Wikiversity enwikiversity https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.9 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikiversity Wikiversity talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk School School talk Portal Portal talk Topic Topic talk Collection Collection talk Draft Draft talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 4 28 2817563 2817474 2026-07-02T03:29:10Z Jtneill 10242 /* Main page titles */ reply: Thankyou - looks good. (-) ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 2817563 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikiversity:Colloquium/Header}} <!-- MESSAGES GO BELOW --> == Proposal to rehost Wikinews here == As many of you know, and mentioned here at the Colloquium, our sister project Wikinews recently closed, with all 31 active editions made read-only. [[User:BigKrow]] has asked about the prospect of writing news stories here and I suggested that since we already have [[School:Journalism]] and some resources related to the [[:Category:Journalism|broader topic of journalism]]. I would like to propose that we have continued and indefinite space for {{w|citizen journalism}} by essentially repurposing Wikinews into a sub-project here. The only special infrastructure that Wikinews required was [[:mw:Extension:DynamicPageList]], which was deactivated and caused issues due to a lack of maintenance. I will add this proposal to the site banner, but I recognize that that may be a conflict of interest, so if anyone requests that I remove it, I will. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:30, 14 May 2026 (UTC) :I would like to see this conversation go for at least 30 days to establish a consensus. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:35, 14 May 2026 (UTC) ::A few days shy of 30, it seems obvious that this is not going to pass. So I '''withdraw''' as presumptively '''failed'''. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 07:14, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ===Votes=== *{{support}} as proposer (with BK's inspiration). I think that an ongoing experiment in citizen journalism is a fit and appropriate use of this site. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:35, 14 May 2026 (UTC) *{{support}}, hope to seeing ideas about this, and thank you @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 11:08, 14 May 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} Other than perhaps inflating the total number of pages reported, I see the idea of "practicing journalism" a worthy and relevant activity within the domain of Wikiversity. [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 21:41, 14 May 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} Conditional on development of (a) community guidelines that ensure alignment with Wikiversity's purpose, and (b) clear, nested page-naming structures for projects. More detail below. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:48, 15 May 2026 (UTC) *{{contra}} This proposal doesn't seem interested in expanding educational materials in journalism, but rather in providing space and protection for Wikinews contributors. But this is contrary to the goals of Wikiversity, and I'm not sure it's a good idea, even with regard to WMF. If WMF decides to close a project and another community lets it run on its domain, that's a bit of an undermining of WMF's and the community's decisions. Given that Wikiversity has had several conflicts with other communities and WMF in its history, I'm against it.--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:59, 15 May 2026 (UTC) *{{contra}} This seems like a proposal to continue the mission of WikiNews, but not a proposal specifically to improve Wikiversity. I concur with Juandev's comments. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 20:29, 30 May 2026 (UTC) * {{oppose}} per above. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:05, 1 June 2026 (UTC) *{{oppose}} Wikiversity isn’t Wikinews and it also isn’t a dumping ground for anything not covered by other projects. It was already suggested, rather bafflingly, that Wikinews parasitize Wikipedia as a host. If it were allowed to freeload off of Wikiversity it would simply promote a view I and likely many others have— that Wikiversity (as it currently exists) has no standards and mostly just exists to host subpar content that wouldn’t be tolerated on any other Wikimedia site. Wikinews needs a new, non-Wikimedia host, and Wikiversity needs to get its act together by enforcing a minimum scope and standard for what it allows. --[[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 01:16, 4 June 2026 (UTC) * {{oppose}} per above. Wikiversity<math>\not=</math> Wikinews - not a good idea to mix the scope of projects. --[[User:Bert Niehaus|Bert Niehaus]] ([[User talk:Bert Niehaus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bert Niehaus|contribs]]) 12:03, 8 June 2026 (UTC) * {{abstain}} I will abstain since I'm not an active Wikiversity contributor. But I just feel like Wikinews had a very clear and specific goal of providing news, and Wikiversity is just a different project with different goals. For me, it would be odd to rehost Wikinews here. But please do not count my vote, this is only a comment. --[[User:Antimundo|Antimundo]] ([[User talk:Antimundo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Antimundo|contribs]]) 13:19, 6 June 2026 (UTC) * {{oppose}} Although I think it's a pity that Wikinews is closed. --[[User:Dick Bos|Dick Bos]] ([[User talk:Dick Bos|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dick Bos|contribs]]) 19:06, 8 June 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} In 2018 I initiated [[:Category:Videoconferences on media and democracy]] as a platform for disseminating public affairs events. In 2021 I officially initiated a podcast series on "Media & Democracy" syndicated for the [[w:List of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates|Pacifica radio network]]. In 2024 I converted it from irregular to fortnightly. I think this is all educational and supports the Wikiversity education mission, and I think that "rehost Wikinews here" would be appropriate. (I had some experience with Wikinews a few years ago. I felt it was too tightly controlled: Article submissions went stale, because I could not get official permission to publish and I could not get the information needed to understand what I was supposed to do to obtain the official permission. I would be opposed to rehosting Wikinews here if the policy similarly made it unreasonably difficult for volunteer contributor to get the information needed to meet the journalistic standards imposed by the overworked editors.) {{unsigned|DavidMCEddy}} ===Comments and questions=== :Definitely worthy of discussion, so I have no problem with the proposal in the sitenotice. :Initial questions: :* Does this proposal include importing English Wikinews content e.g., to [[Wikinews]] subpages? :* What are "active editions"? :* How can Wikiversity navigate the concerns that lead to the closure of Wikinews? :* Are any changes to the scope of Wikinews proposed? :* How does [[Wikinews]] fit with the [[Wikiversity:Mission]]? What aligns well? Where might there be tension? :** e.g., I'm not sure that a page like [[User:BigKrow/Manchester City moves two points behind Arsenal]] in and of itself will serve as an educational resource. :-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 05:52, 14 May 2026 (UTC) :* Does this proposal include importing English Wikinews content e.g., to [[Wikinews]] subpages? ::*No, not at this time. :* What are "active editions"? ::*There were 30 other active editions of Wikinews in addition to English (e.g. [[:n:es:]]) at the time of universal closure (2026-05-04). :* How can Wikiversity navigate the concerns that lead to the closure of Wikinews? ::*One of the biggest issues was the problems with DPL, which is now irrelevant. Another was the lack of activity, which can be ameliorated by having it be part of an existing project instead of its own domain (e.g. some editions of Wikipedia host their own Wikinews already and those projects were not impacted by the closure). :* Are any changes to the scope of Wikinews proposed? ::*Not at this juncture. I would also propose as far as implemention goes that we would request a new namespace and that the material be more-or-less sequestered into its own ongoing project, like Wikijournal is or like the Cookbook and Wikijunior are at our sister [[:b:]]. :* How does [[Wikinews]] fit with the [[Wikiversity:Mission]]? What aligns well? Where might there be tension? :** e.g., I'm not sure that a page like [[Story/Manchester City moves two points behind Arsenal]] in and of itself will serve as an educational resource. ::*The process of citizen journalists practicing their craft in real-time and collaborating with others to do so is itself an education activity. We would essentially be hosting a real-time experiment in citizen journalism, online communities, and collaborative learning in addition to the prospect of spreading educational information from someone actually reading the news. I would propose that we could also make a more deliberate attempt to engage with learning <em>about</em> what does and doesn't work with collaborative news writing by experimentation (e.g. audio news, syndicating to other sites, incorporating freely-licensed news from other sources, writing hyper-local news, writing briefs versus longer-term reportage) and also seeing if the problems noted in the Task Force report that recommended closure can be overcome. Note that we have already done some local investigation about and learning about wiki-based journalism on Wikinews here at [[Journalism studies and Wikinews]]. We could continue that learning and refine the process, including incorporating journalism students from universities. As for tensions, Wikinews is the only sister project that must be done with a quick turn-around: if you take a long time to [[:s:|transcribe a book]], that's just how long it takes, but if you take a long time to write news, it ceases to be news entirely. Wikiversity has been a very slow-growing project that has definitely had some successes but has generally come together over a long period with most learning resources being individual passion projects (or sometimes, frankly, crankery) which would not work with collaborative news that requires more than just a single editor writing whatever he feels like. ::Please let me know any other questions/concerns and any other editors feel free to give your own perspective. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 06:13, 14 May 2026 (UTC) :::Thanks, Justin — it is food for thought. :::In attempting to understand how we've arrived here, I've summarised some of the background on this page: [[Wikinews]]. :::Perhaps it could be helpful to flesh out more of the vision / ideas / possibilities / challenges on that page? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:49, 14 May 2026 (UTC) :::*Having given it some thought, in principle, I support hosting [[citizen journalism]] on Wikiversity where it is clearly connected to a learning project and/or constitutes original research, both of which align strongly with [[Wikiversity:Mission|Wikiversity’s educational mission]]. :::*My chief concern is the potential for news content that is not clearly linked to the purpose of Wikiversity. To avoid this, some community-agreed guidelines would be prudent. These need not be overly restrictive; they should support boldness and experimentation while helping ensure alignment with Wikiversity's purpose. :::*Given the reported low and declining activity on Wikinews, it seems unlikely that English Wikiversity would be overwhelmed by an influx of news-related editing. My impression is that English Wikinews was the most active edition, but even so, many contributors are likely to disperse to other projects or cease editing altogether. A modest migration of interested editors to Wikiversity seems manageable. :::*At this stage, I do not think a dedicated namespace is necessary. Subpages under [[Wikinews]] or nested pages under relevant learning or research projects, or user-space draft pages should be suitable. I agree that [[Wikijournal]] offers a useful model, as do several existing course structures on Wikiversity. :::*I support [[User:Koavf]]’s suggestions about framing Wikinews activity explicitly around learning. This would create a distinctive space for experimenting with collaborative news production in ways that are pedagogically meaningful. I agree that the [[journalism studies and Wikinews]] project developed by David and Leigh Blackall through the University of Wollongong is an excellent example of the intersection between Wikiversity and Wikinews. The [[Wikinews]] page could evolve into a hub for such projects. :::*I've tidied the [[:Category:Wikinews|Wikinews category]] and merged some content into the [[Wikinews]] page. As part of a reinvigoration effort, please review these and related resources such as [[:Category:Journalism]] and [[School:Journalism]]. :::*A further argument in favour of this initiative is that Wikipedia explicitly excludes both news reporting and original research. So, there is value in maintaining spaces within the Wikimedia ecosystem where these forms of knowledge production can be openly developed and curated. Such work can, in turn, generate valuable evidence and source material that may later inform Wikipedia articles. :::*The closure of WMF-hosted Wikinews does not imply that open wiki-based news curation lacks value. Indeed, the closure documentation appears supportive of experimentation with alternative news models across Wikimedia projects, including through Wikipedia and Wikidata. In that context, Wikiversity seems a natural home for a Wikinews experiment, provided it is clearly grounded in learning and/or research. :::-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:39, 15 May 2026 (UTC) My understanding towards Wikinews' failure is that everything takes too long to be approved for the publish status, which means that any breaking news would have already become days-old stale news. Wikinews has a brand recognition (for right or wrong reasons) than Wikiversity and I wonder how effective Wikiversity can attract the "Wikinews refugees" to edit here. And just a quick note on the governance. Since each Wikiversity language operates independently, each language has to vote & adopt this proposal independently. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 13:47, 15 May 2026 (UTC) :Your assessment about Wikinews is partially correct. I referenced it earlier, but to be explicit, there is a [[:m:Proposal for Closing Wikinews|report by a task force on sister projects]] that outlines their concerns. There are a few, one of which was the nature of the staleness of news. Thanks also for clarifying that this proposal is only relevant to en.wv and is not binding or even proposed for other editions of Wikiversity. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:54, 15 May 2026 (UTC) *Note: I am not a regular here, and just visit Wikiversity for the WikiJournal project. Challenges of Wikinews included that it required timely reporting and fact-checking processes which differed greatly from the well-established ones in Wikipedia. Here in Wikiversity, there is the WikiJournal project, and that can take some some forms of journalism, just not breaking news reporting. I am in favor of salvaging parts of Wikinews if helpful. Could it, would it be feasible to adapt Wikijournal to accept some forms of news journalism, but just not the timed news reporting? For example, WikiJournal already is doing conference proceedings, and could likely do related event reports even months after the event ended. It could probably accept long-form investigative reporting, which is a sort of news that is not breaking news. I am not sure what the possibilities are, but I would prefer to build up systems that already work rather than import systems which had problems elsewhere. Thanks. [[User:Bluerasberry|<span style="background:#cedff2;color:#11e">''' Blue Rasberry '''</span>]][[User talk:Bluerasberry|<span style="cursor:help"><span style="background:#cedff2;color:#11e">(talk)</span></span>]] 19:17, 22 May 2026 (UTC) *:I agree that there are certain kinds of journalism that are perfectly valid and not time-bound like breaking news reporting, so that won't suffer from the issues noted before. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 21:15, 22 May 2026 (UTC) *::@[[User:Bluerasberry|Bluerasberry]] WikiJournal is not interested in taking on news journalism. WikiJournal is publishing conference proceedings at the request of some Wikimedian educators, and conference proceedings is what a "regular" journal publishes. News journalism is quite different from this, and if WikiJournal starts to deviate towards publishing news journalism, it will create barrier towards future initiatives like being indexed in Medline or Web of Science, and may risk being delisted from Scopus. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 22:43, 5 June 2026 (UTC) *:::Thats a good point. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:09, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == Create an autopatrolled user group? == {{tracked|T428269|resolved}} I would like to propose creating the user group <code>autopatrolled</code> (autopatrolled user), in which for non-curators and non-custodians, their page creations and file uploads would be automatically marked as patrolled by the MediaWiki software. Custodians may grant the user group, at their discretion, to users who create good quality pages that do not need frequent patrolling. On a side note, the term {{tq|autopatroller}} would be used, but because we don't have non-curator/custodian patrollers (as we rely on curators and custodians to patrol), I suggest on using the term {{tq|autopatrolled user}}. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:31, 29 May 2026 (UTC) :'''Support''' re: the name, I don't really understand the reasoning, so I am '''neutral''' on that. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:45, 29 May 2026 (UTC) :: Regarding the name, this is because as we don't have the patroller user group, we rely on curators and custodians to patrol new pages and file uploads. Does that make sense? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:39, 29 May 2026 (UTC) :::Not really, but I don't think it's the most important thing. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:42, 29 May 2026 (UTC) :::: We'll decide on the name later. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:48, 30 May 2026 (UTC) :::::Oh, please don't let me stand in the way. I'm just not very smart, so don't hold up a matter on my account. I didn't want to derail the proposal, which is a fine and sensible one. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 04:16, 30 May 2026 (UTC) : '''Support''' - sounds like a good idea :* Suggest adding a draft section about this group to [[Wikiversity:Patrolling]]. There is a statement in the Introduction of the page that I'm not sure if its correct and at least could be improved: "Wikiversity also uses an autopatrol right, meaning trusted users' contributions are automatically marked as checked so patrollers can focus on reviewing newer or anonymous editors." :* Regarding autopatroller vs autropatrolled user, what terms are used on similar WMF wiki projects? : -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:28, 30 May 2026 (UTC) ::# I would create a starting page about the user groups, with experienced editors expanding the page. A summarized part of that page would also be added to [[Wikiversity:Patrolling]]. ::# For a similar example, English Wikipedia uses the term {{tq|Autopatrolled}}, just that term only. :: [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:22, 30 May 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] and @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]: the autopatroller user group has been implemented here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:14, 8 June 2026 (UTC) ::Thanks. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 07:13, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == How much of Wikiversity’s content is LLM slop? == Because it seems like a non-trivial amount, along with AI slop images as well. Is there some kind of AI cleanup project established yet? [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 01:20, 4 June 2026 (UTC) :We have discussed AI but I don't know of any explicit initiative to find and delete AI-generated noise. Individual modules have been deleted for having been made by AI. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 08:50, 4 June 2026 (UTC) :Recently agreed [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|policy]] welcome users to tag AI generated pages. Me personally I am not against the use of AI. What is the difference in abstract schematic image created by a human and the same by an AI. If the users does not have finances to pay digital artest and you dont want to let them use AI, would you pay the artest for them? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:07, 8 June 2026 (UTC) ::Wikimedia has a lot of ''volunteer'' artists who can illustrate if asked. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 08:11, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :::Interesting! That's good to know. Where can we find the volunteer artists for illustrating? [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 20:11, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::::Wikimedia commons has [[commons:Commons:Graphic Lab/Illustration workshop]] [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 02:18, 10 June 2026 (UTC) == Draft inactivity policy == I created [[Wikiversity:Inactivity policy]] as a start. Any experienced Wikiversity user may feel free to expand it. This is also one-to-two step(s) towards opting out of the [[m:Admin activity review|AAR process]]. However, I made a bold change to reduce the response timeframe from one month to two weeks. In addition, should we reduce the inactivity timeframe to one year? For the latter, most projects use that timeframe and I suggested this for consistency. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:57, 4 June 2026 (UTC) :I support those suggestions. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:55, 4 June 2026 (UTC) : Juandev has posted some comments on the [[Wikiversity talk:Inactivity policy|talk page]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:30, 12 June 2026 (UTC) == Proposed user group and/or possible policy changes == {{tracked|T430416|fixed}} I want to discuss about user group and possible policy changes. # First, interface administrators. I don't think we should allow interface administrators to remove their permission from their own account, since we have multiple active bureaucrats and we can ask them to remove the permission when done, or for them to add a temporary grant. This is according to the [[Wikiversity:IA|current IA policy]]. I also left [[Wikiversity talk:Interface administrators#My thoughts about this user group|my thoughts on the relevant talk page]]. # Second, curators. Given that curators have some sensitive custodian rights (such as <code>delete</code> [but not <code>undelete</code> or similar rights that allow viewing deleted content, unless the curatorship process is RFA-like] and <code>protect</code>), it would probably make more sense only for bureaucrats to grant and remove it, on par with them granting (but not removing) custodian permissions. # Third, about probationary custodians. [[Wikiversity:Probationary custodians]] is currently marked as historical, and the process might still exist on [[Wikiversity:Custodianship]]. Therefore, to maintain consistency with [[Wikiversity:Curatorship#How does one become a curator?]], I propose that we repeal the probationary custodianship process and change it more or less to align with the curatorship process, effectively making probationary custodians permanent ones. However, custodian mentors would still be retained. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:55, 5 June 2026 (UTC) :#Yes, I agree. :#Thats a good point, but I dont know. At least I dont think its a good idea that both groups i.e. crats and custodiants can do that, it may create chaos. :#Another good point. It seems to me that the current situation is somewhat unclear and should be clarified. I understand the original status of [[Wikiversity:Probationary custodians|Probationary custodians]] as a historicall and invalid, but at the same time I consider myself a probationary custodian, because on the Wikiversity:Custodianship page in the ''[[Wikiversity:Custodianship#How does one become a custodian?|How does one become a custodian?]]'' section it says, I quote, ''"II ...then you will be approved as a probationary custodian for a period of at least four weeks"''. :::Mentors should definitely be kept, but for certain applicants the probation and mentorship should be abolished. For example, if someone was an active custodian for 5 years, then loses their rights or gives them up for a year and then wants to resume their custodial activities, there is no reason for them to undergo a training period. It burdens both the mentors and the community with double voting. The only exception could be a situation where policies or tools for custodians change significantly during that year, or the candidate wants to. :[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 06:08, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == New user what do I do here == I love wikipedia and the wikiversity project seems super interesting. However I know very little about wikiversity and would like to know how i can best contribute to the project. Also if there are forums or discord or reddit that would be very helpful. (One last thing is it normal that my userboxes don't work here) {{unsigned|AUBSTRAWBS}} :Hey {{ping|AUBSTRAWBS}} Welcome to Wikiversity! I've left a welcome message on your talk page so that should provide you a plethora of useful links for you to look at so you can familiarize yourself with the project. Also, feel free to create the userboxes you need. Wikiversity doesn't have as many userboxes as Wikipedia. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 21:45, 8 June 2026 (UTC) :Thank you very much :) hope to contribute a lot. [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 21:50, 8 June 2026 (UTC) == Towards an Ethics policy == In connection with the [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Removal of Wikidebates|discussion of Wikidebates]], I said that it would be good to establish a policy on ethics, or rather a boundary between ethical and unethical content, so that we don't have to discuss individual cases. In addition, today we also have some global policies that prohibit, for example, attacks on members of the Wikimedia movement or undermining other projects. However, at the very beginning, I would start by collecting your opinions. What content or what research should not be allowed on Wikiversity? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 05:52, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :One ethical issue that I think should be non-controversial is related to good faith in the learning modules. So, learning materials should not be hoaxes or encourage behavior or methods that don't work or that misrepresent the facts or the likelihood of something occurring, etc. and authors should also not plagiarize or misrepresent authorship, etc. That was quite a run-on, but I hope that others can tease out what I mean here. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 07:39, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::I look at it from a practical perspective. We can give that to the policy, but I see the problem in that we are not able to check it except plagiarism. ::Plagiarism can be partially detected during patrolling. I see a new text, I put part of it in Google and I check if it is copied from the web. It is a problem with copying from books or other offline sources, but sometimes it happens that someone finds out that something is copied from somewhere and it can be deleted. ::The biggest issue we have here is that we are missing Wikipedia's control mechanism: references. Only some types of resources on Wikiversity require references. In-line references are not often used in courses, exercises, lectures, etc. We are thus deprived of one of the excellent control mechanisms and the only option is for the increase in the number of members with various qualifications to check it for their colleagues. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:59, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :::Having a policy and enforcing that policy are indeed two different things. If we are only concerned with issues that we can definitively enforce, then that will definitely change this conversation. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 08:06, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::::ok [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 15:55, 13 June 2026 (UTC) :AI generated content should not be allowed as it is inherently plagiarism. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 08:14, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::And if the user mention it was generated by an AI? Note that there is something called as public domain, that is the author wave its rights. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:53, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :::Plagiarism isn’t copyright violation. Crediting the AI is not crediting the authors the AI stole from without credit. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 10:18, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::::I see, now I understand your point. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 15:56, 13 June 2026 (UTC) == Deployment of Legal and Safety Contacts Link in the Footer of Your Wiki == Hello community, The Wikimedia Foundation has provided [[foundation:Legal:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contact Information|a single legal and safety contact page]], to be linked in the footer of your wiki, to ensure access to accurate legal information. This is a regulatory requirement. We have already rolled out links to English, German, Italian, Spanish Wikipedias and other wikis and we will deploy to your wiki soon. Please [[m:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contacts FAQ|read more on the project page]] and leave any comments in this thread or on [[m:Talk:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contacts FAQ|the talk page]]. –– [[User:STei (WMF)|STei (WMF)]] ([[User talk:STei (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/STei (WMF)|contribs]]) 18:12, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :Thanks for the notice. In case anyone is not clear, we cannot locally change the text at the footer, as it [[:mw:Manual:Footer|requires access to the server settings]]. If we locally needed to change it, we would have to file a ticket at [[:phab:]]. Since the above was sent by someone from the WMF, I think they are on it and it will be updated without any action from anyone here. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:24, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == Image not displaying == Can anyone work out why this image isn't displaying?<br> [[Educational Media Awareness Campaign/Physics/POTD 10]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:45, 11 June 2026 (UTC) :Not sure, but it was an issue with the file itself and either way, it should be (and I have since done this) replaced with the SVG [[:File:Telescope-schematic.svg]]. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 13:59, 11 June 2026 (UTC) == New nomination template(s) == I created {{tlx|Nomination}} when someone requests curator or custodian permissions, which often at least require mentorship. On the other hand, I might create {{tlx|Nomination 2}}, in which the latter does not have a section about mentorship (often used for bureaucrat or interface administrator nominations). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:29, 12 June 2026 (UTC) == June 2026 Wikimedia Café meetups regarding the English Wikipedia Editor Reflections project == <div class="border-box" style="background-color: var(--background-color-warning-subtle, #f8eaba); max-width: 875px; padding: 5px; border: 1px solid black; margin: 5px; color: var(--clr-dark)"> <div class="box" style="float:left; padding-top: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-bottom: 10px;">[[File:Wikimedia Café logo in plain SVG format.svg|60px|alt=The logo for the Wikimedia Café]]</div> Hello! There will be two '''[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Wikimedia Café]''' discussion opportunities during the last weekend of June. Both sessions will focus on the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Editor_reflections English Wikipedia Editor Reflections project]. The featured guest in the Café will be [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Clovermoss User:Clovermoss]. Participants may attend either or both sessions. #'''27 June 2026 15:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1782572400 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to the Americas, Africa, and Europe #'''28 June 2026 03:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1782615600 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific Please see the Café page for more information, including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#How_to_attend_the_session how to register]! <br /> [[File:Buntstifte Eberhard Faber crop 64h.jpg|860px|alt=cropped image of colored pencils]]</div> <span style="white-space:nowrap;">[[User:Pine|<span style="color:#01796f; text-shadow:#00BFFF 0 0 1.0em">↠Pine</span>]] [[User talk:Pine|<span style="color:DeepSkyBlue">(<b style="color:#FFDF00;text-shadow:#FFDF00 0 0 1.0em">✉</b>)</span>]]</span> 04:00, 15 June 2026 (UTC) == Mobile friendly main page == Hello, I have recently been using wikiversity on mobile and unlike wikipedia some images and boxes stick out instead of all having a set width which means you can scroll a little side to side, which makes the site feel a bit unfinished. Its just a suggestion but I think it will wake the user experience much better {{unsigned|AUBSTRAWBS}} :{{Ping|AUBSTRAWBS}} I don't use a smartphone. Can you give me more details or even take some screenshots? You can upload them at [[:c:Category:English Wikiversity screenshots]]. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 13:30, 18 June 2026 (UTC) ::Hi i uploaded an image of the problem. Since some of the images are larger than the screen and not adjusted to fit they stick out and makes the page larger which lets you scroll right and have a big white rectangle on the side [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 14:03, 18 June 2026 (UTC) :::Thanks. I agree that this is an issue, but it's a pretty minor-to-moderate one to me and I don't think I will be able to dedicate time to fix it myself. Showing it to others here is useful in case someone else wants to tinker with the CSS to resolve it. Thanks for bringing it to the community's attention. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:42, 18 June 2026 (UTC) ::::I do know CSS as I like to maintain a blog online so I could try and fix it but I don't know if I have the access to do that, would i need to be a curator/ custodian. Alternatively i could edit a sandbox version of the main page and then send it to someone. [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 20:00, 18 June 2026 (UTC) :::::Oh great. There are a lot of draft versions of the main page like [[Wikiversity:Main Page/Draft version 0.2]], so you can make [[Wikiversity:Main Page/Sandbox]] if you want and edit there. If you can tinker it to your liking, I can edit the main page. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:14, 18 June 2026 (UTC) ::::::thank you, i'll check it out [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 22:16, 18 June 2026 (UTC) == Main page titles == Currently, the title says "Wikiversity:Main Page", but in my opinion, it's too basic. I would like to propose changing it with the following options (you may only pick one): # Option 1: Set both [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title]] and [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title-loggedin]] to blank, giving the main page a portal-like design (as with English Wikipedia, English Wikibooks, etc.) # Option 2: Modify [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title]] to <code>Welcome to Wikiversity</code> (for unregistered users), and [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title-loggedin]] to <code><nowiki>Welcome to Wikiversity, $1!</nowiki></code>; the latter would display to me as <code>Welcome to Wikiversity, Codename Noreste!</code> Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:34, 18 June 2026 (UTC) : Pinging @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] and @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] for input above. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:03, 24 June 2026 (UTC) :I'm afraid that I don't have strong feelings on this. Changing to either or staying with the status quo are all fine to me. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:10, 24 June 2026 (UTC) : I like the option of being consistent with Wikipedia and Wikibooks -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:04, 25 June 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:34, 30 June 2026 (UTC) : Thankyou - looks good. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 03:29, 2 July 2026 (UTC) == Wiki x AI preconference day @ Wikimania == There will be a preconference day at Wikimania about [[meta:Artificial_intelligence/2026_Wiki_AI | Wiki AI]]. It will be mostly offline, but there will be at least one hybrid session for demos of community-developed AI tools and workflows. * If you've built something cool, that is a chance to show it off, list it on the gallery of tools in progress, and get feedback. * If you could ask the people shaping AI on the wikis (WMF, tool builders, model trainers, GLAM and policy folks) a question, what would it be? Cheers, <span style="padding:0 2px 0 2px;background-color:white;color:#bbb;">&ndash;[[User:Sj|SJ]][[User Talk:Sj|<span style="color:#ff9900;">+</span>]]</span> 23:12, 20 June 2026 (UTC) and Alaexis<br>{{comment|1=Copied from https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FAssessment%2FUsing_generative_AI&diff=2816357&oldid=2807052}} == RFC about AI-generated content in Wikimedia Commons == You are invited to participate in a [[c:Commons:Requests for comment/Policy update for AI content|request for comment on Wikimedia Commons about a policy update for AI content]]. This may affect files that are uploaded to Wikimedia Commons for use on this project. Thank you. [[m:User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[m:User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]]) 17:12, 23 June 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Codename Noreste@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=30513860 --> == Deployment of Legal and Safety Contacts Link in the Footer of Your Wiki == <section begin="Message"/> '''Legal & Safety Contacts''' Hello community, the Wikimedia Foundation has provided a [[wmf:Special:MyLanguage/Legal:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contact Information|single legal and safety contact page]], to be linked in the footer of your wiki, to ensure access to accurate legal information. This is a regulatory requirement. We have already rolled out links to English, German, Italian, Spanish and other wikis and we will deploy to your wiki soon. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_Legal_and_Safety_Contacts_FAQ|Please read more on the project page]] and leave any comments in this thread or on the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Talk:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contacts FAQ|talk page]]. <section end="Message"/> -- [[User:Sannita (WMF)|User:Sannita (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Sannita (WMF)|talk]]) 13:31, 25 June 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Sannita (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Sannita_(WMF)/Mass_sending_test&oldid=30731267 --> == Preparing manuscript for submission to the ''WikiJournal of Humanities'' == I am working on preparing an article in Wikipedia for a dual goal of submitting it for a featured article candidacy in Wikipedia and submitting it to the ''[[WikiJournal of Humanities]]''. I have an open request for pre-submission peer review at [[en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Peer review/Rei Ayanami/archive2|Wikipedia:Peer review/Rei Ayanami/archive2]], and I am asking for someone experienced with submitting journals to WikiJournals. The article is not ready for submission, and I would like to know where I can get assistance from users who submitted articles to the journal, but did not necessarily review them. Furthermore, I said there that submitting to the ''WikiJournal of Humanities'' depends on whether the article attains featured article status in Wikipedia, as I would like to use the featured article as a manuscript for a journal article. [[User:Z. Patterson|Z. Patterson]] ([[User talk:Z. Patterson|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Z. Patterson|contribs]]) 12:04, 30 June 2026 (UTC) je20ig021n9x1ms5pos2e2zhmz8plys 4 10320 2817588 2815556 2026-07-02T11:24:38Z Anish0009e 3098405 2817588 wikitext text/x-wiki {{policy|WV:B|WV:BUR|WV:CRAT|WV:BCRAT}} {{2FA-required|enforced=yes}} [[File:Wikiversity Bureaucrat.svg|right|130px|link=]] '''Bureaucrats''' are part of [[Wikiversity]]'s [[Wikiversity:Support staff|support staff]]. They can promote users to [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodian]] or bureaucrat status, and grant or revoke [[Wikiversity:Curatorship|curator]], [[Wikiversity:Bots|bot]], and [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators|interface administrator]] permissions. The English Wikiversity currently has {{NUMINGROUP:bureaucrat}} bureaucrats ([[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|full list]]). == A bureaucrat's role == First and foremost, bureaucrats must be well-trusted members of the community. They must have a deep understanding of [[Wikiversity:Mission|Wikiversity's mission]] and processes, and must be excellent judges of [[Wikiversity:Consensus|consensus]]. They must demonstrate through their extensive contributions to Wikiversity that they are not rash in decision-making, nor uncivil to others, even those whom they are in disagreement with. They must also have the ability and willingness to thoroughly explain decisions that they make, as well as to admit fault, where appropriate. Bureaucrats ''do not'' have the right to use their status to appropriate any undue influence in community discussions - their participation in such activities is on a par with any other community member, insofar as is possible. Whatever influence they may have should be akin to that of any other community member, according to the weight of their opinions or their previous participation in the project. Bureaucrats are expected to follow the same policies as [[Wikiversity:Curatorship|curators]] and [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodians]]. == A bureaucrat's duties == Bureaucrats can add users to the [[Wikiversity:Curatorship|curator]], [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodian]], bureaucrat, [[Wikiversity:Bots|bot]], and/or [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators|interface administrator]] groups (via [[Special:UserRights]] - [[Special:Log/rights]]). Bureaucrats act as the final interpreter of consensus and are charged with the responsibility of declaring at an appropriate time, whether a custodian, bureaucrat, bot, or interface administrator candidate is granted a user group change or otherwise. Bureaucrats should respect the Wikiversity community's decision on these particular matters. This management process is intended to streamline processing of requests for user group changes, and to minimize ambiguity introduced to the process when non-bureaucrats intervene. However, note that custodians can determine consensus and add user group permissions for curator requests. Bureaucrats should be careful about making mistakes in adding user rights because only curator, bot, and interface administrator groups can be removed by bureaucrats. To remove custodian or bureaucrat rights requires a [[m:Stewards|steward]] to do so. == How can I question a bureaucrat's decision? == You can ask on a bureaucrat's [[Help:User talk page|user talk page]], request [[Wikiversity:Custodian feedback|feedback]] from other custodians and bureaucrats, or start a [[Wikiversity:Community Review|community review]]. The order is important, it reflects the order in which you should attempt to resolve a problem. == How are bureaucrats created? == Bureaucrats can be nominated at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship]]. However, no mentor is required. Nominations should be [[Wikiversity:Announcements|announced]] ([[MediaWiki:Sitenotice|site wide]]), and kept open for a period of '''at least two weeks''' before being acted upon. There needs to be '''a very strong majority''' of users in support of the decision to add or remove a candidate from the ''bureaucrat'' group. == How are bureaucrats removed? == There are three ways: # A bureaucrat can request removal of their tools from [[m:Steward requests/Permissions|stewards]]. # Requests for bureaucrat removal by others (unless it's an emergency) should first go through the process of talk page discussion, [[Wikiversity:Custodian feedback|custodian feedback request]], and [[Wikiversity:Community Review|community review]]. The final act would be a [[m:Steward requests/Permissions|request to stewards]] to remove the ''bureaucrat'' group from a user. # The maximum time period of inactivity <u>without community review</u> for holders of advanced administrative rights is two years per the [[:meta:Category:Global policies|global policy]] described at [[meta:Admin activity review|Admin activity review]]. After that time, a [[meta:Steward requests/Permissions|steward will be asked to remove the rights]]. ==See also== ;Wikiversity * [[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy]] * [[Wikiversity:Curatorship]] * [[Wikiversity:Custodianship]] * [[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|List of current Wikiversity bureaucrats]] * [[Wikiversity:Colloquium/archives/December 2006#Bureaucrats]] ;Sister wikis * [[w:Wikipedia:Bureaucrats|Wikipedia:Bureaucrats]] * [[meta:Burea'''Bold text'''ucrat|Meta:Bureaucrat]] * [[b:Wikibooks:Administrators|Wikibooks:Administrators]] * [[wikinews:Wikinews:Administrators|Wikinews:Administrators]] '''{{Official policies}} '''noob''' trhiogdkphglsp;'sdrthkophrti90ropkhf,.;mcbl;bjidfjglkdfmgkl;djgd90udg9ioklgdr,. '''{{Proposed policies}} [[Category:Wikiversity bureaucratship| ]] [[de:Wikiversity:Pedelle#Bürokraten]] 6nuaiv7t4kh2x7msfi0fl077ofhk2kz 2817589 2817588 2026-07-02T11:25:51Z Anish0009e 3098405 2817589 wikitext text/x-wiki {{policy|WV:B|WV:BUR|WV:CRAT|WV:BCRAT}} {{2FA-required|enforced=yes}} [[File:Wikiversity Bureaucrat.svg|right|130px|link=]] '''Bureaucrats''' are part of [[Wikiversity]]'s [[Wikiversity:Support staff|support staff]]. They can promote users to [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodian]] or bureaucrat status, and grant or revoke [[Wikiversity:Curatorship|curator]], [[Wikiversity:Bots|bot]], and [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators|interface administrator]] permissions. The English Wikiversity currently has {{NUMINGROUP:bureaucrat}} bureaucrats ([[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|full list]]). == A bureaucrat's role == '''NOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOB'''''Italic text'' First and foremost, bureaucrats must be well-trusted members of the community. They must have a deep understanding of [[Wikiversity:Mission|Wikiversity's mission]] and processes, and must be excellent judges of [[Wikiversity:Consensus|consensus]]. They must demonstrate through their extensive contributions to Wikiversity that they are not rash in decision-making, nor uncivil to others, even those whom they are in disagreement with. They must also have the ability and willingness to thoroughly explain decisions that they make, as well as to admit fault, where appropriate. Bureaucrats ''do not'' have the right to use their status to appropriate any undue influence in community discussions - their participation in such activities is on a par with any other community member, insofar as is possible. Whatever influence they may have should be akin to that of any other community member, according to the weight of their opinions or their previous participation in the project. Bureaucrats are expected to follow the same policies as [[Wikiversity:Curatorship|curators]] and [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodians]]. == A bureaucrat's duties == Bureaucrats can add users to the [[Wikiversity:Curatorship|curator]], [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodian]], bureaucrat, [[Wikiversity:Bots|bot]], and/or [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators|interface administrator]] groups (via [[Special:UserRights]] - [[Special:Log/rights]]). Bureaucrats act as the final interpreter of consensus and are charged with the responsibility of declaring at an appropriate time, whether a custodian, bureaucrat, bot, or interface administrator candidate is granted a user group change or otherwise. Bureaucrats should respect the Wikiversity community's decision on these particular matters. This management process is intended to streamline processing of requests for user group changes, and to minimize ambiguity introduced to the process when non-bureaucrats intervene. However, note that custodians can determine consensus and add user group permissions for curator requests. Bureaucrats should be careful about making mistakes in adding user rights because only curator, bot, and interface administrator groups can be removed by bureaucrats. To remove custodian or bureaucrat rights requires a [[m:Stewards|steward]] to do so. == How can I question a bureaucrat's decision? == You can ask on a bureaucrat's [[Help:User talk page|user talk page]], request [[Wikiversity:Custodian feedback|feedback]] from other custodians and bureaucrats, or start a [[Wikiversity:Community Review|community review]]. The order is important, it reflects the order in which you should attempt to resolve a problem. == How are bureaucrats created? == Bureaucrats can be nominated at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship]]. However, no mentor is required. Nominations should be [[Wikiversity:Announcements|announced]] ([[MediaWiki:Sitenotice|site wide]]), and kept open for a period of '''at least two weeks''' before being acted upon. There needs to be '''a very strong majority''' of users in support of the decision to add or remove a candidate from the ''bureaucrat'' group. == How are bureaucrats removed? == There are three ways: # A bureaucrat can request removal of their tools from [[m:Steward requests/Permissions|stewards]]. # Requests for bureaucrat removal by others (unless it's an emergency) should first go through the process of talk page discussion, [[Wikiversity:Custodian feedback|custodian feedback request]], and [[Wikiversity:Community Review|community review]]. The final act would be a [[m:Steward requests/Permissions|request to stewards]] to remove the ''bureaucrat'' group from a user. # The maximum time period of inactivity <u>without community review</u> for holders of advanced administrative rights is two years per the [[:meta:Category:Global policies|global policy]] described at [[meta:Admin activity review|Admin activity review]]. After that time, a [[meta:Steward requests/Permissions|steward will be asked to remove the rights]]. ==See also== ;Wikiversity * [[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy]] * [[Wikiversity:Curatorship]] * [[Wikiversity:Custodianship]] * [[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|List of current Wikiversity bureaucrats]] * [[Wikiversity:Colloquium/archives/December 2006#Bureaucrats]] ;Sister wikis * [[w:Wikipedia:Bureaucrats|Wikipedia:Bureaucrats]] * [[meta:Burea'''Bold text'''ucrat|Meta:Bureaucrat]] * [[b:Wikibooks:Administrators|Wikibooks:Administrators]] * [[wikinews:Wikinews:Administrators|Wikinews:Administrators]] '''{{Official policies}} '''noob''' trhiogdkphglsp;'sdrthkophrti90ropkhf,.;mcbl;bjidfjglkdfmgkl;djgd90udg9ioklgdr,. '''{{Proposed policies}} [[Category:Wikiversity bureaucratship| ]] [[de:Wikiversity:Pedelle#Bürokraten]] b68de9djfxsc9kzqbzcnybnhthkrpoc 2817592 2817589 2026-07-02T11:35:46Z Anish0009e 3098405 Undid revision [[Special:Diff/2817588|2817588]] by [[Special:Contributions/Anish0009e|Anish0009e]] ([[User talk:Anish0009e|talk]]) 2817592 wikitext text/x-wiki {{policy|WV:B|WV:BUR|WV:CRAT|WV:BCRAT}} {{2FA-required|enforced=yes}} [[File:Wikiversity Bureaucrat.svg|right|130px|link=]] '''Bureaucrats''' are part of [[Wikiversity]]'s [[Wikiversity:Support staff|support staff]]. They can promote users to [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodian]] or bureaucrat status, and grant or revoke [[Wikiversity:Curatorship|curator]], [[Wikiversity:Bots|bot]], and [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators|interface administrator]] permissions. The English Wikiversity currently has {{NUMINGROUP:bureaucrat}} bureaucrats ([[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|full list]]). == A bureaucrat's role == '''NOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOB'''''Italic text'' First and foremost, bureaucrats must be well-trusted members of the community. They must have a deep understanding of [[Wikiversity:Mission|Wikiversity's mission]] and processes, and must be excellent judges of [[Wikiversity:Consensus|consensus]]. They must demonstrate through their extensive contributions to Wikiversity that they are not rash in decision-making, nor uncivil to others, even those whom they are in disagreement with. They must also have the ability and willingness to thoroughly explain decisions that they make, as well as to admit fault, where appropriate. Bureaucrats ''do not'' have the right to use their status to appropriate any undue influence in community discussions - their participation in such activities is on a par with any other community member, insofar as is possible. Whatever influence they may have should be akin to that of any other community member, according to the weight of their opinions or their previous participation in the project. Bureaucrats are expected to follow the same policies as [[Wikiversity:Curatorship|curators]] and [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodians]]. == A bureaucrat's duties == Bureaucrats can add users to the [[Wikiversity:Curatorship|curator]], [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodian]], bureaucrat, [[Wikiversity:Bots|bot]], and/or [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators|interface administrator]] groups (via [[Special:UserRights]] - [[Special:Log/rights]]). Bureaucrats act as the final interpreter of consensus and are charged with the responsibility of declaring at an appropriate time, whether a custodian, bureaucrat, bot, or interface administrator candidate is granted a user group change or otherwise. Bureaucrats should respect the Wikiversity community's decision on these particular matters. This management process is intended to streamline processing of requests for user group changes, and to minimize ambiguity introduced to the process when non-bureaucrats intervene. However, note that custodians can determine consensus and add user group permissions for curator requests. Bureaucrats should be careful about making mistakes in adding user rights because only curator, bot, and interface administrator groups can be removed by bureaucrats. To remove custodian or bureaucrat rights requires a [[m:Stewards|steward]] to do so. == How can I question a bureaucrat's decision? == You can ask on a bureaucrat's [[Help:User talk page|user talk page]], request [[Wikiversity:Custodian feedback|feedback]] from other custodians and bureaucrats, or start a [[Wikiversity:Community Review|community review]]. The order is important, it reflects the order in which you should attempt to resolve a problem. == How are bureaucrats created? == Bureaucrats can be nominated at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship]]. However, no mentor is required. Nominations should be [[Wikiversity:Announcements|announced]] ([[MediaWiki:Sitenotice|site wide]]), and kept open for a period of '''at least two weeks''' before being acted upon. There needs to be '''a very strong majority''' of users in support of the decision to add or remove a candidate from the ''bureaucrat'' group. == How are bureaucrats removed? == There are three ways: # A bureaucrat can request removal of their tools from [[m:Steward requests/Permissions|stewards]]. # Requests for bureaucrat removal by others (unless it's an emergency) should first go through the process of talk page discussion, [[Wikiversity:Custodian feedback|custodian feedback request]], and [[Wikiversity:Community Review|community review]]. The final act would be a [[m:Steward requests/Permissions|request to stewards]] to remove the ''bureaucrat'' group from a user. # The maximum time period of inactivity <u>without community review</u> for holders of advanced administrative rights is two years per the [[:meta:Category:Global policies|global policy]] described at [[meta:Admin activity review|Admin activity review]]. After that time, a [[meta:Steward requests/Permissions|steward will be asked to remove the rights]]. ==See also== ;Wikiversity * [[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy]] * [[Wikiversity:Curatorship]] * [[Wikiversity:Custodianship]] * [[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|List of current Wikiversity bureaucrats]] * [[Wikiversity:Colloquium/archives/December 2006#Bureaucrats]] ;Sister wikis * [[w:Wikipedia:Bureaucrats|Wikipedia:Bureaucrats]] * [[meta:Bureaucrat|Meta:Bureaucrat]] * [[b:Wikibooks:Administrators|Wikibooks:Administrators]] * [[wikinews:Wikinews:Administrators|Wikinews:Administrators]] {{Official policies}} {{Proposed policies}} [[Category:Wikiversity bureaucratship| ]] [[de:Wikiversity:Pedelle#Bürokraten]] 1r8h6vho1wov3tv4qjisztv0efrapfn 2817593 2817592 2026-07-02T11:36:08Z Anish0009e 3098405 Undid revision [[Special:Diff/2817589|2817589]] by [[Special:Contributions/Anish0009e|Anish0009e]] ([[User talk:Anish0009e|talk]]) 2817593 wikitext text/x-wiki {{policy|WV:B|WV:BUR|WV:CRAT|WV:BCRAT}} {{2FA-required|enforced=yes}} [[File:Wikiversity Bureaucrat.svg|right|130px|link=]] '''Bureaucrats''' are part of [[Wikiversity]]'s [[Wikiversity:Support staff|support staff]]. They can promote users to [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodian]] or bureaucrat status, and grant or revoke [[Wikiversity:Curatorship|curator]], [[Wikiversity:Bots|bot]], and [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators|interface administrator]] permissions. The English Wikiversity currently has {{NUMINGROUP:bureaucrat}} bureaucrats ([[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|full list]]). == A bureaucrat's role == First and foremost, bureaucrats must be well-trusted members of the community. They must have a deep understanding of [[Wikiversity:Mission|Wikiversity's mission]] and processes, and must be excellent judges of [[Wikiversity:Consensus|consensus]]. They must demonstrate through their extensive contributions to Wikiversity that they are not rash in decision-making, nor uncivil to others, even those whom they are in disagreement with. They must also have the ability and willingness to thoroughly explain decisions that they make, as well as to admit fault, where appropriate. Bureaucrats ''do not'' have the right to use their status to appropriate any undue influence in community discussions - their participation in such activities is on a par with any other community member, insofar as is possible. Whatever influence they may have should be akin to that of any other community member, according to the weight of their opinions or their previous participation in the project. Bureaucrats are expected to follow the same policies as [[Wikiversity:Curatorship|curators]] and [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodians]]. == A bureaucrat's duties == Bureaucrats can add users to the [[Wikiversity:Curatorship|curator]], [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodian]], bureaucrat, [[Wikiversity:Bots|bot]], and/or [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators|interface administrator]] groups (via [[Special:UserRights]] - [[Special:Log/rights]]). Bureaucrats act as the final interpreter of consensus and are charged with the responsibility of declaring at an appropriate time, whether a custodian, bureaucrat, bot, or interface administrator candidate is granted a user group change or otherwise. Bureaucrats should respect the Wikiversity community's decision on these particular matters. This management process is intended to streamline processing of requests for user group changes, and to minimize ambiguity introduced to the process when non-bureaucrats intervene. However, note that custodians can determine consensus and add user group permissions for curator requests. Bureaucrats should be careful about making mistakes in adding user rights because only curator, bot, and interface administrator groups can be removed by bureaucrats. To remove custodian or bureaucrat rights requires a [[m:Stewards|steward]] to do so. == How can I question a bureaucrat's decision? == You can ask on a bureaucrat's [[Help:User talk page|user talk page]], request [[Wikiversity:Custodian feedback|feedback]] from other custodians and bureaucrats, or start a [[Wikiversity:Community Review|community review]]. The order is important, it reflects the order in which you should attempt to resolve a problem. == How are bureaucrats created? == Bureaucrats can be nominated at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship]]. However, no mentor is required. Nominations should be [[Wikiversity:Announcements|announced]] ([[MediaWiki:Sitenotice|site wide]]), and kept open for a period of '''at least two weeks''' before being acted upon. There needs to be '''a very strong majority''' of users in support of the decision to add or remove a candidate from the ''bureaucrat'' group. == How are bureaucrats removed? == There are three ways: # A bureaucrat can request removal of their tools from [[m:Steward requests/Permissions|stewards]]. # Requests for bureaucrat removal by others (unless it's an emergency) should first go through the process of talk page discussion, [[Wikiversity:Custodian feedback|custodian feedback request]], and [[Wikiversity:Community Review|community review]]. The final act would be a [[m:Steward requests/Permissions|request to stewards]] to remove the ''bureaucrat'' group from a user. # The maximum time period of inactivity <u>without community review</u> for holders of advanced administrative rights is two years per the [[:meta:Category:Global policies|global policy]] described at [[meta:Admin activity review|Admin activity review]]. After that time, a [[meta:Steward requests/Permissions|steward will be asked to remove the rights]]. ==See also== ;Wikiversity * [[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy]] * [[Wikiversity:Curatorship]] * [[Wikiversity:Custodianship]] * [[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|List of current Wikiversity bureaucrats]] * [[Wikiversity:Colloquium/archives/December 2006#Bureaucrats]] ;Sister wikis * [[w:Wikipedia:Bureaucrats|Wikipedia:Bureaucrats]] * [[meta:Bureaucrat|Meta:Bureaucrat]] * [[b:Wikibooks:Administrators|Wikibooks:Administrators]] * [[wikinews:Wikinews:Administrators|Wikinews:Administrators]] {{Official policies}} {{Proposed policies}} [[Category:Wikiversity bureaucratship| ]] [[de:Wikiversity:Pedelle#Bürokraten]] sta54oyha807l3zjfxu4my5vvcwuw98 12 61025 2817548 2138547 2026-07-01T18:18:04Z Sabbier 3098112 fixed broken link under "If you have spare time" 2817548 wikitext text/x-wiki This help page is intended to help new contributors to Wikiversity write ''lessons'' (as distinct from other [[Help:Resource types|resource types]]). The page is primarily aimed at inexperienced (web) educators with little or no previous experience of writing (online) educational content. There are many resources in the main namespace of Wikiversity which can also be classified as "teacher training" or which help with the creating of learning resources - however these will be more advanced. This help page is nothing more than a ''help'' page which covers the basics. It will help contributors who want a fast track to creating learning content for Wikiversity. == What is a lesson? == Possibly the most '''un'''pretentious definition ever of the word "lesson" comes from the [[Moodle]] help system: :: ''"A lesson delivers content in an interesting and flexible way. It consists of a number of pages."'' (Moodle) == Lesson structure == This is just a very basic starter kind of structure you can use. It is a structure so common that it is cliched and laughed at, but it should not be ignored, especially if you don't know what else to do. If you use this structure (good), then try not to use the same labels as section headers (bad) - use other words instead, and then people probably won't notice what you're doing. # '''Preparation / [[w:Cold open|teaser]] / introduction''': warmer; motivational; make the audience feel an urgent desire for the material they are about to get; statement of goals; very short; get ideas from TV show teasers? # '''Presentation / model / instructions''': the main content; you lay your cards on the table. # '''Practice / consolidation / interaction''': the learners begin to recycle the material presented or carry out the instructions, first in more closed/passive/rule-following fashions, but then with increasing open/active/creative exercises. # '''Production / evaluation / the bit at the end''': less agreement between educators what this is about - might be a phase where learners show full independence with the learning material (project), or a formal assessment for the teacher to check on learning success, or some kind of feedback session or link into the next lesson. == Watchpoints for writing lessons == === Big yes-yeses === [[Image:Golabek.