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Asya Pereltsvaig. 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[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ] *Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1933#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. 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Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Social history *Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Story *Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ] *[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952) Classification *April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ] Extinct *Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ] *K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Dead *Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Indo-European *Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993. *Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ] Anatolian *Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26. Hittite *Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ] *Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936. Maltese *See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]] Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) *See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]] Asian *Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] South Asian *Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] East Asian *Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC] *Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ] *Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Chinese, Japanese and Korean *Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Chinese and Japanese *Teruhiro Ishiguro and Kang Kwong Luke. Grammar in Cross-Linguistic Perspective: The Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics of Japanese and Chinese. (Linguistic insights, vol 57). Peter Lang. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p1OqlAEACAAJ] Japan and Korea; Japanese and Korean *Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hajime Hoji (ed). Japanese/Korean Linguistics. 1990. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Suwm4WrQB6IC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ] Japonic *Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japanese and Ryukyuan *Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japan *Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Series *Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics Ryukyuan *Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Ainu *Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ] *Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ] *Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up]. *Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C] ==Japanese== Bibliography *Oskar Nachod. "Linguistics". Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754. *Wenckstern. "Philology: The Japanese Language". A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89. General *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Kokugo *Paul H Clark. The Kokugo Revolution: Education, Identity, and Language Policy in Imperial Japan. (Japan Research Monograph 16). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F6jSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeounsuk Lee. The Ideology of Kokugo: Nationalizing Language in Modern Japan. University of Hawaii Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=54wBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Kokugo To Iu Shisō: Kindai Nihon No Gengo Ninshiki. (Japanese: 「国語」という思想: 近代日本の言語認識). Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1996. Nihongo *Makoto Sugawara. Nihongo: A Japanese Approach to Japanese. East Publications. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKkPAAAAYAAJ] *Roy Andrew Miller. Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese. The Athlone Press. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oRxkAAAAMAAJ] *Nihongo Notes. The Japan Times. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdkpAQAAIAAJ] *Yutaka Sato and Margaret Y. Yamashita. Nihongo: Introductory Japanese. 1994. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ptACuS6HnpUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Minna No Nihongo I. 3A Corporation. (スリーエーネットワーク). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G-bl2P5lRl4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Minna No Nihongo II. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4nHnMa4Zw-MC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Study *Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] History *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] *Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ] *Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Linguistics *Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ] Periodicals, Linguistics *Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ] *Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ] Kokugogaku and nihongogaku *Lidia Tanaka. "Japanese language studies: Kokugo as an ideology, nihongo as an autonomous and global scholarship?". Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. 2018.Chapter 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false 32] to 52. Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies) *[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]]. Cf. Kokugogaku (Japanese: [[en:wikt:国語学|国語学]]) (English: national language studies) Syntax and semantics *Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ] Semantics and pragmatics *Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] Morphology and phonology *Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Phonetics and Phonology *Haruo Kubozono (ed). Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8vFeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiromi Otaka. Phonetics and Phonology of Moras, Feet and Geminate Consonants in Japanese. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=39Q_AQAAIAAJ] *James D McCawley. The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese. Mouton & Co NV. The Hague. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3JoPAAAAYAAJ] Syntax *Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ] Phonetics *Daniel Lepetit and Reiko Makino. Japanese Phonetics: A Thematic Bibliography. Canadian Scholars. 1996. ISBN 1551300923. Catalogue: Canadian Books in Print: Author and Title Index 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q2WLJa9rY5MC&pg=PA1063#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1063]. *Society Newsletter. 1926 to 1996. [[w:ja:日本音声学会|The Phonetic Society of Japan]]. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication/society-newsletter] **Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan. 1997 onwards. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonetics: Theory and Practice. Lincom Europa. 1997. [https://books.google.com/books?id=guUZAQAAIAAJ] *P M Suski. The Phonetics of Japanese Language: With Reference to Japanese Script. 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpthAAAAMAAJ]. 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9DuiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Phonology *Laurence Labrune. The Phonology of Japanese. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ix9r6CbEl6IC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonology: A Functional Approach. Lincom Europa. 2000. [https://books.google.com/books?id=R-QZAQAAIAAJ] *Mieko Shimizu Han. Japanese Phonology: An Analysis Based on Sound Spectrograms. Kenkyusha. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T3Xl7SviXB4C] Pragmatics *Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Yoshiko Matsumoto, Junko Mori (eds). Pragmatics of Japanese: Perspectives on grammar, interaction and culture. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2wZTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gabriele Kasper. Pragmatics of Japanese as Native and Target Language. Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaiʼi at Mānoa. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2_8ifcjhpYQC] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] Translation *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [[Category:Languages]] ebqdo5p379oxcoyxvfpzqsfqmk26a0l 2817287 2817276 2026-06-29T16:35:58Z James500 297601 /* Japanese */ Add 2817287 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages. World *Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ] *Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Origin *Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ] *Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1933#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ] *Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Prehistory *Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ] History *Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Social history *Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Story *Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ] *[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952) Classification *April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ] Extinct *Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ] *K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Dead *Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Indo-European *Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993. *Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ] Anatolian *Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26. Hittite *Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ] *Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936. Maltese *See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]] Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) *See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]] Asian *Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] South Asian *Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] East Asian *Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC] *Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ] *Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Chinese, Japanese and Korean *Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Chinese and Japanese *Teruhiro Ishiguro and Kang Kwong Luke. Grammar in Cross-Linguistic Perspective: The Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics of Japanese and Chinese. (Linguistic insights, vol 57). Peter Lang. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p1OqlAEACAAJ] Japan and Korea; Japanese and Korean *Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hajime Hoji (ed). Japanese/Korean Linguistics. 1990. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Suwm4WrQB6IC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ] Japonic *Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japanese and Ryukyuan *Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japan *Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Series *Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics Ryukyuan *Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Ainu *Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ] *Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ] *Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up]. *Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C] ==Japanese== Bibliography *Oskar Nachod. "Linguistics". Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754. *Wenckstern. "Philology: The Japanese Language". A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89. General *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Kokugo *Paul H Clark. The Kokugo Revolution: Education, Identity, and Language Policy in Imperial Japan. (Japan Research Monograph 16). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F6jSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeounsuk Lee. The Ideology of Kokugo: Nationalizing Language in Modern Japan. University of Hawaii Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=54wBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Kokugo To Iu Shisō: Kindai Nihon No Gengo Ninshiki. (Japanese: 「国語」という思想: 近代日本の言語認識). Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1996. Nihongo *Makoto Sugawara. Nihongo: A Japanese Approach to Japanese. East Publications. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKkPAAAAYAAJ] *Roy Andrew Miller. Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese. The Athlone Press. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oRxkAAAAMAAJ] *Nihongo Notes. The Japan Times. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdkpAQAAIAAJ] *Yutaka Sato and Margaret Y. Yamashita. Nihongo: Introductory Japanese. 1994. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ptACuS6HnpUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Minna No Nihongo I. 3A Corporation. (スリーエーネットワーク). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G-bl2P5lRl4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Minna No Nihongo II. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4nHnMa4Zw-MC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Study *Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] History *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] *Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ] *Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Linguistics *Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ] Periodicals, Linguistics *Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ] *Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ] Kokugogaku and nihongogaku *Lidia Tanaka. "Japanese language studies: Kokugo as an ideology, nihongo as an autonomous and global scholarship?". Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. 2018.Chapter 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false 32] to 52. Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies) *[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]]. Cf. Kokugogaku (Japanese: [[en:wikt:国語学|国語学]]) (English: national language studies) Syntax and semantics *Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ] Semantics and pragmatics *Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] Morphology and phonology *Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Phonetics and Phonology *Haruo Kubozono (ed). Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8vFeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiromi Otaka. Phonetics and Phonology of Moras, Feet and Geminate Consonants in Japanese. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=39Q_AQAAIAAJ] *James D McCawley. The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese. Mouton & Co NV. The Hague. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3JoPAAAAYAAJ] Syntax *Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ] Phonetics *Daniel Lepetit and Reiko Makino. Japanese Phonetics: A Thematic Bibliography. Canadian Scholars. 1996. ISBN 1551300923. Catalogue: Canadian Books in Print: Author and Title Index 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q2WLJa9rY5MC&pg=PA1063#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1063]. *Society Newsletter. 1926 to 1996. [[w:ja:日本音声学会|The Phonetic Society of Japan]]. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication/society-newsletter] **Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan. 1997 onwards. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonetics: Theory and Practice. Lincom Europa. 1997. [https://books.google.com/books?id=guUZAQAAIAAJ] *P M Suski. The Phonetics of Japanese Language: With Reference to Japanese Script. 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpthAAAAMAAJ]. 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9DuiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Phonology *Laurence Labrune. The Phonology of Japanese. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ix9r6CbEl6IC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonology: A Functional Approach. Lincom Europa. 2000. [https://books.google.com/books?id=R-QZAQAAIAAJ] *Mieko Shimizu Han. Japanese Phonology: An Analysis Based on Sound Spectrograms. Kenkyusha. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T3Xl7SviXB4C] Pragmatics *Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Yoshiko Matsumoto, Junko Mori (eds). Pragmatics of Japanese: Perspectives on grammar, interaction and culture. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2wZTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gabriele Kasper. Pragmatics of Japanese as Native and Target Language. Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaiʼi at Mānoa. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2_8ifcjhpYQC] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] Translation *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Dialects *Nobuko Kibe, Tetsuo Nitta, Kan Sasaki (eds). Handbook of Japanese Dialects. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8_Y9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kansai *Peter Tse. Kansai Japanese: The Language of Osaka, Kyoto, and Western Japan. (Tuttle Language Library). 1993. Reprinted 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvVkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *DC Palter and Kaoru Slotsve. Colloquial Kansai Japanese: The Dialects and Culture of the Kansai Region. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rJEdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [[Category:Languages]] jet9kh2poetmxhemjvz27rbzmwjqfaf 2817290 2817287 2026-06-29T16:36:52Z James500 297601 /* Japanese */ Add 2817290 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages. World *Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ] *Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Origin *Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ] *Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1933#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ] *Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Prehistory *Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ] History *Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Social history *Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Story *Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ] *[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952) Classification *April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ] Extinct *Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ] *K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Dead *Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Indo-European *Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993. *Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ] Anatolian *Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26. Hittite *Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ] *Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936. Maltese *See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]] Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) *See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]] Asian *Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] South Asian *Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] East Asian *Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC] *Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ] *Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Chinese, Japanese and Korean *Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Chinese and Japanese *Teruhiro Ishiguro and Kang Kwong Luke. Grammar in Cross-Linguistic Perspective: The Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics of Japanese and Chinese. (Linguistic insights, vol 57). Peter Lang. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p1OqlAEACAAJ] Japan and Korea; Japanese and Korean *Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hajime Hoji (ed). Japanese/Korean Linguistics. 1990. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Suwm4WrQB6IC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ] Japonic *Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japanese and Ryukyuan *Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japan *Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Series *Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics Ryukyuan *Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Ainu *Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ] *Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ] *Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up]. *Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C] ==Japanese== Bibliography *Oskar Nachod. "Linguistics". Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754. *Wenckstern. "Philology: The Japanese Language". A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89. General *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Kokugo *Paul H Clark. The Kokugo Revolution: Education, Identity, and Language Policy in Imperial Japan. (Japan Research Monograph 16). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F6jSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeounsuk Lee. The Ideology of Kokugo: Nationalizing Language in Modern Japan. University of Hawaii Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=54wBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Kokugo To Iu Shisō: Kindai Nihon No Gengo Ninshiki. (Japanese: 「国語」という思想: 近代日本の言語認識). Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1996. Nihongo *Makoto Sugawara. Nihongo: A Japanese Approach to Japanese. East Publications. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKkPAAAAYAAJ] *Roy Andrew Miller. Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese. The Athlone Press. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oRxkAAAAMAAJ] *Nihongo Notes. The Japan Times. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdkpAQAAIAAJ] *Yutaka Sato and Margaret Y. Yamashita. Nihongo: Introductory Japanese. 1994. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ptACuS6HnpUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Minna No Nihongo I. 3A Corporation. (スリーエーネットワーク). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G-bl2P5lRl4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Minna No Nihongo II. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4nHnMa4Zw-MC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Study *Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] History *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] *Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ] *Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Linguistics *Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ] Periodicals, Linguistics *Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ] *Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ] Kokugogaku and nihongogaku *Lidia Tanaka. "Japanese language studies: Kokugo as an ideology, nihongo as an autonomous and global scholarship?". Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. 2018.Chapter 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false 32] to 52. Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies) *[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]]. Cf. Kokugogaku (Japanese: [[en:wikt:国語学|国語学]]) (English: national language studies) Syntax and semantics *Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ] Semantics and pragmatics *Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] Morphology and phonology *Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Phonetics and Phonology *Haruo Kubozono (ed). Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8vFeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiromi Otaka. Phonetics and Phonology of Moras, Feet and Geminate Consonants in Japanese. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=39Q_AQAAIAAJ] *James D McCawley. The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese. Mouton & Co NV. The Hague. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3JoPAAAAYAAJ] Syntax *Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ] Phonetics *Daniel Lepetit and Reiko Makino. Japanese Phonetics: A Thematic Bibliography. Canadian Scholars. 1996. ISBN 1551300923. Catalogue: Canadian Books in Print: Author and Title Index 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q2WLJa9rY5MC&pg=PA1063#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1063]. *Society Newsletter. 1926 to 1996. [[w:ja:日本音声学会|The Phonetic Society of Japan]]. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication/society-newsletter] **Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan. 1997 onwards. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonetics: Theory and Practice. Lincom Europa. 1997. [https://books.google.com/books?id=guUZAQAAIAAJ] *P M Suski. The Phonetics of Japanese Language: With Reference to Japanese Script. 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpthAAAAMAAJ]. 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9DuiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Phonology *Laurence Labrune. The Phonology of Japanese. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ix9r6CbEl6IC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonology: A Functional Approach. Lincom Europa. 2000. [https://books.google.com/books?id=R-QZAQAAIAAJ] *Mieko Shimizu Han. Japanese Phonology: An Analysis Based on Sound Spectrograms. Kenkyusha. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T3Xl7SviXB4C] Pragmatics *Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Yoshiko Matsumoto, Junko Mori (eds). Pragmatics of Japanese: Perspectives on grammar, interaction and culture. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2wZTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gabriele Kasper. Pragmatics of Japanese as Native and Target Language. Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaiʼi at Mānoa. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2_8ifcjhpYQC] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] Translation *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Dialects *Nobuko Kibe, Tetsuo Nitta and Kan Sasaki (eds). Handbook of Japanese Dialects. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8_Y9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kansai *Peter Tse. Kansai Japanese: The Language of Osaka, Kyoto, and Western Japan. (Tuttle Language Library). 1993. Reprinted 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvVkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *DC Palter and Kaoru Slotsve. Colloquial Kansai Japanese: The Dialects and Culture of the Kansai Region. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rJEdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [[Category:Languages]] lmrppf9nvyezs5x3zqww62a82ysdgal 2817347 2817290 2026-06-30T02:02:02Z James500 297601 /* Japanese */ Add 2817347 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages. World *Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ] *Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Origin *Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ] *Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1933#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ] *Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Prehistory *Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ] History *Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Social history *Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Story *Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ] *[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952) Classification *April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ] Extinct *Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ] *K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Dead *Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Indo-European *Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993. *Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ] Anatolian *Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26. Hittite *Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ] *Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936. Maltese *See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]] Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) *See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]] Asian *Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] South Asian *Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] East Asian *Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC] *Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ] *Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Chinese, Japanese and Korean *Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Chinese and Japanese *Teruhiro Ishiguro and Kang Kwong Luke. Grammar in Cross-Linguistic Perspective: The Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics of Japanese and Chinese. (Linguistic insights, vol 57). Peter Lang. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p1OqlAEACAAJ] Japan and Korea; Japanese and Korean *Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hajime Hoji (ed). Japanese/Korean Linguistics. 1990. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Suwm4WrQB6IC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ] Japonic *Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japanese and Ryukyuan *Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japan *Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Series *Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics Ryukyuan *Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Ainu *Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ] *Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ] *Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up]. *Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C] ==Japanese== Bibliography *Oskar Nachod. "Linguistics". Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754. *Wenckstern. "Philology: The Japanese Language". A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89. General *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Kokugo *Paul H Clark. The Kokugo Revolution: Education, Identity, and Language Policy in Imperial Japan. (Japan Research Monograph 16). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F6jSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeounsuk Lee. The Ideology of Kokugo: Nationalizing Language in Modern Japan. University of Hawaii Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=54wBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Kokugo To Iu Shisō: Kindai Nihon No Gengo Ninshiki. (Japanese: 「国語」という思想: 近代日本の言語認識). Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1996. Nihongo *Makoto Sugawara. Nihongo: A Japanese Approach to Japanese. East Publications. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKkPAAAAYAAJ] *Roy Andrew Miller. Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese. The Athlone Press. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oRxkAAAAMAAJ] *Nihongo Notes. The Japan Times. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdkpAQAAIAAJ] *Yutaka Sato and Margaret Y. Yamashita. Nihongo: Introductory Japanese. 1994. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ptACuS6HnpUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Minna No Nihongo I. 3A Corporation. (スリーエーネットワーク). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G-bl2P5lRl4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Minna No Nihongo II. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4nHnMa4Zw-MC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Study *Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] History *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] *Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ] *Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Linguistics *Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ] *Tetsuo Harada. Outlines of Modern Japanese Linguistics. Tateshina Print Company. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jTcHAQAAIAAJ] Periodicals, Linguistics *Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ] *Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ] Kokugogaku and nihongogaku *Lidia Tanaka. "Japanese language studies: Kokugo as an ideology, nihongo as an autonomous and global scholarship?". Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. 2018.Chapter 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false 32] to 52. Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies) *[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]]. Cf. Kokugogaku (Japanese: [[en:wikt:国語学|国語学]]) (English: national language studies) Syntax and semantics *Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ] Semantics and pragmatics *Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] Morphology and phonology *Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Phonetics and Phonology *Haruo Kubozono (ed). Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8vFeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiromi Otaka. Phonetics and Phonology of Moras, Feet and Geminate Consonants in Japanese. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=39Q_AQAAIAAJ] *James D McCawley. The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese. Mouton & Co NV. The Hague. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3JoPAAAAYAAJ] Syntax *Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ] Phonetics *Daniel Lepetit and Reiko Makino. Japanese Phonetics: A Thematic Bibliography. Canadian Scholars. 1996. ISBN 1551300923. Catalogue: Canadian Books in Print: Author and Title Index 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q2WLJa9rY5MC&pg=PA1063#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1063]. *Society Newsletter. 1926 to 1996. [[w:ja:日本音声学会|The Phonetic Society of Japan]]. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication/society-newsletter] **Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan. 1997 onwards. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonetics: Theory and Practice. Lincom Europa. 1997. [https://books.google.com/books?id=guUZAQAAIAAJ] *P M Suski. The Phonetics of Japanese Language: With Reference to Japanese Script. 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpthAAAAMAAJ]. 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9DuiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Phonology *Laurence Labrune. The Phonology of Japanese. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ix9r6CbEl6IC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonology: A Functional Approach. Lincom Europa. 2000. [https://books.google.com/books?id=R-QZAQAAIAAJ] *Mieko Shimizu Han. Japanese Phonology: An Analysis Based on Sound Spectrograms. Kenkyusha. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T3Xl7SviXB4C] Pragmatics *Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Yoshiko Matsumoto, Junko Mori (eds). Pragmatics of Japanese: Perspectives on grammar, interaction and culture. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2wZTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gabriele Kasper. Pragmatics of Japanese as Native and Target Language. Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaiʼi at Mānoa. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2_8ifcjhpYQC] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] Translation *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Dialects *Nobuko Kibe, Tetsuo Nitta and Kan Sasaki (eds). Handbook of Japanese Dialects. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8_Y9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kansai *Peter Tse. Kansai Japanese: The Language of Osaka, Kyoto, and Western Japan. (Tuttle Language Library). 1993. Reprinted 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvVkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *DC Palter and Kaoru Slotsve. Colloquial Kansai Japanese: The Dialects and Culture of the Kansai Region. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rJEdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [[Category:Languages]] oyzasnymtk068bd7wgup6jdqkddasb7 2817348 2817347 2026-06-30T02:02:32Z James500 297601 /* Japanese */ Add 2817348 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages. World *Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ] *Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Origin *Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ] *Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1933#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ] *Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Prehistory *Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ] History *Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Social history *Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Story *Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ] *[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952) Classification *April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ] Extinct *Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ] *K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Dead *Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Indo-European *Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993. *Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ] Anatolian *Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26. Hittite *Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ] *Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936. Maltese *See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]] Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) *See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]] Asian *Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] South Asian *Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] East Asian *Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC] *Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ] *Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Chinese, Japanese and Korean *Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Chinese and Japanese *Teruhiro Ishiguro and Kang Kwong Luke. Grammar in Cross-Linguistic Perspective: The Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics of Japanese and Chinese. (Linguistic insights, vol 57). Peter Lang. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p1OqlAEACAAJ] Japan and Korea; Japanese and Korean *Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hajime Hoji (ed). Japanese/Korean Linguistics. 1990. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Suwm4WrQB6IC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ] Japonic *Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japanese and Ryukyuan *Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japan *Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Series *Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics Ryukyuan *Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Ainu *Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ] *Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ] *Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up]. *Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C] ==Japanese== Bibliography *Oskar Nachod. "Linguistics". Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754. *Wenckstern. "Philology: The Japanese Language". A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89. General *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Kokugo *Paul H Clark. The Kokugo Revolution: Education, Identity, and Language Policy in Imperial Japan. (Japan Research Monograph 16). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F6jSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeounsuk Lee. The Ideology of Kokugo: Nationalizing Language in Modern Japan. University of Hawaii Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=54wBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Kokugo To Iu Shisō: Kindai Nihon No Gengo Ninshiki. (Japanese: 「国語」という思想: 近代日本の言語認識). Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1996. Nihongo *Makoto Sugawara. Nihongo: A Japanese Approach to Japanese. East Publications. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKkPAAAAYAAJ] *Roy Andrew Miller. Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese. The Athlone Press. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oRxkAAAAMAAJ] *Nihongo Notes. The Japan Times. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdkpAQAAIAAJ] *Yutaka Sato and Margaret Y. Yamashita. Nihongo: Introductory Japanese. 1994. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ptACuS6HnpUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Minna No Nihongo I. 3A Corporation. (スリーエーネットワーク). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G-bl2P5lRl4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Minna No Nihongo II. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4nHnMa4Zw-MC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Study *Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] History *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] *Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ] *Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W P Lehmann and Lloyd Faust. A Grammar of Formal Written Japanese. (Harvard-Yenching Institute Studies, vol 5). 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=50s0AAAAIAAJ] Linguistics *Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ] *Tetsuo Harada. Outlines of Modern Japanese Linguistics. Tateshina Print Company. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jTcHAQAAIAAJ] Periodicals, Linguistics *Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ] *Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ] Kokugogaku and nihongogaku *Lidia Tanaka. "Japanese language studies: Kokugo as an ideology, nihongo as an autonomous and global scholarship?". Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. 2018.Chapter 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false 32] to 52. Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies) *[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]]. Cf. Kokugogaku (Japanese: [[en:wikt:国語学|国語学]]) (English: national language studies) Syntax and semantics *Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ] Semantics and pragmatics *Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] Morphology and phonology *Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Phonetics and Phonology *Haruo Kubozono (ed). Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8vFeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiromi Otaka. Phonetics and Phonology of Moras, Feet and Geminate Consonants in Japanese. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=39Q_AQAAIAAJ] *James D McCawley. The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese. Mouton & Co NV. The Hague. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3JoPAAAAYAAJ] Syntax *Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ] Phonetics *Daniel Lepetit and Reiko Makino. Japanese Phonetics: A Thematic Bibliography. Canadian Scholars. 1996. ISBN 1551300923. Catalogue: Canadian Books in Print: Author and Title Index 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q2WLJa9rY5MC&pg=PA1063#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1063]. *Society Newsletter. 1926 to 1996. [[w:ja:日本音声学会|The Phonetic Society of Japan]]. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication/society-newsletter] **Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan. 1997 onwards. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonetics: Theory and Practice. Lincom Europa. 1997. [https://books.google.com/books?id=guUZAQAAIAAJ] *P M Suski. The Phonetics of Japanese Language: With Reference to Japanese Script. 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpthAAAAMAAJ]. 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9DuiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Phonology *Laurence Labrune. The Phonology of Japanese. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ix9r6CbEl6IC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonology: A Functional Approach. Lincom Europa. 2000. [https://books.google.com/books?id=R-QZAQAAIAAJ] *Mieko Shimizu Han. Japanese Phonology: An Analysis Based on Sound Spectrograms. Kenkyusha. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T3Xl7SviXB4C] Pragmatics *Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Yoshiko Matsumoto, Junko Mori (eds). Pragmatics of Japanese: Perspectives on grammar, interaction and culture. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2wZTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gabriele Kasper. Pragmatics of Japanese as Native and Target Language. Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaiʼi at Mānoa. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2_8ifcjhpYQC] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] Translation *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Dialects *Nobuko Kibe, Tetsuo Nitta and Kan Sasaki (eds). Handbook of Japanese Dialects. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8_Y9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kansai *Peter Tse. Kansai Japanese: The Language of Osaka, Kyoto, and Western Japan. (Tuttle Language Library). 1993. Reprinted 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvVkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *DC Palter and Kaoru Slotsve. Colloquial Kansai Japanese: The Dialects and Culture of the Kansai Region. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rJEdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [[Category:Languages]] r2kmzhidxxn8u4mt45hem7a19qv5l1b 2817349 2817348 2026-06-30T02:03:39Z James500 297601 /* Japanese */ Add 2817349 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages. World *Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ] *Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Origin *Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ] *Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1933#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ] *Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Prehistory *Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ] History *Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Social history *Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Story *Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ] *[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952) Classification *April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ] Extinct *Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ] *K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Dead *Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Indo-European *Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993. *Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ] Anatolian *Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26. Hittite *Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ] *Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936. Maltese *See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]] Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) *See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]] Asian *Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] South Asian *Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] East Asian *Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC] *Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ] *Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Chinese, Japanese and Korean *Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Chinese and Japanese *Teruhiro Ishiguro and Kang Kwong Luke. Grammar in Cross-Linguistic Perspective: The Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics of Japanese and Chinese. (Linguistic insights, vol 57). Peter Lang. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p1OqlAEACAAJ] Japan and Korea; Japanese and Korean *Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hajime Hoji (ed). Japanese/Korean Linguistics. 1990. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Suwm4WrQB6IC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ] Japonic *Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japanese and Ryukyuan *Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japan *Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Series *Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics Ryukyuan *Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Ainu *Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ] *Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ] *Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up]. *Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C] ==Japanese== Bibliography *Oskar Nachod. "Linguistics". Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754. *Wenckstern. "Philology: The Japanese Language". A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89. General *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Kokugo *Paul H Clark. The Kokugo Revolution: Education, Identity, and Language Policy in Imperial Japan. (Japan Research Monograph 16). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F6jSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeounsuk Lee. The Ideology of Kokugo: Nationalizing Language in Modern Japan. University of Hawaii Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=54wBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Kokugo To Iu Shisō: Kindai Nihon No Gengo Ninshiki. (Japanese: 「国語」という思想: 近代日本の言語認識). Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1996. Nihongo *Makoto Sugawara. Nihongo: A Japanese Approach to Japanese. East Publications. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKkPAAAAYAAJ] *Roy Andrew Miller. Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese. The Athlone Press. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oRxkAAAAMAAJ] *Nihongo Notes. The Japan Times. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdkpAQAAIAAJ] *Yutaka Sato and Margaret Y. Yamashita. Nihongo: Introductory Japanese. 1994. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ptACuS6HnpUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Minna No Nihongo I. 3A Corporation. (スリーエーネットワーク). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G-bl2P5lRl4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Minna No Nihongo II. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4nHnMa4Zw-MC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Study *Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] History *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] *Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ] *Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W P Lehmann and Lloyd Faust. A Grammar of Formal Written Japanese. (Harvard-Yenching Institute Studies, vol 5). 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=50s0AAAAIAAJ] Written; Writing *David Ashworth and Ikumi Hitosugi. Written Japanese: An Introduction. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fLDhgDHj7_EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Heath Rose. The Japanese Writing System: Challenges, Strategies and Self-regulation for Learning Kanji. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDU8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1924#v=onepage&q&f=false] Handwritten *P G O'Neill. A Reader of Handwritten Japanese. Kodansha International. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r-MZAQAAIAAJ] Linguistics *Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ] *Tetsuo Harada. Outlines of Modern Japanese Linguistics. Tateshina Print Company. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jTcHAQAAIAAJ] Periodicals, Linguistics *Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ] *Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ] Kokugogaku and nihongogaku *Lidia Tanaka. "Japanese language studies: Kokugo as an ideology, nihongo as an autonomous and global scholarship?". Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. 2018.Chapter 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false 32] to 52. Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies) *[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]]. Cf. Kokugogaku (Japanese: [[en:wikt:国語学|国語学]]) (English: national language studies) Syntax and semantics *Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ] Semantics and pragmatics *Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] Morphology and phonology *Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Phonetics and Phonology *Haruo Kubozono (ed). Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8vFeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiromi Otaka. Phonetics and Phonology of Moras, Feet and Geminate Consonants in Japanese. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=39Q_AQAAIAAJ] *James D McCawley. The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese. Mouton & Co NV. The Hague. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3JoPAAAAYAAJ] Syntax *Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ] Phonetics *Daniel Lepetit and Reiko Makino. Japanese Phonetics: A Thematic Bibliography. Canadian Scholars. 1996. ISBN 1551300923. Catalogue: Canadian Books in Print: Author and Title Index 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q2WLJa9rY5MC&pg=PA1063#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1063]. *Society Newsletter. 1926 to 1996. [[w:ja:日本音声学会|The Phonetic Society of Japan]]. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication/society-newsletter] **Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan. 1997 onwards. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonetics: Theory and Practice. Lincom Europa. 1997. [https://books.google.com/books?id=guUZAQAAIAAJ] *P M Suski. The Phonetics of Japanese Language: With Reference to Japanese Script. 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpthAAAAMAAJ]. 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9DuiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Phonology *Laurence Labrune. The Phonology of Japanese. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ix9r6CbEl6IC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonology: A Functional Approach. Lincom Europa. 2000. [https://books.google.com/books?id=R-QZAQAAIAAJ] *Mieko Shimizu Han. Japanese Phonology: An Analysis Based on Sound Spectrograms. Kenkyusha. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T3Xl7SviXB4C] Pragmatics *Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Yoshiko Matsumoto, Junko Mori (eds). Pragmatics of Japanese: Perspectives on grammar, interaction and culture. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2wZTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gabriele Kasper. Pragmatics of Japanese as Native and Target Language. Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaiʼi at Mānoa. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2_8ifcjhpYQC] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] Translation *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Dialects *Nobuko Kibe, Tetsuo Nitta and Kan Sasaki (eds). Handbook of Japanese Dialects. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8_Y9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kansai *Peter Tse. Kansai Japanese: The Language of Osaka, Kyoto, and Western Japan. (Tuttle Language Library). 1993. Reprinted 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvVkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *DC Palter and Kaoru Slotsve. Colloquial Kansai Japanese: The Dialects and Culture of the Kansai Region. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rJEdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [[Category:Languages]] pg3tjgh0z167etu09t2tdmnnxszto9w 2817350 2817349 2026-06-30T02:12:40Z James500 297601 /* Japanese */ Add 2817350 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages. World *Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ] *Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Origin *Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ] *Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1933#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ] *Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Prehistory *Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ] History *Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Social history *Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Story *Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ] *[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952) Classification *April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ] Extinct *Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ] *K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Dead *Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Indo-European *Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993. *Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ] Anatolian *Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26. Hittite *Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ] *Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936. Maltese *See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]] Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) *See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]] Asian *Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] South Asian *Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] East Asian *Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC] *Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ] *Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Chinese, Japanese and Korean *Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Chinese and Japanese *Teruhiro Ishiguro and Kang Kwong Luke. Grammar in Cross-Linguistic Perspective: The Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics of Japanese and Chinese. (Linguistic insights, vol 57). Peter Lang. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p1OqlAEACAAJ] Japan and Korea; Japanese and Korean *Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hajime Hoji (ed). Japanese/Korean Linguistics. 1990. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Suwm4WrQB6IC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ] Japonic *Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japanese and Ryukyuan *Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japan *Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Series *Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics Ryukyuan *Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Ainu *Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ] *Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ] *Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up]. *Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C] ==Japanese== Bibliography *Oskar Nachod. "Linguistics". Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754. *Wenckstern. "Philology: The Japanese Language". A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89. General *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Kokugo *Paul H Clark. The Kokugo Revolution: Education, Identity, and Language Policy in Imperial Japan. (Japan Research Monograph 16). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F6jSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeounsuk Lee. The Ideology of Kokugo: Nationalizing Language in Modern Japan. University of Hawaii Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=54wBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Kokugo To Iu Shisō: Kindai Nihon No Gengo Ninshiki. (Japanese: 「国語」という思想: 近代日本の言語認識). Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1996. Nihongo *Makoto Sugawara. Nihongo: A Japanese Approach to Japanese. East Publications. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKkPAAAAYAAJ] *Roy Andrew Miller. Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese. The Athlone Press. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oRxkAAAAMAAJ] *Nihongo Notes. The Japan Times. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdkpAQAAIAAJ] *Yutaka Sato and Margaret Y. Yamashita. Nihongo: Introductory Japanese. 1994. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ptACuS6HnpUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Minna No Nihongo I. 3A Corporation. (スリーエーネットワーク). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G-bl2P5lRl4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Minna No Nihongo II. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4nHnMa4Zw-MC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Study *Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] History *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] *Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ] *Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W P Lehmann and Lloyd Faust. A Grammar of Formal Written Japanese. (Harvard-Yenching Institute Studies, vol 5). 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=50s0AAAAIAAJ] Written; Writing *David Ashworth and Ikumi Hitosugi. Written Japanese: An Introduction. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fLDhgDHj7_EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Heath Rose. The Japanese Writing System: Challenges, Strategies and Self-regulation for Learning Kanji. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDU8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1924#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Basil Hall Chamberlain. A Practical Introduction to the Study of Japanese Writing. 1899. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-SWFGQkuJN8C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Handwritten *P G O'Neill. A Reader of Handwritten Japanese. Kodansha International. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r-MZAQAAIAAJ] Linguistics *Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ] *Tetsuo Harada. Outlines of Modern Japanese Linguistics. Tateshina Print Company. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jTcHAQAAIAAJ] Periodicals, Linguistics *Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ] *Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ] Kokugogaku and nihongogaku *Lidia Tanaka. "Japanese language studies: Kokugo as an ideology, nihongo as an autonomous and global scholarship?". Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. 2018.Chapter 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false 32] to 52. Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies) *[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]]. Cf. Kokugogaku (Japanese: [[en:wikt:国語学|国語学]]) (English: national language studies) Syntax and semantics *Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ] Semantics and pragmatics *Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] Morphology and phonology *Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Phonetics and Phonology *Haruo Kubozono (ed). Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8vFeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiromi Otaka. Phonetics and Phonology of Moras, Feet and Geminate Consonants in Japanese. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=39Q_AQAAIAAJ] *James D McCawley. The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese. Mouton & Co NV. The Hague. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3JoPAAAAYAAJ] Syntax *Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ] Phonetics *Daniel Lepetit and Reiko Makino. Japanese Phonetics: A Thematic Bibliography. Canadian Scholars. 1996. ISBN 1551300923. Catalogue: Canadian Books in Print: Author and Title Index 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q2WLJa9rY5MC&pg=PA1063#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1063]. *Society Newsletter. 1926 to 1996. [[w:ja:日本音声学会|The Phonetic Society of Japan]]. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication/society-newsletter] **Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan. 1997 onwards. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonetics: Theory and Practice. Lincom Europa. 1997. [https://books.google.com/books?id=guUZAQAAIAAJ] *P M Suski. The Phonetics of Japanese Language: With Reference to Japanese Script. 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpthAAAAMAAJ]. 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9DuiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Phonology *Laurence Labrune. The Phonology of Japanese. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ix9r6CbEl6IC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonology: A Functional Approach. Lincom Europa. 2000. [https://books.google.com/books?id=R-QZAQAAIAAJ] *Mieko Shimizu Han. Japanese Phonology: An Analysis Based on Sound Spectrograms. Kenkyusha. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T3Xl7SviXB4C] Pragmatics *Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Yoshiko Matsumoto, Junko Mori (eds). Pragmatics of Japanese: Perspectives on grammar, interaction and culture. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2wZTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gabriele Kasper. Pragmatics of Japanese as Native and Target Language. Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaiʼi at Mānoa. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2_8ifcjhpYQC] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] Translation *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Dialects *Nobuko Kibe, Tetsuo Nitta and Kan Sasaki (eds). Handbook of Japanese Dialects. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8_Y9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kansai *Peter Tse. Kansai Japanese: The Language of Osaka, Kyoto, and Western Japan. (Tuttle Language Library). 1993. Reprinted 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvVkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *DC Palter and Kaoru Slotsve. Colloquial Kansai Japanese: The Dialects and Culture of the Kansai Region. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rJEdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [[Category:Languages]] 8t17jd7hyykqj11m8zpwavabqyhnmzs 2817370 2817350 2026-06-30T10:09:51Z James500 297601 /* Japanese */ Add 2817370 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages. World *Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ] *Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Origin *Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ] *Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1933#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ] *Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Prehistory *Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ] History *Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Social history *Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Story *Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ] *[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952) Classification *April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ] Extinct *Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ] *K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Dead *Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Indo-European *Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993. *Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ] Anatolian *Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26. Hittite *Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ] *Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936. Maltese *See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]] Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) *See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]] Asian *Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] South Asian *Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] East Asian *Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC] *Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ] *Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Chinese, Japanese and Korean *Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Chinese and Japanese *Teruhiro Ishiguro and Kang Kwong Luke. Grammar in Cross-Linguistic Perspective: The Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics of Japanese and Chinese. (Linguistic insights, vol 57). Peter Lang. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p1OqlAEACAAJ] Japan and Korea; Japanese and Korean *Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hajime Hoji (ed). Japanese/Korean Linguistics. 1990. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Suwm4WrQB6IC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ] Japonic *Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japanese and Ryukyuan *Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japan *Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Series *Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics Ryukyuan *Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Ainu *Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ] *Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ] *Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up]. *Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C] ==Japanese== Bibliography *Oskar Nachod. "Linguistics". Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754. *Wenckstern. "Philology: The Japanese Language". A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89. General *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Kokugo *Paul H Clark. The Kokugo Revolution: Education, Identity, and Language Policy in Imperial Japan. (Japan Research Monograph 16). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F6jSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeounsuk Lee. The Ideology of Kokugo: Nationalizing Language in Modern Japan. University of Hawaii Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=54wBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Kokugo To Iu Shisō: Kindai Nihon No Gengo Ninshiki. (Japanese: 「国語」という思想: 近代日本の言語認識). Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1996. Nihongo *Makoto Sugawara. Nihongo: A Japanese Approach to Japanese. East Publications. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKkPAAAAYAAJ] *Roy Andrew Miller. Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese. The Athlone Press. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oRxkAAAAMAAJ] *Nihongo Notes. The Japan Times. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdkpAQAAIAAJ] *Yutaka Sato and Margaret Y. Yamashita. Nihongo: Introductory Japanese. 1994. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ptACuS6HnpUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Minna No Nihongo I. 3A Corporation. (スリーエーネットワーク). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G-bl2P5lRl4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Minna No Nihongo II. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4nHnMa4Zw-MC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Study *Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] History *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] *Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ] *Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W P Lehmann and Lloyd Faust. A Grammar of Formal Written Japanese. (Harvard-Yenching Institute Studies, vol 5). 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=50s0AAAAIAAJ] Written; Writing *David Ashworth and Ikumi Hitosugi. Written Japanese: An Introduction. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fLDhgDHj7_EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Heath Rose. The Japanese Writing System: Challenges, Strategies and Self-regulation for Learning Kanji. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDU8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1924#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Basil Hall Chamberlain. A Practical Introduction to the Study of Japanese Writing. 1899. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-SWFGQkuJN8C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Handwritten *P G O'Neill. A Reader of Handwritten Japanese. Kodansha International. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r-MZAQAAIAAJ] Read; Reading *Eleanor Harz Jorden and Hamako Ito Chaplin. Reading Japanese. Yale University Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1MF6kCogEx0C] *Jiří Jelínek and Patricia A Heron. Reading Japanese: A self-instructional manual for beginners, leading to independent translating ability. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1975. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *Dale P Crowley, with the assistance of Yoshiyuki Kawata and Yoko Kawata. Manual for Reading Japanese. University Press of Hawaii. Honolulu. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nK0PAAAAYAAJ] *John Braden. Read Practical Japanese. Kenkyusha. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3MAPAAAAYAAJ] *Setsuko Aihara, with Graham Parkes. Strategies for Reading Japanese: A Rational Approach to the Japanese Sentence. Japan Publications Trading Company. Tokyo. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tMs_AQAAIAAJ] *Len Walsh. Read Japanese Today: The Easy Way to Learn Hiragana, Katakana and Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hjBEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji: A systematic guide to reading Japanese characters. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *Arthur Rose-Innes. Japanese Reading for Beginners. K Yoshikawa & Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cP1z4IcbiO4C] Linguistics *Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ] *Tetsuo Harada. Outlines of Modern Japanese Linguistics. Tateshina Print Company. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jTcHAQAAIAAJ] Periodicals, Linguistics *Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ] *Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ] Kokugogaku and nihongogaku *Lidia Tanaka. "Japanese language studies: Kokugo as an ideology, nihongo as an autonomous and global scholarship?". Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. 2018.Chapter 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false 32] to 52. Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies) *[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]]. Cf. Kokugogaku (Japanese: [[en:wikt:国語学|国語学]]) (English: national language studies) Syntax and semantics *Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ] Semantics and pragmatics *Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] Morphology and phonology *Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Phonetics and Phonology *Haruo Kubozono (ed). Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8vFeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiromi Otaka. Phonetics and Phonology of Moras, Feet and Geminate Consonants in Japanese. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=39Q_AQAAIAAJ] *James D McCawley. The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese. Mouton & Co NV. The Hague. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3JoPAAAAYAAJ] Syntax *Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ] Phonetics *Daniel Lepetit and Reiko Makino. Japanese Phonetics: A Thematic Bibliography. Canadian Scholars. 1996. ISBN 1551300923. Catalogue: Canadian Books in Print: Author and Title Index 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q2WLJa9rY5MC&pg=PA1063#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1063]. *Society Newsletter. 1926 to 1996. [[w:ja:日本音声学会|The Phonetic Society of Japan]]. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication/society-newsletter] **Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan. 1997 onwards. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonetics: Theory and Practice. Lincom Europa. 1997. [https://books.google.com/books?id=guUZAQAAIAAJ] *P M Suski. The Phonetics of Japanese Language: With Reference to Japanese Script. 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpthAAAAMAAJ]. 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9DuiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Phonology *Laurence Labrune. The Phonology of Japanese. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ix9r6CbEl6IC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonology: A Functional Approach. Lincom Europa. 2000. [https://books.google.com/books?id=R-QZAQAAIAAJ] *Mieko Shimizu Han. Japanese Phonology: An Analysis Based on Sound Spectrograms. Kenkyusha. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T3Xl7SviXB4C] Pragmatics *Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Yoshiko Matsumoto, Junko Mori (eds). Pragmatics of Japanese: Perspectives on grammar, interaction and culture. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2wZTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gabriele Kasper. Pragmatics of Japanese as Native and Target Language. Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaiʼi at Mānoa. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2_8ifcjhpYQC] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] Translation *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Dialects *Nobuko Kibe, Tetsuo Nitta and Kan Sasaki (eds). Handbook of Japanese Dialects. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8_Y9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kansai *Peter Tse. Kansai Japanese: The Language of Osaka, Kyoto, and Western Japan. (Tuttle Language Library). 1993. Reprinted 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvVkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *DC Palter and Kaoru Slotsve. Colloquial Kansai Japanese: The Dialects and Culture of the Kansai Region. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rJEdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [[Category:Languages]] dlh99e8aa5e9o2adxvn16de7yjh3pye 2817371 2817370 2026-06-30T10:15:29Z James500 297601 /* Japanese */ Add 2817371 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages. World *Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ] *Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Origin *Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ] *Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1933#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ] *Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. 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History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Social history *Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Story *Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ] *[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. 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The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993. *Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ] Anatolian *Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26. Hittite *Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ] *Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936. Maltese *See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]] Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) *See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]] Asian *Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] South Asian *Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] East Asian *Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC] *Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ] *Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Chinese, Japanese and Korean *Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Chinese and Japanese *Teruhiro Ishiguro and Kang Kwong Luke. Grammar in Cross-Linguistic Perspective: The Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics of Japanese and Chinese. (Linguistic insights, vol 57). Peter Lang. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p1OqlAEACAAJ] Japan and Korea; Japanese and Korean *Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hajime Hoji (ed). Japanese/Korean Linguistics. 1990. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Suwm4WrQB6IC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ] Japonic *Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japanese and Ryukyuan *Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japan *Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Series *Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics Ryukyuan *Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Ainu *Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ] *Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ] *Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up]. *Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C] ==Japanese== Bibliography *Oskar Nachod. "Linguistics". Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754. *Wenckstern. "Philology: The Japanese Language". A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89. General *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Kokugo *Paul H Clark. The Kokugo Revolution: Education, Identity, and Language Policy in Imperial Japan. (Japan Research Monograph 16). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F6jSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeounsuk Lee. The Ideology of Kokugo: Nationalizing Language in Modern Japan. University of Hawaii Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=54wBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Kokugo To Iu Shisō: Kindai Nihon No Gengo Ninshiki. (Japanese: 「国語」という思想: 近代日本の言語認識). Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1996. Nihongo *Makoto Sugawara. Nihongo: A Japanese Approach to Japanese. East Publications. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKkPAAAAYAAJ] *Roy Andrew Miller. Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese. The Athlone Press. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oRxkAAAAMAAJ] *Nihongo Notes. The Japan Times. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdkpAQAAIAAJ] *Yutaka Sato and Margaret Y. Yamashita. Nihongo: Introductory Japanese. 1994. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ptACuS6HnpUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Minna No Nihongo I. 3A Corporation. (スリーエーネットワーク). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G-bl2P5lRl4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Minna No Nihongo II. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4nHnMa4Zw-MC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Muneo Kimura. Learning Japanese: Techniques for Intermediate and Advanced Student. (Orientation Seminars on Japan, number 23). Office for the Japanese Studies Center, The Japan Foundation. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZyUHAQAAIAAJ] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Study *Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] History *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] *Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ] *Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W P Lehmann and Lloyd Faust. A Grammar of Formal Written Japanese. (Harvard-Yenching Institute Studies, vol 5). 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=50s0AAAAIAAJ] Written; Writing *David Ashworth and Ikumi Hitosugi. Written Japanese: An Introduction. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fLDhgDHj7_EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Heath Rose. The Japanese Writing System: Challenges, Strategies and Self-regulation for Learning Kanji. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDU8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1924#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Basil Hall Chamberlain. A Practical Introduction to the Study of Japanese Writing. 1899. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-SWFGQkuJN8C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Handwritten *P G O'Neill. A Reader of Handwritten Japanese. Kodansha International. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r-MZAQAAIAAJ] Read; Reading *Eleanor Harz Jorden and Hamako Ito Chaplin. Reading Japanese. Yale University Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1MF6kCogEx0C] *Jiří Jelínek and Patricia A Heron. Reading Japanese: A self-instructional manual for beginners, leading to independent translating ability. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1975. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *Dale P Crowley, with the assistance of Yoshiyuki Kawata and Yoko Kawata. Manual for Reading Japanese. University Press of Hawaii. Honolulu. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nK0PAAAAYAAJ] *John Braden. Read Practical Japanese. Kenkyusha. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3MAPAAAAYAAJ] *Setsuko Aihara, with Graham Parkes. Strategies for Reading Japanese: A Rational Approach to the Japanese Sentence. Japan Publications Trading Company. Tokyo. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tMs_AQAAIAAJ] *Len Walsh. Read Japanese Today: The Easy Way to Learn Hiragana, Katakana and Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hjBEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji: A systematic guide to reading Japanese characters. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *Arthur Rose-Innes. Japanese Reading for Beginners. K Yoshikawa & Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cP1z4IcbiO4C] Linguistics *Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ] *Tetsuo Harada. Outlines of Modern Japanese Linguistics. Tateshina Print Company. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jTcHAQAAIAAJ] Periodicals, Linguistics *Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ] *Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ] Kokugogaku and nihongogaku *Lidia Tanaka. "Japanese language studies: Kokugo as an ideology, nihongo as an autonomous and global scholarship?". Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. 2018.Chapter 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false 32] to 52. Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies) *[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]]. Cf. Kokugogaku (Japanese: [[en:wikt:国語学|国語学]]) (English: national language studies) Syntax and semantics *Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ] Semantics and pragmatics *Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] Morphology and phonology *Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Phonetics and Phonology *Haruo Kubozono (ed). Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8vFeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiromi Otaka. Phonetics and Phonology of Moras, Feet and Geminate Consonants in Japanese. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=39Q_AQAAIAAJ] *James D McCawley. The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese. Mouton & Co NV. The Hague. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3JoPAAAAYAAJ] Syntax *Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ] Phonetics *Daniel Lepetit and Reiko Makino. Japanese Phonetics: A Thematic Bibliography. Canadian Scholars. 1996. ISBN 1551300923. Catalogue: Canadian Books in Print: Author and Title Index 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q2WLJa9rY5MC&pg=PA1063#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1063]. *Society Newsletter. 1926 to 1996. [[w:ja:日本音声学会|The Phonetic Society of Japan]]. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication/society-newsletter] **Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan. 1997 onwards. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonetics: Theory and Practice. Lincom Europa. 1997. [https://books.google.com/books?id=guUZAQAAIAAJ] *P M Suski. The Phonetics of Japanese Language: With Reference to Japanese Script. 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpthAAAAMAAJ]. 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9DuiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Phonology *Laurence Labrune. The Phonology of Japanese. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ix9r6CbEl6IC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonology: A Functional Approach. Lincom Europa. 2000. [https://books.google.com/books?id=R-QZAQAAIAAJ] *Mieko Shimizu Han. Japanese Phonology: An Analysis Based on Sound Spectrograms. Kenkyusha. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T3Xl7SviXB4C] Pragmatics *Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Yoshiko Matsumoto, Junko Mori (eds). Pragmatics of Japanese: Perspectives on grammar, interaction and culture. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2wZTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gabriele Kasper. Pragmatics of Japanese as Native and Target Language. Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaiʼi at Mānoa. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2_8ifcjhpYQC] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] Translation *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Dialects *Nobuko Kibe, Tetsuo Nitta and Kan Sasaki (eds). Handbook of Japanese Dialects. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8_Y9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kansai *Peter Tse. Kansai Japanese: The Language of Osaka, Kyoto, and Western Japan. (Tuttle Language Library). 1993. Reprinted 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvVkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *DC Palter and Kaoru Slotsve. Colloquial Kansai Japanese: The Dialects and Culture of the Kansai Region. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rJEdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [[Category:Languages]] 1qc65rmot9lgrfal2mzqy8ys1179o8r 6 330400 2817229 2026-06-29T13:20:56Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2A traditional (20260629 - 20260627) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-06-29 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2817229 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2A traditional (20260629 - 20260627) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-06-29 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} a8sya80ddilms4nr78ilkjl9uhbxbzn 6 330401 2817230 2026-06-29T13:21:38Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2B simplified (20260629 - 20260627) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-06-29 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2817230 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2B simplified (20260629 - 20260627) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-06-29 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} s9fo9ikj518mnnni8cgjlhw8wo29vxb 6 330402 2817232 2026-06-29T13:32:03Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20260629 - 20260627) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-06-29 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2817232 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20260629 - 20260627) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-06-29 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} 6cwze8z2aqpkblw89nxkxx68axfzfwu 6 330403 2817234 2026-06-29T13:41:56Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Laurent.5: Permutation 6C (20260629 - 20260627) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-06-29 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2817234 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Laurent.5: Permutation 6C (20260629 - 20260627) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-06-29 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} sxnqafe8i9bngsefpgkrnxrb7joqrqa 0 330404 2817279 2026-06-29T16:29:05Z Alexander-Barth 3097879 Created page with " Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - 5 x + 6 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -5</math> and <math>c = 6</math>. <math>\Delta = (-5)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 6 = 25 - 24 = 1</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac..." 2817279 wikitext text/x-wiki Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - 5 x + 6 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -5</math> and <math>c = 6</math>. <math>\Delta = (-5)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 6 = 25 - 24 = 1</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-(-5) \pm \sqrt{1}}{2} = \frac{5 \pm 1}{2}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{5 - 1}{2} = 2</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{5 + 1}{2} = 3</math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> a5unr8lo8sfhvv9g0zito72nnijb1pu 2817281 2817279 2026-06-29T16:29:53Z Alexander-Barth 3097879 formatting 2817281 wikitext text/x-wiki Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - 5 x + 6 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -5</math> and <math>c = 