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Know your audience, and know what they see in your lesson. It may not be quite what you thought.]] *'''Identify the audience.''' *: ''And be precise about it. Wikiversity is not Wikipedia.'' *:*''Encyclopedia articles are written for a non-existent single, abstract, culturally and ideologically neutral, theoretically educated adult.'' *:*''Lessons should be written with a very precise and real audience in mind all the time. The audience will differ for almost every set of resources. Picture to yourself how your audience will react to each section.'' *:''Identifying an audience is much harder in an online environment - unless you are lucky enough to have your audience in the same room - but you <u>must</u> bear them in mind all the time. Don't over-estimate the audience. Don't invent the audience of your dreams - be realistic.'' *'''Connect with the audience (style, interest, fun, interactivity)''' *: ''Trying to connect with an online audience is rather like trying to tell jokes to a camera. All the same, you have to try. You don't want to be a newscaster. Your style of writing should <u>talk to</u> the audience in a way that makes them feel involved and personally understood. Use techniques to maintain interest, both in the joins from one paragraph to the next, and an overarching technique that keeps the beginning and end of the lesson tightly together. Give the reader reason to keep reading. Lessons can be fun - fun isn't allowed on Wiki<u>pedia</u> - but it's critical to a good Wiki<u>versity</u> lesson, if you can manage it. Interactivity can involve things like quizzes, discussions and collaborative writing - but maintain variety and keep each activity small.'' *'''Use structured sequences''' *: ''Chop up the material into manageable chunks and arrange it appetisingly and meaningfully. [[Wikiversity:Readability|Sushi]], not spaghetti. Find out how to use [[Help:subpages|subpages]] for the divisions of your lesson, course or learning unit. Don't put more onto one page than a learner will be able to digest in one sitting.'' [[Image:Kalymnos 2005 022.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Between '''known''' and '''unknown''': it's nice to feel the other end of the rope is safely attached.]] *'''Start with what is known and move to the unknown''' *: ''Lessons start with establishing common ground, such as revising what was learnt before, or finding out what is already known and then responding to this. Learning requires a foundation to build on - if you can't find that foundation, you won't be able to create a learning situation. This is one reason why you really need to identify and connect with the audience any way you can.'' *'''Use variety''' *: ''Use a variety of methods; different parts of your "structured sequence" should use different methods. Also use different media types (video, audio, text, images). Sound and vision are the only two senses the digital learner can rely on, but a real-world class can benefit from all five senses - multi-sensual experiences promote learning.'' [[Image:London Underground Zone 1.png|thumb|250px|right|[[Help talk:Lesson|Intelligence test]]: what is the best way from St.Paul's to Blackfriars?]] [[Image:Pyrrhura cruentata -pet with toy3.jpg|thumb|250px|right|In this image we see '''the learner''' intent on cracking open the '''learning goal''' by any of a '''variety''' of means placed at its disposal, fair or unfair.]] * '''Repetition and redundancy''' *: ''Don't feel you constantly have to move on and teach new stuff, cramming as much knowledge into the lesson as you can. That kind of thing is for encyclopedias. Instead, keep (1) your learning goal and (2) your audience in mind, and try to create as many possible different lines of connection between these two things as you can. For example, use different methods to teach the same point (if it doesn't go in one way, it might go in another). Don't be afraid to repeat yourself, but preferably say it in different ways unless you want a laugh. Recycling material after suitable time periods helps memorisation. Methods of repeating and revising material include interactive sections such as quizzes and productive activities - as well as, ummm, saying it again.'' *'''Bridge theory and practice''' *: ''Examples and case studies are good.'' *'''Feedback''' *: ''Somewhere along the line it is good if you get some kind of feedback from your audience. Learners can leave messages on the lesson talk page, your own talk page as facilitator, or they can send you email - as you prefer. They can also indirectly contribute feedback while creating content. Try to motivate user response, even if it's just a userbox or your personal seal of approval which you promise them in return.'' *'''If you have spare time''' *:''Read things which tell you [[uncyclopedia:Uncyclopedia:How_To_Be_Funny_And_Not_Just_Stupid|how to be funny while warning you how not to be stupid]] - it will make you a more interesting writer.'' <br style="clear: both;"> === Big no-noes === [[image:Stofa i hradbraut.jpg|250px|thumb|right|A class in the hand... solves a lot of problems with getting the hang of online lesson design.]] *'''Too much collaboration too soon is really, really bad.''' *:''Wikis are temptingly collaborative, but collaborative online education is massively difficult to pull off successfully. A collaborative resource with 0-1 participants lies somewhere between funny and sad; it does not educate. Ditto 100 people crammed into the state of confusion created by misdirected participatory requirements. Many good resources on Wikiversity - perhaps the majority of [[Wikiversity:Featured|the good ones]] - are written and completed in an individualistic manner for a passive audience. Write something for a passive audience first, then graduate to the next level. When you start with collaborative lessons, bring your own classes for the first ones, otherwise you or your materials may die of loneliness, or you may never become aware of the mass confusion you caused.'' *'''Don't try to be what you're not.''' *:''Be yourself and not somebody else - teachers have naturally different styles, and trying to adopt someone else's style can turn a good teacher into a bad teacher. If you are new to teaching, you may not be aware of your style yet.'' * '''Don't follow methodological fads.''' *: ''Especially not the one you just read or went to a course about. Unless it naturally fits your style. Or unless you can take the risk of massive failure (remembering always that failures are great learning opportunities, provided you live).'' [[image:Ksar timimoun.jpg|right|250px|thumb|"Build it and they will come", croaked the web educator and died.]] * '''"Build it and they will come" is not a good principle of web education.''' *: ''Try: hard work, quality, a bit of marketing such as proper resource categorisation, really nice piccies and layout, bring your own class anyway just to make sure, and if all else fails, tell them the answers to the next test are numerologically disguised in the text.'' * '''Collaboration is not wiki-heaven'''. *: ''Collective resource creation (if it works) brings <u>conflict</u>. Guaranteed. But it could be educational '''if you manage to steer things in the right direction'''. Just be prepared, get your expectations right and bring a sweat bowl.'' * '''Try not to do everything at once.''' *: ''Did this page have a lot on it? Never mind. If you got half of it first time round, that's great. Go and make a resource, and another, and then come back here and pick up some more ideas, or leave your comments and experiences on the talk page. '' == Case study == ''This section is under construction.'' == Courses and other resources on Wikiversity which help with lesson creation == ''For the most part, these pages will be of interest only to experienced educationalists or trainee teachers. Reading these resources will require a significant investment of time.'' *[[Instructional Design]] *[[Instructional Design/Constructivism|Designing Constructivist Learning Experiences]] *[[cognitive behaviors|Designing instruction for cognitive behaviors]] *[[psychomotor behaviors|Designing instruction for psychomotor behaviors]] *[[affective behaviors|Designing instruction for affective behaviors]] *[[interpersonal behaviors|Designing instruction for interpersonal behaviors]] * [[Developing high quality educational resources]] * [[Composing free and open online educational resources]] * [[Assistant teacher course]] - by [[User:Fasten]] * [[Experiential education]] * [[Learning and learning about learning in Wikiversity]] - by [[User:Cormaggio]] * [[Design and Develop Learning Resources]] / [[Networked learning]] / [[Flexible learning]] - by [[User:Leighblackall]] * [[Learning to learn a wiki way]] == External links == ''These resources are down-to-earth.'' * C. M. Dragomanovich, [http://wwwstatic.kern.org/gems/valleyOaks/whatmakesagoodlesson.pdf What makes a good lesson] (2 pages; recommended) * Teachnology, [http://www.teach-nology.com/ideas Teaching tips] * Honolulu Community College, [http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/teachtip.htm Teaching Tips Index] * John Baez, [http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/teaching.pdf How to teach stuff] (1 page) * National Weather Service Training Center, Hydrometeorology & Management Division, [http://www.meted.ucar.edu/resource/soo/ntcanat.htm Anatomy of a lesson] (1997) * The National Capital Language Resource Center (Washington DC), [http://www.nclrc.org/essentials/planning/structure.htm Structure the Lesson] (2003/4) == See also == {{wiktionary}} {{wikipedia}} {{wikipedia|pedagogy}} * [[Help:How to write an educational resource]] * [[Help:Resource types]] - find out what other kinds of resources you can contribute to Wikiversity. * [[Help:Lesson plan]] * [[Wikiversity:Learning]] * [[Wikiversity:Learning resources]] * [[Wikiversity:Learning projects]] * [[Wikiversity:Readability]] {{rtnav}} [[Category:Help]] [[Category:Lessons]] [[Category:Learning]] 73hkqq0fuhqxdkp4yyc7y2bz1hsxc6h 0 91973 2817577 2817283 2026-07-02T10:53:09Z ~2026-37968-63 3098398 2817577 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting Activity: Multilingual school reality == Imagine you are a teacher in a school, in which there are students from diverse backgrounds. For example, Sofia speaks Spanish with her family and she sometimes uses Spanish in class while the language of schooling is different. Another student, Omar, speaks Arabic at home but never uses Arabic at school. You also suspect that there may be more students in your class with -other than the language of schooling- languages that you might not be aware of. You are interested in finding out more about your students’ language repertoires and cultural backgrounds and embrace them. * What challenges do you think Sofia and Omar might face regarding their languages? * What can you, as a teacher, do to explore and promote your students’ languages and support them in maintaining and developing them? * How can you create a classroom environment where students feel proud of their languages? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you should be able to: * recognise what heritage languages are, as well as other related terms * develop awareness of the importance of heritage languages * develop awareness of different forms and structures of heritage language education == Keywords == Heritage language, language identity, minority language, heritage language education, language revitalization == Introduction == In today’s increasingly multilingual societies, individuals grow up with and use multiple languages. Languages spoken at home can differ from the dominant languages of the wider society These languages often carry deep personal, cultural, and familial meanings, and their role in classrooms and communities raises important questions about identity and inclusion. The development and promotion of heritage languages can be significantly influenced by the ways educational systems recognize and support students' multilingual backgrounds. == Definition == Heritage language speakers and learners have diverse profiles and there are many different contexts in which they use their language resources. Therefore the concept of Heritage Language (HL) is not easy to define. Generally, a HL is understood as a non-majority language spoken by individuals who have been exposed to it at home or in their community and have varying levels of proficiency in it (Valdés, 2001). The term 'heritage language' is used to identify any languages other than the dominant language(s) in a given social context <ref>http://www.cal.org/heritage/index.html</ref> Other researchers defined the term heritage language as the language associated with one's cultural background and it may or may not be spoken in the home <ref>Cho, G., Cho, K.-S., & Tse, L. (1997). Why ethnic minorities need to develop their heritage language: The case of Korean Americans. Language, Culture, and Curriculum, 10, 106-112.</ref>. Valdés (2001) provided three main criteria to identify heritage language learners, classifying as individuals who: * are raised in homes where a non-English language is spoken * speak or merely understand the heritage language * are to some degree bilingual in English and the heritage language The degree of heritage language fluency, proficiency, cultural background, connection or knowledge are widely varied among students. HL speakers often have a personal, cultural, or historical connection to the language, regardless of their actual linguistic competence (Gounari, 2014). The range of definitions for “HL speaker/user” can therefore be large and can vary from a very narrow to very broad meaning. It has been suggested that the term 'heritage language' cannot be identified in a static, definitive sense; rather, it is more a metaphor in relation to the structuring of attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions that enable or constrain linguistic practices (Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003)<ref name="VDS">Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003) Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 2 (3), 211-230</ref>. Two examples could be: * Kim was born in the U.S. to Korean immigrant parents. She was exposed to Korean at home but often responded in English. She can understand conversational Korean fairly well but finds it difficult to speak it and cannot read or write in the language. Nevertheless, she  identifies with Korean culture and traditions * Luc was born in Austria to French-speaking parents from Belgium. His family spoke mostly French at home. He attended the Lycée Français in Vienna. Also they often visited relatives in Brussels. Luc uses French fluently in everyday life and often switches between French and German. Both examples illustrate how the term "HL speaker/user" can be understood in different ways. The term HL is therefore sensitive to a variety of interpretations within social, political, regional, and national contexts. Critical views on the use of the term heritage language have challenged the label 'heritage language' itself some of them regarding it as extremely negative -even offensive- and others as counterproductive (Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003) <ref name="VDS" />. It is also criticised for pointing more to the past and less to the future, to traditions rather to the contemporary risking to become associated with ancient cultures, past traditions and more "primitive times" and so may fail to give the impression of a modern language that is of value in a technological society (Baker & Jones, 1998)<ref>Baker, C. & Jones, S.P. (1998). Encyclopedial of bilingualism and bilingual education. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.</ref>. Despite the term heritage language, heritage language speaker, and heritage language learner are gaining currency <ref>Wiley, T. (2001). On defining heritage languages and their speakers. In Kreeft Payton, D. Ranard, & S. McGinnis (Eds.). Heritage languages in America. Preserving a national resource (pp. 29-36). Washington DC: Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems.</ref>, the concept remains sensitive to a variety of interpretations within a social, political, regional, and national contexts <ref name="VDS">Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003) Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 2 (3), 211-230</ref>. == History of the Concept == The term heritage language was first introduced in the late 1970s in Canada, where it was used to denote the languages of indigenous and migrant communities (Cummins, 2005). It was later spread to other parts of the world, such as Australia and the US. In Europe, the term only gradually began to enter scientific discourse in the 2000s, particularly in research on multilingualism and migration. In the German context, the term 'Herkunftssprache' is often used as the equivalent of the English term 'heritage language' (Brehmer & Mehlhorn, 2018). According to Fishman (2001), three types of HL can be distinguished: * immigrant HL * indigenous HL, * and colonial HL. Europe is home to a significant number of minority/migrant/minoritised communities, leading to the presence of various heritage languages spoken by children and adults in schools and society. In fact, a HL in Europe can include any regional, minority and/or migrant language. Alternative terms for heritage language proposed by researchers and used or preferred in different countries and contexts are: *native language *minority language *ancestral language *immigrant minority language *allochthonous language *home language *language of origin *community language Though some of these terms are equally problematic as heritage language. For example, native language is also problematic because we cannot assume that the language does not necessarily students' native language. Those students may have a limited knowledge of the language or simply may not speak it at all. Ancestral language also conveys a negative connotation that it belongs to the distant past or a previous generation which does not have a present or future affiliation. {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Spotlight: The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages''' |- |The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, adopted by the Council of Europe in 1992 and subsequently reviewed in 2010, 2021, 2023, and 2024, is a treaty designed to protect and promote Europe’s historical regional and minority languages. It encourages the use of these languages in education, media, culture, and public administration, with the goal of enabling their speakers to fully participate in society. Member States choose whether to ratify the Charter, which languages it applies to, and which specific measures they commit to. Once ratified, these commitments become legally binding under international law. Here are some points mentioned in Article 8 about education. Member states should: * allow, encourage or provide teaching in or of the regional or minority language at all the appropriate stages of education * make arrangements to ensure the teaching of the history and the culture which is reflected by the regional or minority language * provide the basic and further training of the teachers required to implement the chosen measures You can find the full text here: <nowiki>https://rm.coe.int/collected-texts-charter-4th-edition-en/1680b26fa0</nowiki> |} == Heritage language education == Heritage Language education refers to language instruction addressed to and designed  for students exposed to the target language at home or within their communities (Gkaintartzi & Wagner, 2025). It generally represents a form of minority language education that exists on the periphery of mainstream schooling which is mostly conducted in the national language(s) (Leeman, 2015). The organisation of these programmes and offerings is also largely dependent on the status and promotion of HL education in the respective education system. Provision can be made by the state (and thus integrated into the regular education programme); there may also be bilateral agreements between the country of origin and the country of immigration. In some cases, the responsibility for instruction in the HL is considered to lie with the migrant communities themselves (Mehlhorn, 2020). HL education can take place within formal public school settings—such as in language support classes and bilingual or dual-language programmes—as well as in after-school initiatives, community-based or supplementary schools, and other non-formal educational settings. Community or complementary schools are often established by migrant or minority communities, cultural or religious organizations, or local governments. These schools typically operate at  weekends or after regular school hours, offering a few hours of instruction each week. Additionally, HL courses are available in higher education institutions worldwide. Examples include Spanish for HL speakers in U.S. universities, Catalan, Basque, and Galician in Spanish universities, and languages like Arabic, Mandarin, Urdu, and Turkish in various European universities (Kagan et al., 2017).  HL education is vital for maintaining cultural identity and supporting linguistic diversity by enabling learners to sustain and enhance their heritage language competences. However, HL education often faces challenges universally, which include  language attrition and shift, limited institutional support, teacher training and resources, wider sociopolitical barriers, identity and motivation issues (Woerfel et al., 2020). == Practical examples == HL speakers and learners can be found everywhere from elementary school up to adult education. Effective Heritage Language instruction (HLI) requires a supportive and appreciative approach that values the linguistic skills HL speakers already possess, and the HL varieties that may speak.  Simply applying traditional second-language (L2) or foreign language teaching methods is often ineffective in HL classrooms, as HL learners need teaching strategies that are tailored to their unique linguistic backgrounds (Leeman, 2015). {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Activity: Heritage Languages in education''' |- |In this video we get a quick introduction into the work of Olga Kagan, a researcher. She talks about the potential of multilingual education and the challenges HL speakers may face. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5hpE941rT2Q UCLA Spotlight Profile: Olga Kagan] * Who is Olga Kagan and what are her specialties? * What does Olga Kagan say is important for schools and teachers to consider? * What is your opinion on her suggestions? |} The following examples provide an insight into programmes and initiatives for promoting heritage languages. They include programmes organised within formal education, programmes organised by various communities, and selected informal opportunities for communities/individuals. === '''Community-Based Language Schools''' === ===== '''Example:''' '''Greek Afternoon Schools''' in the United States, Canada and Europe ===== These are supplementary education programmes where Greek-American and Greek-Canadian children (of Diaspora) attend classes after regular school hours or on weekends, to learn the Greek language, culture, history, and traditions. Programmes within the state school system ===== '''Example: Austrian “Erstsprachenunterricht”''' ===== In Austria first language instruction is an additional educational offer embedded within the school system that gives students the opportunity to maintain and further develop their heritage language. It exists since 1992 and follows a common curriculum. The lessons are free and typically held in the school building but outside of regular class hours. They are voluntary, and usually take place once or twice a week. Instruction is provided in languages for which there is sufficient demand , mostly 10 students, and where qualified teachers are available. In total there are 25 languages but the most commonly offered languages include Turkish, Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian (BCS), Arabic, Romanian, Polish, Pashto, Dari, Farsi, as well as Hungarian and Albanian. The organization and implementation of lessons lies with the regional education authorities in each federal province. Further information under: <nowiki>https://www.schule-mehrsprachig.at/</nowiki> === '''Dual-Language Immersion Programmes''' === ==== '''Examples:''' ==== In some regions of France and Germany, there are bilingual schools that equally divide instruction between two languages, including local dialects. In Belgium, certain international schools offer trilingual education where students learn three languages simultaneously (Garcia et al., 2016). Intensive support is available for non-native speakers to ensure language proficiency. In Switzerland, bilingual programmes integrate two major languages in the curriculum, with additional languages introduced as elective options starting in the primary grades. Austria features bilingual high schools that adopt a "flexible monolingualism" approach, where students first intensively learn one language before transitioning to dual-language instruction (German-English). These schools also offer multiple language options for broader linguistic exposure, French, Spanish, or Russian. === '''Technology-Based Learning''' === '''Example:''' '''TalkAbroad''' and '''Italki''', platforms that connect language learners with native speakers around the world for conversation practice. === '''Language Nests (Te Kōhanga Reo)''' === '''Example:''' '''Te Kōhanga Reo''' in New Zealand, where Māori children are immersed in the Māori language from a young age in preschool settings. === '''Family Language Policy''' === '''Example:''' A Chinese-American family may designate '''“Mandarin-only dinners”''' three times a week to encourage their children to practice speaking Mandarin. === '''Summer Language Camps''' === '''Examples:''' In the United Kingdom, Ukrainian community organizations run summer camps that teach the Ukrainian language alongside traditional dance, cooking, and cultural activities. In Spain and Latin America, Spanish heritage camps immerse participants in Spanish through homestays, community projects, and workshops, helping maintain language skills and cultural ties === '''Intergenerational Language Transmission''' === '''Example:''' The '''Yiddish Book Center's Yiddish School''' brings together older native Yiddish speakers and young learners for mutual learning. == '''Take-home messages''' == * Heritage language (HL) speakers are not defined by their linguistic proficiency, but rather on a continuum of factors, including language use, personal identification, and cultural connection to the HL. * HL learners can have diverse linguistic profiles—they may have varying degrees of language skills, cultural knowledge, and may speak different varieties of the same heritage language. * HL speakers and learners may experience marginalization due to language policies, societal attitudes, and prejudices surrounding heritage/minority languages. * Teaching HLs in schools requires specifically tailored pedagogical approaches. Traditional L2 (second language) methods are not enough to address the unique needs of HL learners. == Self-assessment == === Activity: Self development === Go back to your notes you took at the very beginning. Has your view on Sofia and Omar changed? Do you have any new ideas on how you could talk about and integrate HL into your classroom? === Multiple-Choice-Test === <quiz display="simple"> {Which of the following best defines a heritage language (HL)?} -A language spoken by the majority population of a country -A language taught in school as a second foreign language +A non-majority language often spoken at home or in the community -A language that has no standard form. {What distinguishes heritage language learners from typical L2 learners?} -HL learners always have higher proficiency than L2 learners +HL learners often have prior exposure to the language at home or in the community -HL learners never learn languages in formal classroom settings -HL learners are only interested in learning for personal reasons {According to Fishman (2001), which of the following is not a category of heritage language?} -Immigrant HL -Indigenous HL -Colonial HL +Institutional HL {Why might traditional second language (L2) teaching methods be insufficient for HL learners?} -HL learners are less motivated to learn -HL learners often lack exposure to the language +HL learners have different prior knowledge and language identities. -HL learners prefer to learn in informal settings. </quiz> === Activities/Open Ended Questions === 1. Why is it important not to define HL speakers solely based on proficiency? (considering cultural, emotional, and identity-related aspects of language use) 2. What challenges  HL education programs face in general/in your country? (aspects like policy, funding, curriculum integration, and teacher trainin) 3. Can you think of an example of a heritage language initiative in your region or community? (research on impact on identity, inclusion, or language maintenance) == Further resources == * [https://www.heritagelanguagestory.org/videostories Heritage Language Story Project] The “Heritage Language Story Project” aims to raise awareness about the importance of maintaining heritage languages by collecting stories which depict the lived experiences of heritage language speakers. These very personal stories show the huge variety in heritage language speakers and their different connections to the heritage language. Click through the videos and written stories to get some insight into what speaking and learning a HL can mean. * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s5fJ3z0WQ_8 Video of an HL speaker and her personal experiences] * [https://www.coe.int/en/web/european-charter-regional-or-minority-languages European Charter of regional or minority languages for some European Context] == Bibliography == Baker, C. & Jones, S.P. (1998). ''Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education.'' Multilingual Matters. Brehmer, B., & Mehlhorn, G. (2018). ''Herkunftssprachen''. Narr Francke Attempto. Cummins, J. (2005). A proposal for action: Strategies for recognizing heritage language competence as a learning resource within the mainstream classroom. ''The Modern Language Journal, 89''(4), 585–592. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/3588628</nowiki> García, O. (2005). Positioning heritage languages in the United States. ''Modern Language Journal, 89''(4), 601–605. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/3588631</nowiki> Garcia, O., Lin, A., May, S. (eds) (2016). ''Bilingual and Multilingual Education. Encyclopedia of Language and Education.'' Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02324-3_25-1 Fishman, J. A. (2001). ''The sociology of language: An interdisciplinary social science approach''. Blackwell. Gounari, P. (2014). Rethinking heritage language in a critical pedagogy framework. In P. Trifonas & T. Aravossitas (Eds.), ''Rethinking heritage language education'' (pp. 254–269). Cambridge University Press. Kagan, O. E., Carreira, M. M., & Chik, C. H. (Eds.). (2017). ''The Routledge handbook of heritage language education: From innovation to program building''. Routledge. Leeman, J. (2015). Heritage language education and identity in the United States. ''Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 35'', 100–119. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190514000245 Mehlhorn, G. (2020). Herkunftssprachen und ihre Sprecher/innen. In I. Gogolin, A. Hansen, S. McMonagle, & D. Rauch (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit und Bildung'' (pp. 23–29). Springer Fachmedien. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-20285-9_3 Polinsky, M. (2015). Heritage languages and their speakers: State of the field, challenges, perspectives for future work, and methodologies. ''Zeitschrift für Fremdsprachenforschung, 26''(1), 7–27. Valdés, G. (2005). Bilingualism, heritage language learners, and SLA research: Opportunities lost or seized? ''Modern Language Journal, 89''(3), 410–426. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2005.00314.x Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003). Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. J''ournal of Language, Identity, and Education'' ''2''(3), 211-230 Woerfel, T., Küppers, A., & Schroeder, C. (2020). Herkunftssprachlicher Unterricht. In I.Gogolin, A. Hansen, S. McMonagle, & D. Rauch (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit und Bildung'' (pp. 207–212). Springer Fachmedien. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-20285-9_30 == References == <references/> ==Credits== This resource has been co-created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, cofinanced by the European Commission) : * Anastasia Gkaintartzi (University of Thessaly) * Paulina Wagner (Universität Wien). [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] mfpy57de2oq8gw6z39mr5oxop1w26sa 2817578 2817577 2026-07-02T10:54:14Z ~2026-37968-63 3098398 /* Introduction */ 2817578 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting Activity: Multilingual school reality == Imagine you are a teacher in a school, in which there are students from diverse backgrounds. For example, Sofia speaks Spanish with her family and she sometimes uses Spanish in class while the language of schooling is different. Another student, Omar, speaks Arabic at home but never uses Arabic at school. You also suspect that there may be more students in your class with -other than the language of schooling- languages that you might not be aware of. You are interested in finding out more about your students’ language repertoires and cultural backgrounds and embrace them. * What challenges do you think Sofia and Omar might face regarding their languages? * What can you, as a teacher, do to explore and promote your students’ languages and support them in maintaining and developing them? * How can you create a classroom environment where students feel proud of their languages? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you should be able to: * recognise what heritage languages are, as well as other related terms * develop awareness of the importance of heritage languages * develop awareness of different forms and structures of heritage language education == Keywords == Heritage language, language identity, minority language, heritage language education, language revitalization == Introduction == In today’s increasingly multilingual societies, individuals grow up with and use multiple languages. Languages spoken at home can differ from the dominant languages of the wider society. These languages often carry deep personal, cultural, and familial meanings, and their role in classrooms and communities raises important questions about identity and inclusion. The development and promotion of heritage languages can be significantly influenced by the ways educational systems recognize and support students' multilingual backgrounds. == Definition == Heritage language speakers and learners have diverse profiles and there are many different contexts in which they use their language resources. Therefore the concept of Heritage Language (HL) is not easy to define. Generally, a HL is understood as a non-majority language spoken by individuals who have been exposed to it at home or in their community and have varying levels of proficiency in it (Valdés, 2001). The term 'heritage language' is used to identify any languages other than the dominant language(s) in a given social context <ref>http://www.cal.org/heritage/index.html</ref> Other researchers defined the term heritage language as the language associated with one's cultural background and it may or may not be spoken in the home <ref>Cho, G., Cho, K.-S., & Tse, L. (1997). Why ethnic minorities need to develop their heritage language: The case of Korean Americans. Language, Culture, and Curriculum, 10, 106-112.</ref>. Valdés (2001) provided three main criteria to identify heritage language learners, classifying as individuals who: * are raised in homes where a non-English language is spoken * speak or merely understand the heritage language * are to some degree bilingual in English and the heritage language The degree of heritage language fluency, proficiency, cultural background, connection or knowledge are widely varied among students. HL speakers often have a personal, cultural, or historical connection to the language, regardless of their actual linguistic competence (Gounari, 2014). The range of definitions for “HL speaker/user” can therefore be large and can vary from a very narrow to very broad meaning. It has been suggested that the term 'heritage language' cannot be identified in a static, definitive sense; rather, it is more a metaphor in relation to the structuring of attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions that enable or constrain linguistic practices (Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003)<ref name="VDS">Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003) Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 2 (3), 211-230</ref>. Two examples could be: * Kim was born in the U.S. to Korean immigrant parents. She was exposed to Korean at home but often responded in English. She can understand conversational Korean fairly well but finds it difficult to speak it and cannot read or write in the language. Nevertheless, she  identifies with Korean culture and traditions * Luc was born in Austria to French-speaking parents from Belgium. His family spoke mostly French at home. He attended the Lycée Français in Vienna. Also they often visited relatives in Brussels. Luc uses French fluently in everyday life and often switches between French and German. Both examples illustrate how the term "HL speaker/user" can be understood in different ways. The term HL is therefore sensitive to a variety of interpretations within social, political, regional, and national contexts. Critical views on the use of the term heritage language have challenged the label 'heritage language' itself some of them regarding it as extremely negative -even offensive- and others as counterproductive (Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003) <ref name="VDS" />. It is also criticised for pointing more to the past and less to the future, to traditions rather to the contemporary risking to become associated with ancient cultures, past traditions and more "primitive times" and so may fail to give the impression of a modern language that is of value in a technological society (Baker & Jones, 1998)<ref>Baker, C. & Jones, S.P. (1998). Encyclopedial of bilingualism and bilingual education. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.</ref>. Despite the term heritage language, heritage language speaker, and heritage language learner are gaining currency <ref>Wiley, T. (2001). On defining heritage languages and their speakers. In Kreeft Payton, D. Ranard, & S. McGinnis (Eds.). Heritage languages in America. Preserving a national resource (pp. 29-36). Washington DC: Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems.</ref>, the concept remains sensitive to a variety of interpretations within a social, political, regional, and national contexts <ref name="VDS">Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003) Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 2 (3), 211-230</ref>. == History of the Concept == The term heritage language was first introduced in the late 1970s in Canada, where it was used to denote the languages of indigenous and migrant communities (Cummins, 2005). It was later spread to other parts of the world, such as Australia and the US. In Europe, the term only gradually began to enter scientific discourse in the 2000s, particularly in research on multilingualism and migration. In the German context, the term 'Herkunftssprache' is often used as the equivalent of the English term 'heritage language' (Brehmer & Mehlhorn, 2018). According to Fishman (2001), three types of HL can be distinguished: * immigrant HL * indigenous HL, * and colonial HL. Europe is home to a significant number of minority/migrant/minoritised communities, leading to the presence of various heritage languages spoken by children and adults in schools and society. In fact, a HL in Europe can include any regional, minority and/or migrant language. Alternative terms for heritage language proposed by researchers and used or preferred in different countries and contexts are: *native language *minority language *ancestral language *immigrant minority language *allochthonous language *home language *language of origin *community language Though some of these terms are equally problematic as heritage language. For example, native language is also problematic because we cannot assume that the language does not necessarily students' native language. Those students may have a limited knowledge of the language or simply may not speak it at all. Ancestral language also conveys a negative connotation that it belongs to the distant past or a previous generation which does not have a present or future affiliation. {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Spotlight: The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages''' |- |The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, adopted by the Council of Europe in 1992 and subsequently reviewed in 2010, 2021, 2023, and 2024, is a treaty designed to protect and promote Europe’s historical regional and minority languages. It encourages the use of these languages in education, media, culture, and public administration, with the goal of enabling their speakers to fully participate in society. Member States choose whether to ratify the Charter, which languages it applies to, and which specific measures they commit to. Once ratified, these commitments become legally binding under international law. Here are some points mentioned in Article 8 about education. Member states should: * allow, encourage or provide teaching in or of the regional or minority language at all the appropriate stages of education * make arrangements to ensure the teaching of the history and the culture which is reflected by the regional or minority language * provide the basic and further training of the teachers required to implement the chosen measures You can find the full text here: <nowiki>https://rm.coe.int/collected-texts-charter-4th-edition-en/1680b26fa0</nowiki> |} == Heritage language education == Heritage Language education refers to language instruction addressed to and designed  for students exposed to the target language at home or within their communities (Gkaintartzi & Wagner, 2025). It generally represents a form of minority language education that exists on the periphery of mainstream schooling which is mostly conducted in the national language(s) (Leeman, 2015). The organisation of these programmes and offerings is also largely dependent on the status and promotion of HL education in the respective education system. Provision can be made by the state (and thus integrated into the regular education programme); there may also be bilateral agreements between the country of origin and the country of immigration. In some cases, the responsibility for instruction in the HL is considered to lie with the migrant communities themselves (Mehlhorn, 2020). HL education can take place within formal public school settings—such as in language support classes and bilingual or dual-language programmes—as well as in after-school initiatives, community-based or supplementary schools, and other non-formal educational settings. Community or complementary schools are often established by migrant or minority communities, cultural or religious organizations, or local governments. These schools typically operate at  weekends or after regular school hours, offering a few hours of instruction each week. Additionally, HL courses are available in higher education institutions worldwide. Examples include Spanish for HL speakers in U.S. universities, Catalan, Basque, and Galician in Spanish universities, and languages like Arabic, Mandarin, Urdu, and Turkish in various European universities (Kagan et al., 2017).  HL education is vital for maintaining cultural identity and supporting linguistic diversity by enabling learners to sustain and enhance their heritage language competences. However, HL education often faces challenges universally, which include  language attrition and shift, limited institutional support, teacher training and resources, wider sociopolitical barriers, identity and motivation issues (Woerfel et al., 2020). == Practical examples == HL speakers and learners can be found everywhere from elementary school up to adult education. Effective Heritage Language instruction (HLI) requires a supportive and appreciative approach that values the linguistic skills HL speakers already possess, and the HL varieties that may speak.  Simply applying traditional second-language (L2) or foreign language teaching methods is often ineffective in HL classrooms, as HL learners need teaching strategies that are tailored to their unique linguistic backgrounds (Leeman, 2015). {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Activity: Heritage Languages in education''' |- |In this video we get a quick introduction into the work of Olga Kagan, a researcher. She talks about the potential of multilingual education and the challenges HL speakers may face. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5hpE941rT2Q UCLA Spotlight Profile: Olga Kagan] * Who is Olga Kagan and what are her specialties? * What does Olga Kagan say is important for schools and teachers to consider? * What is your opinion on her suggestions? |} The following examples provide an insight into programmes and initiatives for promoting heritage languages. They include programmes organised within formal education, programmes organised by various communities, and selected informal opportunities for communities/individuals. === '''Community-Based Language Schools''' === ===== '''Example:''' '''Greek Afternoon Schools''' in the United States, Canada and Europe ===== These are supplementary education programmes where Greek-American and Greek-Canadian children (of Diaspora) attend classes after regular school hours or on weekends, to learn the Greek language, culture, history, and traditions. Programmes within the state school system ===== '''Example: Austrian “Erstsprachenunterricht”''' ===== In Austria first language instruction is an additional educational offer embedded within the school system that gives students the opportunity to maintain and further develop their heritage language. It exists since 1992 and follows a common curriculum. The lessons are free and typically held in the school building but outside of regular class hours. They are voluntary, and usually take place once or twice a week. Instruction is provided in languages for which there is sufficient demand , mostly 10 students, and where qualified teachers are available. In total there are 25 languages but the most commonly offered languages include Turkish, Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian (BCS), Arabic, Romanian, Polish, Pashto, Dari, Farsi, as well as Hungarian and Albanian. The organization and implementation of lessons lies with the regional education authorities in each federal province. Further information under: <nowiki>https://www.schule-mehrsprachig.at/</nowiki> === '''Dual-Language Immersion Programmes''' === ==== '''Examples:''' ==== In some regions of France and Germany, there are bilingual schools that equally divide instruction between two languages, including local dialects. In Belgium, certain international schools offer trilingual education where students learn three languages simultaneously (Garcia et al., 2016). Intensive support is available for non-native speakers to ensure language proficiency. In Switzerland, bilingual programmes integrate two major languages in the curriculum, with additional languages introduced as elective options starting in the primary grades. Austria features bilingual high schools that adopt a "flexible monolingualism" approach, where students first intensively learn one language before transitioning to dual-language instruction (German-English). These schools also offer multiple language options for broader linguistic exposure, French, Spanish, or Russian. === '''Technology-Based Learning''' === '''Example:''' '''TalkAbroad''' and '''Italki''', platforms that connect language learners with native speakers around the world for conversation practice. === '''Language Nests (Te Kōhanga Reo)''' === '''Example:''' '''Te Kōhanga Reo''' in New Zealand, where Māori children are immersed in the Māori language from a young age in preschool settings. === '''Family Language Policy''' === '''Example:''' A Chinese-American family may designate '''“Mandarin-only dinners”''' three times a week to encourage their children to practice speaking Mandarin. === '''Summer Language Camps''' === '''Examples:''' In the United Kingdom, Ukrainian community organizations run summer camps that teach the Ukrainian language alongside traditional dance, cooking, and cultural activities. In Spain and Latin America, Spanish heritage camps immerse participants in Spanish through homestays, community projects, and workshops, helping maintain language skills and cultural ties === '''Intergenerational Language Transmission''' === '''Example:''' The '''Yiddish Book Center's Yiddish School''' brings together older native Yiddish speakers and young learners for mutual learning. == '''Take-home messages''' == * Heritage language (HL) speakers are not defined by their linguistic proficiency, but rather on a continuum of factors, including language use, personal identification, and cultural connection to the HL. * HL learners can have diverse linguistic profiles—they may have varying degrees of language skills, cultural knowledge, and may speak different varieties of the same heritage language. * HL speakers and learners may experience marginalization due to language policies, societal attitudes, and prejudices surrounding heritage/minority languages. * Teaching HLs in schools requires specifically tailored pedagogical approaches. Traditional L2 (second language) methods are not enough to address the unique needs of HL learners. == Self-assessment == === Activity: Self development === Go back to your notes you took at the very beginning. Has your view on Sofia and Omar changed? Do you have any new ideas on how you could talk about and integrate HL into your classroom? === Multiple-Choice-Test === <quiz display="simple"> {Which of the following best defines a heritage language (HL)?} -A language spoken by the majority population of a country -A language taught in school as a second foreign language +A non-majority language often spoken at home or in the community -A language that has no standard form. {What distinguishes heritage language learners from typical L2 learners?} -HL learners always have higher proficiency than L2 learners +HL learners often have prior exposure to the language at home or in the community -HL learners never learn languages in formal classroom settings -HL learners are only interested in learning for personal reasons {According to Fishman (2001), which of the following is not a category of heritage language?} -Immigrant HL -Indigenous HL -Colonial HL +Institutional HL {Why might traditional second language (L2) teaching methods be insufficient for HL learners?} -HL learners are less motivated to learn -HL learners often lack exposure to the language +HL learners have different prior knowledge and language identities. -HL learners prefer to learn in informal settings. </quiz> === Activities/Open Ended Questions === 1. Why is it important not to define HL speakers solely based on proficiency? (considering cultural, emotional, and identity-related aspects of language use) 2. What challenges  HL education programs face in general/in your country? (aspects like policy, funding, curriculum integration, and teacher trainin) 3. Can you think of an example of a heritage language initiative in your region or community? (research on impact on identity, inclusion, or language maintenance) == Further resources == * [https://www.heritagelanguagestory.org/videostories Heritage Language Story Project] The “Heritage Language Story Project” aims to raise awareness about the importance of maintaining heritage languages by collecting stories which depict the lived experiences of heritage language speakers. These very personal stories show the huge variety in heritage language speakers and their different connections to the heritage language. Click through the videos and written stories to get some insight into what speaking and learning a HL can mean. * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s5fJ3z0WQ_8 Video of an HL speaker and her personal experiences] * [https://www.coe.int/en/web/european-charter-regional-or-minority-languages European Charter of regional or minority languages for some European Context] == Bibliography == Baker, C. & Jones, S.P. (1998). ''Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education.'' Multilingual Matters. Brehmer, B., & Mehlhorn, G. (2018). ''Herkunftssprachen''. Narr Francke Attempto. Cummins, J. (2005). A proposal for action: Strategies for recognizing heritage language competence as a learning resource within the mainstream classroom. ''The Modern Language Journal, 89''(4), 585–592. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/3588628</nowiki> García, O. (2005). Positioning heritage languages in the United States. ''Modern Language Journal, 89''(4), 601–605. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/3588631</nowiki> Garcia, O., Lin, A., May, S. (eds) (2016). ''Bilingual and Multilingual Education. Encyclopedia of Language and Education.'' Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02324-3_25-1 Fishman, J. A. (2001). ''The sociology of language: An interdisciplinary social science approach''. Blackwell. Gounari, P. (2014). Rethinking heritage language in a critical pedagogy framework. In P. Trifonas & T. Aravossitas (Eds.), ''Rethinking heritage language education'' (pp. 254–269). Cambridge University Press. Kagan, O. E., Carreira, M. M., & Chik, C. H. (Eds.). (2017). ''The Routledge handbook of heritage language education: From innovation to program building''. Routledge. Leeman, J. (2015). Heritage language education and identity in the United States. ''Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 35'', 100–119. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190514000245 Mehlhorn, G. (2020). Herkunftssprachen und ihre Sprecher/innen. In I. Gogolin, A. Hansen, S. McMonagle, & D. Rauch (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit und Bildung'' (pp. 23–29). Springer Fachmedien. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-20285-9_3 Polinsky, M. (2015). Heritage languages and their speakers: State of the field, challenges, perspectives for future work, and methodologies. ''Zeitschrift für Fremdsprachenforschung, 26''(1), 7–27. Valdés, G. (2005). Bilingualism, heritage language learners, and SLA research: Opportunities lost or seized? ''Modern Language Journal, 89''(3), 410–426. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2005.00314.x Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003). Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. J''ournal of Language, Identity, and Education'' ''2''(3), 211-230 Woerfel, T., Küppers, A., & Schroeder, C. (2020). Herkunftssprachlicher Unterricht. In I.Gogolin, A. Hansen, S. McMonagle, & D. Rauch (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit und Bildung'' (pp. 207–212). Springer Fachmedien. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-20285-9_30 == References == <references/> ==Credits== This resource has been co-created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, cofinanced by the European Commission) : * Anastasia Gkaintartzi (University of Thessaly) * Paulina Wagner (Universität Wien). [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] n5czac7lq2whkgl1k6cpwcwg8q3cumk 2817579 2817578 2026-07-02T10:55:26Z ~2026-37968-63 3098398 /* Definition */ 2817579 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting Activity: Multilingual school reality == Imagine you are a teacher in a school, in which there are students from diverse backgrounds. For example, Sofia speaks Spanish with her family and she sometimes uses Spanish in class while the language of schooling is different. Another student, Omar, speaks Arabic at home but never uses Arabic at school. You also suspect that there may be more students in your class with -other than the language of schooling- languages that you might not be aware of. You are interested in finding out more about your students’ language repertoires and cultural backgrounds and embrace them. * What challenges do you think Sofia and Omar might face regarding their languages? * What can you, as a teacher, do to explore and promote your students’ languages and support them in maintaining and developing them? * How can you create a classroom environment where students feel proud of their languages? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you should be able to: * recognise what heritage languages are, as well as other related terms * develop awareness of the importance of heritage languages * develop awareness of different forms and structures of heritage language education == Keywords == Heritage language, language identity, minority language, heritage language education, language revitalization == Introduction == In today’s increasingly multilingual societies, individuals grow up with and use multiple languages. Languages spoken at home can differ from the dominant languages of the wider society. These languages often carry deep personal, cultural, and familial meanings, and their role in classrooms and communities raises important questions about identity and inclusion. The development and promotion of heritage languages can be significantly influenced by the ways educational systems recognize and support students' multilingual backgrounds. == Definition == Heritage language speakers and learners have diverse profiles and there are many different contexts in which they use their language resources. Therefore the concept of Heritage Language (HL) is not easy to define. Generally, a HL is understood as a non-majority language spoken by individuals who have been exposed to it at home or in their community and have varying levels of proficiency in it (Valdés, 2001). The term 'heritage language' is used to identify any languages other than the dominant language(s) in a given social context <ref>http://www.cal.org/heritage/index.html</ref> Other researchers defined the term heritage language as the language associated with one's cultural background and it may or may not be spoken in the home <ref>Cho, G., Cho, K.-S., & Tse, L. (1997). Why ethnic minorities need to develop their heritage language: The case of Korean Americans. Language, Culture, and Curriculum, 10, 106-112.</ref>. Valdés (2001) provided three main criteria to identify heritage language learners, classifying them as individuals who: * are raised in homes where a non-English language is spoken * speak or merely understand the heritage language * are to some degree bilingual in English and the heritage language The degree of heritage language fluency, proficiency, cultural background, connection or knowledge are widely varied among students. HL speakers often have a personal, cultural, or historical connection to the language, regardless of their actual linguistic competence (Gounari, 2014). The range of definitions for “HL speaker/user” can therefore be large and can vary from a very narrow to very broad meaning. It has been suggested that the term 'heritage language' cannot be identified in a static, definitive sense; rather, it is more a metaphor in relation to the structuring of attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions that enable or constrain linguistic practices (Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003)<ref name="VDS">Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003) Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 2 (3), 211-230</ref>. Two examples could be: * Kim was born in the U.S. to Korean immigrant parents. She was exposed to Korean at home but often responded in English. She can understand conversational Korean fairly well but finds it difficult to speak it and cannot read or write in the language. Nevertheless, she  identifies with Korean culture and traditions * Luc was born in Austria to French-speaking parents from Belgium. His family spoke mostly French at home. He attended the Lycée Français in Vienna. Also they often visited relatives in Brussels. Luc uses French fluently in everyday life and often switches between French and German. Both examples illustrate how the term "HL speaker/user" can be understood in different ways. The term HL is therefore sensitive to a variety of interpretations within social, political, regional, and national contexts. Critical views on the use of the term heritage language have challenged the label 'heritage language' itself some of them regarding it as extremely negative -even offensive- and others as counterproductive (Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003) <ref name="VDS" />. It is also criticised for pointing more to the past and less to the future, to traditions rather to the contemporary risking to become associated with ancient cultures, past traditions and more "primitive times" and so may fail to give the impression of a modern language that is of value in a technological society (Baker & Jones, 1998)<ref>Baker, C. & Jones, S.P. (1998). Encyclopedial of bilingualism and bilingual education. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.</ref>. Despite the term heritage language, heritage language speaker, and heritage language learner are gaining currency <ref>Wiley, T. (2001). On defining heritage languages and their speakers. In Kreeft Payton, D. Ranard, & S. McGinnis (Eds.). Heritage languages in America. Preserving a national resource (pp. 29-36). Washington DC: Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems.</ref>, the concept remains sensitive to a variety of interpretations within a social, political, regional, and national contexts <ref name="VDS">Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003) Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 2 (3), 211-230</ref>. == History of the Concept == The term heritage language was first introduced in the late 1970s in Canada, where it was used to denote the languages of indigenous and migrant communities (Cummins, 2005). It was later spread to other parts of the world, such as Australia and the US. In Europe, the term only gradually began to enter scientific discourse in the 2000s, particularly in research on multilingualism and migration. In the German context, the term 'Herkunftssprache' is often used as the equivalent of the English term 'heritage language' (Brehmer & Mehlhorn, 2018). According to Fishman (2001), three types of HL can be distinguished: * immigrant HL * indigenous HL, * and colonial HL. Europe is home to a significant number of minority/migrant/minoritised communities, leading to the presence of various heritage languages spoken by children and adults in schools and society. In fact, a HL in Europe can include any regional, minority and/or migrant language. Alternative terms for heritage language proposed by researchers and used or preferred in different countries and contexts are: *native language *minority language *ancestral language *immigrant minority language *allochthonous language *home language *language of origin *community language Though some of these terms are equally problematic as heritage language. For example, native language is also problematic because we cannot assume that the language does not necessarily students' native language. Those students may have a limited knowledge of the language or simply may not speak it at all. Ancestral language also conveys a negative connotation that it belongs to the distant past or a previous generation which does not have a present or future affiliation. {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Spotlight: The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages''' |- |The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, adopted by the Council of Europe in 1992 and subsequently reviewed in 2010, 2021, 2023, and 2024, is a treaty designed to protect and promote Europe’s historical regional and minority languages. It encourages the use of these languages in education, media, culture, and public administration, with the goal of enabling their speakers to fully participate in society. Member States choose whether to ratify the Charter, which languages it applies to, and which specific measures they commit to. Once ratified, these commitments become legally binding under international law. Here are some points mentioned in Article 8 about education. Member states should: * allow, encourage or provide teaching in or of the regional or minority language at all the appropriate stages of education * make arrangements to ensure the teaching of the history and the culture which is reflected by the regional or minority language * provide the basic and further training of the teachers required to implement the chosen measures You can find the full text here: <nowiki>https://rm.coe.int/collected-texts-charter-4th-edition-en/1680b26fa0</nowiki> |} == Heritage language education == Heritage Language education refers to language instruction addressed to and designed  for students exposed to the target language at home or within their communities (Gkaintartzi & Wagner, 2025). It generally represents a form of minority language education that exists on the periphery of mainstream schooling which is mostly conducted in the national language(s) (Leeman, 2015). The organisation of these programmes and offerings is also largely dependent on the status and promotion of HL education in the respective education system. Provision can be made by the state (and thus integrated into the regular education programme); there may also be bilateral agreements between the country of origin and the country of immigration. In some cases, the responsibility for instruction in the HL is considered to lie with the migrant communities themselves (Mehlhorn, 2020). HL education can take place within formal public school settings—such as in language support classes and bilingual or dual-language programmes—as well as in after-school initiatives, community-based or supplementary schools, and other non-formal educational settings. Community or complementary schools are often established by migrant or minority communities, cultural or religious organizations, or local governments. These schools typically operate at  weekends or after regular school hours, offering a few hours of instruction each week. Additionally, HL courses are available in higher education institutions worldwide. Examples include Spanish for HL speakers in U.S. universities, Catalan, Basque, and Galician in Spanish universities, and languages like Arabic, Mandarin, Urdu, and Turkish in various European universities (Kagan et al., 2017).  HL education is vital for maintaining cultural identity and supporting linguistic diversity by enabling learners to sustain and enhance their heritage language competences. However, HL education often faces challenges universally, which include  language attrition and shift, limited institutional support, teacher training and resources, wider sociopolitical barriers, identity and motivation issues (Woerfel et al., 2020). == Practical examples == HL speakers and learners can be found everywhere from elementary school up to adult education. Effective Heritage Language instruction (HLI) requires a supportive and appreciative approach that values the linguistic skills HL speakers already possess, and the HL varieties that may speak.  Simply applying traditional second-language (L2) or foreign language teaching methods is often ineffective in HL classrooms, as HL learners need teaching strategies that are tailored to their unique linguistic backgrounds (Leeman, 2015). {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Activity: Heritage Languages in education''' |- |In this video we get a quick introduction into the work of Olga Kagan, a researcher. She talks about the potential of multilingual education and the challenges HL speakers may face. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5hpE941rT2Q UCLA Spotlight Profile: Olga Kagan] * Who is Olga Kagan and what are her specialties? * What does Olga Kagan say is important for schools and teachers to consider? * What is your opinion on her suggestions? |} The following examples provide an insight into programmes and initiatives for promoting heritage languages. They include programmes organised within formal education, programmes organised by various communities, and selected informal opportunities for communities/individuals. === '''Community-Based Language Schools''' === ===== '''Example:''' '''Greek Afternoon Schools''' in the United States, Canada and Europe ===== These are supplementary education programmes where Greek-American and Greek-Canadian children (of Diaspora) attend classes after regular school hours or on weekends, to learn the Greek language, culture, history, and traditions. Programmes within the state school system ===== '''Example: Austrian “Erstsprachenunterricht”''' ===== In Austria first language instruction is an additional educational offer embedded within the school system that gives students the opportunity to maintain and further develop their heritage language. It exists since 1992 and follows a common curriculum. The lessons are free and typically held in the school building but outside of regular class hours. They are voluntary, and usually take place once or twice a week. Instruction is provided in languages for which there is sufficient demand , mostly 10 students, and where qualified teachers are available. In total there are 25 languages but the most commonly offered languages include Turkish, Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian (BCS), Arabic, Romanian, Polish, Pashto, Dari, Farsi, as well as Hungarian and Albanian. The organization and implementation of lessons lies with the regional education authorities in each federal province. Further information under: <nowiki>https://www.schule-mehrsprachig.at/</nowiki> === '''Dual-Language Immersion Programmes''' === ==== '''Examples:''' ==== In some regions of France and Germany, there are bilingual schools that equally divide instruction between two languages, including local dialects. In Belgium, certain international schools offer trilingual education where students learn three languages simultaneously (Garcia et al., 2016). Intensive support is available for non-native speakers to ensure language proficiency. In Switzerland, bilingual programmes integrate two major languages in the curriculum, with additional languages introduced as elective options starting in the primary grades. Austria features bilingual high schools that adopt a "flexible monolingualism" approach, where students first intensively learn one language before transitioning to dual-language instruction (German-English). These schools also offer multiple language options for broader linguistic exposure, French, Spanish, or Russian. === '''Technology-Based Learning''' === '''Example:''' '''TalkAbroad''' and '''Italki''', platforms that connect language learners with native speakers around the world for conversation practice. === '''Language Nests (Te Kōhanga Reo)''' === '''Example:''' '''Te Kōhanga Reo''' in New Zealand, where Māori children are immersed in the Māori language from a young age in preschool settings. === '''Family Language Policy''' === '''Example:''' A Chinese-American family may designate '''“Mandarin-only dinners”''' three times a week to encourage their children to practice speaking Mandarin. === '''Summer Language Camps''' === '''Examples:''' In the United Kingdom, Ukrainian community organizations run summer camps that teach the Ukrainian language alongside traditional dance, cooking, and cultural activities. In Spain and Latin America, Spanish heritage camps immerse participants in Spanish through homestays, community projects, and workshops, helping maintain language skills and cultural ties === '''Intergenerational Language Transmission''' === '''Example:''' The '''Yiddish Book Center's Yiddish School''' brings together older native Yiddish speakers and young learners for mutual learning. == '''Take-home messages''' == * Heritage language (HL) speakers are not defined by their linguistic proficiency, but rather on a continuum of factors, including language use, personal identification, and cultural connection to the HL. * HL learners can have diverse linguistic profiles—they may have varying degrees of language skills, cultural knowledge, and may speak different varieties of the same heritage language. * HL speakers and learners may experience marginalization due to language policies, societal attitudes, and prejudices surrounding heritage/minority languages. * Teaching HLs in schools requires specifically tailored pedagogical approaches. Traditional L2 (second language) methods are not enough to address the unique needs of HL learners. == Self-assessment == === Activity: Self development === Go back to your notes you took at the very beginning. Has your view on Sofia and Omar changed? Do you have any new ideas on how you could talk about and integrate HL into your classroom? === Multiple-Choice-Test === <quiz display="simple"> {Which of the following best defines a heritage language (HL)?} -A language spoken by the majority population of a country -A language taught in school as a second foreign language +A non-majority language often spoken at home or in the community -A language that has no standard form. {What distinguishes heritage language learners from typical L2 learners?} -HL learners always have higher proficiency than L2 learners +HL learners often have prior exposure to the language at home or in the community -HL learners never learn languages in formal classroom settings -HL learners are only interested in learning for personal reasons {According to Fishman (2001), which of the following is not a category of heritage language?} -Immigrant HL -Indigenous HL -Colonial HL +Institutional HL {Why might traditional second language (L2) teaching methods be insufficient for HL learners?} -HL learners are less motivated to learn -HL learners often lack exposure to the language +HL learners have different prior knowledge and language identities. -HL learners prefer to learn in informal settings. </quiz> === Activities/Open Ended Questions === 1. Why is it important not to define HL speakers solely based on proficiency? (considering cultural, emotional, and identity-related aspects of language use) 2. What challenges  HL education programs face in general/in your country? (aspects like policy, funding, curriculum integration, and teacher trainin) 3. Can you think of an example of a heritage language initiative in your region or community? (research on impact on identity, inclusion, or language maintenance) == Further resources == * [https://www.heritagelanguagestory.org/videostories Heritage Language Story Project] The “Heritage Language Story Project” aims to raise awareness about the importance of maintaining heritage languages by collecting stories which depict the lived experiences of heritage language speakers. These very personal stories show the huge variety in heritage language speakers and their different connections to the heritage language. Click through the videos and written stories to get some insight into what speaking and learning a HL can mean. * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s5fJ3z0WQ_8 Video of an HL speaker and her personal experiences] * [https://www.coe.int/en/web/european-charter-regional-or-minority-languages European Charter of regional or minority languages for some European Context] == Bibliography == Baker, C. & Jones, S.P. (1998). ''Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education.'' Multilingual Matters. Brehmer, B., & Mehlhorn, G. (2018). ''Herkunftssprachen''. Narr Francke Attempto. Cummins, J. (2005). A proposal for action: Strategies for recognizing heritage language competence as a learning resource within the mainstream classroom. ''The Modern Language Journal, 89''(4), 585–592. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/3588628</nowiki> García, O. (2005). Positioning heritage languages in the United States. ''Modern Language Journal, 89''(4), 601–605. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/3588631</nowiki> Garcia, O., Lin, A., May, S. (eds) (2016). ''Bilingual and Multilingual Education. Encyclopedia of Language and Education.'' Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02324-3_25-1 Fishman, J. A. (2001). ''The sociology of language: An interdisciplinary social science approach''. Blackwell. Gounari, P. (2014). Rethinking heritage language in a critical pedagogy framework. In P. Trifonas & T. Aravossitas (Eds.), ''Rethinking heritage language education'' (pp. 254–269). Cambridge University Press. Kagan, O. E., Carreira, M. M., & Chik, C. H. (Eds.). (2017). ''The Routledge handbook of heritage language education: From innovation to program building''. Routledge. Leeman, J. (2015). Heritage language education and identity in the United States. ''Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 35'', 100–119. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190514000245 Mehlhorn, G. (2020). Herkunftssprachen und ihre Sprecher/innen. In I. Gogolin, A. Hansen, S. McMonagle, & D. Rauch (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit und Bildung'' (pp. 23–29). Springer Fachmedien. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-20285-9_3 Polinsky, M. (2015). Heritage languages and their speakers: State of the field, challenges, perspectives for future work, and methodologies. ''Zeitschrift für Fremdsprachenforschung, 26''(1), 7–27. Valdés, G. (2005). Bilingualism, heritage language learners, and SLA research: Opportunities lost or seized? ''Modern Language Journal, 89''(3), 410–426. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2005.00314.x Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003). Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. J''ournal of Language, Identity, and Education'' ''2''(3), 211-230 Woerfel, T., Küppers, A., & Schroeder, C. (2020). Herkunftssprachlicher Unterricht. In I.Gogolin, A. Hansen, S. McMonagle, & D. Rauch (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit und Bildung'' (pp. 207–212). Springer Fachmedien. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-20285-9_30 == References == <references/> ==Credits== This resource has been co-created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, cofinanced by the European Commission) : * Anastasia Gkaintartzi (University of Thessaly) * Paulina Wagner (Universität Wien). [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] s5uk21s9qfhlr5phpvdw40wwctrc31h 2817580 2817579 2026-07-02T10:57:28Z ~2026-37968-63 3098398 /* Definition */ 2817580 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting Activity: Multilingual school reality == Imagine you are a teacher in a school, in which there are students from diverse backgrounds. For example, Sofia speaks Spanish with her family and she sometimes uses Spanish in class while the language of schooling is different. Another student, Omar, speaks Arabic at home but never uses Arabic at school. You also suspect that there may be more students in your class with -other than the language of schooling- languages that you might not be aware of. You are interested in finding out more about your students’ language repertoires and cultural backgrounds and embrace them. * What challenges do you think Sofia and Omar might face regarding their languages? * What can you, as a teacher, do to explore and promote your students’ languages and support them in maintaining and developing them? * How can you create a classroom environment where students feel proud of their languages? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you should be able to: * recognise what heritage languages are, as well as other related terms * develop awareness of the importance of heritage languages * develop awareness of different forms and structures of heritage language education == Keywords == Heritage language, language identity, minority language, heritage language education, language revitalization == Introduction == In today’s increasingly multilingual societies, individuals grow up with and use multiple languages. Languages spoken at home can differ from the dominant languages of the wider society. These languages often carry deep personal, cultural, and familial meanings, and their role in classrooms and communities raises important questions about identity and inclusion. The development and promotion of heritage languages can be significantly influenced by the ways educational systems recognize and support students' multilingual backgrounds. == Definition == Heritage language speakers and learners have diverse profiles and there are many different contexts in which they use their language resources. Therefore the concept of Heritage Language (HL) is not easy to define. Generally, a HL is understood as a non-majority language spoken by individuals who have been exposed to it at home or in their community and have varying levels of proficiency in it (Valdés, 2001). The term 'heritage language' is used to identify any languages other than the dominant language(s) in a given social context <ref>http://www.cal.org/heritage/index.html</ref> Other researchers defined the term heritage language as the language associated with one's cultural background and it may or may not be spoken in the home <ref>Cho, G., Cho, K.-S., & Tse, L. (1997). Why ethnic minorities need to develop their heritage language: The case of Korean Americans. Language, Culture, and Curriculum, 10, 106-112.</ref>. Valdés (2001) provided three main criteria to identify heritage language learners, classifying them as individuals who: * are raised in homes where a non-English language is spoken * speak or merely understand the heritage language * are to some degree bilingual in English and the heritage language The degree of heritage language fluency, proficiency, cultural background, connection or knowledge are widely varied among students. HL speakers often have a personal, cultural, or historical connection to the language, regardless of their actual linguistic competence (Gounari, 2014). The range of definitions for “HL speaker/user” can therefore be large and can vary from a very narrow to very broad meaning. It has been suggested that the term 'heritage language' cannot be identified in a static, definitive sense; rather, it is more a metaphor in relation to the structuring of attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions that enable or constrain linguistic practices (Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003)<ref name="VDS">Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003) Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 2 (3), 211-230</ref>. Two examples could be: * Kim was born in the U.S. to Korean immigrant parents. She was exposed to Korean at home but often responded in English. She can understand conversational Korean fairly well but finds it difficult to speak it and cannot read or write in the language. Nevertheless, she  identifies with Korean culture and traditions * Luc was born in Austria to French-speaking parents from Belgium. His family spoke mostly French at home. He attended the Lycée Français in Vienna. Also they often visited relatives in Brussels. Luc uses French fluently in everyday life and often switches between French and German. Both examples illustrate how the term "HL speaker/user" can be understood in different ways. The term HL is therefore sensitive to a variety of interpretations within social, political, regional, and national contexts. Critical views on the use of the term heritage language have challenged the label 'heritage language' itself, some of them regarding it as extremely negative -even offensive- and others as counterproductive (Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003) <ref name="VDS" />. It is also criticised for pointing more to the past and less to the future, to traditions rather to the contemporary risking to become associated with ancient cultures, past traditions and more "primitive times" and so may fail to give the impression of a modern language that is of value in a technological society (Baker & Jones, 1998)<ref>Baker, C. & Jones, S.P. (1998). Encyclopedial of bilingualism and bilingual education. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.</ref>. Despite the term heritage language, heritage language speaker, and heritage language learner are gaining currency <ref>Wiley, T. (2001). On defining heritage languages and their speakers. In Kreeft Payton, D. Ranard, & S. McGinnis (Eds.). Heritage languages in America. Preserving a national resource (pp. 29-36). Washington DC: Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems.</ref>, the concept remains sensitive to a variety of interpretations within a social, political, regional, and national contexts <ref name="VDS">Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003) Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 2 (3), 211-230</ref>. == History of the Concept == The term heritage language was first introduced in the late 1970s in Canada, where it was used to denote the languages of indigenous and migrant communities (Cummins, 2005). It was later spread to other parts of the world, such as Australia and the US. In Europe, the term only gradually began to enter scientific discourse in the 2000s, particularly in research on multilingualism and migration. In the German context, the term 'Herkunftssprache' is often used as the equivalent of the English term 'heritage language' (Brehmer & Mehlhorn, 2018). According to Fishman (2001), three types of HL can be distinguished: * immigrant HL * indigenous HL, * and colonial HL. Europe is home to a significant number of minority/migrant/minoritised communities, leading to the presence of various heritage languages spoken by children and adults in schools and society. In fact, a HL in Europe can include any regional, minority and/or migrant language. Alternative terms for heritage language proposed by researchers and used or preferred in different countries and contexts are: *native language *minority language *ancestral language *immigrant minority language *allochthonous language *home language *language of origin *community language Though some of these terms are equally problematic as heritage language. For example, native language is also problematic because we cannot assume that the language does not necessarily students' native language. Those students may have a limited knowledge of the language or simply may not speak it at all. Ancestral language also conveys a negative connotation that it belongs to the distant past or a previous generation which does not have a present or future affiliation. {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Spotlight: The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages''' |- |The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, adopted by the Council of Europe in 1992 and subsequently reviewed in 2010, 2021, 2023, and 2024, is a treaty designed to protect and promote Europe’s historical regional and minority languages. It encourages the use of these languages in education, media, culture, and public administration, with the goal of enabling their speakers to fully participate in society. Member States choose whether to ratify the Charter, which languages it applies to, and which specific measures they commit to. Once ratified, these commitments become legally binding under international law. Here are some points mentioned in Article 8 about education. Member states should: * allow, encourage or provide teaching in or of the regional or minority language at all the appropriate stages of education * make arrangements to ensure the teaching of the history and the culture which is reflected by the regional or minority language * provide the basic and further training of the teachers required to implement the chosen measures You can find the full text here: <nowiki>https://rm.coe.int/collected-texts-charter-4th-edition-en/1680b26fa0</nowiki> |} == Heritage language education == Heritage Language education refers to language instruction addressed to and designed  for students exposed to the target language at home or within their communities (Gkaintartzi & Wagner, 2025). It generally represents a form of minority language education that exists on the periphery of mainstream schooling which is mostly conducted in the national language(s) (Leeman, 2015). The organisation of these programmes and offerings is also largely dependent on the status and promotion of HL education in the respective education system. Provision can be made by the state (and thus integrated into the regular education programme); there may also be bilateral agreements between the country of origin and the country of immigration. In some cases, the responsibility for instruction in the HL is considered to lie with the migrant communities themselves (Mehlhorn, 2020). HL education can take place within formal public school settings—such as in language support classes and bilingual or dual-language programmes—as well as in after-school initiatives, community-based or supplementary schools, and other non-formal educational settings. Community or complementary schools are often established by migrant or minority communities, cultural or religious organizations, or local governments. These schools typically operate at  weekends or after regular school hours, offering a few hours of instruction each week. Additionally, HL courses are available in higher education institutions worldwide. Examples include Spanish for HL speakers in U.S. universities, Catalan, Basque, and Galician in Spanish universities, and languages like Arabic, Mandarin, Urdu, and Turkish in various European universities (Kagan et al., 2017).  HL education is vital for maintaining cultural identity and supporting linguistic diversity by enabling learners to sustain and enhance their heritage language competences. However, HL education often faces challenges universally, which include  language attrition and shift, limited institutional support, teacher training and resources, wider sociopolitical barriers, identity and motivation issues (Woerfel et al., 2020). == Practical examples == HL speakers and learners can be found everywhere from elementary school up to adult education. Effective Heritage Language instruction (HLI) requires a supportive and appreciative approach that values the linguistic skills HL speakers already possess, and the HL varieties that may speak.  Simply applying traditional second-language (L2) or foreign language teaching methods is often ineffective in HL classrooms, as HL learners need teaching strategies that are tailored to their unique linguistic backgrounds (Leeman, 2015). {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Activity: Heritage Languages in education''' |- |In this video we get a quick introduction into the work of Olga Kagan, a researcher. She talks about the potential of multilingual education and the challenges HL speakers may face. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5hpE941rT2Q UCLA Spotlight Profile: Olga Kagan] * Who is Olga Kagan and what are her specialties? * What does Olga Kagan say is important for schools and teachers to consider? * What is your opinion on her suggestions? |} The following examples provide an insight into programmes and initiatives for promoting heritage languages. They include programmes organised within formal education, programmes organised by various communities, and selected informal opportunities for communities/individuals. === '''Community-Based Language Schools''' === ===== '''Example:''' '''Greek Afternoon Schools''' in the United States, Canada and Europe ===== These are supplementary education programmes where Greek-American and Greek-Canadian children (of Diaspora) attend classes after regular school hours or on weekends, to learn the Greek language, culture, history, and traditions. Programmes within the state school system ===== '''Example: Austrian “Erstsprachenunterricht”''' ===== In Austria first language instruction is an additional educational offer embedded within the school system that gives students the opportunity to maintain and further develop their heritage language. It exists since 1992 and follows a common curriculum. The lessons are free and typically held in the school building but outside of regular class hours. They are voluntary, and usually take place once or twice a week. Instruction is provided in languages for which there is sufficient demand , mostly 10 students, and where qualified teachers are available. In total there are 25 languages but the most commonly offered languages include Turkish, Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian (BCS), Arabic, Romanian, Polish, Pashto, Dari, Farsi, as well as Hungarian and Albanian. The organization and implementation of lessons lies with the regional education authorities in each federal province. Further information under: <nowiki>https://www.schule-mehrsprachig.at/</nowiki> === '''Dual-Language Immersion Programmes''' === ==== '''Examples:''' ==== In some regions of France and Germany, there are bilingual schools that equally divide instruction between two languages, including local dialects. In Belgium, certain international schools offer trilingual education where students learn three languages simultaneously (Garcia et al., 2016). Intensive support is available for non-native speakers to ensure language proficiency. In Switzerland, bilingual programmes integrate two major languages in the curriculum, with additional languages introduced as elective options starting in the primary grades. Austria features bilingual high schools that adopt a "flexible monolingualism" approach, where students first intensively learn one language before transitioning to dual-language instruction (German-English). These schools also offer multiple language options for broader linguistic exposure, French, Spanish, or Russian. === '''Technology-Based Learning''' === '''Example:''' '''TalkAbroad''' and '''Italki''', platforms that connect language learners with native speakers around the world for conversation practice. === '''Language Nests (Te Kōhanga Reo)''' === '''Example:''' '''Te Kōhanga Reo''' in New Zealand, where Māori children are immersed in the Māori language from a young age in preschool settings. === '''Family Language Policy''' === '''Example:''' A Chinese-American family may designate '''“Mandarin-only dinners”''' three times a week to encourage their children to practice speaking Mandarin. === '''Summer Language Camps''' === '''Examples:''' In the United Kingdom, Ukrainian community organizations run summer camps that teach the Ukrainian language alongside traditional dance, cooking, and cultural activities. In Spain and Latin America, Spanish heritage camps immerse participants in Spanish through homestays, community projects, and workshops, helping maintain language skills and cultural ties === '''Intergenerational Language Transmission''' === '''Example:''' The '''Yiddish Book Center's Yiddish School''' brings together older native Yiddish speakers and young learners for mutual learning. == '''Take-home messages''' == * Heritage language (HL) speakers are not defined by their linguistic proficiency, but rather on a continuum of factors, including language use, personal identification, and cultural connection to the HL. * HL learners can have diverse linguistic profiles—they may have varying degrees of language skills, cultural knowledge, and may speak different varieties of the same heritage language. * HL speakers and learners may experience marginalization due to language policies, societal attitudes, and prejudices surrounding heritage/minority languages. * Teaching HLs in schools requires specifically tailored pedagogical approaches. Traditional L2 (second language) methods are not enough to address the unique needs of HL learners. == Self-assessment == === Activity: Self development === Go back to your notes you took at the very beginning. Has your view on Sofia and Omar changed? Do you have any new ideas on how you could talk about and integrate HL into your classroom? === Multiple-Choice-Test === <quiz display="simple"> {Which of the following best defines a heritage language (HL)?} -A language spoken by the majority population of a country -A language taught in school as a second foreign language +A non-majority language often spoken at home or in the community -A language that has no standard form. {What distinguishes heritage language learners from typical L2 learners?} -HL learners always have higher proficiency than L2 learners +HL learners often have prior exposure to the language at home or in the community -HL learners never learn languages in formal classroom settings -HL learners are only interested in learning for personal reasons {According to Fishman (2001), which of the following is not a category of heritage language?} -Immigrant HL -Indigenous HL -Colonial HL +Institutional HL {Why might traditional second language (L2) teaching methods be insufficient for HL learners?} -HL learners are less motivated to learn -HL learners often lack exposure to the language +HL learners have different prior knowledge and language identities. -HL learners prefer to learn in informal settings. </quiz> === Activities/Open Ended Questions === 1. Why is it important not to define HL speakers solely based on proficiency? (considering cultural, emotional, and identity-related aspects of language use) 2. What challenges  HL education programs face in general/in your country? (aspects like policy, funding, curriculum integration, and teacher trainin) 3. Can you think of an example of a heritage language initiative in your region or community? (research on impact on identity, inclusion, or language maintenance) == Further resources == * [https://www.heritagelanguagestory.org/videostories Heritage Language Story Project] The “Heritage Language Story Project” aims to raise awareness about the importance of maintaining heritage languages by collecting stories which depict the lived experiences of heritage language speakers. These very personal stories show the huge variety in heritage language speakers and their different connections to the heritage language. Click through the videos and written stories to get some insight into what speaking and learning a HL can mean. * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s5fJ3z0WQ_8 Video of an HL speaker and her personal experiences] * [https://www.coe.int/en/web/european-charter-regional-or-minority-languages European Charter of regional or minority languages for some European Context] == Bibliography == Baker, C. & Jones, S.P. (1998). ''Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education.'' Multilingual Matters. Brehmer, B., & Mehlhorn, G. (2018). ''Herkunftssprachen''. Narr Francke Attempto. Cummins, J. (2005). A proposal for action: Strategies for recognizing heritage language competence as a learning resource within the mainstream classroom. ''The Modern Language Journal, 89''(4), 585–592. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/3588628</nowiki> García, O. (2005). Positioning heritage languages in the United States. ''Modern Language Journal, 89''(4), 601–605. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/3588631</nowiki> Garcia, O., Lin, A., May, S. (eds) (2016). ''Bilingual and Multilingual Education. Encyclopedia of Language and Education.'' Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02324-3_25-1 Fishman, J. A. (2001). ''The sociology of language: An interdisciplinary social science approach''. Blackwell. Gounari, P. (2014). Rethinking heritage language in a critical pedagogy framework. In P. Trifonas & T. Aravossitas (Eds.), ''Rethinking heritage language education'' (pp. 254–269). Cambridge University Press. Kagan, O. E., Carreira, M. M., & Chik, C. H. (Eds.). (2017). ''The Routledge handbook of heritage language education: From innovation to program building''. Routledge. Leeman, J. (2015). Heritage language education and identity in the United States. ''Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 35'', 100–119. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190514000245 Mehlhorn, G. (2020). Herkunftssprachen und ihre Sprecher/innen. In I. Gogolin, A. Hansen, S. McMonagle, & D. Rauch (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit und Bildung'' (pp. 23–29). Springer Fachmedien. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-20285-9_3 Polinsky, M. (2015). Heritage languages and their speakers: State of the field, challenges, perspectives for future work, and methodologies. ''Zeitschrift für Fremdsprachenforschung, 26''(1), 7–27. Valdés, G. (2005). Bilingualism, heritage language learners, and SLA research: Opportunities lost or seized? ''Modern Language Journal, 89''(3), 410–426. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2005.00314.x Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003). Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. J''ournal of Language, Identity, and Education'' ''2''(3), 211-230 Woerfel, T., Küppers, A., & Schroeder, C. (2020). Herkunftssprachlicher Unterricht. In I.Gogolin, A. Hansen, S. McMonagle, & D. Rauch (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit und Bildung'' (pp. 207–212). Springer Fachmedien. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-20285-9_30 == References == <references/> ==Credits== This resource has been co-created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, cofinanced by the European Commission) : * Anastasia Gkaintartzi (University of Thessaly) * Paulina Wagner (Universität Wien). [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] hhwymkehpiqslhzq4ls8fef9tfehpal 2817581 2817580 2026-07-02T10:58:29Z ~2026-37968-63 3098398 /* Definition */ 2817581 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting Activity: Multilingual school reality == Imagine you are a teacher in a school, in which there are students from diverse backgrounds. For example, Sofia speaks Spanish with her family and she sometimes uses Spanish in class while the language of schooling is different. Another student, Omar, speaks Arabic at home but never uses Arabic at school. You also suspect that there may be more students in your class with -other than the language of schooling- languages that you might not be aware of. You are interested in finding out more about your students’ language repertoires and cultural backgrounds and embrace them. * What challenges do you think Sofia and Omar might face regarding their languages? * What can you, as a teacher, do to explore and promote your students’ languages and support them in maintaining and developing them? * How can you create a classroom environment where students feel proud of their languages? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you should be able to: * recognise what heritage languages are, as well as other related terms * develop awareness of the importance of heritage languages * develop awareness of different forms and structures of heritage language education == Keywords == Heritage language, language identity, minority language, heritage language education, language revitalization == Introduction == In today’s increasingly multilingual societies, individuals grow up with and use multiple languages. Languages spoken at home can differ from the dominant languages of the wider society. These languages often carry deep personal, cultural, and familial meanings, and their role in classrooms and communities raises important questions about identity and inclusion. The development and promotion of heritage languages can be significantly influenced by the ways educational systems recognize and support students' multilingual backgrounds. == Definition == Heritage language speakers and learners have diverse profiles and there are many different contexts in which they use their language resources. Therefore the concept of Heritage Language (HL) is not easy to define. Generally, a HL is understood as a non-majority language spoken by individuals who have been exposed to it at home or in their community and have varying levels of proficiency in it (Valdés, 2001). The term 'heritage language' is used to identify any languages other than the dominant language(s) in a given social context <ref>http://www.cal.org/heritage/index.html</ref> Other researchers defined the term heritage language as the language associated with one's cultural background and it may or may not be spoken in the home <ref>Cho, G., Cho, K.-S., & Tse, L. (1997). Why ethnic minorities need to develop their heritage language: The case of Korean Americans. Language, Culture, and Curriculum, 10, 106-112.</ref>. Valdés (2001) provided three main criteria to identify heritage language learners, classifying them as individuals who: * are raised in homes where a non-English language is spoken * speak or merely understand the heritage language * are to some degree bilingual in English and the heritage language The degree of heritage language fluency, proficiency, cultural background, connection or knowledge are widely varied among students. HL speakers often have a personal, cultural, or historical connection to the language, regardless of their actual linguistic competence (Gounari, 2014). The range of definitions for “HL speaker/user” can therefore be large and can vary from a very narrow to very broad meaning. It has been suggested that the term 'heritage language' cannot be identified in a static, definitive sense; rather, it is more a metaphor in relation to the structuring of attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions that enable or constrain linguistic practices (Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003)<ref name="VDS">Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003) Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 2 (3), 211-230</ref>. Two examples could be: * Kim was born in the U.S. to Korean immigrant parents. She was exposed to Korean at home but often responded in English. She can understand conversational Korean fairly well but finds it difficult to speak it and cannot read or write in the language. Nevertheless, she  identifies with Korean culture and traditions * Luc was born in Austria to French-speaking parents from Belgium. His family spoke mostly French at home. He attended the Lycée Français in Vienna. Also they often visited relatives in Brussels. Luc uses French fluently in everyday life and often switches between French and German. Both examples illustrate how the term "HL speaker/user" can be understood in different ways. The term HL is therefore sensitive to a variety of interpretations within social, political, regional, and national contexts. Critical views on the use of the term heritage language have challenged the label 'heritage language' itself, some of them regarding it as extremely negative -even offensive- and others as counterproductive (Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003) <ref name="VDS" />. It is also criticised for pointing more to the past and less to the future, to traditions rather to the contemporary risking to become associated with ancient cultures, past traditions and more "primitive times". So it may fail to give the impression of a modern language that is of value in a technological society (Baker & Jones, 1998)<ref>Baker, C. & Jones, S.P. (1998). Encyclopedial of bilingualism and bilingual education. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.</ref>. Despite the term heritage language, heritage language speaker, and heritage language learner are gaining currency <ref>Wiley, T. (2001). On defining heritage languages and their speakers. In Kreeft Payton, D. Ranard, & S. McGinnis (Eds.). Heritage languages in America. Preserving a national resource (pp. 29-36). Washington DC: Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems.</ref>, the concept remains sensitive to a variety of interpretations within a social, political, regional, and national contexts <ref name="VDS">Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003) Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 2 (3), 211-230</ref>. == History of the Concept == The term heritage language was first introduced in the late 1970s in Canada, where it was used to denote the languages of indigenous and migrant communities (Cummins, 2005). It was later spread to other parts of the world, such as Australia and the US. In Europe, the term only gradually began to enter scientific discourse in the 2000s, particularly in research on multilingualism and migration. In the German context, the term 'Herkunftssprache' is often used as the equivalent of the English term 'heritage language' (Brehmer & Mehlhorn, 2018). According to Fishman (2001), three types of HL can be distinguished: * immigrant HL * indigenous HL, * and colonial HL. Europe is home to a significant number of minority/migrant/minoritised communities, leading to the presence of various heritage languages spoken by children and adults in schools and society. In fact, a HL in Europe can include any regional, minority and/or migrant language. Alternative terms for heritage language proposed by researchers and used or preferred in different countries and contexts are: *native language *minority language *ancestral language *immigrant minority language *allochthonous language *home language *language of origin *community language Though some of these terms are equally problematic as heritage language. For example, native language is also problematic because we cannot assume that the language does not necessarily students' native language. Those students may have a limited knowledge of the language or simply may not speak it at all. Ancestral language also conveys a negative connotation that it belongs to the distant past or a previous generation which does not have a present or future affiliation. {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Spotlight: The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages''' |- |The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, adopted by the Council of Europe in 1992 and subsequently reviewed in 2010, 2021, 2023, and 2024, is a treaty designed to protect and promote Europe’s historical regional and minority languages. It encourages the use of these languages in education, media, culture, and public administration, with the goal of enabling their speakers to fully participate in society. Member States choose whether to ratify the Charter, which languages it applies to, and which specific measures they commit to. Once ratified, these commitments become legally binding under international law. Here are some points mentioned in Article 8 about education. Member states should: * allow, encourage or provide teaching in or of the regional or minority language at all the appropriate stages of education * make arrangements to ensure the teaching of the history and the culture which is reflected by the regional or minority language * provide the basic and further training of the teachers required to implement the chosen measures You can find the full text here: <nowiki>https://rm.coe.int/collected-texts-charter-4th-edition-en/1680b26fa0</nowiki> |} == Heritage language education == Heritage Language education refers to language instruction addressed to and designed  for students exposed to the target language at home or within their communities (Gkaintartzi & Wagner, 2025). It generally represents a form of minority language education that exists on the periphery of mainstream schooling which is mostly conducted in the national language(s) (Leeman, 2015). The organisation of these programmes and offerings is also largely dependent on the status and promotion of HL education in the respective education system. Provision can be made by the state (and thus integrated into the regular education programme); there may also be bilateral agreements between the country of origin and the country of immigration. In some cases, the responsibility for instruction in the HL is considered to lie with the migrant communities themselves (Mehlhorn, 2020). HL education can take place within formal public school settings—such as in language support classes and bilingual or dual-language programmes—as well as in after-school initiatives, community-based or supplementary schools, and other non-formal educational settings. Community or complementary schools are often established by migrant or minority communities, cultural or religious organizations, or local governments. These schools typically operate at  weekends or after regular school hours, offering a few hours of instruction each week. Additionally, HL courses are available in higher education institutions worldwide. Examples include Spanish for HL speakers in U.S. universities, Catalan, Basque, and Galician in Spanish universities, and languages like Arabic, Mandarin, Urdu, and Turkish in various European universities (Kagan et al., 2017).  