6</math>. <math>\Delta = (-5)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 6 = 25 - 24 = 1</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-(-5) \pm \sqrt{1}}{2} = \frac{5 \pm 1}{2}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{5 - 1}{2} = 2</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{5 + 1}{2} = 3</math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> 4ebgr251ga2fd8y0ynpnimvj87vqn3l 2817282 2817281 2026-06-29T16:30:25Z Alexander-Barth 3097879 fix formatting 2817282 wikitext text/x-wiki Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - 5 x + 6 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -5</math> and <math>c = 6</math>. <math>\Delta = (-5)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 6 = 25 - 24 = 1</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-(-5) \pm \sqrt{1}}{2} = \frac{5 \pm 1}{2}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{5 - 1}{2} = 2</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{5 + 1}{2} = 3</math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> i63oieruki5ya7wxonhjfzow9pgb6jq 2817285 2817282 2026-06-29T16:35:11Z Atcovi 276019 project box(es) 2817285 wikitext text/x-wiki {{quiz}} {{mathematics}} Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - 5 x + 6 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -5</math> and <math>c = 6</math>. <math>\Delta = (-5)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 6 = 25 - 24 = 1</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-(-5) \pm \sqrt{1}}{2} = \frac{5 \pm 1}{2}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{5 - 1}{2} = 2</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{5 + 1}{2} = 3</math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> lw9f8mhxzwqbh0xvpvssng2r03kjcnb 2817286 2817285 2026-06-29T16:35:56Z Atcovi 276019 cat(s) 2817286 wikitext text/x-wiki {{quiz}} Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - 5 x + 6 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -5</math> and <math>c = 6</math>. <math>\Delta = (-5)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 6 = 25 - 24 = 1</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-(-5) \pm \sqrt{1}}{2} = \frac{5 \pm 1}{2}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{5 - 1}{2} = 2</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{5 + 1}{2} = 3</math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> [[Category:Exercises]] [[Category:Mathematics]] 4t48fzh386smq60hy7nmej60n2nupdx 2817288 2817286 2026-06-29T16:36:17Z Atcovi 276019 Atcovi moved page [[Quadratic equation (exercies)]] to [[Quadratic equation (exercise)]] without leaving a redirect: correct spelling 2817286 wikitext text/x-wiki {{quiz}} Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - 5 x + 6 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -5</math> and <math>c = 6</math>. <math>\Delta = (-5)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 6 = 25 - 24 = 1</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-(-5) \pm \sqrt{1}}{2} = \frac{5 \pm 1}{2}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{5 - 1}{2} = 2</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{5 + 1}{2} = 3</math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> [[Category:Exercises]] [[Category:Mathematics]] 4t48fzh386smq60hy7nmej60n2nupdx 2817359 2817288 2026-06-30T07:23:03Z Alexander-Barth 3097879 2817359 wikitext text/x-wiki {{quiz}} Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - 5 x + 6 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -5</math> and <math>c = 6</math>. <math>\Delta = (-5)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 6 = 25 - 24 = 1</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-(-5) \pm \sqrt{1}}{2} = \frac{5 \pm 1}{2}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{5 - 1}{2} = 2</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{5 + 1}{2} = 3</math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>2 x^2 - 2 x - 12 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 2</math>, <math>b = -2</math> and <math>c = -12</math>. <math>\Delta = (-2)^2 - 4 \times 2 \times (-12) = 4 + 96 = 100</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-(-2) \pm \sqrt{100}}{2 \times 2} = \frac{2 \pm 10}{4}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{2 - 10}{4} = -2</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{2 + 10}{4} = 3</math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - 4 x + 4 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -4</math> and <math>c = 4</math>. <math>\Delta = (-4)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 4 = 16 - 16 = 0</math> Since <math>\Delta</math> is zero, there is only a single solution: <math>x=\frac{-b}{2a} = \frac{-(-4)}{2 \times 1} = \frac{4}{2} = 2</math> Alternatively, one can solve this equation by using the 2nd binomial formula: <math> \begin{align} x^2 - 4 x + 4 &= 0 \\ (x - 2)^2 &= 0 \\ x - 2 &= 0 \\ x &= 2 \\ \end{align} </math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> [[Category:Exercises]] [[Category:Mathematics]] 6x3y0p3lsf5hvm0tvwk7wyecrbv9arw 2817360 2817359 2026-06-30T07:58:46Z Alexander-Barth 3097879 add more exercises 2817360 wikitext text/x-wiki {{quiz}} Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - 5 x + 6 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -5</math> and <math>c = 6</math>. <math>\Delta = (-5)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 6 = 25 - 24 = 1</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-(-5) \pm \sqrt{1}}{2} = \frac{5 \pm 1}{2}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{5 - 1}{2} = 2</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{5 + 1}{2} = 3</math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>2 x^2 - 2 x - 12 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 2</math>, <math>b = -2</math> and <math>c = -12</math>. <math>\Delta = (-2)^2 - 4 \times 2 \times (-12) = 4 + 96 = 100</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-(-2) \pm \sqrt{100}}{2 \times 2} = \frac{2 \pm 10}{4}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{2 - 10}{4} = -2</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{2 + 10}{4} = 3</math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - 4 x + 4 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -4</math> and <math>c = 4</math>. <math>\Delta = (-4)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 4 = 16 - 16 = 0</math> Since <math>\Delta</math> is zero, there is only a single solution: <math>x=\frac{-b}{2a} = \frac{-(-4)}{2 \times 1} = \frac{4}{2} = 2</math> Alternatively, one can solve this equation by using the 2nd binomial formula: <math> \begin{align} x^2 - 4 x + 4 &= 0 \\ (x - 2)^2 &= 0 \\ x - 2 &= 0 \\ x &= 2 \\ \end{align} </math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - 4 x + 5 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -4</math> and <math>c = 5</math>. <math>\Delta = (-4)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 5 = 16 - 20 = -4</math> Since <math>\Delta</math> is negative, there is no real solution, <math>x \notin \R</math>. </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - \frac{3}{2} x + \frac{1}{2} = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -\frac{3}{2}</math> and <math>c = \frac{1}{2}</math>. <math>\Delta = \left(-\frac{3}{2}\right)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times \frac{1}{2} = \frac{9}{4} - \frac{8}{4} = \frac{1}{4}</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-\left(-\frac{3}{2}\right) \pm \sqrt{\frac{1}{4}}}{2 \times 1} = \frac{\frac{3}{2} \pm \frac{1}{2}}{2} = \frac{3 \pm 1}{4}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{3 - 1}{4} = \frac{1}{2}</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{3 + 1}{4} = 1</math>. Note that one can avoid the fraction here by multiplying all terms of the quadratic equation by 2. </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - x - d x - + d = 0</math> where <math>d \in \R</math>. <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -(1+d)</math> and <math>c = d</math>. <math>\Delta = (1+d)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times d = 1 + 2 d + d^2 - 4 d = 1 - 2d + d^2 = (1-d)^2</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive (or zero if <math>d=1</math>). There are thus two (or one) solution(s): <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{1+d \pm |1-d|}{2}</math> There is no need to discuss the sign of <math>1-d</math> as both cases are handled anyway with the <math>\pm</math> sign. The solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{1+d - (1-d)}{2} = d</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{1+d + 1 - d}{2} = 1</math>. Indeed, when <math>d=1</math>, both solutions are equal. </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> [[Category:Exercises]] [[Category:Mathematics]] ofr06rjidjbpq47he5hikqq358bz78k 2817361 2817360 2026-06-30T07:59:31Z Alexander-Barth 3097879 fix sign 2817361 wikitext text/x-wiki {{quiz}} Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - 5 x + 6 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -5</math> and <math>c = 6</math>. <math>\Delta = (-5)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 6 = 25 - 24 = 1</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-(-5) \pm \sqrt{1}}{2} = \frac{5 \pm 1}{2}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{5 - 1}{2} = 2</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{5 + 1}{2} = 3</math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>2 x^2 - 2 x - 12 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 2</math>, <math>b = -2</math> and <math>c = -12</math>. <math>\Delta = (-2)^2 - 4 \times 2 \times (-12) = 4 + 96 = 100</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-(-2) \pm \sqrt{100}}{2 \times 2} = \frac{2 \pm 10}{4}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{2 - 10}{4} = -2</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{2 + 10}{4} = 3</math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - 4 x + 4 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -4</math> and <math>c = 4</math>. <math>\Delta = (-4)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 4 = 16 - 16 = 0</math> Since <math>\Delta</math> is zero, there is only a single solution: <math>x=\frac{-b}{2a} = \frac{-(-4)}{2 \times 1} = \frac{4}{2} = 2</math> Alternatively, one can solve this equation by using the 2nd binomial formula: <math> \begin{align} x^2 - 4 x + 4 &= 0 \\ (x - 2)^2 &= 0 \\ x - 2 &= 0 \\ x &= 2 \\ \end{align} </math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - 4 x + 5 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -4</math> and <math>c = 5</math>. <math>\Delta = (-4)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 5 = 16 - 20 = -4</math> Since <math>\Delta</math> is negative, there is no real solution, <math>x \notin \R</math>. </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - \frac{3}{2} x + \frac{1}{2} = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -\frac{3}{2}</math> and <math>c = \frac{1}{2}</math>. <math>\Delta = \left(-\frac{3}{2}\right)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times \frac{1}{2} = \frac{9}{4} - \frac{8}{4} = \frac{1}{4}</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-\left(-\frac{3}{2}\right) \pm \sqrt{\frac{1}{4}}}{2 \times 1} = \frac{\frac{3}{2} \pm \frac{1}{2}}{2} = \frac{3 \pm 1}{4}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{3 - 1}{4} = \frac{1}{2}</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{3 + 1}{4} = 1</math>. Note that one can avoid the fraction here by multiplying all terms of the quadratic equation by 2. </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - x - d x + d = 0</math> where <math>d \in \R</math>. <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -(1+d)</math> and <math>c = d</math>. <math>\Delta = (1+d)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times d = 1 + 2 d + d^2 - 4 d = 1 - 2d + d^2 = (1-d)^2</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive (or zero if <math>d=1</math>). There are thus two (or one) solution(s): <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{1+d \pm |1-d|}{2}</math> There is no need to discuss the sign of <math>1-d</math> as both cases are handled anyway with the <math>\pm</math> sign. The solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{1+d - (1-d)}{2} = d</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{1+d + 1 - d}{2} = 1</math>. Indeed, when <math>d=1</math>, both solutions are equal. </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> [[Category:Exercises]] [[Category:Mathematics]] 74cqhe4dlhh225uivqubk4h99rq8h5c 2817362 2817361 2026-06-30T08:15:07Z Alexander-Barth 3097879 add more exercises 2817362 wikitext text/x-wiki {{quiz}} Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - 5 x + 6 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -5</math> and <math>c = 6</math>. <math>\Delta = (-5)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 6 = 25 - 24 = 1</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-(-5) \pm \sqrt{1}}{2} = \frac{5 \pm 1}{2}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{5 - 1}{2} = 2</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{5 + 1}{2} = 3</math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>2 x^2 - 2 x - 12 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 2</math>, <math>b = -2</math> and <math>c = -12</math>. <math>\Delta = (-2)^2 - 4 \times 2 \times (-12) = 4 + 96 = 100</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-(-2) \pm \sqrt{100}}{2 \times 2} = \frac{2 \pm 10}{4}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{2 - 10}{4} = -2</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{2 + 10}{4} = 3</math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - 4 x + 4 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -4</math> and <math>c = 4</math>. <math>\Delta = (-4)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 4 = 16 - 16 = 0</math> Since <math>\Delta</math> is zero, there is only a single solution: <math>x=\frac{-b}{2a} = \frac{-(-4)}{2 \times 1} = \frac{4}{2} = 2</math> Alternatively, one can solve this equation by using the 2nd binomial formula: <math> \begin{align} x^2 - 4 x + 4 &= 0 \\ (x - 2)^2 &= 0 \\ x - 2 &= 0 \\ x &= 2 \\ \end{align} </math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - 4 x + 5 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -4</math> and <math>c = 5</math>. <math>\Delta = (-4)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 5 = 16 - 20 = -4</math> Since <math>\Delta</math> is negative, there is no real solution, <math>x \notin \R</math>. </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - \frac{3}{2} x + \frac{1}{2} = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -\frac{3}{2}</math> and <math>c = \frac{1}{2}</math>. <math>\Delta = \left(-\frac{3}{2}\right)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times \frac{1}{2} = \frac{9}{4} - \frac{8}{4} = \frac{1}{4}</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-\left(-\frac{3}{2}\right) \pm \sqrt{\frac{1}{4}}}{2 \times 1} = \frac{\frac{3}{2} \pm \frac{1}{2}}{2} = \frac{3 \pm 1}{4}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{3 - 1}{4} = \frac{1}{2}</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{3 + 1}{4} = 1</math>. Note that one can avoid the fraction here by multiplying all terms of the quadratic equation by 2. </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - 4 x + 3 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -4</math> and <math>c = 3</math>. <math>\Delta = (-4)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 3 = 16 - 12 = 4</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-(-4) \pm \sqrt{4}}{2} = \frac{4 \pm 2}{2}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{4 - 2}{2} = 1</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{4 + 2}{2} = 3</math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>100 x^2 - 700 x + 600 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> One approach is to first divide all terms of this equation by 100 to avoid unnecessarily large numbers. <math>x^2 - 7 x + 6 = 0</math> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -7</math> and <math>c = 6</math>. <math>\Delta = (-7)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 6 = 49 - 24 = 25</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-(-7) \pm \sqrt{25}}{2} = \frac{7 \pm 5}{2}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{7 - 5}{2} = 1</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{7 + 5}{2} = 6</math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - x - d x + d = 0</math> where <math>d \in \R</math>. <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -(1+d)</math> and <math>c = d</math>. <math>\Delta = (1+d)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times d = 1 + 2 d + d^2 - 4 d = 1 - 2d + d^2 = (1-d)^2</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive (or zero if <math>d=1</math>). There are thus two (or one) solution(s): <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{1+d \pm |1-d|}{2}</math> There is no need to discuss the sign of <math>1-d</math> as both cases are handled anyway with the <math>\pm</math> sign. The solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{1+d - (1-d)}{2} = d</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{1+d + 1 - d}{2} = 1</math>. Indeed, when <math>d=1</math>, both solutions are equal. </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> [[Category:Exercises]] [[Category:Mathematics]] 3zd0ckpm5new45ig4xa98p4v1my60gt 2817372 2817362 2026-06-30T10:32:39Z Alexander-Barth 3097879 add exercise 9 and 10 2817372 wikitext text/x-wiki {{quiz}} === Exercise 1 === Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - 5 x + 6 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -5</math> and <math>c = 6</math>. <math>\Delta = (-5)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 6 = 25 - 24 = 1</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-(-5) \pm \sqrt{1}}{2} = \frac{5 \pm 1}{2}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{5 - 1}{2} = 2</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{5 + 1}{2} = 3</math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> === Exercise 2 === Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>2 x^2 - 2 x - 12 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 2</math>, <math>b = -2</math> and <math>c = -12</math>. <math>\Delta = (-2)^2 - 4 \times 2 \times (-12) = 4 + 96 = 100</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-(-2) \pm \sqrt{100}}{2 \times 2} = \frac{2 \pm 10}{4}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{2 - 10}{4} = -2</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{2 + 10}{4} = 3</math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> === Exercise 3 === Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - 4 x + 4 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -4</math> and <math>c = 4</math>. <math>\Delta = (-4)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 4 = 16 - 16 = 0</math> Since <math>\Delta</math> is zero, there is only a single solution: <math>x=\frac{-b}{2a} = \frac{-(-4)}{2 \times 1} = \frac{4}{2} = 2</math> Alternatively, one can solve this equation by using the 2nd binomial formula: <math> \begin{align} x^2 - 4 x + 4 &= 0 \\ (x - 2)^2 &= 0 \\ x - 2 &= 0 \\ x &= 2 \\ \end{align} </math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> === Exercise 4 === Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - 4 x + 5 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -4</math> and <math>c = 5</math>. <math>\Delta = (-4)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 5 = 16 - 20 = -4</math> Since <math>\Delta</math> is negative, there is no real solution, <math>x \notin \R</math>. </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> === Exercise 5 === Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - \frac{3}{2} x + \frac{1}{2} = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -\frac{3}{2}</math> and <math>c = \frac{1}{2}</math>. <math>\Delta = \left(-\frac{3}{2}\right)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times \frac{1}{2} = \frac{9}{4} - \frac{8}{4} = \frac{1}{4}</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-\left(-\frac{3}{2}\right) \pm \sqrt{\frac{1}{4}}}{2 \times 1} = \frac{\frac{3}{2} \pm \frac{1}{2}}{2} = \frac{3 \pm 1}{4}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{3 - 1}{4} = \frac{1}{2}</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{3 + 1}{4} = 1</math>. Note that one can avoid the fraction here by multiplying all terms of the quadratic equation by 2. </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> === Exercise 6 === Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - 4 x + 3 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -4</math> and <math>c = 3</math>. <math>\Delta = (-4)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 3 = 16 - 12 = 4</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-(-4) \pm \sqrt{4}}{2} = \frac{4 \pm 2}{2}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{4 - 2}{2} = 1</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{4 + 2}{2} = 3</math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> === Exercise 7 === Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>100 x^2 - 700 x + 600 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> One approach is to first divide all terms of this equation by 100 to avoid unnecessarily large numbers. <math>x^2 - 7 x + 6 = 0</math> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -7</math> and <math>c = 6</math>. <math>\Delta = (-7)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 6 = 49 - 24 = 25</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-(-7) \pm \sqrt{25}}{2} = \frac{7 \pm 5}{2}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{7 - 5}{2} = 1</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{7 + 5}{2} = 6</math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> === Exercise 8 === Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - x - d x + d = 0</math> where <math>d \in \R</math>. <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -(1+d)</math> and <math>c = d</math>. <math>\Delta = (1+d)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times d = 1 + 2 d + d^2 - 4 d = 1 - 2d + d^2 = (1-d)^2</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive (or zero if <math>d=1</math>). There are thus two (or one) solution(s): <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{1+d \pm |1-d|}{2}</math> There is no need to discuss the sign of <math>1-d</math> as both cases are handled anyway with the <math>\pm</math> sign. The solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{1+d - (1-d)}{2} = d</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{1+d + 1 - d}{2} = 1</math>. Indeed, when <math>d=1</math>, both solutions are equal. </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> === Exercise 9 === Find the intersection between parabola <math>f(x) = x^2 - x - 2</math> and the line <math>g(x) = x+1</math>. <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> At the intersection <math>f(x) = g(x)</math>: :<math>\begin{align} x^2 - x - 2 &= x+1 \\ x^2 - 2x - 3 &= 0 \end{align} </math> The determinant: <math>\Delta = (-2)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times (-3) = 4 + 12 = 16</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{2 \pm 4}{2}</math> The solutions are <math>x_1=-1</math> and <math>x_2=3</math>. The corresponding <math>y</math>-values are <math>y_1=x_1+1 = 0</math> and <math>y_2=x_2 + 1 = 4</math>. <math>f(x)</math> and <math>g(x)</math> intersect thus at the points (-1,0) and (3,4). </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> === Exercise 10 === Find all values of <math>k</math> so that the parabola <math>f(x) = x^2 + 3 x + k</math> and the line <math>g(x) = -x + 1</math> are tangent to each other. Compute the coordinates of the point of tangency. <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> <math>f(x)</math> and <math>g(x)</math> are tangent if they intersect at a single point. The intersection can be computed by solving <math>f(x) = g(x)</math>: :<math>\begin{align} x^2 + 3 x + k &= -x +1 \\ x^2 + 4 x + k-1 &= 0 \end{align} </math> The determinant must be zero: :<math>\begin{align} \Delta = (4)^2 - 4 (k-1) &= 0 \\ 16 - 4 (k-1) &= 0 \\ 4 - (k-1) &= 0 \\ 4 - k + 1 &= 0 \\ k &= 5 \\ \end{align} </math> The solution is <math>x = \frac{-b}{2a} = \frac{-4}{2} = -2</math> and the corresponding <math>y</math>-value is <math>y = -x +1 = -3</math>. <math>f(x)</math> and <math>g(x)</math> are tangent if <math>k = 5</math> and the coordinates of the point of tangency is (2,-3). </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> [[Category:Exercises]] [[Category:Mathematics]] 1a9vnwdskfvjmvhhml9ovsij3zo5kpk 2817373 2817372 2026-06-30T10:36:34Z Alexander-Barth 3097879 change determinant by discriminant 2817373 wikitext text/x-wiki {{quiz}} === Exercise 1 === Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - 5 x + 6 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -5</math> and <math>c = 6</math>. <math>\Delta = (-5)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 6 = 25 - 24 = 1</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-(-5) \pm \sqrt{1}}{2} = \frac{5 \pm 1}{2}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{5 - 1}{2} = 2</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{5 + 1}{2} = 3</math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> === Exercise 2 === Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>2 x^2 - 2 x - 12 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 2</math>, <math>b = -2</math> and <math>c = -12</math>. <math>\Delta = (-2)^2 - 4 \times 2 \times (-12) = 4 + 96 = 100</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-(-2) \pm \sqrt{100}}{2 \times 2} = \frac{2 \pm 10}{4}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{2 - 10}{4} = -2</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{2 + 10}{4} = 3</math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> === Exercise 3 === Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - 4 x + 4 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -4</math> and <math>c = 4</math>. <math>\Delta = (-4)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 4 = 16 - 16 = 0</math> Since <math>\Delta</math> is zero, there is only a single solution: <math>x=\frac{-b}{2a} = \frac{-(-4)}{2 \times 1} = \frac{4}{2} = 2</math> Alternatively, one can solve this equation by using the 2nd binomial formula: <math> \begin{align} x^2 - 4 x + 4 &= 0 \\ (x - 2)^2 &= 0 \\ x - 2 &= 0 \\ x &= 2 \\ \end{align} </math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> === Exercise 4 === Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - 4 x + 5 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -4</math> and <math>c = 5</math>. <math>\Delta = (-4)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 5 = 16 - 20 = -4</math> Since <math>\Delta</math> is negative, there is no real solution, <math>x \notin \R</math>. </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> === Exercise 5 === Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - \frac{3}{2} x + \frac{1}{2} = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -\frac{3}{2}</math> and <math>c = \frac{1}{2}</math>. <math>\Delta = \left(-\frac{3}{2}\right)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times \frac{1}{2} = \frac{9}{4} - \frac{8}{4} = \frac{1}{4}</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-\left(-\frac{3}{2}\right) \pm \sqrt{\frac{1}{4}}}{2 \times 1} = \frac{\frac{3}{2} \pm \frac{1}{2}}{2} = \frac{3 \pm 1}{4}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{3 - 1}{4} = \frac{1}{2}</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{3 + 1}{4} = 1</math>. Note that one can avoid the fraction here by multiplying all terms of the quadratic equation by 2. </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> === Exercise 6 === Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - 4 x + 3 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -4</math> and <math>c = 3</math>. <math>\Delta = (-4)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 3 = 16 - 12 = 4</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-(-4) \pm \sqrt{4}}{2} = \frac{4 \pm 2}{2}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{4 - 2}{2} = 1</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{4 + 2}{2} = 3</math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> === Exercise 7 === Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>100 x^2 - 700 x + 600 = 0</math> <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> One approach is to first divide all terms of this equation by 100 to avoid unnecessarily large numbers. <math>x^2 - 7 x + 6 = 0</math> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -7</math> and <math>c = 6</math>. <math>\Delta = (-7)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times 6 = 49 - 24 = 25</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{-(-7) \pm \sqrt{25}}{2} = \frac{7 \pm 5}{2}</math> The two solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{7 - 5}{2} = 1</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{7 + 5}{2} = 6</math> </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> === Exercise 8 === Solve for <math>x \in \R</math>: <math>x^2 - x - d x + d = 0</math> where <math>d \in \R</math>. <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> The equation is of the form <math> a x^2 + b x + c = 0 </math> where <math>a = 1</math>, <math>b = -(1+d)</math> and <math>c = d</math>. <math>\Delta = (1+d)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times d = 1 + 2 d + d^2 - 4 d = 1 - 2d + d^2 = (1-d)^2</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive (or zero if <math>d=1</math>). There are thus two (or one) solution(s): <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{1+d \pm |1-d|}{2}</math> There is no need to discuss the sign of <math>1-d</math> as both cases are handled anyway with the <math>\pm</math> sign. The solutions are <math>x_1=\frac{1+d - (1-d)}{2} = d</math> and <math>x_2=\frac{1+d + 1 - d}{2} = 1</math>. Indeed, when <math>d=1</math>, both solutions are equal. </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> === Exercise 9 === Find the intersection between parabola <math>f(x) = x^2 - x - 2</math> and the line <math>g(x) = x+1</math>. <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> At the intersection <math>f(x) = g(x)</math>: :<math>\begin{align} x^2 - x - 2 &= x+1 \\ x^2 - 2x - 3 &= 0 \end{align} </math> The discriminant: <math>\Delta = (-2)^2 - 4 \times 1 \times (-3) = 4 + 12 = 16</math> Note that <math>\Delta</math> is positive. There are thus two solutions: <math>x_{1,2}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{\Delta}}{2a} = \frac{2 \pm 4}{2}</math> The solutions are <math>x_1=-1</math> and <math>x_2=3</math>. The corresponding <math>y</math>-values are <math>y_1=x_1+1 = 0</math> and <math>y_2=x_2 + 1 = 4</math>. <math>f(x)</math> and <math>g(x)</math> intersect thus at the points (-1,0) and (3,4). </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> === Exercise 10 === Find all values of <math>k</math> so that the parabola <math>f(x) = x^2 + 3 x + k</math> and the line <math>g(x) = -x + 1</math> are tangent to each other. Compute the coordinates of the point of tangency. <div class="NavFrame"><div class="NavHead"> Solution: </div><div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left"> <math>f(x)</math> and <math>g(x)</math> are tangent if they intersect at a single point. The intersection can be computed by solving <math>f(x) = g(x)</math>: :<math>\begin{align} x^2 + 3 x + k &= -x +1 \\ x^2 + 4 x + k-1 &= 0 \end{align} </math> The discriminant must be zero: :<math>\begin{align} \Delta = (4)^2 - 4 (k-1) &= 0 \\ 16 - 4 (k-1) &= 0 \\ 4 - (k-1) &= 0 \\ 4 - k + 1 &= 0 \\ k &= 5 \\ \end{align} </math> The solution is <math>x = \frac{-b}{2a} = \frac{-4}{2} = -2</math> and the corresponding <math>y</math>-value is <math>y = -x +1 = -3</math>. <math>f(x)</math> and <math>g(x)</math> are tangent if <math>k = 5</math> and the coordinates of the point of tangency is (2,-3). </div></div><div class="NavEnd"> </div> [[Category:Exercises]] [[Category:Mathematics]] e5tillln1ane4rg5vhhfl94dssyvfjb 3 330405 2817289 2026-06-29T16:36:34Z Atcovi 276019 /* Welcome */ new section 2817289 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Welcome== {{Robelbox|theme=9|title='''[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]], Alexander-Barth!'''|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or get in touch with [[User talk:Atcovi|me personally]] if you would like some [[Help:Contents|help]]. 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See you around Wikiversity! --—[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 16:36, 29 June 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} 2b69w6ajiuyluxwzhqh9u32om62ifgd 10 330406 2817316 2026-06-29T17:18:40Z Codename Noreste 2969951 Creating a new main page header. 2817316 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="box-shadow: 0 0 0.2em #999999; border-radius: 0.2em; background-color: var(--background-color-neutral-subtle, #f8f9fa); color: inherit;"> {|style="text-align: center; clear: both; padding: 1px 10px 1px 10px;" |<div style="width: 50%; font-size: 150%; border: none; margin: 0; padding: .1em">[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to Wikiversity</div> <div style="width: 50%; top: +0.2em;">[[Wikiversity:Introduction|Set learning free]]</div> <div style="width: 50%; top: +0.2em;">with [[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] [[learning resource]]s and growing.</div> |style="flex: auto; text-align: center; padding: 1em; max-width: 30%; width: 30%; font-size: 80%; vertical-align: top;" | [[Portal:Arts|Arts]] &bull; [[Portal:Humanities|Humanities]] &bull; [[Portal:Mathematics|Mathematics]] &bull; [[Portal:Medicine|Medicine]] &bull; [[Portal:Science|Science]] &bull; [[Portal:Social Sciences|Social&nbsp;Sciences]] &bull; [[Portal:Technology|Technology]] &bull; <br>[[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]] &bull; <br> [[:Category:Wikiversity schools|Schools]] &bull; [[:Category:Courses|Courses]] &bull; [[:Category:Portals|Portals]] &bull; [[:Category:Help|Help]] |} </div> 9gy1exlisyoowbyfymcbda2hx3n4sl4 2 330407 2817330 2026-06-29T22:12:59Z 配合比全额更好（说说而已） 3096849 Created page with "Hello!I'm 配合比全额更好（说说而已）." 2817330 wikitext text/x-wiki Hello!I'm 配合比全额更好（说说而已）. 8ku76nd4c1cb0o0z2e6q0rysvn6qd2h 0 330408 2817331 2026-06-29T22:20:45Z Marcos Batistella 3065939 Created page with "== '''About''' == Course offered by the Graduate Programs in Mechanical Engineering (PPGEM) and Smart and Sustainable Cities (PPGCIS) at Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná (PUCPR). '''Areas of Interest''': Engineering, Data Science, Computer Science, Architecture and Urban Planning, and other fields. '''Course instructors''': Nathan Mendes, Walter Mazuroski, Luciano Ayres de Mello, and Marcos Batistella Lopes. == '''Course Description''' == This course explo..." 