HL education is vital for maintaining cultural identity and supporting linguistic diversity by enabling learners to sustain and enhance their heritage language competences. However, HL education often faces challenges universally, which include  language attrition and shift, limited institutional support, teacher training and resources, wider sociopolitical barriers, identity and motivation issues (Woerfel et al., 2020). == Practical examples == HL speakers and learners can be found everywhere from elementary school up to adult education. Effective Heritage Language instruction (HLI) requires a supportive and appreciative approach that values the linguistic skills HL speakers already possess, and the HL varieties that may speak.  Simply applying traditional second-language (L2) or foreign language teaching methods is often ineffective in HL classrooms, as HL learners need teaching strategies that are tailored to their unique linguistic backgrounds (Leeman, 2015). {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Activity: Heritage Languages in education''' |- |In this video we get a quick introduction into the work of Olga Kagan, a researcher. She talks about the potential of multilingual education and the challenges HL speakers may face. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5hpE941rT2Q UCLA Spotlight Profile: Olga Kagan] * Who is Olga Kagan and what are her specialties? * What does Olga Kagan say is important for schools and teachers to consider? * What is your opinion on her suggestions? |} The following examples provide an insight into programmes and initiatives for promoting heritage languages. They include programmes organised within formal education, programmes organised by various communities, and selected informal opportunities for communities/individuals. === '''Community-Based Language Schools''' === ===== '''Example:''' '''Greek Afternoon Schools''' in the United States, Canada and Europe ===== These are supplementary education programmes where Greek-American and Greek-Canadian children (of Diaspora) attend classes after regular school hours or on weekends, to learn the Greek language, culture, history, and traditions. Programmes within the state school system ===== '''Example: Austrian “Erstsprachenunterricht”''' ===== In Austria first language instruction is an additional educational offer embedded within the school system that gives students the opportunity to maintain and further develop their heritage language. It exists since 1992 and follows a common curriculum. The lessons are free and typically held in the school building but outside of regular class hours. They are voluntary, and usually take place once or twice a week. Instruction is provided in languages for which there is sufficient demand , mostly 10 students, and where qualified teachers are available. In total there are 25 languages but the most commonly offered languages include Turkish, Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian (BCS), Arabic, Romanian, Polish, Pashto, Dari, Farsi, as well as Hungarian and Albanian. The organization and implementation of lessons lies with the regional education authorities in each federal province. Further information under: <nowiki>https://www.schule-mehrsprachig.at/</nowiki> === '''Dual-Language Immersion Programmes''' === ==== '''Examples:''' ==== In some regions of France and Germany, there are bilingual schools that equally divide instruction between two languages, including local dialects. In Belgium, certain international schools offer trilingual education where students learn three languages simultaneously (Garcia et al., 2016). Intensive support is available for non-native speakers to ensure language proficiency. In Switzerland, bilingual programmes integrate two major languages in the curriculum, with additional languages introduced as elective options starting in the primary grades. Austria features bilingual high schools that adopt a "flexible monolingualism" approach, where students first intensively learn one language before transitioning to dual-language instruction (German-English). These schools also offer multiple language options for broader linguistic exposure, French, Spanish, or Russian. === '''Technology-Based Learning''' === '''Example:''' '''TalkAbroad''' and '''Italki''', platforms that connect language learners with native speakers around the world for conversation practice. === '''Language Nests (Te Kōhanga Reo)''' === '''Example:''' '''Te Kōhanga Reo''' in New Zealand, where Māori children are immersed in the Māori language from a young age in preschool settings. === '''Family Language Policy''' === '''Example:''' A Chinese-American family may designate '''“Mandarin-only dinners”''' three times a week to encourage their children to practice speaking Mandarin. === '''Summer Language Camps''' === '''Examples:''' In the United Kingdom, Ukrainian community organizations run summer camps that teach the Ukrainian language alongside traditional dance, cooking, and cultural activities. In Spain and Latin America, Spanish heritage camps immerse participants in Spanish through homestays, community projects, and workshops, helping maintain language skills and cultural ties === '''Intergenerational Language Transmission''' === '''Example:''' The '''Yiddish Book Center's Yiddish School''' brings together older native Yiddish speakers and young learners for mutual learning. == '''Take-home messages''' == * Heritage language (HL) speakers are not defined by their linguistic proficiency, but rather on a continuum of factors, including language use, personal identification, and cultural connection to the HL. * HL learners can have diverse linguistic profiles—they may have varying degrees of language skills, cultural knowledge, and may speak different varieties of the same heritage language. * HL speakers and learners may experience marginalization due to language policies, societal attitudes, and prejudices surrounding heritage/minority languages. * Teaching HLs in schools requires specifically tailored pedagogical approaches. Traditional L2 (second language) methods are not enough to address the unique needs of HL learners. == Self-assessment == === Activity: Self development === Go back to your notes you took at the very beginning. Has your view on Sofia and Omar changed? Do you have any new ideas on how you could talk about and integrate HL into your classroom? === Multiple-Choice-Test === <quiz display="simple"> {Which of the following best defines a heritage language (HL)?} -A language spoken by the majority population of a country -A language taught in school as a second foreign language +A non-majority language often spoken at home or in the community -A language that has no standard form. {What distinguishes heritage language learners from typical L2 learners?} -HL learners always have higher proficiency than L2 learners +HL learners often have prior exposure to the language at home or in the community -HL learners never learn languages in formal classroom settings -HL learners are only interested in learning for personal reasons {According to Fishman (2001), which of the following is not a category of heritage language?} -Immigrant HL -Indigenous HL -Colonial HL +Institutional HL {Why might traditional second language (L2) teaching methods be insufficient for HL learners?} -HL learners are less motivated to learn -HL learners often lack exposure to the language +HL learners have different prior knowledge and language identities. -HL learners prefer to learn in informal settings. </quiz> === Activities/Open Ended Questions === 1. Why is it important not to define HL speakers solely based on proficiency? (considering cultural, emotional, and identity-related aspects of language use) 2. What challenges  HL education programs face in general/in your country? (aspects like policy, funding, curriculum integration, and teacher trainin) 3. Can you think of an example of a heritage language initiative in your region or community? (research on impact on identity, inclusion, or language maintenance) == Further resources == * [https://www.heritagelanguagestory.org/videostories Heritage Language Story Project] The “Heritage Language Story Project” aims to raise awareness about the importance of maintaining heritage languages by collecting stories which depict the lived experiences of heritage language speakers. These very personal stories show the huge variety in heritage language speakers and their different connections to the heritage language. Click through the videos and written stories to get some insight into what speaking and learning a HL can mean. * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s5fJ3z0WQ_8 Video of an HL speaker and her personal experiences] * [https://www.coe.int/en/web/european-charter-regional-or-minority-languages European Charter of regional or minority languages for some European Context] == Bibliography == Baker, C. & Jones, S.P. (1998). ''Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education.'' Multilingual Matters. Brehmer, B., & Mehlhorn, G. (2018). ''Herkunftssprachen''. Narr Francke Attempto. Cummins, J. (2005). A proposal for action: Strategies for recognizing heritage language competence as a learning resource within the mainstream classroom. ''The Modern Language Journal, 89''(4), 585–592. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/3588628</nowiki> García, O. (2005). Positioning heritage languages in the United States. ''Modern Language Journal, 89''(4), 601–605. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/3588631</nowiki> Garcia, O., Lin, A., May, S. (eds) (2016). ''Bilingual and Multilingual Education. Encyclopedia of Language and Education.'' Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02324-3_25-1 Fishman, J. A. (2001). ''The sociology of language: An interdisciplinary social science approach''. Blackwell. Gounari, P. (2014). Rethinking heritage language in a critical pedagogy framework. In P. Trifonas & T. Aravossitas (Eds.), ''Rethinking heritage language education'' (pp. 254–269). Cambridge University Press. Kagan, O. E., Carreira, M. M., & Chik, C. H. (Eds.). (2017). ''The Routledge handbook of heritage language education: From innovation to program building''. Routledge. Leeman, J. (2015). Heritage language education and identity in the United States. ''Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 35'', 100–119. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190514000245 Mehlhorn, G. (2020). Herkunftssprachen und ihre Sprecher/innen. In I. Gogolin, A. Hansen, S. McMonagle, & D. Rauch (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit und Bildung'' (pp. 23–29). Springer Fachmedien. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-20285-9_3 Polinsky, M. (2015). Heritage languages and their speakers: State of the field, challenges, perspectives for future work, and methodologies. ''Zeitschrift für Fremdsprachenforschung, 26''(1), 7–27. Valdés, G. (2005). Bilingualism, heritage language learners, and SLA research: Opportunities lost or seized? ''Modern Language Journal, 89''(3), 410–426. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2005.00314.x Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003). Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. J''ournal of Language, Identity, and Education'' ''2''(3), 211-230 Woerfel, T., Küppers, A., & Schroeder, C. (2020). Herkunftssprachlicher Unterricht. In I.Gogolin, A. Hansen, S. McMonagle, & D. Rauch (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit und Bildung'' (pp. 207–212). Springer Fachmedien. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-20285-9_30 == References == <references/> ==Credits== This resource has been co-created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, cofinanced by the European Commission) : * Anastasia Gkaintartzi (University of Thessaly) * Paulina Wagner (Universität Wien). [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] oo1e1d2saxjhasksw74jip5xjop2vv2 2817582 2817581 2026-07-02T11:03:49Z ~2026-37968-63 3098398 /* History of the Concept */ 2817582 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting Activity: Multilingual school reality == Imagine you are a teacher in a school, in which there are students from diverse backgrounds. For example, Sofia speaks Spanish with her family and she sometimes uses Spanish in class while the language of schooling is different. Another student, Omar, speaks Arabic at home but never uses Arabic at school. You also suspect that there may be more students in your class with -other than the language of schooling- languages that you might not be aware of. You are interested in finding out more about your students’ language repertoires and cultural backgrounds and embrace them. * What challenges do you think Sofia and Omar might face regarding their languages? * What can you, as a teacher, do to explore and promote your students’ languages and support them in maintaining and developing them? * How can you create a classroom environment where students feel proud of their languages? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you should be able to: * recognise what heritage languages are, as well as other related terms * develop awareness of the importance of heritage languages * develop awareness of different forms and structures of heritage language education == Keywords == Heritage language, language identity, minority language, heritage language education, language revitalization == Introduction == In today’s increasingly multilingual societies, individuals grow up with and use multiple languages. Languages spoken at home can differ from the dominant languages of the wider society. These languages often carry deep personal, cultural, and familial meanings, and their role in classrooms and communities raises important questions about identity and inclusion. The development and promotion of heritage languages can be significantly influenced by the ways educational systems recognize and support students' multilingual backgrounds. == Definition == Heritage language speakers and learners have diverse profiles and there are many different contexts in which they use their language resources. Therefore the concept of Heritage Language (HL) is not easy to define. Generally, a HL is understood as a non-majority language spoken by individuals who have been exposed to it at home or in their community and have varying levels of proficiency in it (Valdés, 2001). The term 'heritage language' is used to identify any languages other than the dominant language(s) in a given social context <ref>http://www.cal.org/heritage/index.html</ref> Other researchers defined the term heritage language as the language associated with one's cultural background and it may or may not be spoken in the home <ref>Cho, G., Cho, K.-S., & Tse, L. (1997). Why ethnic minorities need to develop their heritage language: The case of Korean Americans. Language, Culture, and Curriculum, 10, 106-112.</ref>. Valdés (2001) provided three main criteria to identify heritage language learners, classifying them as individuals who: * are raised in homes where a non-English language is spoken * speak or merely understand the heritage language * are to some degree bilingual in English and the heritage language The degree of heritage language fluency, proficiency, cultural background, connection or knowledge are widely varied among students. HL speakers often have a personal, cultural, or historical connection to the language, regardless of their actual linguistic competence (Gounari, 2014). The range of definitions for “HL speaker/user” can therefore be large and can vary from a very narrow to very broad meaning. It has been suggested that the term 'heritage language' cannot be identified in a static, definitive sense; rather, it is more a metaphor in relation to the structuring of attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions that enable or constrain linguistic practices (Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003)<ref name="VDS">Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003) Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 2 (3), 211-230</ref>. Two examples could be: * Kim was born in the U.S. to Korean immigrant parents. She was exposed to Korean at home but often responded in English. She can understand conversational Korean fairly well but finds it difficult to speak it and cannot read or write in the language. Nevertheless, she  identifies with Korean culture and traditions * Luc was born in Austria to French-speaking parents from Belgium. His family spoke mostly French at home. He attended the Lycée Français in Vienna. Also they often visited relatives in Brussels. Luc uses French fluently in everyday life and often switches between French and German. Both examples illustrate how the term "HL speaker/user" can be understood in different ways. The term HL is therefore sensitive to a variety of interpretations within social, political, regional, and national contexts. Critical views on the use of the term heritage language have challenged the label 'heritage language' itself, some of them regarding it as extremely negative -even offensive- and others as counterproductive (Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003) <ref name="VDS" />. It is also criticised for pointing more to the past and less to the future, to traditions rather to the contemporary risking to become associated with ancient cultures, past traditions and more "primitive times". So it may fail to give the impression of a modern language that is of value in a technological society (Baker & Jones, 1998)<ref>Baker, C. & Jones, S.P. (1998). Encyclopedial of bilingualism and bilingual education. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.</ref>. Despite the term heritage language, heritage language speaker, and heritage language learner are gaining currency <ref>Wiley, T. (2001). On defining heritage languages and their speakers. In Kreeft Payton, D. Ranard, & S. McGinnis (Eds.). Heritage languages in America. Preserving a national resource (pp. 29-36). Washington DC: Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems.</ref>, the concept remains sensitive to a variety of interpretations within a social, political, regional, and national contexts <ref name="VDS">Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003) Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 2 (3), 211-230</ref>. == History of the Concept == The term heritage language was first introduced in the late 1970s in Canada, where it was used to denote the languages of indigenous and migrant communities (Cummins, 2005). It was later spread to other parts of the world, such as Australia and the US. In Europe, the term only gradually began to enter scientific discourse in the 2000s, particularly in research on multilingualism and migration. In the German context, the term 'Herkunftssprache' is often used as the equivalent of the English term 'heritage language' (Brehmer & Mehlhorn, 2018). According to Fishman (2001), three types of HL can be distinguished: * immigrant HL * indigenous HL * and colonial HL Europe is home to a significant number of minority/migrant/minoritised communities, leading to the presence of various heritage languages spoken by children and adults in schools and society. In fact, a HL in Europe can include any regional, minority and/or migrant language. Alternative terms for heritage language proposed by researchers and used or preferred in different countries and contexts are: *native language *minority language *ancestral language *immigrant minority language *allochthonous language *home language *language of origin *community language Though some of these terms are equally problematic as heritage language. For example, native language is also problematic because we cannot assume that the language does not necessarily students' native language. Those students may have a limited knowledge of the language or simply may not speak it at all. Ancestral language also conveys a negative connotation that it belongs to the distant past or a previous generation which does not have a present or future affiliation. {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Spotlight: The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages''' |- |The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, adopted by the Council of Europe in 1992 and subsequently reviewed in 2010, 2021, 2023, and 2024, is a treaty designed to protect and promote Europe’s historical regional and minority languages. It encourages the use of these languages in education, media, culture, and public administration, with the goal of enabling their speakers to fully participate in society. Member States choose whether to ratify the Charter, which languages it applies to, and which specific measures they commit to. Once ratified, these commitments become legally binding under international law. Here are some points mentioned in Article 8 about education. Member states should: * allow, encourage or provide teaching in or of the regional or minority language at all the appropriate stages of education * make arrangements to ensure the teaching of the history and the culture which is reflected by the regional or minority language * provide the basic and further training of the teachers required to implement the chosen measures You can find the full text here: <nowiki>https://rm.coe.int/collected-texts-charter-4th-edition-en/1680b26fa0</nowiki> |} == Heritage language education == Heritage Language education refers to language instruction addressed to and designed  for students exposed to the target language at home or within their communities (Gkaintartzi & Wagner, 2025). It generally represents a form of minority language education that exists on the periphery of mainstream schooling which is mostly conducted in the national language(s) (Leeman, 2015). The organisation of these programmes and offerings is also largely dependent on the status and promotion of HL education in the respective education system. Provision can be made by the state (and thus integrated into the regular education programme); there may also be bilateral agreements between the country of origin and the country of immigration. In some cases, the responsibility for instruction in the HL is considered to lie with the migrant communities themselves (Mehlhorn, 2020). HL education can take place within formal public school settings—such as in language support classes and bilingual or dual-language programmes—as well as in after-school initiatives, community-based or supplementary schools, and other non-formal educational settings. Community or complementary schools are often established by migrant or minority communities, cultural or religious organizations, or local governments. These schools typically operate at  weekends or after regular school hours, offering a few hours of instruction each week. Additionally, HL courses are available in higher education institutions worldwide. Examples include Spanish for HL speakers in U.S. universities, Catalan, Basque, and Galician in Spanish universities, and languages like Arabic, Mandarin, Urdu, and Turkish in various European universities (Kagan et al., 2017).  HL education is vital for maintaining cultural identity and supporting linguistic diversity by enabling learners to sustain and enhance their heritage language competences. However, HL education often faces challenges universally, which include  language attrition and shift, limited institutional support, teacher training and resources, wider sociopolitical barriers, identity and motivation issues (Woerfel et al., 2020). == Practical examples == HL speakers and learners can be found everywhere from elementary school up to adult education. Effective Heritage Language instruction (HLI) requires a supportive and appreciative approach that values the linguistic skills HL speakers already possess, and the HL varieties that may speak.  Simply applying traditional second-language (L2) or foreign language teaching methods is often ineffective in HL classrooms, as HL learners need teaching strategies that are tailored to their unique linguistic backgrounds (Leeman, 2015). {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Activity: Heritage Languages in education''' |- |In this video we get a quick introduction into the work of Olga Kagan, a researcher. She talks about the potential of multilingual education and the challenges HL speakers may face. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5hpE941rT2Q UCLA Spotlight Profile: Olga Kagan] * Who is Olga Kagan and what are her specialties? * What does Olga Kagan say is important for schools and teachers to consider? * What is your opinion on her suggestions? |} The following examples provide an insight into programmes and initiatives for promoting heritage languages. They include programmes organised within formal education, programmes organised by various communities, and selected informal opportunities for communities/individuals. === '''Community-Based Language Schools''' === ===== '''Example:''' '''Greek Afternoon Schools''' in the United States, Canada and Europe ===== These are supplementary education programmes where Greek-American and Greek-Canadian children (of Diaspora) attend classes after regular school hours or on weekends, to learn the Greek language, culture, history, and traditions. Programmes within the state school system ===== '''Example: Austrian “Erstsprachenunterricht”''' ===== In Austria first language instruction is an additional educational offer embedded within the school system that gives students the opportunity to maintain and further develop their heritage language. It exists since 1992 and follows a common curriculum. The lessons are free and typically held in the school building but outside of regular class hours. They are voluntary, and usually take place once or twice a week. Instruction is provided in languages for which there is sufficient demand , mostly 10 students, and where qualified teachers are available. In total there are 25 languages but the most commonly offered languages include Turkish, Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian (BCS), Arabic, Romanian, Polish, Pashto, Dari, Farsi, as well as Hungarian and Albanian. The organization and implementation of lessons lies with the regional education authorities in each federal province. Further information under: <nowiki>https://www.schule-mehrsprachig.at/</nowiki> === '''Dual-Language Immersion Programmes''' === ==== '''Examples:''' ==== In some regions of France and Germany, there are bilingual schools that equally divide instruction between two languages, including local dialects. In Belgium, certain international schools offer trilingual education where students learn three languages simultaneously (Garcia et al., 2016). Intensive support is available for non-native speakers to ensure language proficiency. In Switzerland, bilingual programmes integrate two major languages in the curriculum, with additional languages introduced as elective options starting in the primary grades. Austria features bilingual high schools that adopt a "flexible monolingualism" approach, where students first intensively learn one language before transitioning to dual-language instruction (German-English). These schools also offer multiple language options for broader linguistic exposure, French, Spanish, or Russian. === '''Technology-Based Learning''' === '''Example:''' '''TalkAbroad''' and '''Italki''', platforms that connect language learners with native speakers around the world for conversation practice. === '''Language Nests (Te Kōhanga Reo)''' === '''Example:''' '''Te Kōhanga Reo''' in New Zealand, where Māori children are immersed in the Māori language from a young age in preschool settings. === '''Family Language Policy''' === '''Example:''' A Chinese-American family may designate '''“Mandarin-only dinners”''' three times a week to encourage their children to practice speaking Mandarin. === '''Summer Language Camps''' === '''Examples:''' In the United Kingdom, Ukrainian community organizations run summer camps that teach the Ukrainian language alongside traditional dance, cooking, and cultural activities. In Spain and Latin America, Spanish heritage camps immerse participants in Spanish through homestays, community projects, and workshops, helping maintain language skills and cultural ties === '''Intergenerational Language Transmission''' === '''Example:''' The '''Yiddish Book Center's Yiddish School''' brings together older native Yiddish speakers and young learners for mutual learning. == '''Take-home messages''' == * Heritage language (HL) speakers are not defined by their linguistic proficiency, but rather on a continuum of factors, including language use, personal identification, and cultural connection to the HL. * HL learners can have diverse linguistic profiles—they may have varying degrees of language skills, cultural knowledge, and may speak different varieties of the same heritage language. * HL speakers and learners may experience marginalization due to language policies, societal attitudes, and prejudices surrounding heritage/minority languages. * Teaching HLs in schools requires specifically tailored pedagogical approaches. Traditional L2 (second language) methods are not enough to address the unique needs of HL learners. == Self-assessment == === Activity: Self development === Go back to your notes you took at the very beginning. Has your view on Sofia and Omar changed? Do you have any new ideas on how you could talk about and integrate HL into your classroom? === Multiple-Choice-Test === <quiz display="simple"> {Which of the following best defines a heritage language (HL)?} -A language spoken by the majority population of a country -A language taught in school as a second foreign language +A non-majority language often spoken at home or in the community -A language that has no standard form. {What distinguishes heritage language learners from typical L2 learners?} -HL learners always have higher proficiency than L2 learners +HL learners often have prior exposure to the language at home or in the community -HL learners never learn languages in formal classroom settings -HL learners are only interested in learning for personal reasons {According to Fishman (2001), which of the following is not a category of heritage language?} -Immigrant HL -Indigenous HL -Colonial HL +Institutional HL {Why might traditional second language (L2) teaching methods be insufficient for HL learners?} -HL learners are less motivated to learn -HL learners often lack exposure to the language +HL learners have different prior knowledge and language identities. -HL learners prefer to learn in informal settings. </quiz> === Activities/Open Ended Questions === 1. Why is it important not to define HL speakers solely based on proficiency? (considering cultural, emotional, and identity-related aspects of language use) 2. What challenges  HL education programs face in general/in your country? (aspects like policy, funding, curriculum integration, and teacher trainin) 3. Can you think of an example of a heritage language initiative in your region or community? (research on impact on identity, inclusion, or language maintenance) == Further resources == * [https://www.heritagelanguagestory.org/videostories Heritage Language Story Project] The “Heritage Language Story Project” aims to raise awareness about the importance of maintaining heritage languages by collecting stories which depict the lived experiences of heritage language speakers. These very personal stories show the huge variety in heritage language speakers and their different connections to the heritage language. Click through the videos and written stories to get some insight into what speaking and learning a HL can mean. * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s5fJ3z0WQ_8 Video of an HL speaker and her personal experiences] * [https://www.coe.int/en/web/european-charter-regional-or-minority-languages European Charter of regional or minority languages for some European Context] == Bibliography == Baker, C. & Jones, S.P. (1998). ''Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education.'' Multilingual Matters. Brehmer, B., & Mehlhorn, G. (2018). ''Herkunftssprachen''. Narr Francke Attempto. Cummins, J. (2005). A proposal for action: Strategies for recognizing heritage language competence as a learning resource within the mainstream classroom. ''The Modern Language Journal, 89''(4), 585–592. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/3588628</nowiki> García, O. (2005). Positioning heritage languages in the United States. ''Modern Language Journal, 89''(4), 601–605. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/3588631</nowiki> Garcia, O., Lin, A., May, S. (eds) (2016). ''Bilingual and Multilingual Education. Encyclopedia of Language and Education.'' Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02324-3_25-1 Fishman, J. A. (2001). ''The sociology of language: An interdisciplinary social science approach''. Blackwell. Gounari, P. (2014). Rethinking heritage language in a critical pedagogy framework. In P. Trifonas & T. Aravossitas (Eds.), ''Rethinking heritage language education'' (pp. 254–269). Cambridge University Press. Kagan, O. E., Carreira, M. M., & Chik, C. H. (Eds.). (2017). ''The Routledge handbook of heritage language education: From innovation to program building''. Routledge. Leeman, J. (2015). Heritage language education and identity in the United States. ''Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 35'', 100–119. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190514000245 Mehlhorn, G. (2020). Herkunftssprachen und ihre Sprecher/innen. In I. Gogolin, A. Hansen, S. McMonagle, & D. Rauch (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit und Bildung'' (pp. 23–29). Springer Fachmedien. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-20285-9_3 Polinsky, M. (2015). Heritage languages and their speakers: State of the field, challenges, perspectives for future work, and methodologies. ''Zeitschrift für Fremdsprachenforschung, 26''(1), 7–27. Valdés, G. (2005). Bilingualism, heritage language learners, and SLA research: Opportunities lost or seized? ''Modern Language Journal, 89''(3), 410–426. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2005.00314.x Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003). Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. J''ournal of Language, Identity, and Education'' ''2''(3), 211-230 Woerfel, T., Küppers, A., & Schroeder, C. (2020). Herkunftssprachlicher Unterricht. In I.Gogolin, A. Hansen, S. McMonagle, & D. Rauch (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit und Bildung'' (pp. 207–212). Springer Fachmedien. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-20285-9_30 == References == <references/> ==Credits== This resource has been co-created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, cofinanced by the European Commission) : * Anastasia Gkaintartzi (University of Thessaly) * Paulina Wagner (Universität Wien). [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] kim5jmhdv0itsn7vv84t2crsfjgcpka 2817583 2817582 2026-07-02T11:04:33Z ~2026-37968-63 3098398 /* Heritage language education */ 2817583 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting Activity: Multilingual school reality == Imagine you are a teacher in a school, in which there are students from diverse backgrounds. For example, Sofia speaks Spanish with her family and she sometimes uses Spanish in class while the language of schooling is different. Another student, Omar, speaks Arabic at home but never uses Arabic at school. You also suspect that there may be more students in your class with -other than the language of schooling- languages that you might not be aware of. You are interested in finding out more about your students’ language repertoires and cultural backgrounds and embrace them. * What challenges do you think Sofia and Omar might face regarding their languages? * What can you, as a teacher, do to explore and promote your students’ languages and support them in maintaining and developing them? * How can you create a classroom environment where students feel proud of their languages? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you should be able to: * recognise what heritage languages are, as well as other related terms * develop awareness of the importance of heritage languages * develop awareness of different forms and structures of heritage language education == Keywords == Heritage language, language identity, minority language, heritage language education, language revitalization == Introduction == In today’s increasingly multilingual societies, individuals grow up with and use multiple languages. Languages spoken at home can differ from the dominant languages of the wider society. These languages often carry deep personal, cultural, and familial meanings, and their role in classrooms and communities raises important questions about identity and inclusion. The development and promotion of heritage languages can be significantly influenced by the ways educational systems recognize and support students' multilingual backgrounds. == Definition == Heritage language speakers and learners have diverse profiles and there are many different contexts in which they use their language resources. Therefore the concept of Heritage Language (HL) is not easy to define. Generally, a HL is understood as a non-majority language spoken by individuals who have been exposed to it at home or in their community and have varying levels of proficiency in it (Valdés, 2001). The term 'heritage language' is used to identify any languages other than the dominant language(s) in a given social context <ref>http://www.cal.org/heritage/index.html</ref> Other researchers defined the term heritage language as the language associated with one's cultural background and it may or may not be spoken in the home <ref>Cho, G., Cho, K.-S., & Tse, L. (1997). Why ethnic minorities need to develop their heritage language: The case of Korean Americans. Language, Culture, and Curriculum, 10, 106-112.</ref>. Valdés (2001) provided three main criteria to identify heritage language learners, classifying them as individuals who: * are raised in homes where a non-English language is spoken * speak or merely understand the heritage language * are to some degree bilingual in English and the heritage language The degree of heritage language fluency, proficiency, cultural background, connection or knowledge are widely varied among students. HL speakers often have a personal, cultural, or historical connection to the language, regardless of their actual linguistic competence (Gounari, 2014). The range of definitions for “HL speaker/user” can therefore be large and can vary from a very narrow to very broad meaning. It has been suggested that the term 'heritage language' cannot be identified in a static, definitive sense; rather, it is more a metaphor in relation to the structuring of attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions that enable or constrain linguistic practices (Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003)<ref name="VDS">Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003) Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 2 (3), 211-230</ref>. Two examples could be: * Kim was born in the U.S. to Korean immigrant parents. She was exposed to Korean at home but often responded in English. She can understand conversational Korean fairly well but finds it difficult to speak it and cannot read or write in the language. Nevertheless, she  identifies with Korean culture and traditions * Luc was born in Austria to French-speaking parents from Belgium. His family spoke mostly French at home. He attended the Lycée Français in Vienna. Also they often visited relatives in Brussels. Luc uses French fluently in everyday life and often switches between French and German. Both examples illustrate how the term "HL speaker/user" can be understood in different ways. The term HL is therefore sensitive to a variety of interpretations within social, political, regional, and national contexts. Critical views on the use of the term heritage language have challenged the label 'heritage language' itself, some of them regarding it as extremely negative -even offensive- and others as counterproductive (Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003) <ref name="VDS" />. It is also criticised for pointing more to the past and less to the future, to traditions rather to the contemporary risking to become associated with ancient cultures, past traditions and more "primitive times". So it may fail to give the impression of a modern language that is of value in a technological society (Baker & Jones, 1998)<ref>Baker, C. & Jones, S.P. (1998). Encyclopedial of bilingualism and bilingual education. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.</ref>. Despite the term heritage language, heritage language speaker, and heritage language learner are gaining currency <ref>Wiley, T. (2001). On defining heritage languages and their speakers. In Kreeft Payton, D. Ranard, & S. McGinnis (Eds.). Heritage languages in America. Preserving a national resource (pp. 29-36). Washington DC: Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems.</ref>, the concept remains sensitive to a variety of interpretations within a social, political, regional, and national contexts <ref name="VDS">Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003) Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 2 (3), 211-230</ref>. == History of the Concept == The term heritage language was first introduced in the late 1970s in Canada, where it was used to denote the languages of indigenous and migrant communities (Cummins, 2005). It was later spread to other parts of the world, such as Australia and the US. In Europe, the term only gradually began to enter scientific discourse in the 2000s, particularly in research on multilingualism and migration. In the German context, the term 'Herkunftssprache' is often used as the equivalent of the English term 'heritage language' (Brehmer & Mehlhorn, 2018). According to Fishman (2001), three types of HL can be distinguished: * immigrant HL * indigenous HL * and colonial HL Europe is home to a significant number of minority/migrant/minoritised communities, leading to the presence of various heritage languages spoken by children and adults in schools and society. In fact, a HL in Europe can include any regional, minority and/or migrant language. Alternative terms for heritage language proposed by researchers and used or preferred in different countries and contexts are: *native language *minority language *ancestral language *immigrant minority language *allochthonous language *home language *language of origin *community language Though some of these terms are equally problematic as heritage language. For example, native language is also problematic because we cannot assume that the language does not necessarily students' native language. Those students may have a limited knowledge of the language or simply may not speak it at all. Ancestral language also conveys a negative connotation that it belongs to the distant past or a previous generation which does not have a present or future affiliation. {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Spotlight: The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages''' |- |The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, adopted by the Council of Europe in 1992 and subsequently reviewed in 2010, 2021, 2023, and 2024, is a treaty designed to protect and promote Europe’s historical regional and minority languages. It encourages the use of these languages in education, media, culture, and public administration, with the goal of enabling their speakers to fully participate in society. Member States choose whether to ratify the Charter, which languages it applies to, and which specific measures they commit to. Once ratified, these commitments become legally binding under international law. Here are some points mentioned in Article 8 about education. Member states should: * allow, encourage or provide teaching in or of the regional or minority language at all the appropriate stages of education * make arrangements to ensure the teaching of the history and the culture which is reflected by the regional or minority language * provide the basic and further training of the teachers required to implement the chosen measures You can find the full text here: <nowiki>https://rm.coe.int/collected-texts-charter-4th-edition-en/1680b26fa0</nowiki> |} == Heritage language education == Heritage language education refers to language instruction addressed to and designed  for students exposed to the target language at home or within their communities (Gkaintartzi & Wagner, 2025). It generally represents a form of minority language education that exists on the periphery of mainstream schooling which is mostly conducted in the national language(s) (Leeman, 2015). The organisation of these programmes and offerings is also largely dependent on the status and promotion of HL education in the respective education system. Provision can be made by the state (and thus integrated into the regular education programme); there may also be bilateral agreements between the country of origin and the country of immigration. In some cases, the responsibility for instruction in the HL is considered to lie with the migrant communities themselves (Mehlhorn, 2020). HL education can take place within formal public school settings—such as in language support classes and bilingual or dual-language programmes—as well as in after-school initiatives, community-based or supplementary schools, and other non-formal educational settings. Community or complementary schools are often established by migrant or minority communities, cultural or religious organizations, or local governments. These schools typically operate at  weekends or after regular school hours, offering a few hours of instruction each week. Additionally, HL courses are available in higher education institutions worldwide. Examples include Spanish for HL speakers in U.S. universities, Catalan, Basque, and Galician in Spanish universities, and languages like Arabic, Mandarin, Urdu, and Turkish in various European universities (Kagan et al., 2017).  HL education is vital for maintaining cultural identity and supporting linguistic diversity by enabling learners to sustain and enhance their heritage language competences. However, HL education often faces challenges universally, which include  language attrition and shift, limited institutional support, teacher training and resources, wider sociopolitical barriers, identity and motivation issues (Woerfel et al., 2020). == Practical examples == HL speakers and learners can be found everywhere from elementary school up to adult education. Effective Heritage Language instruction (HLI) requires a supportive and appreciative approach that values the linguistic skills HL speakers already possess, and the HL varieties that may speak.  Simply applying traditional second-language (L2) or foreign language teaching methods is often ineffective in HL classrooms, as HL learners need teaching strategies that are tailored to their unique linguistic backgrounds (Leeman, 2015). {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Activity: Heritage Languages in education''' |- |In this video we get a quick introduction into the work of Olga Kagan, a researcher. She talks about the potential of multilingual education and the challenges HL speakers may face. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5hpE941rT2Q UCLA Spotlight Profile: Olga Kagan] * Who is Olga Kagan and what are her specialties? * What does Olga Kagan say is important for schools and teachers to consider? * What is your opinion on her suggestions? |} The following examples provide an insight into programmes and initiatives for promoting heritage languages. They include programmes organised within formal education, programmes organised by various communities, and selected informal opportunities for communities/individuals. === '''Community-Based Language Schools''' === ===== '''Example:''' '''Greek Afternoon Schools''' in the United States, Canada and Europe ===== These are supplementary education programmes where Greek-American and Greek-Canadian children (of Diaspora) attend classes after regular school hours or on weekends, to learn the Greek language, culture, history, and traditions. Programmes within the state school system ===== '''Example: Austrian “Erstsprachenunterricht”''' ===== In Austria first language instruction is an additional educational offer embedded within the school system that gives students the opportunity to maintain and further develop their heritage language. It exists since 1992 and follows a common curriculum. The lessons are free and typically held in the school building but outside of regular class hours. They are voluntary, and usually take place once or twice a week. Instruction is provided in languages for which there is sufficient demand , mostly 10 students, and where qualified teachers are available. In total there are 25 languages but the most commonly offered languages include Turkish, Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian (BCS), Arabic, Romanian, Polish, Pashto, Dari, Farsi, as well as Hungarian and Albanian. The organization and implementation of lessons lies with the regional education authorities in each federal province. Further information under: <nowiki>https://www.schule-mehrsprachig.at/</nowiki> === '''Dual-Language Immersion Programmes''' === ==== '''Examples:''' ==== In some regions of France and Germany, there are bilingual schools that equally divide instruction between two languages, including local dialects. In Belgium, certain international schools offer trilingual education where students learn three languages simultaneously (Garcia et al., 2016). Intensive support is available for non-native speakers to ensure language proficiency. In Switzerland, bilingual programmes integrate two major languages in the curriculum, with additional languages introduced as elective options starting in the primary grades. Austria features bilingual high schools that adopt a "flexible monolingualism" approach, where students first intensively learn one language before transitioning to dual-language instruction (German-English). These schools also offer multiple language options for broader linguistic exposure, French, Spanish, or Russian. === '''Technology-Based Learning''' === '''Example:''' '''TalkAbroad''' and '''Italki''', platforms that connect language learners with native speakers around the world for conversation practice. === '''Language Nests (Te Kōhanga Reo)''' === '''Example:''' '''Te Kōhanga Reo''' in New Zealand, where Māori children are immersed in the Māori language from a young age in preschool settings. === '''Family Language Policy''' === '''Example:''' A Chinese-American family may designate '''“Mandarin-only dinners”''' three times a week to encourage their children to practice speaking Mandarin. === '''Summer Language Camps''' === '''Examples:''' In the United Kingdom, Ukrainian community organizations run summer camps that teach the Ukrainian language alongside traditional dance, cooking, and cultural activities. In Spain and Latin America, Spanish heritage camps immerse participants in Spanish through homestays, community projects, and workshops, helping maintain language skills and cultural ties === '''Intergenerational Language Transmission''' === '''Example:''' The '''Yiddish Book Center's Yiddish School''' brings together older native Yiddish speakers and young learners for mutual learning. == '''Take-home messages''' == * Heritage language (HL) speakers are not defined by their linguistic proficiency, but rather on a continuum of factors, including language use, personal identification, and cultural connection to the HL. * HL learners can have diverse linguistic profiles—they may have varying degrees of language skills, cultural knowledge, and may speak different varieties of the same heritage language. * HL speakers and learners may experience marginalization due to language policies, societal attitudes, and prejudices surrounding heritage/minority languages. * Teaching HLs in schools requires specifically tailored pedagogical approaches. Traditional L2 (second language) methods are not enough to address the unique needs of HL learners. == Self-assessment == === Activity: Self development === Go back to your notes you took at the very beginning. Has your view on Sofia and Omar changed? Do you have any new ideas on how you could talk about and integrate HL into your classroom? === Multiple-Choice-Test === <quiz display="simple"> {Which of the following best defines a heritage language (HL)?} -A language spoken by the majority population of a country -A language taught in school as a second foreign language +A non-majority language often spoken at home or in the community -A language that has no standard form. {What distinguishes heritage language learners from typical L2 learners?} -HL learners always have higher proficiency than L2 learners +HL learners often have prior exposure to the language at home or in the community -HL learners never learn languages in formal classroom settings -HL learners are only interested in learning for personal reasons {According to Fishman (2001), which of the following is not a category of heritage language?} -Immigrant HL -Indigenous HL -Colonial HL +Institutional HL {Why might traditional second language (L2) teaching methods be insufficient for HL learners?} -HL learners are less motivated to learn -HL learners often lack exposure to the language +HL learners have different prior knowledge and language identities. -HL learners prefer to learn in informal settings. </quiz> === Activities/Open Ended Questions === 1. Why is it important not to define HL speakers solely based on proficiency? (considering cultural, emotional, and identity-related aspects of language use) 2. What challenges  HL education programs face in general/in your country? (aspects like policy, funding, curriculum integration, and teacher trainin) 3. Can you think of an example of a heritage language initiative in your region or community? (research on impact on identity, inclusion, or language maintenance) == Further resources == * [https://www.heritagelanguagestory.org/videostories Heritage Language Story Project] The “Heritage Language Story Project” aims to raise awareness about the importance of maintaining heritage languages by collecting stories which depict the lived experiences of heritage language speakers. These very personal stories show the huge variety in heritage language speakers and their different connections to the heritage language. Click through the videos and written stories to get some insight into what speaking and learning a HL can mean. * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s5fJ3z0WQ_8 Video of an HL speaker and her personal experiences] * [https://www.coe.int/en/web/european-charter-regional-or-minority-languages European Charter of regional or minority languages for some European Context] == Bibliography == Baker, C. & Jones, S.P. (1998). ''Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education.'' Multilingual Matters. Brehmer, B., & Mehlhorn, G. (2018). ''Herkunftssprachen''. Narr Francke Attempto. Cummins, J. (2005). A proposal for action: Strategies for recognizing heritage language competence as a learning resource within the mainstream classroom. ''The Modern Language Journal, 89''(4), 585–592. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/3588628</nowiki> García, O. (2005). Positioning heritage languages in the United States. ''Modern Language Journal, 89''(4), 601–605. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/3588631</nowiki> Garcia, O., Lin, A., May, S. (eds) (2016). ''Bilingual and Multilingual Education. Encyclopedia of Language and Education.'' Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02324-3_25-1 Fishman, J. A. (2001). ''The sociology of language: An interdisciplinary social science approach''. Blackwell. Gounari, P. (2014). Rethinking heritage language in a critical pedagogy framework. In P. Trifonas & T. Aravossitas (Eds.), ''Rethinking heritage language education'' (pp. 254–269). Cambridge University Press. Kagan, O. E., Carreira, M. M., & Chik, C. H. (Eds.). (2017). ''The Routledge handbook of heritage language education: From innovation to program building''. Routledge. Leeman, J. (2015). Heritage language education and identity in the United States. ''Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 35'', 100–119. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190514000245 Mehlhorn, G. (2020). Herkunftssprachen und ihre Sprecher/innen. In I. Gogolin, A. Hansen, S. McMonagle, & D. Rauch (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit und Bildung'' (pp. 23–29). Springer Fachmedien. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-20285-9_3 Polinsky, M. (2015). Heritage languages and their speakers: State of the field, challenges, perspectives for future work, and methodologies. ''Zeitschrift für Fremdsprachenforschung, 26''(1), 7–27. Valdés, G. (2005). Bilingualism, heritage language learners, and SLA research: Opportunities lost or seized? ''Modern Language Journal, 89''(3), 410–426. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2005.00314.x Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003). Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. J''ournal of Language, Identity, and Education'' ''2''(3), 211-230 Woerfel, T., Küppers, A., & Schroeder, C. (2020). Herkunftssprachlicher Unterricht. In I.Gogolin, A. Hansen, S. McMonagle, & D. Rauch (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit und Bildung'' (pp. 207–212). Springer Fachmedien. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-20285-9_30 == References == <references/> ==Credits== This resource has been co-created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, cofinanced by the European Commission) : * Anastasia Gkaintartzi (University of Thessaly) * Paulina Wagner (Universität Wien). [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] co4lud21749spl73gn3d7omhuhpx4rj 2817584 2817583 2026-07-02T11:04:48Z ~2026-37968-63 3098398 /* Heritage language education */ 2817584 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting Activity: Multilingual school reality == Imagine you are a teacher in a school, in which there are students from diverse backgrounds. For example, Sofia speaks Spanish with her family and she sometimes uses Spanish in class while the language of schooling is different. Another student, Omar, speaks Arabic at home but never uses Arabic at school. You also suspect that there may be more students in your class with -other than the language of schooling- languages that you might not be aware of. You are interested in finding out more about your students’ language repertoires and cultural backgrounds and embrace them. * What challenges do you think Sofia and Omar might face regarding their languages? * What can you, as a teacher, do to explore and promote your students’ languages and support them in maintaining and developing them? * How can you create a classroom environment where students feel proud of their languages? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you should be able to: * recognise what heritage languages are, as well as other related terms * develop awareness of the importance of heritage languages * develop awareness of different forms and structures of heritage language education == Keywords == Heritage language, language identity, minority language, heritage language education, language revitalization == Introduction == In today’s increasingly multilingual societies, individuals grow up with and use multiple languages. Languages spoken at home can differ from the dominant languages of the wider society. These languages often carry deep personal, cultural, and familial meanings, and their role in classrooms and communities raises important questions about identity and inclusion. The development and promotion of heritage languages can be significantly influenced by the ways educational systems recognize and support students' multilingual backgrounds. == Definition == Heritage language speakers and learners have diverse profiles and there are many different contexts in which they use their language resources. Therefore the concept of Heritage Language (HL) is not easy to define. Generally, a HL is understood as a non-majority language spoken by individuals who have been exposed to it at home or in their community and have varying levels of proficiency in it (Valdés, 2001). The term 'heritage language' is used to identify any languages other than the dominant language(s) in a given social context <ref>http://www.cal.org/heritage/index.html</ref> Other researchers defined the term heritage language as the language associated with one's cultural background and it may or may not be spoken in the home <ref>Cho, G., Cho, K.-S., & Tse, L. (1997). Why ethnic minorities need to develop their heritage language: The case of Korean Americans. Language, Culture, and Curriculum, 10, 106-112.</ref>. Valdés (2001) provided three main criteria to identify heritage language learners, classifying them as individuals who: * are raised in homes where a non-English language is spoken * speak or merely understand the heritage language * are to some degree bilingual in English and the heritage language The degree of heritage language fluency, proficiency, cultural background, connection or knowledge are widely varied among students. HL speakers often have a personal, cultural, or historical connection to the language, regardless of their actual linguistic competence (Gounari, 2014). The range of definitions for “HL speaker/user” can therefore be large and can vary from a very narrow to very broad meaning. It has been suggested that the term 'heritage language' cannot be identified in a static, definitive sense; rather, it is more a metaphor in relation to the structuring of attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions that enable or constrain linguistic practices (Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003)<ref name="VDS">Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003) Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 2 (3), 211-230</ref>. Two examples could be: * Kim was born in the U.S. to Korean immigrant parents. She was exposed to Korean at home but often responded in English. She can understand conversational Korean fairly well but finds it difficult to speak it and cannot read or write in the language. Nevertheless, she  identifies with Korean culture and traditions * Luc was born in Austria to French-speaking parents from Belgium. His family spoke mostly French at home. He attended the Lycée Français in Vienna. Also they often visited relatives in Brussels. Luc uses French fluently in everyday life and often switches between French and German. Both examples illustrate how the term "HL speaker/user" can be understood in different ways. The term HL is therefore sensitive to a variety of interpretations within social, political, regional, and national contexts. Critical views on the use of the term heritage language have challenged the label 'heritage language' itself, some of them regarding it as extremely negative -even offensive- and others as counterproductive (Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003) <ref name="VDS" />. It is also criticised for pointing more to the past and less to the future, to traditions rather to the contemporary risking to become associated with ancient cultures, past traditions and more "primitive times". So it may fail to give the impression of a modern language that is of value in a technological society (Baker & Jones, 1998)<ref>Baker, C. & Jones, S.P. (1998). Encyclopedial of bilingualism and bilingual education. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.</ref>. Despite the term heritage language, heritage language speaker, and heritage language learner are gaining currency <ref>Wiley, T. (2001). On defining heritage languages and their speakers. In Kreeft Payton, D. Ranard, & S. McGinnis (Eds.). Heritage languages in America. Preserving a national resource (pp. 29-36). Washington DC: Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems.</ref>, the concept remains sensitive to a variety of interpretations within a social, political, regional, and national contexts <ref name="VDS">Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003) Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 2 (3), 211-230</ref>. == History of the Concept == The term heritage language was first introduced in the late 1970s in Canada, where it was used to denote the languages of indigenous and migrant communities (Cummins, 2005). It was later spread to other parts of the world, such as Australia and the US. In Europe, the term only gradually began to enter scientific discourse in the 2000s, particularly in research on multilingualism and migration. In the German context, the term 'Herkunftssprache' is often used as the equivalent of the English term 'heritage language' (Brehmer & Mehlhorn, 2018). According to Fishman (2001), three types of HL can be distinguished: * immigrant HL * indigenous HL * and colonial HL Europe is home to a significant number of minority/migrant/minoritised communities, leading to the presence of various heritage languages spoken by children and adults in schools and society. In fact, a HL in Europe can include any regional, minority and/or migrant language. Alternative terms for heritage language proposed by researchers and used or preferred in different countries and contexts are: *native language *minority language *ancestral language *immigrant minority language *allochthonous language *home language *language of origin *community language Though some of these terms are equally problematic as heritage language. For example, native language is also problematic because we cannot assume that the language does not necessarily students' native language. Those students may have a limited knowledge of the language or simply may not speak it at all. Ancestral language also conveys a negative connotation that it belongs to the distant past or a previous generation which does not have a present or future affiliation. {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Spotlight: The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages''' |- |The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, adopted by the Council of Europe in 1992 and subsequently reviewed in 2010, 2021, 2023, and 2024, is a treaty designed to protect and promote Europe’s historical regional and minority languages. It encourages the use of these languages in education, media, culture, and public administration, with the goal of enabling their speakers to fully participate in society. Member States choose whether to ratify the Charter, which languages it applies to, and which specific measures they commit to. Once ratified, these commitments become legally binding under international law. Here are some points mentioned in Article 8 about education. Member states should: * allow, encourage or provide teaching in or of the regional or minority language at all the appropriate stages of education * make arrangements to ensure the teaching of the history and the culture which is reflected by the regional or minority language * provide the basic and further training of the teachers required to implement the chosen measures You can find the full text here: <nowiki>https://rm.coe.int/collected-texts-charter-4th-edition-en/1680b26fa0</nowiki> |} == Heritage language education == Heritage language education refers to language instruction addressed to and designed for students exposed to the target language at home or within their communities (Gkaintartzi & Wagner, 2025). It generally represents a form of minority language education that exists on the periphery of mainstream schooling which is mostly conducted in the national language(s) (Leeman, 2015). The organisation of these programmes and offerings is also largely dependent on the status and promotion of HL education in the respective education system. Provision can be made by the state (and thus integrated into the regular education programme); there may also be bilateral agreements between the country of origin and the country of immigration. In some cases, the responsibility for instruction in the HL is considered to lie with the migrant communities themselves (Mehlhorn, 2020). HL education can take place within formal public school settings—such as in language support classes and bilingual or dual-language programmes—as well as in after-school initiatives, community-based or supplementary schools, and other non-formal educational settings. Community or complementary schools are often established by migrant or minority communities, cultural or religious organizations, or local governments. These schools typically operate at  weekends or after regular school hours, offering a few hours of instruction each week. Additionally, HL courses are available in higher education institutions worldwide. Examples include Spanish for HL speakers in U.S. universities, Catalan, Basque, and Galician in Spanish universities, and languages like Arabic, Mandarin, Urdu, and Turkish in various European universities (Kagan et al., 2017).  HL education is vital for maintaining cultural identity and supporting linguistic diversity by enabling learners to sustain and enhance their heritage language competences. However, HL education often faces challenges universally, which include  language attrition and shift, limited institutional support, teacher training and resources, wider sociopolitical barriers, identity and motivation issues (Woerfel et al., 2020). == Practical examples == HL speakers and learners can be found everywhere from elementary school up to adult education. Effective Heritage Language instruction (HLI) requires a supportive and appreciative approach that values the linguistic skills HL speakers already possess, and the HL varieties that may speak.  Simply applying traditional second-language (L2) or foreign language teaching methods is often ineffective in HL classrooms, as HL learners need teaching strategies that are tailored to their unique linguistic backgrounds (Leeman, 2015). {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Activity: Heritage Languages in education''' |- |In this video we get a quick introduction into the work of Olga Kagan, a researcher. She talks about the potential of multilingual education and the challenges HL speakers may face. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5hpE941rT2Q UCLA Spotlight Profile: Olga Kagan] * Who is Olga Kagan and what are her specialties? * What does Olga Kagan say is important for schools and teachers to consider? * What is your opinion on her suggestions? |} The following examples provide an insight into programmes and initiatives for promoting heritage languages. They include programmes organised within formal education, programmes organised by various communities, and selected informal opportunities for communities/individuals. === '''Community-Based Language Schools''' === ===== '''Example:''' '''Greek Afternoon Schools''' in the United States, Canada and Europe ===== These are supplementary education programmes where Greek-American and Greek-Canadian children (of Diaspora) attend classes after regular school hours or on weekends, to learn the Greek language, culture, history, and traditions. Programmes within the state school system ===== '''Example: Austrian “Erstsprachenunterricht”''' ===== In Austria first language instruction is an additional educational offer embedded within the school system that gives students the opportunity to maintain and further develop their heritage language. It exists since 1992 and follows a common curriculum. The lessons are free and typically held in the school building but outside of regular class hours. They are voluntary, and usually take place once or twice a week. Instruction is provided in languages for which there is sufficient demand , mostly 10 students, and where qualified teachers are available. In total there are 25 languages but the most commonly offered languages include Turkish, Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian (BCS), Arabic, Romanian, Polish, Pashto, Dari, Farsi, as well as Hungarian and Albanian. The organization and implementation of lessons lies with the regional education authorities in each federal province. Further information under: <nowiki>https://www.schule-mehrsprachig.at/</nowiki> === '''Dual-Language Immersion Programmes''' === ==== '''Examples:''' ==== In some regions of France and Germany, there are bilingual schools that equally divide instruction between two languages, including local dialects. In Belgium, certain international schools offer trilingual education where students learn three languages simultaneously (Garcia et al., 2016). Intensive support is available for non-native speakers to ensure language proficiency. In Switzerland, bilingual programmes integrate two major languages in the curriculum, with additional languages introduced as elective options starting in the primary grades. Austria features bilingual high schools that adopt a "flexible monolingualism" approach, where students first intensively learn one language before transitioning to dual-language instruction (German-English). These schools also offer multiple language options for broader linguistic exposure, French, Spanish, or Russian. === '''Technology-Based Learning''' === '''Example:''' '''TalkAbroad''' and '''Italki''', platforms that connect language learners with native speakers around the world for conversation practice. === '''Language Nests (Te Kōhanga Reo)''' === '''Example:''' '''Te Kōhanga Reo''' in New Zealand, where Māori children are immersed in the Māori language from a young age in preschool settings. === '''Family Language Policy''' === '''Example:''' A Chinese-American family may designate '''“Mandarin-only dinners”''' three times a week to encourage their children to practice speaking Mandarin. === '''Summer Language Camps''' === '''Examples:''' In the United Kingdom, Ukrainian community organizations run summer camps that teach the Ukrainian language alongside traditional dance, cooking, and cultural activities. In Spain and Latin America, Spanish heritage camps immerse participants in Spanish through homestays, community projects, and workshops, helping maintain language skills and cultural ties === '''Intergenerational Language Transmission''' === '''Example:''' The '''Yiddish Book Center's Yiddish School''' brings together older native Yiddish speakers and young learners for mutual learning. == '''Take-home messages''' == * Heritage language (HL) speakers are not defined by their linguistic proficiency, but rather on a continuum of factors, including language use, personal identification, and cultural connection to the HL. * HL learners can have diverse linguistic profiles—they may have varying degrees of language skills, cultural knowledge, and may speak different varieties of the same heritage language. * HL speakers and learners may experience marginalization due to language policies, societal attitudes, and prejudices surrounding heritage/minority languages. * Teaching HLs in schools requires specifically tailored pedagogical approaches. Traditional L2 (second language) methods are not enough to address the unique needs of HL learners. == Self-assessment == === Activity: Self development === Go back to your notes you took at the very beginning. Has your view on Sofia and Omar changed? Do you have any new ideas on how you could talk about and integrate HL into your classroom? === Multiple-Choice-Test === <quiz display="simple"> {Which of the following best defines a heritage language (HL)?} -A language spoken by the majority population of a country -A language taught in school as a second foreign language +A non-majority language often spoken at home or in the community -A language that has no standard form. {What distinguishes heritage language learners from typical L2 learners?} -HL learners always have higher proficiency than L2 learners +HL learners often have prior exposure to the language at home or in the community -HL learners never learn languages in formal classroom settings -HL learners are only interested in learning for personal reasons {According to Fishman (2001), which of the following is not a category of heritage language?} -Immigrant HL -Indigenous HL -Colonial HL +Institutional HL {Why might traditional second language (L2) teaching methods be insufficient for HL learners?} -HL learners are less motivated to learn -HL learners often lack exposure to the language +HL learners have different prior knowledge and language identities. -HL learners prefer to learn in informal settings. </quiz> === Activities/Open Ended Questions === 1. Why is it important not to define HL speakers solely based on proficiency? (considering cultural, emotional, and identity-related aspects of language use) 2. What challenges  HL education programs face in general/in your country? (aspects like policy, funding, curriculum integration, and teacher trainin) 3. Can you think of an example of a heritage language initiative in your region or community? (research on impact on identity, inclusion, or language maintenance) == Further resources == * [https://www.heritagelanguagestory.org/videostories Heritage Language Story Project] The “Heritage Language Story Project” aims to raise awareness about the importance of maintaining heritage languages by collecting stories which depict the lived experiences of heritage language speakers. These very personal stories show the huge variety in heritage language speakers and their different connections to the heritage language. Click through the videos and written stories to get some insight into what speaking and learning a HL can mean. * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s5fJ3z0WQ_8 Video of an HL speaker and her personal experiences] * [https://www.coe.int/en/web/european-charter-regional-or-minority-languages European Charter of regional or minority languages for some European Context] == Bibliography == Baker, C. & Jones, S.P. (1998). ''Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education.'' Multilingual Matters. Brehmer, B., & Mehlhorn, G. (2018). ''Herkunftssprachen''. Narr Francke Attempto. Cummins, J. (2005). A proposal for action: Strategies for recognizing heritage language competence as a learning resource within the mainstream classroom. ''The Modern Language Journal, 89''(4), 585–592. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/3588628</nowiki> García, O. (2005). Positioning heritage languages in the United States. ''Modern Language Journal, 89''(4), 601–605. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/3588631</nowiki> Garcia, O., Lin, A., May, S. (eds) (2016). ''Bilingual and Multilingual Education. Encyclopedia of Language and Education.'' Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02324-3_25-1 Fishman, J. A. (2001). ''The sociology of language: An interdisciplinary social science approach''. Blackwell. Gounari, P. (2014). Rethinking heritage language in a critical pedagogy framework. In P. Trifonas & T. Aravossitas (Eds.), ''Rethinking heritage language education'' (pp. 254–269). Cambridge University Press. Kagan, O. E., Carreira, M. M., & Chik, C. H. (Eds.). (2017). ''The Routledge handbook of heritage language education: From innovation to program building''. Routledge. Leeman, J. (2015). Heritage language education and identity in the United States. ''Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 35'', 100–119. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190514000245 Mehlhorn, G. (2020). Herkunftssprachen und ihre Sprecher/innen. In I. Gogolin, A. Hansen, S. McMonagle, & D. Rauch (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit und Bildung'' (pp. 23–29). Springer Fachmedien. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-20285-9_3 Polinsky, M. (2015). Heritage languages and their speakers: State of the field, challenges, perspectives for future work, and methodologies. ''Zeitschrift für Fremdsprachenforschung, 26''(1), 7–27. Valdés, G. (2005). Bilingualism, heritage language learners, and SLA research: Opportunities lost or seized? ''Modern Language Journal, 89''(3), 410–426. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2005.00314.x Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003). Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. J''ournal of Language, Identity, and Education'' ''2''(3), 211-230 Woerfel, T., Küppers, A., & Schroeder, C. (2020). Herkunftssprachlicher Unterricht. In I.Gogolin, A. Hansen, S. McMonagle, & D. Rauch (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit und Bildung'' (pp. 207–212). Springer Fachmedien. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-20285-9_30 == References == <references/> ==Credits== This resource has been co-created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, cofinanced by the European Commission) : * Anastasia Gkaintartzi (University of Thessaly) * Paulina Wagner (Universität Wien). [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] 52ukwzh8lp0endrxtet8afr8ljw2maj 2817585 2817584 2026-07-02T11:06:43Z ~2026-37968-63 3098398 /* Practical examples */ 2817585 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting Activity: Multilingual school reality == Imagine you are a teacher in a school, in which there are students from diverse backgrounds. For example, Sofia speaks Spanish with her family and she sometimes uses Spanish in class while the language of schooling is different. Another student, Omar, speaks Arabic at home but never uses Arabic at school. You also suspect that there may be more students in your class with -other than the language of schooling- languages that you might not be aware of. You are interested in finding out more about your students’ language repertoires and cultural backgrounds and embrace them. * What challenges do you think Sofia and Omar might face regarding their languages? * What can you, as a teacher, do to explore and promote your students’ languages and support them in maintaining and developing them? * How can you create a classroom environment where students feel proud of their languages? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you should be able to: * recognise what heritage languages are, as well as other related terms * develop awareness of the importance of heritage languages * develop awareness of different forms and structures of heritage language education == Keywords == Heritage language, language identity, minority language, heritage language education, language revitalization == Introduction == In today’s increasingly multilingual societies, individuals grow up with and use multiple languages. Languages spoken at home can differ from the dominant languages of the wider society. These languages often carry deep personal, cultural, and familial meanings, and their role in classrooms and communities raises important questions about identity and inclusion. The development and promotion of heritage languages can be significantly influenced by the ways educational systems recognize and support students' multilingual backgrounds. == Definition == Heritage language speakers and learners have diverse profiles and there are many different contexts in which they use their language resources. Therefore the concept of Heritage Language (HL) is not easy to define. Generally, a HL is understood as a non-majority language spoken by individuals who have been exposed to it at home or in their community and have varying levels of proficiency in it (Valdés, 2001). The term 'heritage language' is used to identify any languages other than the dominant language(s) in a given social context <ref>http://www.cal.org/heritage/index.html</ref> Other researchers defined the term heritage language as the language associated with one's cultural background and it may or may not be spoken in the home <ref>Cho, G., Cho, K.-S., & Tse, L. (1997). Why ethnic minorities need to develop their heritage language: The case of Korean Americans. Language, Culture, and Curriculum, 10, 106-112.</ref>. Valdés (2001) provided three main criteria to identify heritage language learners, classifying them as individuals who: * are raised in homes where a non-English language is spoken * speak or merely understand the heritage language * are to some degree bilingual in English and the heritage language The degree of heritage language fluency, proficiency, cultural background, connection or knowledge are widely varied among students. HL speakers often have a personal, cultural, or historical connection to the language, regardless of their actual linguistic competence (Gounari, 2014). The range of definitions for “HL speaker/user” can therefore be large and can vary from a very narrow to very broad meaning. It has been suggested that the term 'heritage language' cannot be identified in a static, definitive sense; rather, it is more a metaphor in relation to the structuring of attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions that enable or constrain linguistic practices (Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003)<ref name="VDS">Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003) Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 2 (3), 211-230</ref>. Two examples could be: * Kim was born in the U.S. to Korean immigrant parents. She was exposed to Korean at home but often responded in English. She can understand conversational Korean fairly well but finds it difficult to speak it and cannot read or write in the language. Nevertheless, she  identifies with Korean culture and traditions * Luc was born in Austria to French-speaking parents from Belgium. His family spoke mostly French at home. He attended the Lycée Français in Vienna. Also they often visited relatives in Brussels. Luc uses French fluently in everyday life and often switches between French and German. Both examples illustrate how the term "HL speaker/user" can be understood in different ways. The term HL is therefore sensitive to a variety of interpretations within social, political, regional, and national contexts. Critical views on the use of the term heritage language have challenged the label 'heritage language' itself, some of them regarding it as extremely negative -even offensive- and others as counterproductive (Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003) <ref name="VDS" />. It is also criticised for pointing more to the past and less to the future, to traditions rather to the contemporary risking to become associated with ancient cultures, past traditions and more "primitive times". So it may fail to give the impression of a modern language that is of value in a technological society (Baker & Jones, 1998)<ref>Baker, C. & Jones, S.P. (1998). Encyclopedial of bilingualism and bilingual education. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.</ref>. Despite the term heritage language, heritage language speaker, and heritage language learner are gaining currency <ref>Wiley, T. (2001). On defining heritage languages and their speakers. In Kreeft Payton, D. Ranard, & S. McGinnis (Eds.). Heritage languages in America. Preserving a national resource (pp. 29-36). Washington DC: Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems.</ref>, the concept remains sensitive to a variety of interpretations within a social, political, regional, and national contexts <ref name="VDS">Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003) Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 2 (3), 211-230</ref>. == History of the Concept == The term heritage language was first introduced in the late 1970s in Canada, where it was used to denote the languages of indigenous and migrant communities (Cummins, 2005). It was later spread to other parts of the world, such as Australia and the US. In Europe, the term only gradually began to enter scientific discourse in the 2000s, particularly in research on multilingualism and migration. In the German context, the term 'Herkunftssprache' is often used as the equivalent of the English term 'heritage language' (Brehmer & Mehlhorn, 2018). According to Fishman (2001), three types of HL can be distinguished: * immigrant HL * indigenous HL * and colonial HL Europe is home to a significant number of minority/migrant/minoritised communities, leading to the presence of various heritage languages spoken by children and adults in schools and society. In fact, a HL in Europe can include any regional, minority and/or migrant language. Alternative terms for heritage language proposed by researchers and used or preferred in different countries and contexts are: *native language *minority language *ancestral language *immigrant minority language *allochthonous language *home language *language of origin *community language Though some of these terms are equally problematic as heritage language. For example, native language is also problematic because we cannot assume that the language does not necessarily students' native language. Those students may have a limited knowledge of the language or simply may not speak it at all. Ancestral language also conveys a negative connotation that it belongs to the distant past or a previous generation which does not have a present or future affiliation. {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Spotlight: The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages''' |- |The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, adopted by the Council of Europe in 1992 and subsequently reviewed in 2010, 2021, 2023, and 2024, is a treaty designed to protect and promote Europe’s historical regional and minority languages. It encourages the use of these languages in education, media, culture, and public administration, with the goal of enabling their speakers to fully participate in society. Member States choose whether to ratify the Charter, which languages it applies to, and which specific measures they commit to. Once ratified, these commitments become legally binding under international law. Here are some points mentioned in Article 8 about education. Member states should: * allow, encourage or provide teaching in or of the regional or minority language at all the appropriate stages of education * make arrangements to ensure the teaching of the history and the culture which is reflected by the regional or minority language * provide the basic and further training of the teachers required to implement the chosen measures You can find the full text here: <nowiki>https://rm.coe.int/collected-texts-charter-4th-edition-en/1680b26fa0</nowiki> |} == Heritage language education == Heritage language education refers to language instruction addressed to and designed for students exposed to the target language at home or within their communities (Gkaintartzi & Wagner, 2025). It generally represents a form of minority language education that exists on the periphery of mainstream schooling which is mostly conducted in the national language(s) (Leeman, 2015). The organisation of these programmes and offerings is also largely dependent on the status and promotion of HL education in the respective education system. Provision can be made by the state (and thus integrated into the regular education programme); there may also be bilateral agreements between the country of origin and the country of immigration. In some cases, the responsibility for instruction in the HL is considered to lie with the migrant communities themselves (Mehlhorn, 2020). HL education can take place within formal public school settings—such as in language support classes and bilingual or dual-language programmes—as well as in after-school initiatives, community-based or supplementary schools, and other non-formal educational settings. Community or complementary schools are often established by migrant or minority communities, cultural or religious organizations, or local governments. These schools typically operate at  weekends or after regular school hours, offering a few hours of instruction each week. Additionally, HL courses are available in higher education institutions worldwide. Examples include Spanish for HL speakers in U.S. universities, Catalan, Basque, and Galician in Spanish universities, and languages like Arabic, Mandarin, Urdu, and Turkish in various European universities (Kagan et al., 2017).  HL education is vital for maintaining cultural identity and supporting linguistic diversity by enabling learners to sustain and enhance their heritage language competences. However, HL education often faces challenges universally, which include  language attrition and shift, limited institutional support, teacher training and resources, wider sociopolitical barriers, identity and motivation issues (Woerfel et al., 2020). == Practical examples == HL speakers and learners can be found everywhere from elementary school up to adult education. Effective heritage language instruction (HLI) requires a supportive and appreciative approach that values the linguistic skills HL speakers already possess, and the HL varieties that may speak.  Simply applying traditional second-language (L2) or foreign language teaching methods is often ineffective in HL classrooms, as HL learners need teaching strategies that are tailored to their unique linguistic backgrounds (Leeman, 2015). {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Activity: Heritage Languages in education''' |- |In this video we get a quick introduction into the work of Olga Kagan, a researcher. She talks about the potential of multilingual education and the challenges HL speakers may face. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5hpE941rT2Q UCLA Spotlight Profile: Olga Kagan] * Who is Olga Kagan and what are her specialties? * What does Olga Kagan say is important for schools and teachers to consider? * What is your opinion on her suggestions? |} The following examples provide an insight into programmes and initiatives for promoting heritage languages. They include programmes organised within formal education, programmes organised by various communities, and selected informal opportunities for communities/individuals. === '''Community-Based Language Schools''' === ===== '''Example:''' '''Greek Afternoon Schools''' in the United States, Canada and Europe ===== These are supplementary education programmes where Greek-American and Greek-Canadian children (of Diaspora) attend classes after regular school hours or on weekends, to learn the Greek language, culture, history, and traditions. Programmes within the state school system ===== '''Example: Austrian “Erstsprachenunterricht”''' ===== In Austria first language instruction is an additional educational offer embedded within the school system that gives students the opportunity to maintain and further develop their heritage language. It exists since 1992 and follows a common curriculum. The lessons are free and typically held in the school building but outside of regular class hours. They are voluntary, and usually take place once or twice a week. Instruction is provided in languages for which there is sufficient demand , mostly 10 students, and where qualified teachers are available. In total there are 25 languages but the most commonly offered languages include Turkish, Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian (BCS), Arabic, Romanian, Polish, Pashto, Dari, Farsi, as well as Hungarian and Albanian. The organization and implementation of lessons lies with the regional education authorities in each federal province. Further information under: <nowiki>https://www.schule-mehrsprachig.at/</nowiki> === '''Dual-Language Immersion Programmes''' === ==== '''Examples:''' ==== In some regions of France and Germany, there are bilingual schools that equally divide instruction between two languages, including local dialects. In Belgium, certain international schools offer trilingual education where students learn three languages simultaneously (Garcia et al., 2016). Intensive support is available for non-native speakers to ensure language proficiency. In Switzerland, bilingual programmes integrate two major languages in the curriculum, with additional languages introduced as elective options starting in the primary grades. Austria features bilingual high schools that adopt a "flexible monolingualism" approach, where students first intensively learn one language before transitioning to dual-language instruction (German-English). These schools also offer multiple language options for broader linguistic exposure, French, Spanish, or Russian. === '''Technology-Based Learning''' === '''Example:''' '''TalkAbroad''' and '''Italki''', platforms that connect language learners with native speakers around the world for conversation practice. === '''Language Nests (Te Kōhanga Reo)''' === '''Example:''' '''Te Kōhanga Reo''' in New Zealand, where Māori children are immersed in the Māori language from a young age in preschool settings. === '''Family Language Policy''' === '''Example:''' A Chinese-American family may designate '''“Mandarin-only dinners”''' three times a week to encourage their children to practice speaking Mandarin. === '''Summer Language Camps''' === '''Examples:''' In the United Kingdom, Ukrainian community organizations run summer camps that teach the Ukrainian language alongside traditional dance, cooking, and cultural activities. In Spain and Latin America, Spanish heritage camps immerse participants in Spanish through homestays, community projects, and workshops, helping maintain language skills and cultural ties === '''Intergenerational Language Transmission''' === '''Example:''' The '''Yiddish Book Center's Yiddish School''' brings together older native Yiddish speakers and young learners for mutual learning. == '''Take-home messages''' == * Heritage language (HL) speakers are not defined by their linguistic proficiency, but rather on a continuum of factors, including language use, personal identification, and cultural connection to the HL. * HL learners can have diverse linguistic profiles—they may have varying degrees of language skills, cultural knowledge, and may speak different varieties of the same heritage language. * HL speakers and learners may experience marginalization due to language policies, societal attitudes, and prejudices surrounding heritage/minority languages. * Teaching HLs in schools requires specifically tailored pedagogical approaches. Traditional L2 (second language) methods are not enough to address the unique needs of HL learners. == Self-assessment == === Activity: Self development === Go back to your notes you took at the very beginning. Has your view on Sofia and Omar changed? Do you have any new ideas on how you could talk about and integrate HL into your classroom? === Multiple-Choice-Test === <quiz display="simple"> {Which of the following best defines a heritage language (HL)?} -A language spoken by the majority population of a country -A language taught in school as a second foreign language +A non-majority language often spoken at home or in the community -A language that has no standard form. {What distinguishes heritage language learners from typical L2 learners?} -HL learners always have higher proficiency than L2 learners +HL learners often have prior exposure to the language at home or in the community -HL learners never learn languages in formal classroom settings -HL learners are only interested in learning for personal reasons {According to Fishman (2001), which of the following is not a category of heritage language?} -Immigrant HL -Indigenous HL -Colonial HL +Institutional HL {Why might traditional second language (L2) teaching methods be insufficient for HL learners?} -HL learners are less motivated to learn -HL learners often lack exposure to the language +HL learners have different prior knowledge and language identities. -HL learners prefer to learn in informal settings. </quiz> === Activities/Open Ended Questions === 1. Why is it important not to define HL speakers solely based on proficiency? (considering cultural, emotional, and identity-related aspects of language use) 2. What challenges  HL education programs face in general/in your country? (aspects like policy, funding, curriculum integration, and teacher trainin) 3. Can you think of an example of a heritage language initiative in your region or community? (research on impact on identity, inclusion, or language maintenance) == Further resources == * [https://www.heritagelanguagestory.org/videostories Heritage Language Story Project] The “Heritage Language Story Project” aims to raise awareness about the importance of maintaining heritage languages by collecting stories which depict the lived experiences of heritage language speakers. These very personal stories show the huge variety in heritage language speakers and their different connections to the heritage language. Click through the videos and written stories to get some insight into what speaking and learning a HL can mean. * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s5fJ3z0WQ_8 Video of an HL speaker and her personal experiences] * [https://www.coe.int/en/web/european-charter-regional-or-minority-languages European Charter of regional or minority languages for some European Context] == Bibliography == Baker, C. & Jones, S.P. (1998). ''Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education.'' Multilingual Matters. Brehmer, B., & Mehlhorn, G. (2018). ''Herkunftssprachen''. Narr Francke Attempto. Cummins, J. (2005). A proposal for action: Strategies for recognizing heritage language competence as a learning resource within the mainstream classroom. ''The Modern Language Journal, 89''(4), 585–592. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/3588628</nowiki> García, O. (2005). Positioning heritage languages in the United States. ''Modern Language Journal, 89''(4), 601–605. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/3588631</nowiki> Garcia, O., Lin, A., May, S. (eds) (2016). ''Bilingual and Multilingual Education. Encyclopedia of Language and Education.'' Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02324-3_25-1 Fishman, J. A. (2001). ''The sociology of language: An interdisciplinary social science approach''. Blackwell. Gounari, P. (2014). Rethinking heritage language in a critical pedagogy framework. In P. Trifonas & T. Aravossitas (Eds.), ''Rethinking heritage language education'' (pp. 254–269). Cambridge University Press. Kagan, O. E., Carreira, M. M., & Chik, C. H. (Eds.). (2017). ''The Routledge handbook of heritage language education: From innovation to program building''. Routledge. Leeman, J. (2015). Heritage language education and identity in the United States. ''Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 35'', 100–119. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190514000245 Mehlhorn, G. (2020). Herkunftssprachen und ihre Sprecher/innen. In I. Gogolin, A. Hansen, S. McMonagle, & D. Rauch (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit und Bildung'' (pp. 23–29). Springer Fachmedien. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-20285-9_3 Polinsky, M. (2015). Heritage languages and their speakers: State of the field, challenges, perspectives for future work, and methodologies. ''Zeitschrift für Fremdsprachenforschung, 26''(1), 7–27. Valdés, G. (2005). Bilingualism, heritage language learners, and SLA research: Opportunities lost or seized? ''Modern Language Journal, 89''(3), 410–426. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2005.00314.x Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003). Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. J''ournal of Language, Identity, and Education'' ''2''(3), 211-230 Woerfel, T., Küppers, A., & Schroeder, C. (2020). Herkunftssprachlicher Unterricht. In I.Gogolin, A. Hansen, S. McMonagle, & D. Rauch (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit und Bildung'' (pp. 207–212). Springer Fachmedien. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-20285-9_30 == References == <references/> ==Credits== This resource has been co-created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, cofinanced by the European Commission) : * Anastasia Gkaintartzi (University of Thessaly) * Paulina Wagner (Universität Wien). [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] 33xszw7aw6qnxhvppt9at2dxyno9av2 2817586 2817585 2026-07-02T11:07:04Z ~2026-37968-63 3098398 /* Practical examples */ 2817586 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting Activity: Multilingual school reality == Imagine you are a teacher in a school, in which there are students from diverse backgrounds. For example, Sofia speaks Spanish with her family and she sometimes uses Spanish in class while the language of schooling is different. Another student, Omar, speaks Arabic at home but never uses Arabic at school. You also suspect that there may be more students in your class with -other than the language of schooling- languages that you might not be aware of. You are interested in finding out more about your students’ language repertoires and cultural backgrounds and embrace them. * What challenges do you think Sofia and Omar might face regarding their languages? * What can you, as a teacher, do to explore and promote your students’ languages and support them in maintaining and developing them? * How can you create a classroom environment where students feel proud of their languages? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you should be able to: * recognise what heritage languages are, as well as other related terms * develop awareness of the importance of heritage languages * develop awareness of different forms and structures of heritage language education == Keywords == Heritage language, language identity, minority language, heritage language education, language revitalization == Introduction == In today’s increasingly multilingual societies, individuals grow up with and use multiple languages. Languages spoken at home can differ from the dominant languages of the wider society. These languages often carry deep personal, cultural, and familial meanings, and their role in classrooms and communities raises important questions about identity and inclusion. The development and promotion of heritage languages can be significantly influenced by the ways educational systems recognize and support students' multilingual backgrounds. == Definition == Heritage language speakers and learners have diverse profiles and there are many different contexts in which they use their language resources. Therefore the concept of Heritage Language (HL) is not easy to define. Generally, a HL is understood as a non-majority language spoken by individuals who have been exposed to it at home or in their community and have varying levels of proficiency in it (Valdés, 2001). The term 'heritage language' is used to identify any languages other than the dominant language(s) in a given social context <ref>http://www.cal.org/heritage/index.html</ref> Other researchers defined the term heritage language as the language associated with one's cultural background and it may or may not be spoken in the home <ref>Cho, G., Cho, K.-S., & Tse, L. (1997). Why ethnic minorities need to develop their heritage language: The case of Korean Americans. Language, Culture, and Curriculum, 10, 106-112.</ref>. Valdés (2001) provided three main criteria to identify heritage language learners, classifying them as individuals who: * are raised in homes where a non-English language is spoken * speak or merely understand the heritage language * are to some degree bilingual in English and the heritage language The degree of heritage language fluency, proficiency, cultural background, connection or knowledge are widely varied among students. HL speakers often have a personal, cultural, or historical connection to the language, regardless of their actual linguistic competence (Gounari, 2014). The range of definitions for “HL speaker/user” can therefore be large and can vary from a very narrow to very broad meaning. It has been suggested that the term 'heritage language' cannot be identified in a static, definitive sense; rather, it is more a metaphor in relation to the structuring of attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions that enable or constrain linguistic practices (Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003)<ref name="VDS">Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003) Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 2 (3), 211-230</ref>. Two examples could be: * Kim was born in the U.S. to Korean immigrant parents. She was exposed to Korean at home but often responded in English. She can understand conversational Korean fairly well but finds it difficult to speak it and cannot read or write in the language. Nevertheless, she  identifies with Korean culture and traditions * Luc was born in Austria to French-speaking parents from Belgium. His family spoke mostly French at home. He attended the Lycée Français in Vienna. Also they often visited relatives in Brussels. Luc uses French fluently in everyday life and often switches between French and German. Both examples illustrate how the term "HL speaker/user" can be understood in different ways. The term HL is therefore sensitive to a variety of interpretations within social, political, regional, and national contexts. Critical views on the use of the term heritage language have challenged the label 'heritage language' itself, some of them regarding it as extremely negative -even offensive- and others as counterproductive (Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003) <ref name="VDS" />. It is also criticised for pointing more to the past and less to the future, to traditions rather to the contemporary risking to become associated with ancient cultures, past traditions and more "primitive times". So it may fail to give the impression of a modern language that is of value in a technological society (Baker & Jones, 1998)<ref>Baker, C. & Jones, S.P. (1998). Encyclopedial of bilingualism and bilingual education. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.</ref>. Despite the term heritage language, heritage language speaker, and heritage language learner are gaining currency <ref>Wiley, T. (2001). On defining heritage languages and their speakers. In Kreeft Payton, D. Ranard, & S. McGinnis (Eds.). Heritage languages in America. Preserving a national resource (pp. 29-36). Washington DC: Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems.</ref>, the concept remains sensitive to a variety of interpretations within a social, political, regional, and national contexts <ref name="VDS">Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003) Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 2 (3), 211-230</ref>. == History of the Concept == The term heritage language was first introduced in the late 1970s in Canada, where it was used to denote the languages of indigenous and migrant communities (Cummins, 2005). It was later spread to other parts of the world, such as Australia and the US. In Europe, the term only gradually began to enter scientific discourse in the 2000s, particularly in research on multilingualism and migration. In the German context, the term 'Herkunftssprache' is often used as the equivalent of the English term 'heritage language' (Brehmer & Mehlhorn, 2018). According to Fishman (2001), three types of HL can be distinguished: * immigrant HL * indigenous HL * and colonial HL Europe is home to a significant number of minority/migrant/minoritised communities, leading to the presence of various heritage languages spoken by children and adults in schools and society. In fact, a HL in Europe can include any regional, minority and/or migrant language. Alternative terms for heritage language proposed by researchers and used or preferred in different countries and contexts are: *native language *minority language *ancestral language *immigrant minority language *allochthonous language *home language *language of origin *community language Though some of these terms are equally problematic as heritage language. For example, native language is also problematic because we cannot assume that the language does not necessarily students' native language. Those students may have a limited knowledge of the language or simply may not speak it at all. Ancestral language also conveys a negative connotation that it belongs to the distant past or a previous generation which does not have a present or future affiliation. {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Spotlight: The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages''' |- |The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, adopted by the Council of Europe in 1992 and subsequently reviewed in 2010, 2021, 2023, and 2024, is a treaty designed to protect and promote Europe’s historical regional and minority languages. It encourages the use of these languages in education, media, culture, and public administration, with the goal of enabling their speakers to fully participate in society. Member States choose whether to ratify the Charter, which languages it applies to, and which specific measures they commit to. Once ratified, these commitments become legally binding under international law. Here are some points mentioned in Article 8 about education. Member states should: * allow, encourage or provide teaching in or of the regional or minority language at all the appropriate stages of education * make arrangements to ensure the teaching of the history and the culture which is reflected by the regional or minority language * provide the basic and further training of the teachers required to implement the chosen measures You can find the full text here: <nowiki>https://rm.coe.int/collected-texts-charter-4th-edition-en/1680b26fa0</nowiki> |} == Heritage language education == Heritage language education refers to language instruction addressed to and designed for students exposed to the target language at home or within their communities (Gkaintartzi & Wagner, 2025). It generally represents a form of minority language education that exists on the periphery of mainstream schooling which is mostly conducted in the national language(s) (Leeman, 2015). The organisation of these programmes and offerings is also largely dependent on the status and promotion of HL education in the respective education system. Provision can be made by the state (and thus integrated into the regular education programme); there may also be bilateral agreements between the country of origin and the country of immigration. In some cases, the responsibility for instruction in the HL is considered to lie with the migrant communities themselves (Mehlhorn, 2020). HL education can take place within formal public school settings—such as in language support classes and bilingual or dual-language programmes—as well as in after-school initiatives, community-based or supplementary schools, and other non-formal educational settings. Community or complementary schools are often established by migrant or minority communities, cultural or religious organizations, or local governments. These schools typically operate at  weekends or after regular school hours, offering a few hours of instruction each week. Additionally, HL courses are available in higher education institutions worldwide. Examples include Spanish for HL speakers in U.S. universities, Catalan, Basque, and Galician in Spanish universities, and languages like Arabic, Mandarin, Urdu, and Turkish in various European universities (Kagan et al., 2017).  HL education is vital for maintaining cultural identity and supporting linguistic diversity by enabling learners to sustain and enhance their heritage language competences. However, HL education often faces challenges universally, which include  language attrition and shift, limited institutional support, teacher training and resources, wider sociopolitical barriers, identity and motivation issues (Woerfel et al., 2020). == Practical examples == HL speakers and learners can be found everywhere from elementary school up to adult education. Effective heritage language instruction (HLI) requires a supportive and appreciative approach that values the linguistic skills HL speakers already possess, and the HL varieties they may speak.  Simply applying traditional second-language (L2) or foreign language teaching methods is often ineffective in HL classrooms, as HL learners need teaching strategies that are tailored to their unique linguistic backgrounds (Leeman, 2015). {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Activity: Heritage Languages in education''' |- |In this video we get a quick introduction into the work of Olga Kagan, a researcher. She talks about the potential of multilingual education and the challenges HL speakers may face. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5hpE941rT2Q UCLA Spotlight Profile: Olga Kagan] * Who is Olga Kagan and what are her specialties? * What does Olga Kagan say is important for schools and teachers to consider? * What is your opinion on her suggestions? |} The following examples provide an insight into programmes and initiatives for promoting heritage languages. They include programmes organised within formal education, programmes organised by various communities, and selected informal opportunities for communities/individuals. === '''Community-Based Language Schools''' === ===== '''Example:''' '''Greek Afternoon Schools''' in the United States, Canada and Europe ===== These are supplementary education programmes where Greek-American and Greek-Canadian children (of Diaspora) attend classes after regular school hours or on weekends, to learn the Greek language, culture, history, and traditions. Programmes within the state school system ===== '''Example: Austrian “Erstsprachenunterricht”''' ===== In Austria first language instruction is an additional educational offer embedded within the school system that gives students the opportunity to maintain and further develop their heritage language. It exists since 1992 and follows a common curriculum. The lessons are free and typically held in the school building but outside of regular class hours. They are voluntary, and usually take place once or twice a week. Instruction is provided in languages for which there is sufficient demand , mostly 10 students, and where qualified teachers are available. In total there are 25 languages but the most commonly offered languages include Turkish, Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian (BCS), Arabic, Romanian, Polish, Pashto, Dari, Farsi, as well as Hungarian and Albanian. The organization and implementation of lessons lies with the regional education authorities in each federal province. Further information under: <nowiki>https://www.schule-mehrsprachig.at/</nowiki> === '''Dual-Language Immersion Programmes''' === ==== '''Examples:''' ==== In some regions of France and Germany, there are bilingual schools that equally divide instruction between two languages, including local dialects. In Belgium, certain international schools offer trilingual education where students learn three languages simultaneously (Garcia et al., 2016). Intensive support is available for non-native speakers to ensure language proficiency. In Switzerland, bilingual programmes integrate two major languages in the curriculum, with additional languages introduced as elective options starting in the primary grades. Austria features bilingual high schools that adopt a "flexible monolingualism" approach, where students first intensively learn one language before transitioning to dual-language instruction (German-English). These schools also offer multiple language options for broader linguistic exposure, French, Spanish, or Russian. === '''Technology-Based Learning''' === '''Example:''' '''TalkAbroad''' and '''Italki''', platforms that connect language learners with native speakers around the world for conversation practice. === '''Language Nests (Te Kōhanga Reo)''' === '''Example:''' '''Te Kōhanga Reo''' in New Zealand, where Māori children are immersed in the Māori language from a young age in preschool settings. === '''Family Language Policy''' === '''Example:''' A Chinese-American family may designate '''“Mandarin-only dinners”''' three times a week to encourage their children to practice speaking Mandarin. === '''Summer Language Camps''' === '''Examples:''' In the United Kingdom, Ukrainian community organizations run summer camps that teach the Ukrainian language alongside traditional dance, cooking, and cultural activities. In Spain and Latin America, Spanish heritage camps immerse participants in Spanish through homestays, community projects, and workshops, helping maintain language skills and cultural ties === '''Intergenerational Language Transmission''' === '''Example:''' The '''Yiddish Book Center's Yiddish School''' brings together older native Yiddish speakers and young learners for mutual learning. == '''Take-home messages''' == * Heritage language (HL) speakers are not defined by their linguistic proficiency, but rather on a continuum of factors, including language use, personal identification, and cultural connection to the HL. * HL learners can have diverse linguistic profiles—they may have varying degrees of language skills, cultural knowledge, and may speak different varieties of the same heritage language. * HL speakers and learners may experience marginalization due to language policies, societal attitudes, and prejudices surrounding heritage/minority languages. * Teaching HLs in schools requires specifically tailored pedagogical approaches. Traditional L2 (second language) methods are not enough to address the unique needs of HL learners. == Self-assessment == === Activity: Self development === Go back to your notes you took at the very beginning. Has your view on Sofia and Omar changed? Do you have any new ideas on how you could talk about and integrate HL into your classroom? === Multiple-Choice-Test === <quiz display="simple"> {Which of the following best defines a heritage language (HL)?} -A language spoken by the majority population of a country -A language taught in school as a second foreign language +A non-majority language often spoken at home or in the community -A language that has no standard form. {What distinguishes heritage language learners from typical L2 learners?} -HL learners always have higher proficiency than L2 learners +HL learners often have prior exposure to the language at home or in the community -HL learners never learn languages in formal classroom settings -HL learners are only interested in learning for personal reasons {According to Fishman (2001), which of the following is not a category of heritage language?} -Immigrant HL -Indigenous HL -Colonial HL +Institutional HL {Why might traditional second language (L2) teaching methods be insufficient for HL learners?} -HL learners are less motivated to learn -HL learners often lack exposure to the language +HL learners have different prior knowledge and language identities. -HL learners prefer to learn in informal settings. </quiz> === Activities/Open Ended Questions === 1. Why is it important not to define HL speakers solely based on proficiency? (considering cultural, emotional, and identity-related aspects of language use) 2. What challenges  HL education programs face in general/in your country? (aspects like policy, funding, curriculum integration, and teacher trainin) 3. Can you think of an example of a heritage language initiative in your region or community? (research on impact on identity, inclusion, or language maintenance) == Further resources == * [https://www.heritagelanguagestory.org/videostories Heritage Language Story Project] The “Heritage Language Story Project” aims to raise awareness about the importance of maintaining heritage languages by collecting stories which depict the lived experiences of heritage language speakers. These very personal stories show the huge variety in heritage language speakers and their different connections to the heritage language. Click through the videos and written stories to get some insight into what speaking and learning a HL can mean. * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s5fJ3z0WQ_8 Video of an HL speaker and her personal experiences] * [https://www.coe.int/en/web/european-charter-regional-or-minority-languages European Charter of regional or minority languages for some European Context] == Bibliography == Baker, C. & Jones, S.P. (1998). ''Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education.'' Multilingual Matters. Brehmer, B., & Mehlhorn, G. (2018). ''Herkunftssprachen''. Narr Francke Attempto. Cummins, J. (2005). A proposal for action: Strategies for recognizing heritage language competence as a learning resource within the mainstream classroom. ''The Modern Language Journal, 89''(4), 585–592. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/3588628</nowiki> García, O. (2005). Positioning heritage languages in the United States. ''Modern Language Journal, 89''(4), 601–605. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/3588631</nowiki> Garcia, O., Lin, A., May, S. (eds) (2016). ''Bilingual and Multilingual Education. Encyclopedia of Language and Education.'' Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02324-3_25-1 Fishman, J. A. (2001). ''The sociology of language: An interdisciplinary social science approach''. Blackwell. Gounari, P. (2014). Rethinking heritage language in a critical pedagogy framework. In P. Trifonas & T. Aravossitas (Eds.), ''Rethinking heritage language education'' (pp. 254–269). Cambridge University Press. Kagan, O. E., Carreira, M. M., & Chik, C. H. (Eds.). (2017). ''The Routledge handbook of heritage language education: From innovation to program building''. Routledge. Leeman, J. (2015). Heritage language education and identity in the United States. ''Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 35'', 100–119. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190514000245 Mehlhorn, G. (2020). Herkunftssprachen und ihre Sprecher/innen. In I. Gogolin, A. Hansen, S. McMonagle, & D. Rauch (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit und Bildung'' (pp. 23–29). Springer Fachmedien. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-20285-9_3 Polinsky, M. (2015). Heritage languages and their speakers: State of the field, challenges, perspectives for future work, and methodologies. ''Zeitschrift für Fremdsprachenforschung, 26''(1), 7–27. Valdés, G. (2005). Bilingualism, heritage language learners, and SLA research: Opportunities lost or seized? ''Modern Language Journal, 89''(3), 410–426. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2005.00314.x Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003). Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. J''ournal of Language, Identity, and Education'' ''2''(3), 211-230 Woerfel, T., Küppers, A., & Schroeder, C. (2020). Herkunftssprachlicher Unterricht. In I.Gogolin, A. Hansen, S. McMonagle, & D. Rauch (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit und Bildung'' (pp. 207–212). Springer Fachmedien. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-20285-9_30 == References == <references/> ==Credits== This resource has been co-created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, cofinanced by the European Commission) : * Anastasia Gkaintartzi (University of Thessaly) * Paulina Wagner (Universität Wien). [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] hc5801eckfbc4gd696y6b8b2uu1kj79 2817587 2817586 2026-07-02T11:09:09Z ~2026-37968-63 3098398 /* Community-Based Language Schools */ 2817587 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting Activity: Multilingual school reality == Imagine you are a teacher in a school, in which there are students from diverse backgrounds. For example, Sofia speaks Spanish with her family and she sometimes uses Spanish in class while the language of schooling is different. Another student, Omar, speaks Arabic at home but never uses Arabic at school. You also suspect that there may be more students in your class with -other than the language of schooling- languages that you might not be aware of. You are interested in finding out more about your students’ language repertoires and cultural backgrounds and embrace them. * What challenges do you think Sofia and Omar might face regarding their languages? * What can you, as a teacher, do to explore and promote your students’ languages and support them in maintaining and developing them? * How can you create a classroom environment where students feel proud of their languages? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you should be able to: * recognise what heritage languages are, as well as other related terms * develop awareness of the importance of heritage languages * develop awareness of different forms and structures of heritage language education == Keywords == Heritage language, language identity, minority language, heritage language education, language revitalization == Introduction == In today’s increasingly multilingual societies, individuals grow up with and use multiple languages. Languages spoken at home can differ from the dominant languages of the wider society. These languages often carry deep personal, cultural, and familial meanings, and their role in classrooms and communities raises important questions about identity and inclusion. The development and promotion of heritage languages can be significantly influenced by the ways educational systems recognize and support students' multilingual backgrounds. == Definition == Heritage language speakers and learners have diverse profiles and there are many different contexts in which they use their language resources. Therefore the concept of Heritage Language (HL) is not easy to define. Generally, a HL is understood as a non-majority language spoken by individuals who have been exposed to it at home or in their community and have varying levels of proficiency in it (Valdés, 2001). The term 'heritage language' is used to identify any languages other than the dominant language(s) in a given social context <ref>http://www.cal.org/heritage/index.html</ref> Other researchers defined the term heritage language as the language associated with one's cultural background and it may or may not be spoken in the home <ref>Cho, G., Cho, K.-S., & Tse, L. (1997). Why ethnic minorities need to develop their heritage language: The case of Korean Americans. Language, Culture, and Curriculum, 10, 106-112.</ref>. Valdés (2001) provided three main criteria to identify heritage language learners, classifying them as individuals who: * are raised in homes where a non-English language is spoken * speak or merely understand the heritage language * are to some degree bilingual in English and the heritage language The degree of heritage language fluency, proficiency, cultural background, connection or knowledge are widely varied among students. HL speakers often have a personal, cultural, or historical connection to the language, regardless of their actual linguistic competence (Gounari, 2014). The range of definitions for “HL speaker/user” can therefore be large and can vary from a very narrow to very broad meaning. It has been suggested that the term 'heritage language' cannot be identified in a static, definitive sense; rather, it is more a metaphor in relation to the structuring of attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions that enable or constrain linguistic practices (Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003)<ref name="VDS">Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003) Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 2 (3), 211-230</ref>. Two examples could be: * Kim was born in the U.S. to Korean immigrant parents. She was exposed to Korean at home but often responded in English. She can understand conversational Korean fairly well but finds it difficult to speak it and cannot read or write in the language. Nevertheless, she  identifies with Korean culture and traditions * Luc was born in Austria to French-speaking parents from Belgium. His family spoke mostly French at home. He attended the Lycée Français in Vienna. Also they often visited relatives in Brussels. Luc uses French fluently in everyday life and often switches between French and German. Both examples illustrate how the term "HL speaker/user" can be understood in different ways. The term HL is therefore sensitive to a variety of interpretations within social, political, regional, and national contexts. Critical views on the use of the term heritage language have challenged the label 'heritage language' itself, some of them regarding it as extremely negative -even offensive- and others as counterproductive (Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003) <ref name="VDS" />. It is also criticised for pointing more to the past and less to the future, to traditions rather to the contemporary risking to become associated with ancient cultures, past traditions and more "primitive times". So it may fail to give the impression of a modern language that is of value in a technological society (Baker & Jones, 1998)<ref>Baker, C. & Jones, S.P. (1998). Encyclopedial of bilingualism and bilingual education. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.</ref>. Despite the term heritage language, heritage language speaker, and heritage language learner are gaining currency <ref>Wiley, T. (2001). On defining heritage languages and their speakers. In Kreeft Payton, D. Ranard, & S. McGinnis (Eds.). Heritage languages in America. Preserving a national resource (pp. 29-36). Washington DC: Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems.</ref>, the concept remains sensitive to a variety of interpretations within a social, political, regional, and national contexts <ref name="VDS">Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003) Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 2 (3), 211-230</ref>. == History of the Concept == The term heritage language was first introduced in the late 1970s in Canada, where it was used to denote the languages of indigenous and migrant communities (Cummins, 2005). It was later spread to other parts of the world, such as Australia and the US. In Europe, the term only gradually began to enter scientific discourse in the 2000s, particularly in research on multilingualism and migration. In the German context, the term 'Herkunftssprache' is often used as the equivalent of the English term 'heritage language' (Brehmer & Mehlhorn, 2018). According to Fishman (2001), three types of HL can be distinguished: * immigrant HL * indigenous HL * and colonial HL Europe is home to a significant number of minority/migrant/minoritised communities, leading to the presence of various heritage languages spoken by children and adults in schools and society. In fact, a HL in Europe can include any regional, minority and/or migrant language. Alternative terms for heritage language proposed by researchers and used or preferred in different countries and contexts are: *native language *minority language *ancestral language *immigrant minority language *allochthonous language *home language *language of origin *community language Though some of these terms are equally problematic as heritage language. For example, native language is also problematic because we cannot assume that the language does not necessarily students' native language. Those students may have a limited knowledge of the language or simply may not speak it at all. Ancestral language also conveys a negative connotation that it belongs to the distant past or a previous generation which does not have a present or future affiliation. {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Spotlight: The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages''' |- |The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, adopted by the Council of Europe in 1992 and subsequently reviewed in 2010, 2021, 2023, and 2024, is a treaty designed to protect and promote Europe’s historical regional and minority languages. It encourages the use of these languages in education, media, culture, and public administration, with the goal of enabling their speakers to fully participate in society. Member States choose whether to ratify the Charter, which languages it applies to, and which specific measures they commit to. Once ratified, these commitments become legally binding under international law. Here are some points mentioned in Article 8 about education. Member states should: * allow, encourage or provide teaching in or of the regional or minority language at all the appropriate stages of education * make arrangements to ensure the teaching of the history and the culture which is reflected by the regional or minority language * provide the basic and further training of the teachers required to implement the chosen measures You can find the full text here: <nowiki>https://rm.coe.int/collected-texts-charter-4th-edition-en/1680b26fa0</nowiki> |} == Heritage language education == Heritage language education refers to language instruction addressed to and designed for students exposed to the target language at home or within their communities (Gkaintartzi & Wagner, 2025). It generally represents a form of minority language education that exists on the periphery of mainstream schooling which is mostly conducted in the national language(s) (Leeman, 2015). The organisation of these programmes and offerings is also largely dependent on the status and promotion of HL education in the respective education system. Provision can be made by the state (and thus integrated into the regular education programme); there may also be bilateral agreements between the country of origin and the country of immigration. In some cases, the responsibility for instruction in the HL is considered to lie with the migrant communities themselves (Mehlhorn, 2020). HL education can take place within formal public school settings—such as in language support classes and bilingual or dual-language programmes—as well as in after-school initiatives, community-based or supplementary schools, and other non-formal educational settings. Community or complementary schools are often established by migrant or minority communities, cultural or religious organizations, or local governments. These schools typically operate at  weekends or after regular school hours, offering a few hours of instruction each week. Additionally, HL courses are available in higher education institutions worldwide. Examples include Spanish for HL speakers in U.S. universities, Catalan, Basque, and Galician in Spanish universities, and languages like Arabic, Mandarin, Urdu, and Turkish in various European universities (Kagan et al., 2017).  HL education is vital for maintaining cultural identity and supporting linguistic diversity by enabling learners to sustain and enhance their heritage language competences. However, HL education often faces challenges universally, which include  language attrition and shift, limited institutional support, teacher training and resources, wider sociopolitical barriers, identity and motivation issues (Woerfel et al., 2020). == Practical examples == HL speakers and learners can be found everywhere from elementary school up to adult education. Effective heritage language instruction (HLI) requires a supportive and appreciative approach that values the linguistic skills HL speakers already possess, and the HL varieties they may speak.  Simply applying traditional second-language (L2) or foreign language teaching methods is often ineffective in HL classrooms, as HL learners need teaching strategies that are tailored to their unique linguistic backgrounds (Leeman, 2015). {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Activity: Heritage Languages in education''' |- |In this video we get a quick introduction into the work of Olga Kagan, a researcher. She talks about the potential of multilingual education and the challenges HL speakers may face. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5hpE941rT2Q UCLA Spotlight Profile: Olga Kagan] * Who is Olga Kagan and what are her specialties? * What does Olga Kagan say is important for schools and teachers to consider? * What is your opinion on her suggestions? |} The following examples provide an insight into programmes and initiatives for promoting heritage languages. They include programmes organised within formal education, programmes organised by various communities, and selected informal opportunities for communities/individuals. === '''Community-Based Language Schools''' === ===== '''Example:''' '''Greek Afternoon Schools''' in the United States, Canada and Europe ===== These are supplementary education programmes where Greek-American and Greek-Canadian children (of Diaspora) attend classes after regular school hours or on weekends, to learn the Greek language, culture, history, and traditions. '''<big>Programmes within the state school system</big>''' ===== '''Example: Austrian “Erstsprachenunterricht”''' ===== In Austria first language instruction is an additional educational offer embedded within the school system that gives students the opportunity to maintain and further develop their heritage language. It exists since 1992 and follows a common curriculum. The lessons are free and typically held in the school building but outside of regular class hours. They are voluntary, and usually take place once or twice a week. Instruction is provided in languages for which there is sufficient demand , mostly 10 students, and where qualified teachers are available. In total there are 25 languages but the most commonly offered languages include Turkish, Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian (BCS), Arabic, Romanian, Polish, Pashto, Dari, Farsi, as well as Hungarian and Albanian. The organization and implementation of lessons lies with the regional education authorities in each federal province. Further information under: <nowiki>https://www.schule-mehrsprachig.at/</nowiki> === '''Dual-Language Immersion Programmes''' === ==== '''Examples:''' ==== In some regions of France and Germany, there are bilingual schools that equally divide instruction between two languages, including local dialects. In Belgium, certain international schools offer trilingual education where students learn three languages simultaneously (Garcia et al., 2016). Intensive support is available for non-native speakers to ensure language proficiency. In Switzerland, bilingual programmes integrate two major languages in the curriculum, with additional languages introduced as elective options starting in the primary grades. Austria features bilingual high schools that adopt a "flexible monolingualism" approach, where students first intensively learn one language before transitioning to dual-language instruction (German-English). These schools also offer multiple language options for broader linguistic exposure, French, Spanish, or Russian. === '''Technology-Based Learning''' === '''Example:''' '''TalkAbroad''' and '''Italki''', platforms that connect language learners with native speakers around the world for conversation practice. === '''Language Nests (Te Kōhanga Reo)''' === '''Example:''' '''Te Kōhanga Reo''' in New Zealand, where Māori children are immersed in the Māori language from a young age in preschool settings. === '''Family Language Policy''' === '''Example:''' A Chinese-American family may designate '''“Mandarin-only dinners”''' three times a week to encourage their children to practice speaking Mandarin. === '''Summer Language Camps''' === '''Examples:''' In the United Kingdom, Ukrainian community organizations run summer camps that teach the Ukrainian language alongside traditional dance, cooking, and cultural activities. In Spain and Latin America, Spanish heritage camps immerse participants in Spanish through homestays, community projects, and workshops, helping maintain language skills and cultural ties === '''Intergenerational Language Transmission''' === '''Example:''' The '''Yiddish Book Center's Yiddish School''' brings together older native Yiddish speakers and young learners for mutual learning. == '''Take-home messages''' == * Heritage language (HL) speakers are not defined by their linguistic proficiency, but rather on a continuum of factors, including language use, personal identification, and cultural connection to the HL. * HL learners can have diverse linguistic profiles—they may have varying degrees of language skills, cultural knowledge, and may speak different varieties of the same heritage language. * HL speakers and learners may experience marginalization due to language policies, societal attitudes, and prejudices surrounding heritage/minority languages. * Teaching HLs in schools requires specifically tailored pedagogical approaches. Traditional L2 (second language) methods are not enough to address the unique needs of HL learners. == Self-assessment == === Activity: Self development === Go back to your notes you took at the very beginning. Has your view on Sofia and Omar changed? Do you have any new ideas on how you could talk about and integrate HL into your classroom? === Multiple-Choice-Test === <quiz display="simple"> {Which of the following best defines a heritage language (HL)?} -A language spoken by the majority population of a country -A language taught in school as a second foreign language +A non-majority language often spoken at home or in the community -A language that has no standard form. {What distinguishes heritage language learners from typical L2 learners?} -HL learners always have higher proficiency than L2 learners +HL learners often have prior exposure to the language at home or in the community -HL learners never learn languages in formal classroom settings -HL learners are only interested in learning for personal reasons {According to Fishman (2001), which of the following is not a category of heritage language?} -Immigrant HL -Indigenous HL -Colonial HL +Institutional HL {Why might traditional second language (L2) teaching methods be insufficient for HL learners?} -HL learners are less motivated to learn -HL learners often lack exposure to the language +HL learners have different prior knowledge and language identities. -HL learners prefer to learn in informal settings. </quiz> === Activities/Open Ended Questions === 1. Why is it important not to define HL speakers solely based on proficiency? (considering cultural, emotional, and identity-related aspects of language use) 2. What challenges  HL education programs face in general/in your country? (aspects like policy, funding, curriculum integration, and teacher trainin) 3. Can you think of an example of a heritage language initiative in your region or community? (research on impact on identity, inclusion, or language maintenance) == Further resources == * [https://www.heritagelanguagestory.org/videostories Heritage Language Story Project] The “Heritage Language Story Project” aims to raise awareness about the importance of maintaining heritage languages by collecting stories which depict the lived experiences of heritage language speakers. These very personal stories show the huge variety in heritage language speakers and their different connections to the heritage language. Click through the videos and written stories to get some insight into what speaking and learning a HL can mean. * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s5fJ3z0WQ_8 Video of an HL speaker and her personal experiences] * [https://www.coe.int/en/web/european-charter-regional-or-minority-languages European Charter of regional or minority languages for some European Context] == Bibliography == Baker, C. & Jones, S.P. (1998). ''Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education.'' Multilingual Matters. Brehmer, B., & Mehlhorn, G. (2018). ''Herkunftssprachen''. Narr Francke Attempto. Cummins, J. (2005). A proposal for action: Strategies for recognizing heritage language competence as a learning resource within the mainstream classroom. ''The Modern Language Journal, 89''(4), 585–592. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/3588628</nowiki> García, O. (2005). Positioning heritage languages in the United States. ''Modern Language Journal, 89''(4), 601–605. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/3588631</nowiki> Garcia, O., Lin, A., May, S. (eds) (2016). ''Bilingual and Multilingual Education. Encyclopedia of Language and Education.'' Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02324-3_25-1 Fishman, J. A. (2001). ''The sociology of language: An interdisciplinary social science approach''. Blackwell. Gounari, P. (2014). Rethinking heritage language in a critical pedagogy framework. In P. Trifonas & T. Aravossitas (Eds.), ''Rethinking heritage language education'' (pp. 254–269). Cambridge University Press. Kagan, O. E., Carreira, M. M., & Chik, C. H. (Eds.). (2017). ''The Routledge handbook of heritage language education: From innovation to program building''. Routledge. Leeman, J. (2015). Heritage language education and identity in the United States. ''Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 35'', 100–119. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190514000245 Mehlhorn, G. (2020). Herkunftssprachen und ihre Sprecher/innen. In I. Gogolin, A. Hansen, S. McMonagle, & D. Rauch (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit und Bildung'' (pp. 23–29). Springer Fachmedien. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-20285-9_3 Polinsky, M. (2015). Heritage languages and their speakers: State of the field, challenges, perspectives for future work, and methodologies. ''Zeitschrift für Fremdsprachenforschung, 26''(1), 7–27. Valdés, G. (2005). Bilingualism, heritage language learners, and SLA research: Opportunities lost or seized? ''Modern Language Journal, 89''(3), 410–426. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2005.00314.x Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003). Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. J''ournal of Language, Identity, and Education'' ''2''(3), 211-230 Woerfel, T., Küppers, A., & Schroeder, C. (2020). Herkunftssprachlicher Unterricht. In I.Gogolin, A. Hansen, S. McMonagle, & D. Rauch (Eds.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit und Bildung'' (pp. 207–212). Springer Fachmedien. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-20285-9_30 == References == <references/> ==Credits== This resource has been co-created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, cofinanced by the European Commission) : * Anastasia Gkaintartzi (University of Thessaly) * Paulina Wagner (Universität Wien). [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] qyeptu065t6zceirrpngravgwauvlke 0 139384 2817518 2817407 2026-07-01T13:27:32Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2817518 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260701.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20260701.pdf|B]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] f5zeit7rc947tpggf8xyby1fvu0slii 2817566 2817518 2026-07-02T08:15:00Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2817566 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260702.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20260702.pdf|B]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] o3a3jtisclzin5c4uj9d69zyaur3ch2 0 155023 2817590 1997757 2026-07-02T11:32:47Z Anish0009e 3098405 2817590 wikitext text/x-wiki {{TOCright}} {{clr}} == '''Phrases found in both BOM and KJB''' == Phrases of ten words (or more) found in both BOM and KJB:<ref>https://archive.org/details/thebibleoldandne00010gut</ref> {{colbegin|2}} # now I know of a surety that the Lord hath # the god of abraham and the god of isaac and the god of jacob and # in the wilderness prepare ye the way of the Lord # in thy seed shall all the kindreds of the earth be blessed # and are come forth out of the waters of judah which swear # the name of the Lord and make mention of the god # I have declared the former things from the beginning and they went forth out of my mouth and I shewed them I did # because I knew that thou art obstinate and thy neck # idol hath done them and my graven image and my molten image hath # I have shewed thee new things from this time even hidden things and thou didst not know them # they are created now and not from the beginning even before the day when thou # thine ear was not opened for I knew that thou wouldest deal very treacherously and wast called a transgressor from the womb # will I defer mine anger and for my praise will I refrain # laid the foundation of the earth and my right hand hath spanned the heavens # he will do his pleasure on babylon and his arm shall # I have brought him and he shall make his way prosperous # I have not spoken in secret from the beginning from the time that it was # the Lord thy god which teacheth thee to profit which leadeth thee by the way # o that thou hadst hearkened to my commandments then had thy peace been as a river and thy righteousness as the waves of the sea # like the gravel thereof his name should not have been cut off nor destroyed from before me # go ye forth of babylon flee ye from the chaldeans with a voice of singing declare ye tell this utter # to the end of the earth say ye the Lord hath redeemed his servant jacob # he led them through the deserts he caused the waters to flow out of the rock for them he # there is no peace saith the Lord unto the wicked # listen o isles unto me and hearken ye people from far the Lord hath called me from the womb from the # of my mother hath he made mention of my name # and he hath made my mouth like a sharp sword in the shadow of his hand hath he hid me and made me a polished shaft in his quiver hath he hid me # in vain I have spent my strength for nought and in vain # surely my judgment is with the Lord and my work # and now saith the Lord that formed me from the womb # be his servant to bring jacob again to him though israel be not gathered yet shall I be glorious in the eyes of the Lord and my god shall be my strength # and he said it is a light thing that thou shouldest be my # tribes of jacob and to restore the preserved of israel i # also give thee for a light to the gentiles that thou mayest be my salvation unto the # his holy one to him whom man despiseth to him whom the # servant of rulers kings shall see and arise princes also shall worship because of the Lord that is faithful # thus saith the Lord in an acceptable time have I heard thee # of the people to establish the earth to cause to inherit the desolate heritages # that thou mayest say to the prisoners go forth to them that # they shall feed in the ways and their pastures shall be in all high places # shall lead them even by the springs of water shall he guide them # north and from the west and these from the land of sinim # for the Lord hath comforted his people and will have mercy upon his afflicted # child that she should not have compassion on the son of her womb # yea they may forget yet will I not forget thee # thy destroyers and they that made thee waste shall go forth of thee # lift up thine eyes round about and behold all these gather themselves together and # surely clothe thee with them all as with an ornament and bind them on # be too narrow by reason of the inhabitants and they that swallowed thee up shall # the children which thou shalt have after thou hast lost the other shall # for me give place to me that I may dwell # begotten me these seeing I have lost my children and am desolate a captive and removing to and fro and who hath brought up these # the Lord god behold I will lift up mine hand to the gentiles and set up my standard to the people and they # the earth and lick up the dust of thy feet and thou shalt know that I am the Lord # shall the prey be taken from the mighty or the lawful # mighty shall be taken away and the prey of the terrible shall be # will contend with him that contendeth with thee and I will save thy children # own blood as with sweet wine and all flesh shall know that I the Lord am # a prophet shall the Lord your god raise up unto you # like unto me him shall ye hear in all things whatsoever he shall say unto # thus saith the Lord god behold I will lift up mine hand to the gentiles and set up my standard to the people and they shall bring thy sons in their arms and thy daughters shall be carried upon their shoulders # and kings shall be thy nursing fathers and their queens thy nursing mothers they shall bow down to thee # the earth and lick up the dust of thy feet and thou shalt know that I am the Lord for they shall not be ashamed that wait for me # shall the prey be taken from the mighty or the lawful captive delivered # but thus saith the Lord even the captives of the mighty shall be taken away and the prey of the terrible shall be # and I will feed them that oppress thee with their own flesh and they shall be drunken with their own blood as with sweet wine and all flesh shall know that I the Lord am thy saviour and thy redeemer the mighty one of jacob # thus saith the Lord where is the bill of your mother s divorcement # sold you behold for your iniquities have ye sold yourselves and for your transgressions is your mother put away # the Lord god hath given me the tongue of the learned # hair I hid not my face from shame and spitting # for the Lord god will help me therefore shall I not be confounded therefore have I set my face like a flint and I know that I shall not be ashamed # me who will contend with me let us stand together who is mine adversary # who is among you that feareth the Lord that obeyeth the voice of his servant that walketh in darkness and hath no light # about with sparks walk in the light of your fire and in the sparks # ye have kindled this shall ye have of mine hand ye shall lie down in sorrow # whence ye are hewn and to the hole of the pit # that bare you for I called him alone and blessed him # comfort all her waste places and he will make her # like eden and her desert like the garden of the Lord joy and gladness shall be found therein thanksgiving and the voice of melody # hearken unto me my people and give ear unto me # my nation for a law shall proceed from me and I will make my judgment to rest for a light # shall judge the people the isles shall wait upon me and on mine arm shall they trust # and look upon the earth beneath for the heavens shall vanish away like smoke and the earth shall wax old like a garment and they that dwell therein shall die in like manner but my salvation shall be # hearken unto me ye that know righteousness the people in whose heart # my law fear ye not the reproach of men neither be ye afraid of their # for the moth shall eat them up like a garment and the worm shall eat them like wool but my righteousness shall be # awake awake put on strength o arm of the Lord awake as in the ancient days # art thou not it that hath cut rahab and wounded the dragon # art thou not it which hath dried the sea the waters of the great deep that hath made the depths of the sea a way for the ransomed to pass over # the redeemed of the Lord shall return and come with singing unto zion and everlasting joy # shall die and of the son of man which shall be made # the Lord thy maker that hath stretched forth the heavens and laid the foundations of the earth and hast feared continually every day because of the fury of the oppressor as if he were ready to # the captive exile hasteneth that he may be loosed and that # and I have put my words in thy mouth and # covered thee in the shadow of mine hand that I may plant the heavens and lay the foundations of the earth and say unto zion # awake awake stand up o jerusalem which hast drunk at the hand of the Lord the cup of his fury thou hast drunken the dregs of the cup of trembling # that taketh her by the hand of all the sons # are come unto thee who shall be sorry for thee # they lie at the head of all the streets as a wild bull in a net they are full of the fury of the Lord the # pleadeth the cause of his people behold I have taken out of thine hand the cup of trembling # the dregs of the cup of my fury thou shalt no more drink it again # said to thy soul bow down that we may go over and thou hast laid thy body as the ground and as the street to them that went over # awake awake put on thy strength o zion put on thy beautiful garments o jerusalem the holy city for # there shall no more come into thee the uncircumcised and the unclean # sit down o jerusalem loose thyself from the bands of thy neck o captive daughter of zion # every one that thirsteth come ye to the waters and he that hath no money come # buy and eat yea come buy wine and milk without # the word that isaiah the son of amoz saw concerning judah and jerusalem # and it shall come to pass in the last days # in the top of the mountains and shall be exalted above the hills and all nations shall flow unto it # and many people shall go and say come ye and let us go up to the mountain of the Lord to the house of the god of jacob and he will teach us of his ways and we will walk in his paths for out of zion shall go forth the law and the # and he shall judge among the nations and shall rebuke many people and they shall beat their swords into # nation shall not lift up sword against nation neither shall they learn war any more # o house of jacob come ye and let us walk in the light of the Lord # thou hast forsaken thy people the house of jacob because they be replenished from the east and # soothsayers like the philistines and they please themselves in the children of strangers # their land also is full of silver and gold neither is there any end of their # their land is also full of horses neither is there # their land also is full of idols they worship the work of their own hands # and the mean man boweth down and the great man humbleth himself # enter into the rock and hide thee in the dust for # the lofty looks of man shall be humbled and the haughtiness of men shall be bowed down and the Lord alone shall be exalted in that day # and upon all the high mountains and upon all the hills # and upon every high tower and upon every fenced wall # all the ships of tarshish and upon all pleasant pictures # loftiness of man shall be bowed down and the haughtiness of men shall be made low and the Lord alone shall be exalted in that day # and they shall go into the holes of the rocks and into the caves of the earth for # in that day a man shall cast his idols of silver and his idols of gold which # for himself to worship to the moles and to the bats # clefts of the rocks and into the tops of the ragged rocks for # cease ye from man whose breath is in his nostrils for wherein is he to be accounted of # the Lord the Lord of hosts doth take away from jerusalem and from judah the stay and the staff the whole # the mighty man and the man of war the judge and the prophet and the prudent and the ancient # man and the counsellor and the cunning artificer and the eloquent orator # to be their princes and babes shall rule over them # people shall be oppressed every one by another and every one by # the child shall behave himself proudly against the ancient and the base against the # take hold of his brother of the house of his father # in that day shall he swear saying I will not be # is neither bread nor clothing make me not a ruler of the people # for jerusalem is ruined and judah is fallen because their # against the Lord to provoke the eyes of his glory # the shew of their countenance doth witness against them and # my people children are their oppressors and women rule over them o my people they which lead thee cause thee to err and destroy the way of thy paths # the Lord standeth up to plead and standeth to judge the people # the ancients of his people and the princes thereof for ye have eaten up the vineyard # ye beat my people to pieces and grind the faces of the poor saith the Lord god of hosts # moreover the Lord saith because the daughters of zion are haughty and walk with stretched forth necks and wanton eyes walking and mincing as they go and making a tinkling with their feet # the head of the daughters of zion and the Lord will # in that day the Lord will take away the bravery of # the bonnets and the ornaments of the legs and the # the changeable suits of apparel and the mantles and the # instead of sweet smell there shall be stink and instead of a girdle a rent and instead of # set hair baldness and instead of a stomacher a girding of sackcloth # thy men shall fall by the sword and thy mighty in the war # and in that day seven women shall take hold of one man saying we will eat our own bread and wear our own apparel only let us be called by thy name to take away our reproach # in that day shall the branch of the Lord be beautiful and # every one that is written among the living in jerusalem # when the Lord shall have washed away the filth of the daughters of zion and shall have purged the blood of jerusalem from the midst thereof by the spirit of judgment and by the spirit of burning # place of mount zion and upon her assemblies a cloud and smoke by day and the # of a flaming fire by night for upon all the glory # and there shall be a tabernacle for a shadow in the day time from the heat and for a place of # and he fenced it and gathered out the stones thereof and planted it with the choicest vine and built a tower in the midst of it and also made a # therein and he looked that it should bring forth grapes and it brought forth wild grapes # and now o inhabitants of jerusalem and men of judah judge I pray you betwixt me and my vineyard # done in it wherefore when I looked that it should bring # and now go to I will tell you what I will do to my vineyard I will take away the hedge thereof and it # break down the wall thereof and it shall be trodden down # and I will lay it waste it shall not be pruned nor digged but there shall come up briers and thorns I will also command the clouds that they rain no rain upon it # for the vineyard of the Lord of hosts is the house # israel and the men of judah his pleasant plant and he looked for judgment # be no place that they may be placed alone in the midst of the earth # in mine ears said the Lord of hosts of a truth many houses # yea ten acres of vineyard shall yield one bath and the seed of # unto them that rise up early in the morning that they may follow strong drink that continue until night # and the harp and the viol the tabret and pipe and wine are in their feasts but they regard not the work of the Lord neither consider the operation of his hands # therefore my people are gone into captivity because they have no knowledge and their # men are famished and their multitude dried up with thirst # therefore hell hath enlarged herself and opened her mouth without measure and their glory and their multitude and their pomp and he that # and the mean man shall be brought down and the mighty man shall be humbled and the eyes of the lofty shall be humbled # shall be exalted in judgment and god that is holy shall be # then shall the lambs feed after their manner and the waste places of the fat ones shall strangers eat # unto them that draw iniquity with cords of vanity and sin as it were with a cart rope # his work that we may see it and let the # holy one of israel draw nigh and come that we may know it # unto them that call evil good and good evil that put darkness for light and light for darkness that put bitter for sweet and sweet for bitter # shall go up as dust because they have cast away the law of the Lord of hosts and despised the word of the holy one of # the anger of the Lord kindled against his people and he hath stretched forth his hand against them and hath smitten them and the hills did tremble and their # were torn in the midst of the streets for all this his anger is not turned away but his hand # and he will lift up an ensign to the nations from far and will hiss unto them from the end of the earth and behold they shall come with speed swiftly # none shall be weary nor stumble among them none shall slumber nor sleep neither shall the girdle of their loins be loosed nor the latchet of their shoes be broken # their horses hoofs shall be counted like flint and their wheels # they shall roar like young lions yea they shall roar and lay hold of the prey and shall carry # and in that day they shall roar against them like the roaring of the sea and if # look unto the land behold darkness and sorrow and the light is darkened in the heavens thereof # in the year that king uzziah died I saw also the Lord # upon a throne high and lifted up and his train filled the temple # above it stood the seraphims each one had six wings with twain he covered his face and with twain he # and one cried unto another and said holy holy holy is the Lord of hosts the whole earth is full of his glory # and the posts of the door moved at the voice of him that cried and the house was filled with smoke # a man of unclean lips and I dwell in the midst of a people of unclean lips for mine eyes have seen the king the Lord of hosts # then flew one of the seraphims unto me having a live coal in # hand which he had taken with the tongs from off the altar # and he laid it upon my mouth and said lo this # and thine iniquity is taken away and thy sin purged # heard the voice of the Lord saying whom shall I send and who will go for us # and he said go and tell this people hear ye indeed but # make the heart of this people fat and make their ears # and shut their eyes lest they see with their eyes and hear with their ears and understand with their heart and convert and be healed # until the cities be wasted without inhabitant and the houses without man and the land be utterly desolate # be a great forsaking in the midst of the land # shall return and shall be eaten as a teil tree and as an oak whose # is in them when they cast their leaves so the holy seed shall be the substance thereof # and it came to pass in the days of ahaz the son of jotham the son of uzziah king of judah # king of syria and pekah the son of remaliah king of israel went up # jerusalem to war against it but could not prevail against it # and it was told the house of david saying syria is # with ephraim and his heart was moved and the heart of his people as the trees of the wood are moved with the wind # then said the Lord unto isaiah go forth now to meet ahaz thou and shearjashub thy son at the end of the # of the upper pool in the highway of the fuller s field # and say unto him take heed and be quiet fear not neither be # for the fierce anger of rezin with syria and of the son of # because syria ephraim and the son of remaliah have taken evil counsel against thee saying # let us go up against judah and vex it and let us make a breach therein for us and set a king in the midst of it # thus saith the Lord god it shall not stand neither shall it come to pass # for the head of syria is damascus and the head of damascus # rezin and within threescore and five years shall ephraim be broken that it be not a people # and the head of ephraim is samaria and the head of samaria is remaliah s son if ye will not believe surely ye shall not be established # thee a sign of the Lord thy god ask it either in the # but ahaz said I will not ask neither will I tempt the Lord # and he said hear ye now o house of david is it a small thing for you to weary men but will ye weary my god also # therefore the Lord himself shall give you a sign behold a virgin shall conceive and # butter and honey shall he eat that he may know to refuse the evil and # for before the child shall know to refuse the evil and choose the good the land that thou abhorrest # the Lord shall bring upon thee and upon thy people and upon thy father s house days that have not come from the day that ephraim departed from judah # and it shall come to pass in that day that the Lord shall hiss for the fly that is in the uttermost part of # of egypt and for the bee that is in the land of assyria # and they shall come and shall rest all of them in the desolate valleys and in the holes of the rocks and upon all thorns and upon all bushes # in the same day shall the Lord shave with a razor that is hired # by them beyond the river by the king of assyria the head and the hair of the feet and it shall also consume the beard # a man shall nourish a young cow and two sheep # and it shall come to pass for the abundance of milk # they shall give he shall eat butter for butter and honey shall every one eat that is left in the land # every place shall be where there were a thousand vines at a thousand # with arrows and with bows shall men come thither because all the land shall # all hills that shall be digged with the mattock there shall not come thither the fear of # and thorns but it shall be for the sending forth of oxen and # the Lord said unto me take thee a great roll and write in it with a man s pen concerning # and I went unto the prophetess and she conceived and # a son then said the Lord to me call his name # of shiloah that go softly and rejoice in rezin and # now therefore behold the Lord bringeth up upon them the waters of the river strong and many even the king of assyria and all his glory and he shall come up over all his channels and go # and he shall pass through judah he shall overflow and go over he shall reach even to the neck and the stretching out of his wings shall fill the breadth of thy land o immanuel # in pieces and give ear all ye of far countries gird yourselves and ye shall be broken in pieces gird yourselves and ye shall be broken in pieces # take counsel together and it shall come to nought speak the word and it shall not stand for # for the Lord spake thus to me with a strong hand and # me that I should not walk in the way of this people saying # to whom this people shall say a confederacy neither fear ye their fear nor be afraid # sanctify the Lord of hosts himself and let him be your fear and let him be your dread # and he shall be for a sanctuary but for a stone of stumbling and for a rock of # to both the houses of israel for a gin and # and fall and be broken and be snared and be taken # bind up the testimony seal the law among my disciples # and I will wait upon the Lord that hideth his face from the house of jacob and I will look for him # the Lord hath given me are for signs and for wonders in israel from the Lord of hosts which dwelleth in mount zion # and when they shall say unto you seek unto them # if they speak not according to this word it is because there is no light in them # and they shall pass through it hardly bestead and hungry and it shall come to pass that when they shall be hungry they shall fret themselves and curse their king and their god and look upward # nevertheless the dimness shall not be such as was in her vexation when at the first he lightly afflicted the land of # the people that walked in darkness have seen a great # they that dwell in the land of the shadow of death upon them hath the # increased the joy they joy before thee according to the joy in harvest and as men rejoice when they divide the spoil # for thou hast broken the yoke of his burden and the staff of his shoulder the rod of his oppressor # rolled in blood but this shall be with burning and fuel of fire # for unto us a child is born unto us a son is given and the government shall be upon his shoulder and his name # be called wonderful counsellor the mighty god the everlasting father the prince of peace # no end upon the throne of david and upon his kingdom to order it and to # the zeal of the Lord of hosts will perform this # and all the people shall know even ephraim and the # the bricks are fallen down but we will build with # are cut down but we will change them into cedars # the syrians before and the philistines behind and they shall devour israel with open # for all this his anger is not turned away but his hand # from israel head and tail branch and rush in one day # for the leaders of this people cause them to err and they that are led of them are destroyed # therefore the Lord shall have no joy in their young men neither shall have mercy on their fatherless and widows for every one # folly for all this his anger is not turned away # as the fire it shall devour the briers and thorns and shall kindle in the thickets of the # land darkened and the people shall be as the fuel of the fire no man shall spare his brother # and he shall snatch on the right hand and be hungry and he shall eat on the left hand and they shall not be satisfied they shall eat every man the # shall be against judah for all this his anger is not turned away but his hand # unto them that decree unrighteous decrees and that write grievousness which they have prescribed # to turn aside the needy from judgment and to take away the right from the poor of my people that widows may be their prey and that they may rob the fatherless # and what will ye do in the day of visitation and in the desolation which shall come from far to whom will ye flee for help and where will ye leave your glory # without me they shall bow down under the prisoners and they shall fall under the slain for all this his anger # o assyrian the rod of mine anger and the staff in their hand is # nation and against the people of my wrath will I give him a charge to take the spoil and to take the prey and to tread them down like the mire of the streets # howbeit he meaneth not so neither doth his heart think so but # the kingdoms of the idols and whose graven images did excel them of jerusalem and of # shall I not as I have done unto samaria and her idols so do to jerusalem and # wherefore it shall come to pass that when the Lord hath performed his whole work upon mount zion and # jerusalem I will punish the fruit of the stout heart of the king of assyria and the glory of his # and I have put down the inhabitants like a valiant # hand hath found as a nest the riches of the # and as one gathereth eggs that are left have I gathered all the earth and there was none that moved the wing or opened the mouth or peeped # shall the axe boast itself against him that heweth therewith # shall the saw magnify itself against him that shaketh it as if the rod should shake itself against them that lift it up or as if the staff should lift up # therefore shall the Lord the Lord of hosts send among his fat ones leanness and # his glory he shall kindle a burning like the burning of a fire # and the light of israel shall be for a fire and his holy one for a flame and # and shall consume the glory of his forest and of his fruitful field both soul and body and they shall # and the rest of the trees of his forest shall be few that a child may write them # and it shall come to pass in that day that the # and such as are escaped of the house of jacob shall no more again stay upon him # for though thy people israel be as the sand of the sea yet a remnant of them shall return the consumption decreed shall overflow with righteousness # therefore thus saith the Lord god of hosts o my people that dwellest in zion be not afraid of the assyrian he shall smite thee with a rod