2817331 wikitext text/x-wiki == '''About''' == Course offered by the Graduate Programs in Mechanical Engineering (PPGEM) and Smart and Sustainable Cities (PPGCIS) at Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná (PUCPR). '''Areas of Interest''': Engineering, Data Science, Computer Science, Architecture and Urban Planning, and other fields. '''Course instructors''': Nathan Mendes, Walter Mazuroski, Luciano Ayres de Mello, and Marcos Batistella Lopes. == '''Course Description''' == This course explores the physical principles governing heat, air, moisture, and energy processes in buildings, emphasizing their role in building performance, energy efficiency, indoor air quality (IAQ), renewable energy integration, and sustainability. The course introduces integrated simulation approaches for analyzing the interactions among building components, HVAC (Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning) systems, occupants, and the surrounding environment. Special emphasis is placed on co-simulation and interoperable modeling using the Functional Mock-up Interface (FMI) standard, enabling the integration of multiple simulation tools and domains. Applications extend from individual buildings to districts and urban energy systems, providing the foundations for advanced research in sustainable buildings, energy transition, and future Digital Twin applications. The course combines theoretical foundations, computational modeling, hands-on simulation, and current research challenges in building performance and sustainable cities. == '''Place and Time''' == '''Location''': To be determined (hybrid classes). '''When''': 2026 2nd semester <u>Wednesday</u>, from 3pm to 5pm (BRT), on the following dates: * August: 05, 12, 19, and 26 * September: 02, 09, 16, and 23 * October: 07, 14, 21, and 28 * November: 04 and 11 <u>Saturday</u>, from 9am to 12pm (BRT), on the following dates: * August: * September: * October: * November: == '''Workload''' == 45 hours (3 credits) == '''Objectives''' == * Understand the physical principles governing integrated building performance; * Develop and apply simulation and co-simulation models using interoperable computational tools; * Assess building performance in terms of energy efficiency, indoor environmental quality, and moisture-related phenomena; * Apply computational modeling to support the design, operation, and optimizazion. == '''Tentative Topics of Study''' == Topics may be adjusted according to the interests of the students, ongoing research projects, and the expertise of participants. '''Fundamentals (Nathan Mendes)''' * Building physics fundamentals, including heat, air and moisture transfer processes * Mass and energy balances in buildings and urban systems '''Energy and Thermal Performance and Simulation (Nathan Mendes)''' * Building envelope performance * HVAC systems modeling and performance * Thermal comfort * Moisture-related risks * Building energy performance evaluation '''Co-Simulation and Interoperability (Walter Mazuroski)''' * Co-simulation concepts and frameworks * Functional Mock-up Interface (FMI) and Functional Mock-up Units (FMUs) * Data exchange and interoperability * Applications: Integration of building, HVAC, urban climate, and energy system models '''IAQ and Co-simulation for assessment of contaminants (Marcos Batistella Lopes)''' * Fundamentals of Indoor Air Quality * Smart ventilation * Contam * Indoor air quality assessment * Domus-Contam Co-Simulation '''Emerging Research topics, Applications and Case Studies (All lecturers)''' * Co-Simulation BPS-CFD * High-performance buildings * Net-zero and positive-energy buildings * Urban Heat Island mitigation strategies * Energy efficiency * Energy transition in the city scale * Anthropogenic heat emissions * Positive Energy Districts * Urban energy transition scenarios * Climate change adaptation strategies * Digital Twins for buildings, districts, and cities == '''Simulation Tools''' == * '''DOMUS/EnergyPlus''' - building energy simulation * '''CONTAM''' – airflow and indoor air quality analysis * '''Python / MATLAB''' – data processing, model integration, parametric studies, and optimization * Additional simulation, co-simulation platforms according to project requirements == '''Evaluation''' == * 30% Computer assignments, simulations, projects, and exercises * 15% Seminar presentation * 35% Scientific article * 20% Examination Additional evaluation methods may be adopted depending on class size and course dynamics. == '''References''' == # Hagentoft, C.-E. Introduction to Building Physics. Studentlitteratur, Lund, 2001. # Hens, H. Building Physics: Heat, Air and Moisture – Fundamentals and Engineering Methods with Examples and Exercises. Ernst & Sohn, 3rd Edition, 2017. # Mendes, N.; Chhay, M.; Berger, J.; Dutykh, D. Numerical Methods for Diffusion Phenomena in Building Physics: A Practical Introduction. Springer, 2019. # ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals. Latest Edition. # Selected journal papers on Building Performance Simulation, Heat and Moisture Transfer, Urban Energy Systems, Positive Energy Districts, Digital Twins, and Sustainable Cities. # Ongoing international collaborative research projects. 7dln5d4j1z0rbrlzq32088fn9aaenna 2817332 2817331 2026-06-29T22:29:04Z Marcos Batistella 3065939 2817332 wikitext text/x-wiki == '''About''' == Course offered by the Graduate Programs in Mechanical Engineering (PPGEM) and Smart and Sustainable Cities (PPGCIS) at Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná (PUCPR). '''Areas of Interest''': Engineering, Data Science, Computer Science, Architecture and Urban Planning, and other fields. '''Course instructors''': Nathan Mendes, Walter Mazuroski, Luciano Ayres de Mello, and Marcos Batistella Lopes. == '''Course Description''' == This course explores the physical principles governing heat, air, moisture, and energy processes in buildings, emphasizing their role in building performance, energy efficiency, indoor air quality (IAQ), renewable energy integration, and sustainability. The course introduces integrated simulation approaches for analyzing the interactions among building components, HVAC (Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning) systems, occupants, and the surrounding environment. Special emphasis is placed on co-simulation and interoperable modeling using the Functional Mock-up Interface (FMI) standard, enabling the integration of multiple simulation tools and domains. Applications extend from individual buildings to districts and urban energy systems, providing the foundations for advanced research in sustainable buildings, energy transition, and future Digital Twin applications. The course combines theoretical foundations, computational modeling, hands-on simulation, and current research challenges in building performance and sustainable cities. == '''Place and Time''' == '''Location''': To be determined (hybrid classes). '''When''': 2026 2nd semester <u>Wednesday</u>, from 3pm to 5pm (BRT), on the following dates: * August: 05, 12, 19, and 26 * September: 02, 09, 16, and 23 * October: 07, 14, 21, and 28 * November: 04 and 11 <u>Saturday</u>, from 9am to 12pm (BRT), on the following dates: * August: * September: * October: * November: == '''Workload''' == 45 hours (3 credits) == '''Objectives''' == * Understand the physical principles governing integrated building performance; * Develop and apply simulation and co-simulation models using interoperable computational tools; * Assess building performance in terms of energy efficiency, indoor environmental quality, and moisture-related phenomena; * Apply computational modeling to support the design, operation, and optimizazion. == '''Tentative Topics of Study''' == Topics may be adjusted according to the interests of the students, ongoing research projects, and the expertise of participants. '''Fundamentals (Nathan Mendes)''' * Building physics fundamentals, including heat, air and moisture transfer processes * Mass and energy balances in buildings and urban systems '''Energy and Thermal Performance and Simulation (Nathan Mendes)''' * Building envelope performance * HVAC systems modeling and performance * Thermal comfort * Moisture-related risks * Building energy performance evaluation '''Co-Simulation and Interoperability (Walter Mazuroski)''' * Co-simulation concepts and frameworks * Functional Mock-up Interface (FMI) and Functional Mock-up Units (FMUs) * Data exchange and interoperability * Applications: Integration of building, HVAC, urban climate, and energy system models '''IAQ and Co-simulation for assessment of contaminants (Marcos Batistella Lopes)''' * Fundamentals of Indoor Air Quality * Smart ventilation * Contam * Indoor air quality assessment * Domus-Contam Co-Simulation '''Emerging Research topics, Applications and Case Studies (All lecturers)''' * Co-Simulation BPS-CFD * High-performance buildings * Net-zero and positive-energy buildings * Urban Heat Island mitigation strategies * Energy efficiency * Energy transition in the city scale * Anthropogenic heat emissions * Positive Energy Districts * Urban energy transition scenarios * Climate change adaptation strategies * Digital Twins for buildings, districts, and cities == '''Simulation Tools''' == * '''DOMUS/EnergyPlus''' - building energy simulation * '''CONTAM''' – airflow and indoor air quality analysis * '''Python / MATLAB''' – data processing, model integration, parametric studies, and optimization * Additional simulation, co-simulation platforms according to project requirements == '''Evaluation''' == * 30% Computer assignments, simulations, projects, and exercises * 15% Seminar presentation * 35% Scientific article * 20% Examination Additional evaluation methods may be adopted depending on class size and course dynamics. == '''References''' == # Hagentoft, C.-E. Introduction to Building Physics. Studentlitteratur, Lund, 2001. # Hens, H. Building Physics: Heat, Air and Moisture – Fundamentals and Engineering Methods with Examples and Exercises. Ernst & Sohn, 3rd Edition, 2017. # Mendes, N.; Chhay, M.; Berger, J.; Dutykh, D. Numerical Methods for Diffusion Phenomena in Building Physics: A Practical Introduction. Springer, 2019. # ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals. Latest Edition. # Selected journal papers on Building Performance Simulation, Heat and Moisture Transfer, Urban Energy Systems, Positive Energy Districts, Digital Twins, and Sustainable Cities. # Ongoing international collaborative research projects. 5y2itundtcrcvp7ny8np8ystgexy2xh 2 330410 2817382 2026-06-30T11:15:07Z Zeducator-educate 3098007 Created page with "= Sales Process Workflow: 11 Steps Every Team Should Follow = A well-defined '''sales process workflow''' helps sales teams close more deals, improve customer relationships, and create predictable revenue. Instead of relying on guesswork, every salesperson follows a structured path from finding prospects to nurturing long-term customers. Whether you're a startup or a growing enterprise, a documented sales workflow ensures consistency across your team. Modern CRM platfor..." 2817382 wikitext text/x-wiki = Sales Process Workflow: 11 Steps Every Team Should Follow = A well-defined '''sales process workflow''' helps sales teams close more deals, improve customer relationships, and create predictable revenue. Instead of relying on guesswork, every salesperson follows a structured path from finding prospects to nurturing long-term customers. Whether you're a startup or a growing enterprise, a documented sales workflow ensures consistency across your team. Modern CRM platforms such as '''Zoho CRM for small businesses''' make it easier to automate repetitive tasks, track opportunities, and improve sales performance. According to industry best practices, organizations with a standardized sales process gain better visibility into their pipeline and improve forecasting accuracy. In this guide, you'll learn the '''11 essential steps every sales team should follow''' to build a repeatable and scalable sales workflow. ---- == What Is a Sales Process Workflow? == A '''sales process workflow''' is a sequence of clearly defined activities that guides a prospect through every stage of the buying journey—from discovering your business to becoming a loyal customer. Unlike a sales methodology, which explains ''how'' to sell, a sales workflow defines ''what'' happens at each stage, who is responsible, and when to move a lead forward. === Benefits of a Sales Workflow === * Improves sales consistency * Shortens the sales cycle * Increases conversion rates * Enhances customer experience * Makes forecasting more accurate * Supports automation through CRM software ---- == Sales Process Workflow at a Glance == {| class="wikitable" !Step !Activity !Goal |- |1 |Identify Target Audience |Find ideal customers |- |2 |Prospecting |Generate qualified leads |- |3 |Lead Qualification |Focus on high-potential prospects |- |4 |Research |Understand customer needs |- |5 |Initial Contact |Start meaningful conversations |- |6 |Discovery Meeting |Identify pain points |- |7 |Product Presentation |Demonstrate value |- |8 |Handle Objections |Build trust |- |9 |Proposal & Negotiation |Finalize terms |- |10 |Close the Sale |Convert prospect into customer |- |11 |Follow-up & Customer Success |Retain and grow customers |} ---- = 1. Identify Your Target Audience = Every successful sales workflow begins with identifying your Ideal Customer Profile (ICP). Understand: * Industry * Company size * Budget * Decision-makers * Business challenges Selling to the right audience dramatically increases your conversion rate while reducing wasted effort. ---- = 2. Prospect for New Leads = Prospecting is the process of finding potential customers. Common lead sources include: * LinkedIn * Company websites * Referrals * Website inquiries * Trade shows * Email campaigns * Social media Maintain a healthy pipeline by generating leads consistently instead of waiting until opportunities run out. ---- = 3. Qualify Leads = Not every lead is ready to buy. Lead qualification helps determine whether a prospect is worth pursuing. Evaluate: * Budget * Authority * Business need * Purchase timeline Many organizations use qualification frameworks such as BANT or MEDDICC to prioritize opportunities. ---- = 4. Research Before Contacting = Before your first meeting, research the prospect thoroughly. Look at: * Company background * Recent news * Current challenges * Competitors * Existing technology * Business goals Prepared salespeople create stronger first impressions and ask more relevant questions. ---- = 5. Make Initial Contact = Reach out through the prospect's preferred communication channel. Options include: * Email * Phone * LinkedIn * Video calls Focus on understanding the customer's business rather than immediately pitching your product. Personalization significantly improves response rates. ---- = 6. Conduct a Discovery Meeting = Discovery is one of the most important stages in any '''sales process workflow'''. Ask questions like: * What challenges are you facing? * What are your current business goals? * What solutions have you already tried? * What would success look like? Listen more than you speak. A successful discovery meeting helps you recommend the right solution instead of making assumptions. ---- = 7. Present Your Solution = Now demonstrate how your product or service solves the customer's problems. An effective presentation should include: * Business benefits * Product demonstration * Customer success stories * ROI examples * Implementation timeline Focus on outcomes rather than features. Customers buy solutions—not products. ---- = 8. Handle Objections Professionally = Almost every buyer has concerns. Common objections include: * Price * Budget approval * Timing * Competitors * Integration * Implementation Treat objections as opportunities to educate rather than obstacles. Answer honestly and support your claims with customer examples or measurable results. ---- = 9. Send the Proposal and Negotiate = Prepare a professional proposal that clearly explains: * Scope of work * Deliverables * Pricing * Timeline * Support * Terms During negotiations, aim for a win-win outcome. Avoid unnecessary discounts and instead emphasize the long-term value your solution delivers. ---- = 10. Close the Sale = Once both parties agree, finalize the deal. Before rolling out your CRM across the organization, it's worth following a structured '''Zoho CRM setup guide''' to ensure your sales pipeline, workflows, and automation are configured correctly from day one. Typical closing activities include: * Contract signing * Payment confirmation * CRM updates * Internal handoff * Customer onboarding A structured closing process reduces delays and creates a positive buying experience. ---- = 11. Follow Up and Build Long-Term Relationships = The sales process doesn't end after closing. Successful companies continue to: * Check customer satisfaction * Provide onboarding support * Share educational resources * Upsell relevant services * Request referrals * Collect testimonials Long-term customers generate recurring revenue and become your strongest advocates. ---- = Best Practices for Building an Effective Sales Process Workflow = To maximize performance: * Document every stage of your workflow. * Define clear entry and exit criteria. * Automate repetitive tasks using CRM software. * Measure conversion rates at every stage. * Review and improve your workflow regularly. * Train every salesperson using the same process. * Align your sales workflow with the buyer's journey. ---- = Common Mistakes to Avoid = Many sales teams struggle because they: * Skip lead qualification * Fail to follow up * Use inconsistent sales messaging * Ignore CRM updates * Rush product demonstrations * Don't measure performance * Focus only on closing instead of relationship building Avoiding these mistakes can significantly improve both sales efficiency and customer satisfaction. ---- = How CRM Software Improves Sales Workflow = Modern CRM platforms simplify every stage of the sales process. A CRM can help you: * Track leads automatically * Schedule follow-ups * Assign tasks * Manage pipelines * Automate emails * Generate reports * Forecast revenue For businesses looking to scale, CRM automation eliminates manual work and allows sales teams to spend more time selling instead of managing spreadsheets. ---- = Conclusion = A well-structured '''sales process workflow''' is the foundation of a high-performing sales team. By following these 11 essential steps—from identifying the right prospects to nurturing long-term customer relationships—you can improve sales efficiency, boost conversion rates, and create a more predictable revenue stream. Regularly reviewing and refining your workflow, while leveraging CRM automation, will help your team stay competitive and deliver a better customer experience. If you're looking to streamline your sales operations with CRM best practices, workflow automation, and hands-on training, '''Zeducator''' provides expert guidance on Zoho CRM implementation, sales process optimization, and business automation. With the right tools and knowledge, your sales team can build a scalable workflow that drives sustainable business growth. = Frequently Asked Questions = == 1. What is a sales process workflow? == A sales process workflow is a structured sequence of activities that guides a prospect from the first interaction to becoming a loyal customer. It helps sales teams work consistently and efficiently. == 2. Why is a sales workflow important? == A documented sales workflow improves productivity, increases conversion rates, shortens the sales cycle, and provides better forecasting through standardized processes. == 3. What are the main stages of a sales process? == The typical stages include identifying prospects, prospecting, qualification, research, initial contact, discovery, presentation, objection handling, proposal, closing, and post-sale follow-up. == 4. How can CRM software improve the sales process? == CRM software automates lead tracking, follow-ups, task management, reporting, and sales forecasting, helping teams focus on building customer relationships and closing deals. == 5. How often should a sales process workflow be updated? == Review your workflow at least every six to twelve months or whenever your products, market conditions, or customer buying behavior change. == 6. What is the difference between a sales process and a sales methodology? == A sales process defines the steps a sales team follows, while a sales methodology describes the techniques and strategies used to complete those steps effectively. ouaidbexujstpnlengrh5onhg61xkxt