and shall lift up his staff against thee after the manner of egypt # for yet a very little while and the indignation shall cease and mine anger in their destruction # to the slaughter of midian at the rock of oreb and as his rod # upon the sea so shall he lift it up after the manner of egypt # and it shall come to pass in that day that his burden shall be taken away from off thy shoulder and his yoke # off thy neck and the yoke shall be destroyed because of the anointing # he is come to aiath he is passed to migron at michmash he hath laid up his carriages # they are gone over the passage they have taken up their lodging at geba # of gallim cause it to be heard unto laish o poor # his hand against the mount of the daughter of zion the hill of jerusalem # behold the Lord the Lord of hosts shall lop the bough with terror and the high ones of stature shall be hewn # with iron and lebanon shall fall by a mighty one # and there shall come forth a rod out of the stem of jesse and a branch shall grow out of his roots # and the spirit of the Lord shall rest upon him the spirit of wisdom and # the spirit of counsel and might the spirit of knowledge and of the fear of the Lord # in the fear of the Lord and he shall not judge # sight of his eyes neither reprove after the hearing of his ears # with equity for the meek of the earth and he shall smite the earth with the rod of his mouth and with the breath of his lips shall he slay the wicked # be the girdle of his loins and faithfulness the girdle of his reins # the wolf also shall dwell with the lamb and the leopard shall lie down with the kid and the calf and the young lion and the # and the cow and the bear shall feed their young ones shall lie down # child shall play on the hole of the asp and the # they shall not hurt nor destroy in all my holy mountain for the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the Lord as the waters cover the sea # and in that day there shall be a root of jesse which shall stand for an ensign of the people to it shall the gentiles seek and his rest shall be glorious # that day that the Lord shall set his hand again the second time to recover the remnant of his people which shall be left from assyria and from egypt and from # and from cush and from elam and from shinar and from hamath and from the islands of the sea # for the nations and shall assemble the outcasts of israel # adversaries of judah shall be cut off ephraim shall not # fly upon the shoulders of the philistines toward the west they shall spoil them of the east together they shall lay their hand upon edom and moab and the children of # and the Lord shall utterly destroy the tongue of the egyptian sea and with his mighty # shake his hand over the river and shall smite it in the seven streams and make men go over # as it was to israel in the day that he came up out of the land of egypt # and in that day thou shalt say o Lord I will praise thee though thou wast angry with me thine anger is turned away and thou # behold god is my salvation I will trust and not be afraid for the Lord jehovah is my strength and my song he also is become my salvation # with joy shall ye draw water out of the wells of salvation # and in that day shall ye say praise the Lord call upon his name declare his doings among the people make mention that his name is exalted # sing unto the Lord for he hath done excellent things this is known in all the earth # cry out and shout thou inhabitant of zion for great is the holy one of israel in the midst of thee # the burden of babylon which isaiah the son of amoz did see # lift ye up a banner upon the high mountain exalt the voice unto them shake the hand that they may go into the gates of the nobles # I have commanded my sanctified ones I have also called my mighty ones for mine anger # multitude in the mountains like as of a great people a tumultuous noise of the kingdoms of nations gathered together the Lord of hosts mustereth the # they come from a far country from the end of heaven # the Lord and the weapons of his indignation to destroy the whole land # howl ye for the day of the Lord is at hand it shall come as a destruction from the almighty # pangs and sorrows shall take hold of them they shall # amazed one at another their faces shall be as flames # behold the day of the Lord cometh cruel both with # and fierce anger to lay the land desolate and he shall destroy the sinners thereof out of it # for the stars of heaven and the constellations thereof shall not give their light the sun shall be darkened in # I will cause the arrogancy of the proud to cease and will lay # I will make a man more precious than fine gold even a man than the golden wedge of ophir # therefore I will shake the heavens and the earth shall remove out of her place in the # of the Lord of hosts and in the day of his fierce anger # and it shall be as the chased roe and as a sheep that no man taketh up they shall every man turn to his own people and flee every one into his own land # their children also shall be dashed to pieces before their eyes their houses shall be spoiled and their wives ravished # behold I will stir up the medes against them which shall not regard silver and # dash the young men to pieces and they shall have no pity on the fruit of the womb their eyes shall not spare children # and babylon the glory of kingdoms the beauty of the # but wild beasts of the desert shall lie there and their houses shall be full of doleful creatures and owls shall dwell there and satyrs shall dance there # and the wild beasts of the islands shall cry in their desolate houses and dragons in their pleasant palaces and her time is near to come and her # for the Lord will have mercy on jacob and will yet choose israel and set them in their own land and the strangers shall be joined with them and they shall cleave to the house of # and the people shall take them and bring them to their # and it shall come to pass in that day that the Lord shall # day that the Lord shall give thee rest from thy sorrow and from thy fear and from the hard bondage wherein thou wast made to serve # and it shall come to pass in that day that # that thou shalt take up this proverb against the king of babylon and say how hath the oppressor ceased the golden city ceased # he who smote the people in wrath with a continual stroke he that ruled the nations in anger is persecuted and none hindereth # the whole earth is at rest and is quiet they break forth into singing # the cedars of lebanon saying since thou art laid down no feller is come up against us # hell from beneath is moved for thee to meet thee at thy coming it stirreth up the dead for thee even all the chief ones of the earth it hath raised up from their thrones all the kings of the nations # all they shall speak and say unto thee art thou also become weak as we art thou become like unto us # the worm is spread under thee and the worms cover thee # how art thou fallen from heaven o lucifer son of the morning # I will exalt my throne above the stars of god i # sit also upon the mount of the congregation in the sides of the north # I will ascend above the heights of the clouds I will be like the most high # yet thou shalt be brought down to hell to the sides of the pit # is this the man that made the earth to tremble that did shake kingdoms # made the world as a wilderness and destroyed the cities thereof # but thou art cast out of thy grave like an abominable branch and # of those that are slain thrust through with a sword that go down to the stones of the pit as a # thou shalt not be joined with them in burial because thou hast # will also make it a possession for the bittern and pools of water and I will sweep it with the # Lord of hosts hath sworn saying surely as I have thought so # it come to pass and as I have purposed so shall it stand # the assyrian in my land and upon my mountains tread him under foot then shall his yoke depart from # this is the purpose that is purposed upon the whole earth and this is the hand that is stretched out upon all # for the Lord of hosts hath purposed and who shall disannul # in the year that king ahaz died was this burden # rejoice not thou whole palestina because the rod of him that smote thee is broken for out of the serpent s root shall come forth a cockatrice and his fruit shall be a fiery # of the poor shall feed and the needy shall lie down in safety and I will kill thy root with famine and he shall slay thy remnant # thou whole palestina art dissolved for there shall come from the north a smoke and none shall be alone in his appointed times # that the Lord hath founded zion and the poor of his people shall trust in it # terrible ones shall be as chaff that passeth away yea # be visited of the Lord of hosts with thunder and with earthquake and # and that distress her shall be as a dream of a # dreameth and behold he drinketh but he awaketh and behold he is faint and his soul hath appetite # the Lord hath poured out upon you the spirit of deep sleep # I will proceed to do a marvellous work among this people # unto them that seek deep to hide their counsel from the Lord and their works are in the dark and they say who seeth us and who # surely your turning of things upside down shall be esteemed as the # that made it he made me not or shall the thing # not yet a very little while and lebanon shall be turned into a fruitful field and the fruitful # of the book and the eyes of the blind shall see out of obscurity and out of # poor among men shall rejoice in the holy one of israel # to nought and the scorner is consumed and all that watch for iniquity are cut # that make a man an offender for a word and lay a snare for him that reproveth in the gate and turn aside the just for a thing of nought # therefore thus saith the Lord who redeemed abraham concerning the house of jacob jacob shall not now be ashamed neither shall his face now wax pale # hands in the midst of him they shall sanctify my name and sanctify the holy one of jacob and shall fear the god of israel # it shall come to pass in that day that the # with equity for the meek of the earth and he shall smite the earth with the rod of his mouth and with the breath of his lips shall he slay the wicked # and righteousness shall be the girdle of his loins and faithfulness the girdle of his reins # dwell with the lamb and the leopard shall lie down with the kid and the calf and the young lion and the fatling together and a little child shall lead them # feed their young ones shall lie down together and the lion shall eat straw like the ox # play on the hole of the asp and the weaned child # they shall not hurt nor destroy in all my holy mountain for the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the Lord as the waters cover the sea # of the father and of the son and of the holy ghost # shall set his hand again the second time to recover # to day if ye will hear his voice harden not your hearts # they shall know that I am the Lord their god # are the feet of him that bringeth good tidings that # up the voice with the voice together shall they sing for they shall see eye to eye when the Lord shall bring again zion # places of jerusalem for the Lord hath comforted his people he hath redeemed jerusalem # his holy arm in the eyes of all the nations and all the ends of the earth shall see the salvation of our god # I am the Lord thy god which have brought thee out of the land of egypt out of the house of bondage # thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image or any # thou shalt not bow down thyself unto them nor serve them for I the Lord thy god am a jealous god visiting the # of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth # of the Lord thy god in vain for the Lord will not hold him guiltless that taketh his name in vain # thou shalt not do any work thou nor thy son nor thy daughter thy # nor thy cattle nor thy stranger that is within thy gates # for in six days the Lord made heaven and earth and # made heaven and earth and the sea and all that in them is # and thy mother that thy days may be long upon the land # thou shalt not commit adultery thou shalt not steal thou shalt not bear false witness # nor his ox nor his ass nor any thing that is thy # who hath believed our report and to whom is the arm of the # for he shall grow up before him as a tender plant and as a root out of # dry ground he hath no form nor comeliness and when # shall see him there is no beauty that we should desire him # he is despised and rejected of men a man of sorrows and acquainted with grief and we hid as it were our faces from him he was # surely he hath borne our griefs and carried our sorrows yet we did esteem him stricken smitten of god and afflicted # he was bruised for our iniquities the chastisement of our peace was upon him and with # turned every one to his own way and the Lord hath laid on # mouth he is brought as a lamb to the slaughter and as a sheep before her shearers is dumb so he # he was taken from prison and from judgment and who shall # and he made his grave with the wicked and with the rich in # yet it pleased the Lord to bruise him he hath put him to grief when thou shalt make his soul an # for sin he shall see his seed he shall prolong his days and the pleasure of the Lord shall prosper in his hand # he shall see of the travail of his soul and shall be # shall my righteous servant justify many for he shall bear their iniquities # therefore will I divide him a portion with the great and he shall divide the spoil with the strong # he hath poured out his soul unto death and he was numbered with the transgressors and he bare the # the mountains are the feet of him that bringeth good tidings that # break forth into joy sing together ye waste places of # eyes of all the nations and all the ends of the earth shall see the salvation of our god # of the only begotten of the father full of grace and # I say unto you that it shall be more tolerable for # of the only begotten of the father full of grace # the beginning and the end the first and the last # turn aside to the right hand or to the left # the god of abraham and the god of isaac and the god of jacob and # put forth his hand and take also of the tree of life and # heat of the day and it came to pass that # repent ye for the kingdom of heaven is at hand # in heaven and whatsoever ye shall loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven # the god of abraham and the god of isaac and the god of jacob # I am in the father and the father in me # in the name of the father and of the son and of the holy ghost # I am in the father and the father in me # they which do hunger and thirst after righteousness for they shall be filled # and shall say all manner of evil against you falsely for # your reward in heaven for so persecuted they the prophets which were before you # thenceforth good for nothing but to be cast out and to be trodden under foot of men # that they may see your good works and glorify your father which is in heaven # think not that I am come to destroy the law or the prophets I am not come to destroy but to fulfil # ye shall in no case enter into the kingdom of # ye have heard that it hath been said by them of old time # thou shalt not kill and whosoever shall kill shall be in danger of the # but I say unto you that whosoever is angry with his brother # and whosoever shall say to his brother raca shall be in danger of the council # thou art in the way with him lest at any time # verily I say unto thee thou shalt by no means come out thence # you that whosoever looketh on a woman to lust after her hath committed adultery # whosoever shall put away his wife let him give her a writing of divorcement # I say unto you that whosoever shall put away his wife saving for the cause of fornication causeth her to commit adultery and # I say unto you swear not at all neither by heaven for it is god s throne # but let your communication be yea yea nay nay for whatsoever # an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth # evil but whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek turn to him the other also # and if any man will sue thee at the law and take away thy coat let him have thy cloak also # I say unto you love your enemies bless them that curse you do good to them that hate you and pray for them which despitefully use you and persecute you # which is in heaven for he maketh his sun to rise on the evil and on the good # take heed that ye do not your alms before men to be seen of them # otherwise ye have no reward of your father which is in heaven # synagogues and in the streets that they may have glory of men verily I say unto you they have their reward # thou doest alms let not thy left hand know what thy right hand doeth # that thine alms may be in secret and thy father # for they love to pray standing in the synagogues and in the corners of the streets that they may be seen of men verily I say unto you they have their reward # prayest enter into thy closet and when thou hast shut thy door pray to thy father which is in secret and thy father which seeth in secret shall reward thee openly # but when ye pray use not vain repetitions as the heathen # for they think that they shall be heard for their much speaking # be not ye therefore like unto them for your father knoweth what things ye have need of before ye ask him # after this manner therefore pray ye our father which art in heaven hallowed be thy name thy # thy will be done in earth as it is in heaven # and lead us not into temptation but deliver us from evil for thine is the kingdom and the power and the glory for ever amen # for if ye forgive men their trespasses your heavenly father will also forgive you # moreover when ye fast be not as the hypocrites of a sad countenance for they disfigure their faces that they may # unto men to fast verily I say unto you they have their reward # that thou appear not unto men to fast but unto thy father which is in secret and thy father which seeth in secret shall reward thee openly # but lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt and # for where your treasure is there will your heart be also # the light of the body is the eye if therefore # eye be single thy whole body shall be full of light # but if thine eye be evil thy whole body shall be full of # if therefore the light that is in thee be darkness how great is # no man can serve two masters for either he will hate the one and love the other or else he will hold to the one and despise the other ye cannot serve god and mammon # therefore I say unto you take no thought for your life what ye shall eat or what ye shall drink nor yet for your body what ye shall put on is not the life more than meat and the body than raiment # behold the fowls of the air for they sow not neither do they reap nor gather into barns yet your heavenly father feedeth them are ye not much better than they # which of you by taking thought can add one cubit unto his stature # and why take ye thought for raiment consider the lilies of the field how they grow they toil not neither do they spin # and yet I say unto you that even solomon in all # wherefore if god so clothe the grass of the field which to day is and to morrow is cast into the oven # therefore take no thought saying what shall we eat or what shall we drink or wherewithal shall we be clothed # but seek ye first the kingdom of god and his righteousness and # take therefore no thought for the morrow for the morrow shall take thought for the things of itself sufficient # ye judge ye shall be judged and with what measure ye mete it shall be measured to you again # and why beholdest thou the mote that is in thy brother s eye but considerest not the beam that is in thine own eye # brother let me pull out the mote out of thine eye and behold a beam is in thine own eye # thou hypocrite first cast out the beam out of thine own eye and then shalt thou see clearly to cast out the mote out of thy brother s eye # give not that which is holy unto the dogs neither cast ye your pearls before swine lest they trample them under their feet and turn again and rend you # you seek and ye shall find knock and it shall be opened unto you # for every one that asketh receiveth and he that seeketh findeth and to him that knocketh it shall be opened # or what man is there of you whom if his son ask bread # he give him a stone or if he ask a fish will he # or if he ask a fish will he give him a serpent # if ye then being evil know how to give good gifts unto your children how much more shall your father which is in heaven give good things to them that ask him # therefore all things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you do ye even so to them for this is the law and the prophets # gate for wide is the gate and broad is the way that leadeth to destruction and many there be which go in thereat # is the way which leadeth unto life and few there be that find it # beware of false prophets which come to you in sheep s clothing but inwardly they are ravening wolves # ye shall know them by their fruits do men gather grapes of thorns or figs of thistles # even so every good tree bringeth forth good fruit but a corrupt tree bringeth forth evil fruit # every tree that bringeth not forth good fruit is hewn down and cast into the fire # not every one that saith unto me Lord Lord shall enter into the kingdom of heaven but he that doeth the will of my father which is in heaven # many will say to me in that day Lord Lord have we not prophesied in thy name and in thy name have cast out devils and in thy name done many # profess unto them I never knew you depart from me ye that work iniquity # heareth these sayings of mine and doeth them I will liken him unto a wise man which built his house upon a rock # and the rain descended and the floods came and the # blew and beat upon that house and it fell not for it was founded upon a rock # these sayings of mine and doeth them not shall be likened unto a foolish man which built his house upon the sand # and the rain descended and the floods came and the winds blew and beat upon that house and it fell and great was the fall of it # other sheep I have which are not of this fold them also I must bring and they shall hear my voice and there shall be one fold and one shepherd # other sheep I have which are not of this fold them also I must # and they shall hear my voice and there shall be one fold and one shepherd # is thenceforth good for nothing but to be cast out and to be trodden under foot of # thy watchmen shall lift up the voice with the voice together shall they sing for they shall see eye to eye when the Lord shall bring again zion # break forth into joy sing together ye waste places of jerusalem for the Lord hath comforted his people he hath redeemed jerusalem # the Lord hath made bare his holy arm in the eyes of all the nations and all the ends of the earth shall see the salvation of # to have you that he may sift you as wheat # from the east and from the west and from the # as a young lion among the flocks of sheep who if he # through both treadeth down and teareth in pieces and none can deliver # a prophet shall the Lord your god raise up unto you of your brethren like unto me him shall ye hear in all things whatsoever he shall say unto you # and it shall come to pass that every soul which will not hear that prophet shall be # fathers saying unto abraham and in thy seed shall all the kindreds of the earth be blessed # to bless you in turning away every one of you from his # in thy seed shall all the kindreds of the earth be blessed # with the voice together shall they sing for they shall see eye to eye # hath made bare his holy arm in the eyes of all the nations and all the ends of the earth shall see the salvation of # put on thy strength o zion put on thy beautiful garments o jerusalem the holy city for henceforth there shall no more come into thee the uncircumcised and the unclean # sit down o jerusalem loose thyself from the bands of thy neck o # for thus saith the Lord ye have sold yourselves for nought and ye shall be redeemed without money # depart ye depart ye go ye out from thence touch # go ye out of the midst of her be ye clean that bear the vessels of the Lord # for ye shall not go out with haste nor go by flight for the Lord will go before you # behold my servant shall deal prudently he shall be exalted and extolled and be very high # so marred more than any man and his form more than the sons of men # so shall he sprinkle many nations the kings shall shut their mouths at him for that which had # been told them shall they see and that which they had not heard shall they consider # for that which had not been told them shall they see and that which they had not heard shall they consider # as a lion among the beasts of the forest as a young lion among the # of sheep who if he go through both treadeth down and teareth in pieces and none can deliver # for it shall come to pass in that day saith the # that I will cut off thy horses out of the midst of thee and I will destroy thy chariots # and I will cut off the cities of thy land and throw down all thy strong holds # cut off and thy standing images out of the midst of thee and thou shalt no more worship the # and I will pluck up thy groves out of the midst of thee so will I destroy thy cities # sing o barren thou that didst not bear break forth into singing and cry aloud thou that didst not travail with child for more are the children of the desolate than the children of the married wife saith the Lord # enlarge the place of thy tent and let them stretch forth the curtains of # for thou shalt break forth on the right hand and on the left and thy seed shall # the gentiles and make the desolate cities to be inhabited # fear not for thou shalt not be ashamed neither be thou # for thou shalt not be put to shame for thou shalt forget the shame of thy youth and shalt not remember the # husband the Lord of hosts is his name and thy redeemer # holy one of israel the god of the whole earth shall he # and grieved in spirit and a wife of youth when thou wast refused saith thy god # for a small moment have I forsaken thee but with great mercies will I gather thee # in a little wrath I hid my face from thee for a moment but with # kindness will I have mercy on thee saith the Lord thy redeemer # the waters of noah unto me for as I have sworn that the waters of noah should no more go over the earth so have I sworn that I would not be wroth with thee # for the mountains shall depart and the hills be removed but my kindness shall not depart from thee neither shall the # be removed saith the Lord that hath mercy on thee # o thou afflicted tossed with tempest and not comforted behold I will lay thy stones with fair # and I will make thy windows of agates and thy gates of carbuncles and all thy borders of pleasant stones # and all thy children shall be taught of the Lord and great shall be the peace of thy children # in righteousness shalt thou be established thou shalt be far from oppression for thou shalt not fear and from terror for it shall not come near thee # not by me whosoever shall gather together against thee shall fall for thy sake # behold I have created the smith that bloweth the coals in the fire and that bringeth forth an # for his work and I have created the waster to destroy # no weapon that is formed against thee shall prosper and # thou shalt condemn this is the heritage of the servants of the Lord and their righteousness is of me saith the Lord # behold I will send my messenger and he shall prepare the way before me and the Lord whom ye seek shall suddenly come to his temple even the messenger of the covenant whom ye delight in behold he shall come saith the Lord of hosts # but who may abide the day of his coming and who shall stand when he # for he is like a refiner s fire and like fullers soap # the sons of levi and purge them as gold and silver that they may offer unto the Lord an offering in righteousness # then shall the offering of judah and jerusalem be pleasant unto the Lord as in # and I will be a swift witness against the sorcerers and against the adulterers and against false swearers and against those that oppress the hireling in his wages the widow and the fatherless and that turn aside the stranger # am the Lord I change not therefore ye sons of jacob are not consumed # even from the days of your fathers ye are gone away from mine ordinances and have not kept them return unto me and I will return unto you saith the Lord of hosts but ye said wherein shall we return # will a man rob god yet ye have robbed me but ye say wherein have we robbed thee in tithes and offerings # ye are cursed with a curse for ye have robbed me even this whole nation # bring ye all the tithes into the storehouse that there may be meat in # house and prove me now herewith saith the Lord of hosts if I will not open you the windows of heaven and pour you out a blessing that there shall not be room enough to receive it # and I will rebuke the devourer for your sakes and he shall not destroy the fruits of your ground neither shall your vine cast her fruit before the time in the field saith the Lord of hosts # and all nations shall call you blessed for ye shall be a delightsome land saith the Lord of hosts # your words have been stout against me saith the Lord # ye have said it is vain to serve god and what # that we have kept his ordinance and that we have walked # and now we call the proud happy yea they that work wickedness are set up yea # then they that feared the Lord spake often one to another and the Lord hearkened and heard # was written before him for them that feared the Lord and that thought upon his name # saith the Lord of hosts in that day when I make up my # and I will spare them as a man spareth his own son that serveth him # then shall ye return and discern between the righteous and the wicked between him that serveth god and # that shall burn as an oven and all the proud yea and all that do wickedly shall be stubble and the day that cometh shall # them up saith the Lord of hosts that it shall leave them # in his wings and ye shall go forth and grow up as calves # and ye shall tread down the wicked for they shall be ashes under the soles of your feet in the day that I shall do this saith the Lord of hosts # remember ye the law of moses my servant which i # unto him in horeb for all israel with the statutes and # behold I will send you elijah the prophet before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the Lord # and he shall turn the heart of the fathers to the children and the heart of the children to their fathers lest # stood in the midst of them and saith unto them # the god of abraham and the god of isaac and the god of jacob and # go ye into all the world and preach the gospel to every creature # he that believeth and is baptized shall be saved but he that believeth not shall be damned # and these signs shall follow them that believe in my name shall they cast out # they shall take up serpents and if they drink any deadly thing it shall not hurt them they shall lay hands on the sick and they shall # that which was right in the sight of the Lord # he did that which was right in the sight of the Lord and # not her own is not easily provoked thinketh no evil # beareth all things believeth all things hopeth all things endureth all things # that when he shall appear we shall be like him for we shall see him as he is # but it is the same god which worketh all in all # to another the gifts of healing by the same spirit {{colend}} == References == {{reflist}} [[Category:Biblical studies]] c22qowzinqlx4c6ljxehrgl4g5jgyqw 2817591 2817590 2026-07-02T11:35:10Z Anish0009e 3098405 Undid revision [[Special:Diff/2817590|2817590]] by [[Special:Contributions/Anish0009e|Anish0009e]] ([[User talk:Anish0009e|talk]]) 2817591 wikitext text/x-wiki {{TOCright}} {{clr}} == Phrases found in both BOM and KJB == Phrases of ten words (or more) found in both BOM and KJB:<ref>https://archive.org/details/thebibleoldandne00010gut</ref> {{colbegin|2}} # now I know of a surety that the Lord hath # the god of abraham and the god of isaac and the god of jacob and # in the wilderness prepare ye the way of the Lord # in thy seed shall all the kindreds of the earth be blessed # and are come forth out of the waters of judah which swear # the name of the Lord and make mention of the god # I have declared the former things from the beginning and they went forth out of my mouth and I shewed them I did # because I knew that thou art obstinate and thy neck # idol hath done them and my graven image and my molten image hath # I have shewed thee new things from this time even hidden things and thou didst not know them # they are created now and not from the beginning even before the day when thou # thine ear was not opened for I knew that thou wouldest deal very treacherously and wast called a transgressor from the womb # will I defer mine anger and for my praise will I refrain # laid the foundation of the earth and my right hand hath spanned the heavens # he will do his pleasure on babylon and his arm shall # I have brought him and he shall make his way prosperous # I have not spoken in secret from the beginning from the time that it was # the Lord thy god which teacheth thee to profit which leadeth thee by the way # o that thou hadst hearkened to my commandments then had thy peace been as a river and thy righteousness as the waves of the sea # like the gravel thereof his name should not have been cut off nor destroyed from before me # go ye forth of babylon flee ye from the chaldeans with a voice of singing declare ye tell this utter # to the end of the earth say ye the Lord hath redeemed his servant jacob # he led them through the deserts he caused the waters to flow out of the rock for them he # there is no peace saith the Lord unto the wicked # listen o isles unto me and hearken ye people from far the Lord hath called me from the womb from the # of my mother hath he made mention of my name # and he hath made my mouth like a sharp sword in the shadow of his hand hath he hid me and made me a polished shaft in his quiver hath he hid me # in vain I have spent my strength for nought and in vain # surely my judgment is with the Lord and my work # and now saith the Lord that formed me from the womb # be his servant to bring jacob again to him though israel be not gathered yet shall I be glorious in the eyes of the Lord and my god shall be my strength # and he said it is a light thing that thou shouldest be my # tribes of jacob and to restore the preserved of israel i # also give thee for a light to the gentiles that thou mayest be my salvation unto the # his holy one to him whom man despiseth to him whom the # servant of rulers kings shall see and arise princes also shall worship because of the Lord that is faithful # thus saith the Lord in an acceptable time have I heard thee # of the people to establish the earth to cause to inherit the desolate heritages # that thou mayest say to the prisoners go forth to them that # they shall feed in the ways and their pastures shall be in all high places # shall lead them even by the springs of water shall he guide them # north and from the west and these from the land of sinim # for the Lord hath comforted his people and will have mercy upon his afflicted # child that she should not have compassion on the son of her womb # yea they may forget yet will I not forget thee # thy destroyers and they that made thee waste shall go forth of thee # lift up thine eyes round about and behold all these gather themselves together and # surely clothe thee with them all as with an ornament and bind them on # be too narrow by reason of the inhabitants and they that swallowed thee up shall # the children which thou shalt have after thou hast lost the other shall # for me give place to me that I may dwell # begotten me these seeing I have lost my children and am desolate a captive and removing to and fro and who hath brought up these # the Lord god behold I will lift up mine hand to the gentiles and set up my standard to the people and they # the earth and lick up the dust of thy feet and thou shalt know that I am the Lord # shall the prey be taken from the mighty or the lawful # mighty shall be taken away and the prey of the terrible shall be # will contend with him that contendeth with thee and I will save thy children # own blood as with sweet wine and all flesh shall know that I the Lord am # a prophet shall the Lord your god raise up unto you # like unto me him shall ye hear in all things whatsoever he shall say unto # thus saith the Lord god behold I will lift up mine hand to the gentiles and set up my standard to the people and they shall bring thy sons in their arms and thy daughters shall be carried upon their shoulders # and kings shall be thy nursing fathers and their queens thy nursing mothers they shall bow down to thee # the earth and lick up the dust of thy feet and thou shalt know that I am the Lord for they shall not be ashamed that wait for me # shall the prey be taken from the mighty or the lawful captive delivered # but thus saith the Lord even the captives of the mighty shall be taken away and the prey of the terrible shall be # and I will feed them that oppress thee with their own flesh and they shall be drunken with their own blood as with sweet wine and all flesh shall know that I the Lord am thy saviour and thy redeemer the mighty one of jacob # thus saith the Lord where is the bill of your mother s divorcement # sold you behold for your iniquities have ye sold yourselves and for your transgressions is your mother put away # the Lord god hath given me the tongue of the learned # hair I hid not my face from shame and spitting # for the Lord god will help me therefore shall I not be confounded therefore have I set my face like a flint and I know that I shall not be ashamed # me who will contend with me let us stand together who is mine adversary # who is among you that feareth the Lord that obeyeth the voice of his servant that walketh in darkness and hath no light # about with sparks walk in the light of your fire and in the sparks # ye have kindled this shall ye have of mine hand ye shall lie down in sorrow # whence ye are hewn and to the hole of the pit # that bare you for I called him alone and blessed him # comfort all her waste places and he will make her # like eden and her desert like the garden of the Lord joy and gladness shall be found therein thanksgiving and the voice of melody # hearken unto me my people and give ear unto me # my nation for a law shall proceed from me and I will make my judgment to rest for a light # shall judge the people the isles shall wait upon me and on mine arm shall they trust # and look upon the earth beneath for the heavens shall vanish away like smoke and the earth shall wax old like a garment and they that dwell therein shall die in like manner but my salvation shall be # hearken unto me ye that know righteousness the people in whose heart # my law fear ye not the reproach of men neither be ye afraid of their # for the moth shall eat them up like a garment and the worm shall eat them like wool but my righteousness shall be # awake awake put on strength o arm of the Lord awake as in the ancient days # art thou not it that hath cut rahab and wounded the dragon # art thou not it which hath dried the sea the waters of the great deep that hath made the depths of the sea a way for the ransomed to pass over # the redeemed of the Lord shall return and come with singing unto zion and everlasting joy # shall die and of the son of man which shall be made # the Lord thy maker that hath stretched forth the heavens and laid the foundations of the earth and hast feared continually every day because of the fury of the oppressor as if he were ready to # the captive exile hasteneth that he may be loosed and that # and I have put my words in thy mouth and # covered thee in the shadow of mine hand that I may plant the heavens and lay the foundations of the earth and say unto zion # awake awake stand up o jerusalem which hast drunk at the hand of the Lord the cup of his fury thou hast drunken the dregs of the cup of trembling # that taketh her by the hand of all the sons # are come unto thee who shall be sorry for thee # they lie at the head of all the streets as a wild bull in a net they are full of the fury of the Lord the # pleadeth the cause of his people behold I have taken out of thine hand the cup of trembling # the dregs of the cup of my fury thou shalt no more drink it again # said to thy soul bow down that we may go over and thou hast laid thy body as the ground and as the street to them that went over # awake awake put on thy strength o zion put on thy beautiful garments o jerusalem the holy city for # there shall no more come into thee the uncircumcised and the unclean # sit down o jerusalem loose thyself from the bands of thy neck o captive daughter of zion # every one that thirsteth come ye to the waters and he that hath no money come # buy and eat yea come buy wine and milk without # the word that isaiah the son of amoz saw concerning judah and jerusalem # and it shall come to pass in the last days # in the top of the mountains and shall be exalted above the hills and all nations shall flow unto it # and many people shall go and say come ye and let us go up to the mountain of the Lord to the house of the god of jacob and he will teach us of his ways and we will walk in his paths for out of zion shall go forth the law and the # and he shall judge among the nations and shall rebuke many people and they shall beat their swords into # nation shall not lift up sword against nation neither shall they learn war any more # o house of jacob come ye and let us walk in the light of the Lord # thou hast forsaken thy people the house of jacob because they be replenished from the east and # soothsayers like the philistines and they please themselves in the children of strangers # their land also is full of silver and gold neither is there any end of their # their land is also full of horses neither is there # their land also is full of idols they worship the work of their own hands # and the mean man boweth down and the great man humbleth himself # enter into the rock and hide thee in the dust for # the lofty looks of man shall be humbled and the haughtiness of men shall be bowed down and the Lord alone shall be exalted in that day # and upon all the high mountains and upon all the hills # and upon every high tower and upon every fenced wall # all the ships of tarshish and upon all pleasant pictures # loftiness of man shall be bowed down and the haughtiness of men shall be made low and the Lord alone shall be exalted in that day # and they shall go into the holes of the rocks and into the caves of the earth for # in that day a man shall cast his idols of silver and his idols of gold which # for himself to worship to the moles and to the bats # clefts of the rocks and into the tops of the ragged rocks for # cease ye from man whose breath is in his nostrils for wherein is he to be accounted of # the Lord the Lord of hosts doth take away from jerusalem and from judah the stay and the staff the whole # the mighty man and the man of war the judge and the prophet and the prudent and the ancient # man and the counsellor and the cunning artificer and the eloquent orator # to be their princes and babes shall rule over them # people shall be oppressed every one by another and every one by # the child shall behave himself proudly against the ancient and the base against the # take hold of his brother of the house of his father # in that day shall he swear saying I will not be # is neither bread nor clothing make me not a ruler of the people # for jerusalem is ruined and judah is fallen because their # against the Lord to provoke the eyes of his glory # the shew of their countenance doth witness against them and # my people children are their oppressors and women rule over them o my people they which lead thee cause thee to err and destroy the way of thy paths # the Lord standeth up to plead and standeth to judge the people # the ancients of his people and the princes thereof for ye have eaten up the vineyard # ye beat my people to pieces and grind the faces of the poor saith the Lord god of hosts # moreover the Lord saith because the daughters of zion are haughty and walk with stretched forth necks and wanton eyes walking and mincing as they go and making a tinkling with their feet # the head of the daughters of zion and the Lord will # in that day the Lord will take away the bravery of # the bonnets and the ornaments of the legs and the # the changeable suits of apparel and the mantles and the # instead of sweet smell there shall be stink and instead of a girdle a rent and instead of # set hair baldness and instead of a stomacher a girding of sackcloth # thy men shall fall by the sword and thy mighty in the war # and in that day seven women shall take hold of one man saying we will eat our own bread and wear our own apparel only let us be called by thy name to take away our reproach # in that day shall the branch of the Lord be beautiful and # every one that is written among the living in jerusalem # when the Lord shall have washed away the filth of the daughters of zion and shall have purged the blood of jerusalem from the midst thereof by the spirit of judgment and by the spirit of burning # place of mount zion and upon her assemblies a cloud and smoke by day and the # of a flaming fire by night for upon all the glory # and there shall be a tabernacle for a shadow in the day time from the heat and for a place of # and he fenced it and gathered out the stones thereof and planted it with the choicest vine and built a tower in the midst of it and also made a # therein and he looked that it should bring forth grapes and it brought forth wild grapes # and now o inhabitants of jerusalem and men of judah judge I pray you betwixt me and my vineyard # done in it wherefore when I looked that it should bring # and now go to I will tell you what I will do to my vineyard I will take away the hedge thereof and it # break down the wall thereof and it shall be trodden down # and I will lay it waste it shall not be pruned nor digged but there shall come up briers and thorns I will also command the clouds that they rain no rain upon it # for the vineyard of the Lord of hosts is the house # israel and the men of judah his pleasant plant and he looked for judgment # be no place that they may be placed alone in the midst of the earth # in mine ears said the Lord of hosts of a truth many houses # yea ten acres of vineyard shall yield one bath and the seed of # unto them that rise up early in the morning that they may follow strong drink that continue until night # and the harp and the viol the tabret and pipe and wine are in their feasts but they regard not the work of the Lord neither consider the operation of his hands # therefore my people are gone into captivity because they have no knowledge and their # men are famished and their multitude dried up with thirst # therefore hell hath enlarged herself and opened her mouth without measure and their glory and their multitude and their pomp and he that # and the mean man shall be brought down and the mighty man shall be humbled and the eyes of the lofty shall be humbled # shall be exalted in judgment and god that is holy shall be # then shall the lambs feed after their manner and the waste places of the fat ones shall strangers eat # unto them that draw iniquity with cords of vanity and sin as it were with a cart rope # his work that we may see it and let the # holy one of israel draw nigh and come that we may know it # unto them that call evil good and good evil that put darkness for light and light for darkness that put bitter for sweet and sweet for bitter # shall go up as dust because they have cast away the law of the Lord of hosts and despised the word of the holy one of # the anger of the Lord kindled against his people and he hath stretched forth his hand against them and hath smitten them and the hills did tremble and their # were torn in the midst of the streets for all this his anger is not turned away but his hand # and he will lift up an ensign to the nations from far and will hiss unto them from the end of the earth and behold they shall come with speed swiftly # none shall be weary nor stumble among them none shall slumber nor sleep neither shall the girdle of their loins be loosed nor the latchet of their shoes be broken # their horses hoofs shall be counted like flint and their wheels # they shall roar like young lions yea they shall roar and lay hold of the prey and shall carry # and in that day they shall roar against them like the roaring of the sea and if # look unto the land behold darkness and sorrow and the light is darkened in the heavens thereof # in the year that king uzziah died I saw also the Lord # upon a throne high and lifted up and his train filled the temple # above it stood the seraphims each one had six wings with twain he covered his face and with twain he # and one cried unto another and said holy holy holy is the Lord of hosts the whole earth is full of his glory # and the posts of the door moved at the voice of him that cried and the house was filled with smoke # a man of unclean lips and I dwell in the midst of a people of unclean lips for mine eyes have seen the king the Lord of hosts # then flew one of the seraphims unto me having a live coal in # hand which he had taken with the tongs from off the altar # and he laid it upon my mouth and said lo this # and thine iniquity is taken away and thy sin purged # heard the voice of the Lord saying whom shall I send and who will go for us # and he said go and tell this people hear ye indeed but # make the heart of this people fat and make their ears # and shut their eyes lest they see with their eyes and hear with their ears and understand with their heart and convert and be healed # until the cities be wasted without inhabitant and the houses without man and the land be utterly desolate # be a great forsaking in the midst of the land # shall return and shall be eaten as a teil tree and as an oak whose # is in them when they cast their leaves so the holy seed shall be the substance thereof # and it came to pass in the days of ahaz the son of jotham the son of uzziah king of judah # king of syria and pekah the son of remaliah king of israel went up # jerusalem to war against it but could not prevail against it # and it was told the house of david saying syria is # with ephraim and his heart was moved and the heart of his people as the trees of the wood are moved with the wind # then said the Lord unto isaiah go forth now to meet ahaz thou and shearjashub thy son at the end of the # of the upper pool in the highway of the fuller s field # and say unto him take heed and be quiet fear not neither be # for the fierce anger of rezin with syria and of the son of # because syria ephraim and the son of remaliah have taken evil counsel against thee saying # let us go up against judah and vex it and let us make a breach therein for us and set a king in the midst of it # thus saith the Lord god it shall not stand neither shall it come to pass # for the head of syria is damascus and the head of damascus # rezin and within threescore and five years shall ephraim be broken that it be not a people # and the head of ephraim is samaria and the head of samaria is remaliah s son if ye will not believe surely ye shall not be established # thee a sign of the Lord thy god ask it either in the # but ahaz said I will not ask neither will I tempt the Lord # and he said hear ye now o house of david is it a small thing for you to weary men but will ye weary my god also # therefore the Lord himself shall give you a sign behold a virgin shall conceive and # butter and honey shall he eat that he may know to refuse the evil and # for before the child shall know to refuse the evil and choose the good the land that thou abhorrest # the Lord shall bring upon thee and upon thy people and upon thy father s house days that have not come from the day that ephraim departed from judah # and it shall come to pass in that day that the Lord shall hiss for the fly that is in the uttermost part of # of egypt and for the bee that is in the land of assyria # and they shall come and shall rest all of them in the desolate valleys and in the holes of the rocks and upon all thorns and upon all bushes # in the same day shall the Lord shave with a razor that is hired # by them beyond the river by the king of assyria the head and the hair of the feet and it shall also consume the beard # a man shall nourish a young cow and two sheep # and it shall come to pass for the abundance of milk # they shall give he shall eat butter for butter and honey shall every one eat that is left in the land # every place shall be where there were a thousand vines at a thousand # with arrows and with bows shall men come thither because all the land shall # all hills that shall be digged with the mattock there shall not come thither the fear of # and thorns but it shall be for the sending forth of oxen and # the Lord said unto me take thee a great roll and write in it with a man s pen concerning # and I went unto the prophetess and she conceived and # a son then said the Lord to me call his name # of shiloah that go softly and rejoice in rezin and # now therefore behold the Lord bringeth up upon them the waters of the river strong and many even the king of assyria and all his glory and he shall come up over all his channels and go # and he shall pass through judah he shall overflow and go over he shall reach even to the neck and the stretching out of his wings shall fill the breadth of thy land o immanuel # in pieces and give ear all ye of far countries gird yourselves and ye shall be broken in pieces gird yourselves and ye shall be broken in pieces # take counsel together and it shall come to nought speak the word and it shall not stand for # for the Lord spake thus to me with a strong hand and # me that I should not walk in the way of this people saying # to whom this people shall say a confederacy neither fear ye their fear nor be afraid # sanctify the Lord of hosts himself and let him be your fear and let him be your dread # and he shall be for a sanctuary but for a stone of stumbling and for a rock of # to both the houses of israel for a gin and # and fall and be broken and be snared and be taken # bind up the testimony seal the law among my disciples # and I will wait upon the Lord that hideth his face from the house of jacob and I will look for him # the Lord hath given me are for signs and for wonders in israel from the Lord of hosts which dwelleth in mount zion # and when they shall say unto you seek unto them # if they speak not according to this word it is because there is no light in them # and they shall pass through it hardly bestead and hungry and it shall come to pass that when they shall be hungry they shall fret themselves and curse their king and their god and look upward # nevertheless the dimness shall not be such as was in her vexation when at the first he lightly afflicted the land of # the people that walked in darkness have seen a great # they that dwell in the land of the shadow of death upon them hath the # increased the joy they joy before thee according to the joy in harvest and as men rejoice when they divide the spoil # for thou hast broken the yoke of his burden and the staff of his shoulder the rod of his oppressor # rolled in blood but this shall be with burning and fuel of fire # for unto us a child is born unto us a son is given and the government shall be upon his shoulder and his name # be called wonderful counsellor the mighty god the everlasting father the prince of peace # no end upon the throne of david and upon his kingdom to order it and to # the zeal of the Lord of hosts will perform this # and all the people shall know even ephraim and the # the bricks are fallen down but we will build with # are cut down but we will change them into cedars # the syrians before and the philistines behind and they shall devour israel with open # for all this his anger is not turned away but his hand # from israel head and tail branch and rush in one day # for the leaders of this people cause them to err and they that are led of them are destroyed # therefore the Lord shall have no joy in their young men neither shall have mercy on their fatherless and widows for every one # folly for all this his anger is not turned away # as the fire it shall devour the briers and thorns and shall kindle in the thickets of the # land darkened and the people shall be as the fuel of the fire no man shall spare his brother # and he shall snatch on the right hand and be hungry and he shall eat on the left hand and they shall not be satisfied they shall eat every man the # shall be against judah for all this his anger is not turned away but his hand # unto them that decree unrighteous decrees and that write grievousness which they have prescribed # to turn aside the needy from judgment and to take away the right from the poor of my people that widows may be their prey and that they may rob the fatherless # and what will ye do in the day of visitation and in the desolation which shall come from far to whom will ye flee for help and where will ye leave your glory # without me they shall bow down under the prisoners and they shall fall under the slain for all this his anger # o assyrian the rod of mine anger and the staff in their hand is # nation and against the people of my wrath will I give him a charge to take the spoil and to take the prey and to tread them down like the mire of the streets # howbeit he meaneth not so neither doth his heart think so but # the kingdoms of the idols and whose graven images did excel them of jerusalem and of # shall I not as I have done unto samaria and her idols so do to jerusalem and # wherefore it shall come to pass that when the Lord hath performed his whole work upon mount zion and # jerusalem I will punish the fruit of the stout heart of the king of assyria and the glory of his # and I have put down the inhabitants like a valiant # hand hath found as a nest the riches of the # and as one gathereth eggs that are left have I gathered all the earth and there was none that moved the wing or opened the mouth or peeped # shall the axe boast itself against him that heweth therewith # shall the saw magnify itself against him that shaketh it as if the rod should shake itself against them that lift it up or as if the staff should lift up # therefore shall the Lord the Lord of hosts send among his fat ones leanness and # his glory he shall kindle a burning like the burning of a fire # and the light of israel shall be for a fire and his holy one for a flame and # and shall consume the glory of his forest and of his fruitful field both soul and body and they shall # and the rest of the trees of his forest shall be few that a child may write them # and it shall come to pass in that day that the # and such as are escaped of the house of jacob shall no more again stay upon him # for though thy people israel be as the sand of the sea yet a remnant of them shall return the consumption decreed shall overflow with righteousness # therefore thus saith the Lord god of hosts o my people that dwellest in zion be not afraid of the assyrian he shall smite thee with a rod and shall lift up his staff against thee after the manner of egypt # for yet a very little while and the indignation shall cease and mine anger in their destruction # to the slaughter of midian at the rock of oreb and as his rod # upon the sea so shall he lift it up after the manner of egypt # and it shall come to pass in that day that his burden shall be taken away from off thy shoulder and his yoke # off thy neck and the yoke shall be destroyed because of the anointing # he is come to aiath he is passed to migron at michmash he hath laid up his carriages # they are gone over the passage they have taken up their lodging at geba # of gallim cause it to be heard unto laish o poor # his hand against the mount of the daughter of zion the hill of jerusalem # behold the Lord the Lord of hosts shall lop the bough with terror and the high ones of stature shall be hewn # with iron and lebanon shall fall by a mighty one # and there shall come forth a rod out of the stem of jesse and a branch shall grow out of his roots # and the spirit of the Lord shall rest upon him the spirit of wisdom and # the spirit of counsel and might the spirit of knowledge and of the fear of the Lord # in the fear of the Lord and he shall not judge # sight of his eyes neither reprove after the hearing of his ears # with equity for the meek of the earth and he shall smite the earth with the rod of his mouth and with the breath of his lips shall he slay the wicked # be the girdle of his loins and faithfulness the girdle of his reins # the wolf also shall dwell with the lamb and the leopard shall lie down with the kid and the calf and the young lion and the # and the cow and the bear shall feed their young ones shall lie down # child shall play on the hole of the asp and the # they shall not hurt nor destroy in all my holy mountain for the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the Lord as the waters cover the sea # and in that day there shall be a root of jesse which shall stand for an ensign of the people to it shall the gentiles seek and his rest shall be glorious # that day that the Lord shall set his hand again the second time to recover the remnant of his people which shall be left from assyria and from egypt and from # and from cush and from elam and from shinar and from hamath and from the islands of the sea # for the nations and shall assemble the outcasts of israel # adversaries of judah shall be cut off ephraim shall not # fly upon the shoulders of the philistines toward the west they shall spoil them of the east together they shall lay their hand upon edom and moab and the children of # and the Lord shall utterly destroy the tongue of the egyptian sea and with his mighty # shake his hand over the river and shall smite it in the seven streams and make men go over # as it was to israel in the day that he came up out of the land of egypt # and in that day thou shalt say o Lord I will praise thee though thou wast angry with me thine anger is turned away and thou # behold god is my salvation I will trust and not be afraid for the Lord jehovah is my strength and my song he also is become my salvation # with joy shall ye draw water out of the wells of salvation # and in that day shall ye say praise the Lord call upon his name declare his doings among the people make mention that his name is exalted # sing unto the Lord for he hath done excellent things this is known in all the earth # cry out and shout thou inhabitant of zion for great is the holy one of israel in the midst of thee # the burden of babylon which isaiah the son of amoz did see # lift ye up a banner upon the high mountain exalt the voice unto them shake the hand that they may go into the gates of the nobles # I have commanded my sanctified ones I have also called my mighty ones for mine anger # multitude in the mountains like as of a great people a tumultuous noise of the kingdoms of nations gathered together the Lord of hosts mustereth the # they come from a far country from the end of heaven # the Lord and the weapons of his indignation to destroy the whole land # howl ye for the day of the Lord is at hand it shall come as a destruction from the almighty # pangs and sorrows shall take hold of them they shall # amazed one at another their faces shall be as flames # behold the day of the Lord cometh cruel both with # and fierce anger to lay the land desolate and he shall destroy the sinners thereof out of it # for the stars of heaven and the constellations thereof shall not give their light the sun shall be darkened in # I will cause the arrogancy of the proud to cease and will lay # I will make a man more precious than fine gold even a man than the golden wedge of ophir # therefore I will shake the heavens and the earth shall remove out of her place in the # of the Lord of hosts and in the day of his fierce anger # and it shall be as the chased roe and as a sheep that no man taketh up they shall every man turn to his own people and flee every one into his own land # their children also shall be dashed to pieces before their eyes their houses shall be spoiled and their wives ravished # behold I will stir up the medes against them which shall not regard silver and # dash the young men to pieces and they shall have no pity on the fruit of the womb their eyes shall not spare children # and babylon the glory of kingdoms the beauty of the # but wild beasts of the desert shall lie there and their houses shall be full of doleful creatures and owls shall dwell there and satyrs shall dance there # and the wild beasts of the islands shall cry in their desolate houses and dragons in their pleasant palaces and her time is near to come and her # for the Lord will have mercy on jacob and will yet choose israel and set them in their own land and the strangers shall be joined with them and they shall cleave to the house of # and the people shall take them and bring them to their # and it shall come to pass in that day that the Lord shall # day that the Lord shall give thee rest from thy sorrow and from thy fear and from the hard bondage wherein thou wast made to serve # and it shall come to pass in that day that # that thou shalt take up this proverb against the king of babylon and say how hath the oppressor ceased the golden city ceased # he who smote the people in wrath with a continual stroke he that ruled the nations in anger is persecuted and none hindereth # the whole earth is at rest and is quiet they break forth into singing # the cedars of lebanon saying since thou art laid down no feller is come up against us # hell from beneath is moved for thee to meet thee at thy coming it stirreth up the dead for thee even all the chief ones of the earth it hath raised up from their thrones all the kings of the nations # all they shall speak and say unto thee art thou also become weak as we art thou become like unto us # the worm is spread under thee and the worms cover thee # how art thou fallen from heaven o lucifer son of the morning # I will exalt my throne above the stars of god i # sit also upon the mount of the congregation in the sides of the north # I will ascend above the heights of the clouds I will be like the most high # yet thou shalt be brought down to hell to the sides of the pit # is this the man that made the earth to tremble that did shake kingdoms # made the world as a wilderness and destroyed the cities thereof # but thou art cast out of thy grave like an abominable branch and # of those that are slain thrust through with a sword that go down to the stones of the pit as a # thou shalt not be joined with them in burial because thou hast # will also make it a possession for the bittern and pools of water and I will sweep it with the # Lord of hosts hath sworn saying surely as I have thought so # it come to pass and as I have purposed so shall it stand # the assyrian in my land and upon my mountains tread him under foot then shall his yoke depart from # this is the purpose that is purposed upon the whole earth and this is the hand that is stretched out upon all # for the Lord of hosts hath purposed and who shall disannul # in the year that king ahaz died was this burden # rejoice not thou whole palestina because the rod of him that smote thee is broken for out of the serpent s root shall come forth a cockatrice and his fruit shall be a fiery # of the poor shall feed and the needy shall lie down in safety and I will kill thy root with famine and he shall slay thy remnant # thou whole palestina art dissolved for there shall come from the north a smoke and none shall be alone in his appointed times # that the Lord hath founded zion and the poor of his people shall trust in it # terrible ones shall be as chaff that passeth away yea # be visited of the Lord of hosts with thunder and with earthquake and # and that distress her shall be as a dream of a # dreameth and behold he drinketh but he awaketh and behold he is faint and his soul hath appetite # the Lord hath poured out upon you the spirit of deep sleep # I will proceed to do a marvellous work among this people # unto them that seek deep to hide their counsel from the Lord and their works are in the dark and they say who seeth us and who # surely your turning of things upside down shall be esteemed as the # that made it he made me not or shall the thing # not yet a very little while and lebanon shall be turned into a fruitful field and the fruitful # of the book and the eyes of the blind shall see out of obscurity and out of # poor among men shall rejoice in the holy one of israel # to nought and the scorner is consumed and all that watch for iniquity are cut # that make a man an offender for a word and lay a snare for him that reproveth in the gate and turn aside the just for a thing of nought # therefore thus saith the Lord who redeemed abraham concerning the house of jacob jacob shall not now be ashamed neither shall his face now wax pale # hands in the midst of him they shall sanctify my name and sanctify the holy one of jacob and shall fear the god of israel # it shall come to pass in that day that the # with equity for the meek of the earth and he shall smite the earth with the rod of his mouth and with the breath of his lips shall he slay the wicked # and righteousness shall be the girdle of his loins and faithfulness the girdle of his reins # dwell with the lamb and the leopard shall lie down with the kid and the calf and the young lion and the fatling together and a little child shall lead them # feed their young ones shall lie down together and the lion shall eat straw like the ox # play on the hole of the asp and the weaned child # they shall not hurt nor destroy in all my holy mountain for the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the Lord as the waters cover the sea # of the father and of the son and of the holy ghost # shall set his hand again the second time to recover # to day if ye will hear his voice harden not your hearts # they shall know that I am the Lord their god # are the feet of him that bringeth good tidings that # up the voice with the voice together shall they sing for they shall see eye to eye when the Lord shall bring again zion # places of jerusalem for the Lord hath comforted his people he hath redeemed jerusalem # his holy arm in the eyes of all the nations and all the ends of the earth shall see the salvation of our god # I am the Lord thy god which have brought thee out of the land of egypt out of the house of bondage # thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image or any # thou shalt not bow down thyself unto them nor serve them for I the Lord thy god am a jealous god visiting the # of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth # of the Lord thy god in vain for the Lord will not hold him guiltless that taketh his name in vain # thou shalt not do any work thou nor thy son nor thy daughter thy # nor thy cattle nor thy stranger that is within thy gates # for in six days the Lord made heaven and earth and # made heaven and earth and the sea and all that in them is # and thy mother that thy days may be long upon the land # thou shalt not commit adultery thou shalt not steal thou shalt not bear false witness # nor his ox nor his ass nor any thing that is thy # who hath believed our report and to whom is the arm of the # for he shall grow up before him as a tender plant and as a root out of # dry ground he hath no form nor comeliness and when # shall see him there is no beauty that we should desire him # he is despised and rejected of men a man of sorrows and acquainted with grief and we hid as it were our faces from him he was # surely he hath borne our griefs and carried our sorrows yet we did esteem him stricken smitten of god and afflicted # he was bruised for our iniquities the chastisement of our peace was upon him and with # turned every one to his own way and the Lord hath laid on # mouth he is brought as a lamb to the slaughter and as a sheep before her shearers is dumb so he # he was taken from prison and from judgment and who shall # and he made his grave with the wicked and with the rich in # yet it pleased the Lord to bruise him he hath put him to grief when thou shalt make his soul an # for sin he shall see his seed he shall prolong his days and the pleasure of the Lord shall prosper in his hand # he shall see of the travail of his soul and shall be # shall my righteous servant justify many for he shall bear their iniquities # therefore will I divide him a portion with the great and he shall divide the spoil with the strong # he hath poured out his soul unto death and he was numbered with the transgressors and he bare the # the mountains are the feet of him that bringeth good tidings that # break forth into joy sing together ye waste places of # eyes of all the nations and all the ends of the earth shall see the salvation of our god # of the only begotten of the father full of grace and # I say unto you that it shall be more tolerable for # of the only begotten of the father full of grace # the beginning and the end the first and the last # turn aside to the right hand or to the left # the god of abraham and the god of isaac and the god of jacob and # put forth his hand and take also of the tree of life and # heat of the day and it came to pass that # repent ye for the kingdom of heaven is at hand # in heaven and whatsoever ye shall loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven # the god of abraham and the god of isaac and the god of jacob # I am in the father and the father in me # in the name of the father and of the son and of the holy ghost # I am in the father and the father in me # they which do hunger and thirst after righteousness for they shall be filled # and shall say all manner of evil against you falsely for # your reward in heaven for so persecuted they the prophets which were before you # thenceforth good for nothing but to be cast out and to be trodden under foot of men # that they may see your good works and glorify your father which is in heaven # think not that I am come to destroy the law or the prophets I am not come to destroy but to fulfil # ye shall in no case enter into the kingdom of # ye have heard that it hath been said by them of old time # thou shalt not kill and whosoever shall kill shall be in danger of the # but I say unto you that whosoever is angry with his brother # and whosoever shall say to his brother raca shall be in danger of the council # thou art in the way with him lest at any time # verily I say unto thee thou shalt by no means come out thence # you that whosoever looketh on a woman to lust after her hath committed adultery # whosoever shall put away his wife let him give her a writing of divorcement # I say unto you that whosoever shall put away his wife saving for the cause of fornication causeth her to commit adultery and # I say unto you swear not at all neither by heaven for it is god s throne # but let your communication be yea yea nay nay for whatsoever # an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth # evil but whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek turn to him the other also # and if any man will sue thee at the law and take away thy coat let him have thy cloak also # I say unto you love your enemies bless them that curse you do good to them that hate you and pray for them which despitefully use you and persecute you # which is in heaven for he maketh his sun to rise on the evil and on the good # take heed that ye do not your alms before men to be seen of them # otherwise ye have no reward of your father which is in heaven # synagogues and in the streets that they may have glory of men verily I say unto you they have their reward # thou doest alms let not thy left hand know what thy right hand doeth # that thine alms may be in secret and thy father # for they love to pray standing in the synagogues and in the corners of the streets that they may be seen of men verily I say unto you they have their reward # prayest enter into thy closet and when thou hast shut thy door pray to thy father which is in secret and thy father which seeth in secret shall reward thee openly # but when ye pray use not vain repetitions as the heathen # for they think that they shall be heard for their much speaking # be not ye therefore like unto them for your father knoweth what things ye have need of before ye ask him # after this manner therefore pray ye our father which art in heaven hallowed be thy name thy # thy will be done in earth as it is in heaven # and lead us not into temptation but deliver us from evil for thine is the kingdom and the power and the glory for ever amen # for if ye forgive men their trespasses your heavenly father will also forgive you # moreover when ye fast be not as the hypocrites of a sad countenance for they disfigure their faces that they may # unto men to fast verily I say unto you they have their reward # that thou appear not unto men to fast but unto thy father which is in secret and thy father which seeth in secret shall reward thee openly # but lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt and # for where your treasure is there will your heart be also # the light of the body is the eye if therefore # eye be single thy whole body shall be full of light # but if thine eye be evil thy whole body shall be full of # if therefore the light that is in thee be darkness how great is # no man can serve two masters for either he will hate the one and love the other or else he will hold to the one and despise the other ye cannot serve god and mammon # therefore I say unto you take no thought for your life what ye shall eat or what ye shall drink nor yet for your body what ye shall put on is not the life more than meat and the body than raiment # behold the fowls of the air for they sow not neither do they reap nor gather into barns yet your heavenly father feedeth them are ye not much better than they # which of you by taking thought can add one cubit unto his stature # and why take ye thought for raiment consider the lilies of the field how they grow they toil not neither do they spin # and yet I say unto you that even solomon in all # wherefore if god so clothe the grass of the field which to day is and to morrow is cast into the oven # therefore take no thought saying what shall we eat or what shall we drink or wherewithal shall we be clothed # but seek ye first the kingdom of god and his righteousness and # take therefore no thought for the morrow for the morrow shall take thought for the things of itself sufficient # ye judge ye shall be judged and with what measure ye mete it shall be measured to you again # and why beholdest thou the mote that is in thy brother s eye but considerest not the beam that is in thine own eye # brother let me pull out the mote out of thine eye and behold a beam is in thine own eye # thou hypocrite first cast out the beam out of thine own eye and then shalt thou see clearly to cast out the mote out of thy brother s eye # give not that which is holy unto the dogs neither cast ye your pearls before swine lest they trample them under their feet and turn again and rend you # you seek and ye shall find knock and it shall be opened unto you # for every one that asketh receiveth and he that seeketh findeth and to him that knocketh it shall be opened # or what man is there of you whom if his son ask bread # he give him a stone or if he ask a fish will he # or if he ask a fish will he give him a serpent # if ye then being evil know how to give good gifts unto your children how much more shall your father which is in heaven give good things to them that ask him # therefore all things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you do ye even so to them for this is the law and the prophets # gate for wide is the gate and broad is the way that leadeth to destruction and many there be which go in thereat # is the way which leadeth unto life and few there be that find it # beware of false prophets which come to you in sheep s clothing but inwardly they are ravening wolves # ye shall know them by their fruits do men gather grapes of thorns or figs of thistles # even so every good tree bringeth forth good fruit but a corrupt tree bringeth forth evil fruit # every tree that bringeth not forth good fruit is hewn down and cast into the fire # not every one that saith unto me Lord Lord shall enter into the kingdom of heaven but he that doeth the will of my father which is in heaven # many will say to me in that day Lord Lord have we not prophesied in thy name and in thy name have cast out devils and in thy name done many # profess unto them I never knew you depart from me ye that work iniquity # heareth these sayings of mine and doeth them I will liken him unto a wise man which built his house upon a rock # and the rain descended and the floods came and the # blew and beat upon that house and it fell not for it was founded upon a rock # these sayings of mine and doeth them not shall be likened unto a foolish man which built his house upon the sand # and the rain descended and the floods came and the winds blew and beat upon that house and it fell and great was the fall of it # other sheep I have which are not of this fold them also I must bring and they shall hear my voice and there shall be one fold and one shepherd # other sheep I have which are not of this fold them also I must # and they shall hear my voice and there shall be one fold and one shepherd # is thenceforth good for nothing but to be cast out and to be trodden under foot of # thy watchmen shall lift up the voice with the voice together shall they sing for they shall see eye to eye when the Lord shall bring again zion # break forth into joy sing together ye waste places of jerusalem for the Lord hath comforted his people he hath redeemed jerusalem # the Lord hath made bare his holy arm in the eyes of all the nations and all the ends of the earth shall see the salvation of # to have you that he may sift you as wheat # from the east and from the west and from the # as a young lion among the flocks of sheep who if he # through both treadeth down and teareth in pieces and none can deliver # a prophet shall the Lord your god raise up unto you of your brethren like unto me him shall ye hear in all things whatsoever he shall say unto you # and it shall come to pass that every soul which will not hear that prophet shall be # fathers saying unto abraham and in thy seed shall all the kindreds of the earth be blessed # to bless you in turning away every one of you from his # in thy seed shall all the kindreds of the earth be blessed # with the voice together shall they sing for they shall see eye to eye # hath made bare his holy arm in the eyes of all the nations and all the ends of the earth shall see the salvation of # put on thy strength o zion put on thy beautiful garments o jerusalem the holy city for henceforth there shall no more come into thee the uncircumcised and the unclean # sit down o jerusalem loose thyself from the bands of thy neck o # for thus saith the Lord ye have sold yourselves for nought and ye shall be redeemed without money # depart ye depart ye go ye out from thence touch # go ye out of the midst of her be ye clean that bear the vessels of the Lord # for ye shall not go out with haste nor go by flight for the Lord will go before you # behold my servant shall deal prudently he shall be exalted and extolled and be very high # so marred more than any man and his form more than the sons of men # so shall he sprinkle many nations the kings shall shut their mouths at him for that which had # been told them shall they see and that which they had not heard shall they consider # for that which had not been told them shall they see and that which they had not heard shall they consider # as a lion among the beasts of the forest as a young lion among the # of sheep who if he go through both treadeth down and teareth in pieces and none can deliver # for it shall come to pass in that day saith the # that I will cut off thy horses out of the midst of thee and I will destroy thy chariots # and I will cut off the cities of thy land and throw down all thy strong holds # cut off and thy standing images out of the midst of thee and thou shalt no more worship the # and I will pluck up thy groves out of the midst of thee so will I destroy thy cities # sing o barren thou that didst not bear break forth into singing and cry aloud thou that didst not travail with child for more are the children of the desolate than the children of the married wife saith the Lord # enlarge the place of thy tent and let them stretch forth the curtains of # for thou shalt break forth on the right hand and on the left and thy seed shall # the gentiles and make the desolate cities to be inhabited # fear not for thou shalt not be ashamed neither be thou # for thou shalt not be put to shame for thou shalt forget the shame of thy youth and shalt not remember the # husband the Lord of hosts is his name and thy redeemer # holy one of israel the god of the whole earth shall he # and grieved in spirit and a wife of youth when thou wast refused saith thy god # for a small moment have I forsaken thee but with great mercies will I gather thee # in a little wrath I hid my face from thee for a moment but with # kindness will I have mercy on thee saith the Lord thy redeemer # the waters of noah unto me for as I have sworn that the waters of noah should no more go over the earth so have I sworn that I would not be wroth with thee # for the mountains shall depart and the hills be removed but my kindness shall not depart from thee neither shall the # be removed saith the Lord that hath mercy on thee # o thou afflicted tossed with tempest and not comforted behold I will lay thy stones with fair # and I will make thy windows of agates and thy gates of carbuncles and all thy borders of pleasant stones # and all thy children shall be taught of the Lord and great shall be the peace of thy children # in righteousness shalt thou be established thou shalt be far from oppression for thou shalt not fear and from terror for it shall not come near thee # not by me whosoever shall gather together against thee shall fall for thy sake # behold I have created the smith that bloweth the coals in the fire and that bringeth forth an # for his work and I have created the waster to destroy # no weapon that is formed against thee shall prosper and # thou shalt condemn this is the heritage of the servants of the Lord and their righteousness is of me saith the Lord # behold I will send my messenger and he shall prepare the way before me and the Lord whom ye seek shall suddenly come to his temple even the messenger of the covenant whom ye delight in behold he shall come saith the Lord of hosts # but who may abide the day of his coming and who shall stand when he # for he is like a refiner s fire and like fullers soap # the sons of levi and purge them as gold and silver that they may offer unto the Lord an offering in righteousness # then shall the offering of judah and jerusalem be pleasant unto the Lord as in # and I will be a swift witness against the sorcerers and against the adulterers and against false swearers and against those that oppress the hireling in his wages the widow and the fatherless and that turn aside the stranger # am the Lord I change not therefore ye sons of jacob are not consumed # even from the days of your fathers ye are gone away from mine ordinances and have not kept them return unto me and I will return unto you saith the Lord of hosts but ye said wherein shall we return # will a man rob god yet ye have robbed me but ye say wherein have we robbed thee in tithes and offerings # ye are cursed with a curse for ye have robbed me even this whole nation # bring ye all the tithes into the storehouse that there may be meat in # house and prove me now herewith saith the Lord of hosts if I will not open you the windows of heaven and pour you out a blessing that there shall not be room enough to receive it # and I will rebuke the devourer for your sakes and he shall not destroy the fruits of your ground neither shall your vine cast her fruit before the time in the field saith the Lord of hosts # and all nations shall call you blessed for ye shall be a delightsome land saith the Lord of hosts # your words have been stout against me saith the Lord # ye have said it is vain to serve god and what # that we have kept his ordinance and that we have walked # and now we call the proud happy yea they that work wickedness are set up yea # then they that feared the Lord spake often one to another and the Lord hearkened and heard # was written before him for them that feared the Lord and that thought upon his name # saith the Lord of hosts in that day when I make up my # and I will spare them as a man spareth his own son that serveth him # then shall ye return and discern between the righteous and the wicked between him that serveth god and # that shall burn as an oven and all the proud yea and all that do wickedly shall be stubble and the day that cometh shall # them up saith the Lord of hosts that it shall leave them # in his wings and ye shall go forth and grow up as calves # and ye shall tread down the wicked for they shall be ashes under the soles of your feet in the day that I shall do this saith the Lord of hosts # remember ye the law of moses my servant which i # unto him in horeb for all israel with the statutes and # behold I will send you elijah the prophet before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the Lord # and he shall turn the heart of the fathers to the children and the heart of the children to their fathers lest # stood in the midst of them and saith unto them # the god of abraham and the god of isaac and the god of jacob and # go ye into all the world and preach the gospel to every creature # he that believeth and is baptized shall be saved but he that believeth not shall be damned # and these signs shall follow them that believe in my name shall they cast out # they shall take up serpents and if they drink any deadly thing it shall not hurt them they shall lay hands on the sick and they shall # that which was right in the sight of the Lord # he did that which was right in the sight of the Lord and # not her own is not easily provoked thinketh no evil # beareth all things believeth all things hopeth all things endureth all things # that when he shall appear we shall be like him for we shall see him as he is # but it is the same god which worketh all in all # to another the gifts of healing by the same spirit {{colend}} == References == {{reflist}} [[Category:Biblical studies]] alx2hm19ctxjz205p5suuopcoiecff6 0 171005 2817526 2817414 2026-07-01T13:47:22Z Young1lim 21186 /* Geometric Series Examples */ 2817526 wikitext text/x-wiki Many of the functions that arise naturally in mathematics and real world applications can be extended to and regarded as complex functions, meaning the input, as well as the output, can be complex numbers <math>x+iy</math>, where <math>i=\sqrt{-1}</math>, in such a way that it is a more natural object to study. '''Complex analysis''', which used to be known as '''function theory''' or '''theory of functions of a single complex variable''', is a sub-field of analysis that studies such functions (more specifically, '''holomorphic''' functions) on the complex plane, or part (domain) or extension (Riemann surface) thereof. It notably has great importance in number theory, e.g. the [[Riemann zeta function]] (for the distribution of primes) and other <math>L</math>-functions, modular forms, elliptic functions, etc. <blockquote>The shortest path between two truths in the real domain passes through the complex domain. — [[wikipedia:Jacques_Hadamard|Jacques Hadamard]]</blockquote>In a certain sense, the essence of complex functions is captured by the principle of [[analytic continuation]].{{mathematics}} ==''' Complex Functions '''== * Complex Functions ([[Media:CAnal.1.A.CFunction.20140222.Basic.pdf|1.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.B.CFunction.20140111.Octave.pdf|1.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.C.CFunction.20140111.Extend.pdf|1.C.pdf]]) * Complex Exponential and Logarithm ([[Media:CAnal.5.A.CLog.20131017.pdf|5.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.5.A.Octave.pdf|5.B.pdf]]) * Complex Trigonometric and Hyperbolic ([[Media:CAnal.7.A.CTrigHyper..pdf|7.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.7.A.Octave..pdf|7.B.pdf]]) '''Complex Function Note''' : 1. Exp and Log Function Note ([[Media:ComplexExp.29160721.pdf|H1.pdf]]) : 2. Trig and TrigH Function Note ([[Media:CAnal.Trig-H.29160901.pdf|H1.pdf]]) : 3. Inverse Trig and TrigH Functions Note ([[Media:CAnal.Hyper.29160829.pdf|H1.pdf]]) ==''' Complex Integrals '''== * Complex Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.2.A.CIntegral.20140224.Basic.pdf|2.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.B.CIntegral.20140117.Octave.pdf|2.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.C.CIntegral.20140117.Extend.pdf|2.C.pdf]]) ==''' Complex Series '''== * Complex Series ([[Media:CPX.Series.20150226.2.Basic.pdf|3.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.B.CSeries.20140121.Octave.pdf|3.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.C.CSeries.20140303.Extend.pdf|3.C.pdf]]) ==''' Residue Integrals '''== * Residue Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.4.A.Residue.20140227.Basic.pdf|4.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.B.pdf|4.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.C.Residue.20140423.Extend.pdf|4.C.pdf]]) ==='''Residue Integrals Note'''=== * Laurent Series with the Residue Theorem Note ([[Media:Laurent.1.Residue.20170713.pdf|H1.pdf]]) * Laurent Series with Applications Note ([[Media:Laurent.2.Applications.20170327.pdf|H1.pdf]]) * Laurent Series and the z-Transform Note ([[Media:Laurent.3.z-Trans.20170831.pdf|H1.pdf]]) * Laurent Series as a Geometric Series Note ([[Media:Laurent.4.GSeries.20170802.pdf|H1.pdf]]) === Laurent Series and the z-Transform Example Note === * Overview ([[Media:Laurent.4.z-Example.20170926.pdf|H1.pdf]]) ====Geometric Series Examples==== * Causality ([[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.A.20191026n.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.B.20191026.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Time Shift ([[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.A.20191028.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.B.20191029.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Reciprocity ([[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3A.20191030.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3B.20191031.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Combinations ([[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4A.20200702.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4B.20201002.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5A.20220105.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5B.20220126.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Permutations ([[Media:Laurent.6.Permutation.6A.20230711.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6B.20251225.pdf|B.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6C.20260701.pdf|C.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6C.20240528.pdf|D.pdf]]) * Applications ([[Media:Laurent.5.Application.6B.20220723.pdf|A.pdf]]) * Double Pole Case :- Examples ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7A.20220722.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7B.20220720.pdf|B.pdf]]) :- Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5A.20190226.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5B.20190228.pdf|B.pdf]]) ====The Case Examples==== * Example Overview : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.0.A.20171208.pdf|0A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.6.CaseExample.0.B.20180205.pdf|0B.pdf]]) * Example Case 1 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.A.20171107.pdf|1A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.B.20171227.pdf|1B.pdf]]) * Example Case 2 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.A.20171107.pdf|2A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.B.20171227.pdf|2B.pdf]]) * Example Case 3 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.A.20171017.pdf|3A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.B.20171226.pdf|3B.pdf]]) * Example Case 4 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.A.20171017.pdf|4A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.B.20171228.pdf|4B.pdf]]) * Example Summary : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.A.20171212.pdf|5A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.B.20171230.pdf|5B.pdf]]) ==''' Conformal Mapping '''== * Conformal Mapping ([[Media:CAnal.6.A.Conformal.20131224.pdf|6.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.6.A.Octave..pdf|6.B.pdf]]) go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Complex analysis]] kexwjtpdffxuspnvopi99gi0itghn6a 2817571 2817526 2026-07-02T08:28:31Z Young1lim 21186 /* Geometric Series Examples */ 2817571 wikitext text/x-wiki Many of the functions that arise naturally in mathematics and real world applications can be extended to and regarded as complex functions, meaning the input, as well as the output, can be complex numbers <math>x+iy</math>, where <math>i=\sqrt{-1}</math>, in such a way that it is a more natural object to study. '''Complex analysis''', which used to be known as '''function theory''' or '''theory of functions of a single complex variable''', is a sub-field of analysis that studies such functions (more specifically, '''holomorphic''' functions) on the complex plane, or part (domain) or extension (Riemann surface) thereof. It notably has great importance in number theory, e.g. the [[Riemann zeta function]] (for the distribution of primes) and other <math>L</math>-functions, modular forms, elliptic functions, etc. <blockquote>The shortest path between two truths in the real domain passes through the complex domain. — [[wikipedia:Jacques_Hadamard|Jacques Hadamard]]</blockquote>In a certain sense, the essence of complex functions is captured by the principle of [[analytic continuation]].{{mathematics}} ==''' Complex Functions '''== * Complex Functions ([[Media:CAnal.1.A.CFunction.20140222.Basic.pdf|1.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.B.CFunction.20140111.Octave.pdf|1.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.C.CFunction.20140111.Extend.pdf|1.C.pdf]]) * Complex Exponential and Logarithm ([[Media:CAnal.5.A.CLog.20131017.pdf|5.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.5.A.Octave.pdf|5.B.pdf]]) * Complex Trigonometric and Hyperbolic ([[Media:CAnal.7.A.CTrigHyper..pdf|7.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.7.A.Octave..pdf|7.B.pdf]]) '''Complex Function Note''' : 1. Exp and Log Function Note ([[Media:ComplexExp.29160721.pdf|H1.pdf]]) : 2. Trig and TrigH Function Note ([[Media:CAnal.Trig-H.29160901.pdf|H1.pdf]]) : 3. Inverse Trig and TrigH Functions Note ([[Media:CAnal.Hyper.29160829.pdf|H1.pdf]]) ==''' Complex Integrals '''== * Complex Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.2.A.CIntegral.20140224.Basic.pdf|2.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.B.CIntegral.20140117.Octave.pdf|2.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.C.CIntegral.20140117.Extend.pdf|2.C.pdf]]) ==''' Complex Series '''== * Complex Series ([[Media:CPX.Series.20150226.2.Basic.pdf|3.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.B.CSeries.20140121.Octave.pdf|3.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.C.CSeries.20140303.Extend.pdf|3.C.pdf]]) ==''' Residue Integrals '''== * Residue Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.4.A.Residue.20140227.Basic.pdf|4.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.B.pdf|4.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.C.Residue.20140423.Extend.pdf|4.C.pdf]]) ==='''Residue Integrals Note'''=== * Laurent Series with the Residue Theorem Note ([[Media:Laurent.1.Residue.20170713.pdf|H1.pdf]]) * Laurent Series with Applications Note ([[Media:Laurent.2.Applications.20170327.pdf|H1.pdf]]) * Laurent Series and the z-Transform Note ([[Media:Laurent.3.z-Trans.20170831.pdf|H1.pdf]]) * Laurent Series as a Geometric Series Note ([[Media:Laurent.4.GSeries.20170802.pdf|H1.pdf]]) === Laurent Series and the z-Transform Example Note === * Overview ([[Media:Laurent.4.z-Example.20170926.pdf|H1.pdf]]) ====Geometric Series Examples==== * Causality ([[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.A.20191026n.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.B.20191026.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Time Shift ([[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.A.20191028.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.B.20191029.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Reciprocity ([[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3A.20191030.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3B.20191031.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Combinations ([[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4A.20200702.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4B.20201002.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5A.20220105.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5B.20220126.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Permutations ([[Media:Laurent.6.Permutation.6A.20230711.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6B.20251225.pdf|B.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6C.20260702.pdf|C.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6C.20240528.pdf|D.pdf]]) * Applications ([[Media:Laurent.5.Application.6B.20220723.pdf|A.pdf]]) * Double Pole Case :- Examples ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7A.20220722.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7B.20220720.pdf|B.pdf]]) :- Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5A.20190226.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5B.20190228.pdf|B.pdf]]) ====The Case Examples==== * Example Overview : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.0.A.20171208.pdf|0A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.6.CaseExample.0.B.20180205.pdf|0B.pdf]]) * Example Case 1 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.A.20171107.pdf|1A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.B.20171227.pdf|1B.pdf]]) * Example Case 2 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.A.20171107.pdf|2A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.B.20171227.pdf|2B.pdf]]) * Example Case 3 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.A.20171017.pdf|3A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.B.20171226.pdf|3B.pdf]]) * Example Case 4 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.A.20171017.pdf|4A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.B.20171228.pdf|4B.pdf]]) * Example Summary : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.A.20171212.pdf|5A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.B.20171230.pdf|5B.pdf]]) ==''' Conformal Mapping '''== * Conformal Mapping ([[Media:CAnal.6.A.Conformal.20131224.pdf|6.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.6.A.Octave..pdf|6.B.pdf]]) go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Complex analysis]] 4vj03ow8ri3dazvismzqin3pie5wzmo 0 199550 2817536 2816622 2026-07-01T16:22:28Z Young1lim 21186 /* Sample Processing Methods */ 2817536 wikitext text/x-wiki ==''' Background '''== === Bode plot === See [http://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Bode/Bode.html swarthmore] </br> === OP Amp === Overview ([[Media:OPAmp.A.1.20151203.pdf |pdf]]) See [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/opampcon.html#c1 Hyperphysics] </br> ==''' Analog Filter Analysis (Continuous Time) '''== === First Order Filters === </br> === Second Order Filters === </br> ==''' Digital Filter Analysis (Discrete Time) '''== === Sample Processing Methods === * Tapped Delays ([[Media:Sample.TappedDelay.20260629.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Programming Considerations * Circular Buffers === FIR Filter Realizations === * Direct Form FIR Filter * Canonical Form FIR Filter * Cascade Form FIR Filter === IIR Filter Realizations === * Direct Form IIR Filter ([[Media:IIR.DirectForm.20231209.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Canonical Form IIR Filter * Cascade Form IIR Filter </br> === FIR (Finite Impulse Response) Filters === * Block Processing Methods * Sample Processing Methods * Window Method * Kaiser Window * Frequency Sampling Method </br> === IIR (Infinite Impulse Response) Filters === * Bilinear Transform * 1st Order Lowpass and Highpass Filters * 2nd Order Lowpass and Highpass Filters * Parametric Equalizer Filters * Comb Filters * High Order Filters </br> === Example Octave Codes for Digital Filters === ==== Octave Functions for Filters ==== * Octave Functions for Filters ([[Media:Octave.1.Function.1.A.20180219.pdf |A.pdf]]) </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] c78rgtmdos7ox9740af0l0iozuh8ydi 2817538 2817536 2026-07-01T16:23:44Z Young1lim 21186 /* Sample Processing Methods */ 2817538 wikitext text/x-wiki ==''' Background '''== === Bode plot === See [http://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Bode/Bode.html swarthmore] </br> === OP Amp === Overview ([[Media:OPAmp.A.1.20151203.pdf |pdf]]) See [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/opampcon.html#c1 Hyperphysics] </br> ==''' Analog Filter Analysis (Continuous Time) '''== === First Order Filters === </br> === Second Order Filters === </br> ==''' Digital Filter Analysis (Discrete Time) '''== === Sample Processing Methods === * Tapped Delays ([[Media:Sample.TappedDelay.20260630.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Programming Considerations * Circular Buffers === FIR Filter Realizations === * Direct Form FIR Filter * Canonical Form FIR Filter * Cascade Form FIR Filter === IIR Filter Realizations === * Direct Form IIR Filter ([[Media:IIR.DirectForm.20231209.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Canonical Form IIR Filter * Cascade Form IIR Filter </br> === FIR (Finite Impulse Response) Filters === * Block Processing Methods * Sample Processing Methods * Window Method * Kaiser Window * Frequency Sampling Method </br> === IIR (Infinite Impulse Response) Filters === * Bilinear Transform * 1st Order Lowpass and Highpass Filters * 2nd Order Lowpass and Highpass Filters * Parametric Equalizer Filters * Comb Filters * High Order Filters </br> === Example Octave Codes for Digital Filters === ==== Octave Functions for Filters ==== * Octave Functions for Filters ([[Media:Octave.1.Function.1.A.20180219.pdf |A.pdf]]) </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] 3ktnvvs9foxi7tllmcmmn0asbi15rkv 2817540 2817538 2026-07-01T16:24:43Z Young1lim 21186 /* Sample Processing Methods */ 2817540 wikitext text/x-wiki ==''' Background '''== === Bode plot === See [http://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Bode/Bode.html swarthmore] </br> === OP Amp === Overview ([[Media:OPAmp.A.1.20151203.pdf |pdf]]) See [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/opampcon.html#c1 Hyperphysics] </br> ==''' Analog Filter Analysis (Continuous Time) '''== === First Order Filters === </br> === Second Order Filters === </br> ==''' Digital Filter Analysis (Discrete Time) '''== === Sample Processing Methods === * Tapped Delays ([[Media:Sample.TappedDelay.20260701.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Programming Considerations * Circular Buffers === FIR Filter Realizations === * Direct Form FIR Filter * Canonical Form FIR Filter * Cascade Form FIR Filter === IIR Filter Realizations === * Direct Form IIR Filter ([[Media:IIR.DirectForm.20231209.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Canonical Form IIR Filter * Cascade Form IIR Filter </br> === FIR (Finite Impulse Response) Filters === * Block Processing Methods * Sample Processing Methods * Window Method * Kaiser Window * Frequency Sampling Method </br> === IIR (Infinite Impulse Response) Filters === * Bilinear Transform * 1st Order Lowpass and Highpass Filters * 2nd Order Lowpass and Highpass Filters * Parametric Equalizer Filters * Comb Filters * High Order Filters </br> === Example Octave Codes for Digital Filters === ==== Octave Functions for Filters ==== * Octave Functions for Filters ([[Media:Octave.1.Function.1.A.20180219.pdf |A.pdf]]) </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] 0kle68z6oppijspmrgaqx01a2vx86av 1 228878 2817547 2807520 2026-07-01T18:11:44Z PatrykPTomaszewski 3052635 /* Editorial board application of Patryk P. Tomaszewski */ Reply 2817547 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude> {{WikiJournal editorial application top |archive box = {{Archive box|[[/Archive 2017]] <br>[[/Archive 2018]] <br>[[/Archive 2019]] <br>[[/Archive 2020]] <br>[[/Archive 2022]] <br>[[/Archive 2023]] }} }} </noinclude> ==Editorial board application of Hernan Perez Molano== {{WikiJournal editor application submitted | position =Editorial board | name =Hernan Perez Molano | qualifications =PHD in Political science, Master in Ethnomusicology | link =https://es.linkedin.com/in/hernan-p%C3%A9rez-molano-918252a1 | areas_of_expertise =Peacebuilding, social innovation, political science, ethnomusicology | professional_experience =Doctor of Political Science, Administration, and International Relations, from the Complutense University of Madrid (Spain), trained in ethnographic, sociological, and anthropological techniques (Master's in Musicology, specializing in Ethnomusicology) at the Sorbonne University (France). His research, entitled "Obstacles and Resistances in the Construction of Alternative Peace: Comparative Ethnographies of the Reintegration of Former Combatants in Colinas, Guaviare, and Icononzo, Tolima," describes the construction of peace at the local level from the perspective of local social innovation ecosystems, based on a multi-sited ethnography (2019-2023). :Coordinator of the Social Innovation Program (2015-2020) at the Research and Extension Office of the National University of Colombia, Bogotá campus. He has experience in supporting academia in formulating and implementing social innovation projects, utilizing participatory methodologies, design thinking, and fostering creative capacity in the context of community youth processes, as well as in communication and culture for peacebuilding. He was a former member of the formulating team, facilitator, and coordinator of the Innovation Laboratory for Peace (Trust for the Americas - National University of Colombia), and the Spaces of Re-cognition for Peace project of the Academic Vice-Rectory of the National University of Colombia. | publishing_experience = | open_experience =Official for the Education program of Wikimedia Colombia | policy_confirm =I confirm that I will act in accordance with the policies of the WikiJournal of Humanities. [[User:HerPerezM|HerPerezM]] ([[User talk:HerPerezM|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/HerPerezM|contribs]]) 21:42, 20 July 2023 (UTC) }} * I approached him at EduWiki Conference to discuss WikiJournal and potential collaboration. I fully support his application to join the editorial board. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 03:47, 21 July 2023 (UTC) * [[File:Symbol support vote.svg|14px]]I support this application for editor. [[User:Smvital|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">Smvital</span></b>]][[User talk:Smvital|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 10:46, 1 August 2023 (UTC) * '''support''' - It's also a support from me. Very useful professional bacckground, and experience with Wikimedia Colombia's educaction programme is definitely a bonus. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 10:45, 28 August 2023 (UTC) * I support this application. I agree; his area of study and experience will make him very suitable. [[User:Fransplace|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">Fransplace</span></b>]][[User talk:Fransplace|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 20:01, 10 September 2023 (UTC) *'''Support''', of course. Hopefully, you'll have more time than I to help (I sadly overestimated my amount of time for this year...). --[[User:Piotrus|Piotrus]] ([[User talk:Piotrus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Piotrus|contribs]]) 08:05, 13 September 2023 (UTC) * '''support''' [[User:Rwatson1955|Rwatson1955]] ([[User talk:Rwatson1955|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rwatson1955|contribs]]) 12:18, 13 September 2023 (UTC) * '''support''' - a very welcome addition to the WikiJ Hum Team --[[User:Mstefan|Mstefan]] ([[User talk:Mstefan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mstefan|contribs]]) 12:48, 13 September 2023 (UTC) '''Result: Accepted into the editorial board.''' : [[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Adding editorial board members|Next steps]] (add <code>DONE</code> or <code><nowiki>{{Done}}</nowiki></code> after someone has performed the task): # [[{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_board_member|Send a welcome message and confirm their preferred email address]] (usually in their provided website link, else via [[Special:EmailUser]]) {{clickable button 2|Onboarding email template|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_board_member}} # Copy their information over to [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board page]] using the {{tlx|WikiJournal editor summary}} template # Add their name and start data to the [d:{{WJQboard|default=Q75674277}} relevant editorial board] on wikidata # Direct-add them to the {{WJX}}board mailing list ([https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=footer#!managemembers/{{WJX}}board/add via this link]) which will grant them access to the private page only visible to board members # Welcome them at the {{#if:|wjm|WJM}}board mailing list so that they are informed # Finally, move the application to [[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors/Archive_{{CURRENTYEAR}}|this year's archive page]] [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 06:31, 6 November 2023 (UTC) ==Editorial board application of Lihao Gan== {{WikiJournal editor application submitted | position =Editorial board | name =Lihao Gan | qualifications =PHD.Professor | link =https://faculty.ecnu.edu.cn/_s11/glh_en/main.psp | areas_of_expertise =Epistemology，Communication Studies，Media Discourse Analysis，Rhetoric | professional_experience =Gan Lihao (born October 1977) is a professor and doctoral supervisor at East China Normal University. He is a distinguished talent of the Pujiang Talent Program in Shanghai. He has also served as a visiting scholar in the Department of Linguistics at the University of California, Berkeley. Additionally, he holds the position of Deputy Director at the National Discourse Ecology Research Center and serves as an executive member of the Chinese Rhetoric Society, a council member of the Shanghai Language Society, and a committee member of the Audiovisual Communication branch of the Chinese Association for the History of Journalism and Communication. | publishing_experience =Gan Lihao is known for his pioneering contributions to the fields of "Life Rhetoric" and "Behavioral Dramatism Theory." His research primarily revolves around human communication discourse, aiming to promote individual growth, harmonious family dynamics, intercommunication among domestic communities, and international dialogues within the context of the human community's shared destiny and peaceful development. He focuses on three main research directions: family education discourse analysis based on empathetic rhetoric, discourse research on national governance rooted in speech acts, and global knowledge discourse analysis centered around digital communities. Gan Lihao has authored several significant works, including "Contrastive Structures Under the Influence of Spatial Dynamics," "Communication Rhetoric: Theory, Methods, and Case Studies," "Reshaping China's National Image and Wikipedia Knowledge Discourse Research," and "Political Science on Wikipedia" (in progress). | open_experience =wikipedia editor,wikipedia researcher | policy_confirm =I confirm that I will act in accordance with the policies of the WikiJournal of Humanities. [[User:Ganlihao|Ganlihao]] ([[User talk:Ganlihao|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ganlihao|contribs]]) 06:30, 4 September 2023 (UTC) }} * This editor approached us at the Wikimania Singapore event and we discussed how we need experts in humanities to contribute and assist with reviewing the backlogged submissions. He expressed an interest after seeing our poster at Wikimania. He led a team of researchers from China to investigate and publish research articles about Wikipedia. As such, his professional, publishing and open experiences are quite extensive. Since he primarily publishes in Chinese language, I suggested that he initially apply for associate editor position to familiarize himself with publishing and communicating in English to gain confidence in this area. I fully {{support}} his application. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 03:52, 7 September 2023 (UTC) * I support this application and agree an associate editor position will be best to begin with. [[User:Fransplace|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">Fransplace</span></b>]][[User talk:Fransplace|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 20:05, 10 September 2023 (UTC) *'''Support''', of course. Hopefully, you'll have more time than I to help (I sadly overestimated my amount of time for this year...). --[[User:Piotrus|Piotrus]] ([[User talk:Piotrus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Piotrus|contribs]]) 08:06, 13 September 2023 (UTC) * '''support''' [[User:Rwatson1955|Rwatson1955]] ([[User talk:Rwatson1955|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rwatson1955|contribs]]) 12:19, 13 September 2023 (UTC) * '''support''' Gan Lihao coming on as an associate editor, but we should also decide on a clear idea of what the process would be (timeline/criteria) to move them (or any other associate editor in a similar situation) to full editor --[[User:Mstefan|Mstefan]] ([[User talk:Mstefan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mstefan|contribs]]) 12:52, 13 September 2023 (UTC) *:Good point. I think we will "cross that bridge" and evaluate once we see the [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Potential upcoming articles|backlog submissions]] getting chipped away by the newly recruited editors and associate editor. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 03:11, 18 September 2023 (UTC) '''Result: Accepted into the editorial board.''' : [[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Adding editorial board members|Next steps]] (add <code>DONE</code> or <code><nowiki>{{Done}}</nowiki></code> after someone has performed the task): # [[{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_board_member|Send a welcome message and confirm their preferred email address]] (usually in their provided website link, else via [[Special:EmailUser]]) {{clickable button 2|Onboarding email template|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_board_member}} # Copy their information over to [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board page]] using the {{tlx|WikiJournal editor summary}} template # Add their name and start data to the [d:{{WJQboard|default=Q75674277}} relevant editorial board] on wikidata # Direct-add them to the {{WJX}}board mailing list ([https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=footer#!managemembers/{{WJX}}board/add via this link]) which will grant them access to the private page only visible to board members # Welcome them at the {{#if:|wjm|WJM}}board mailing list so that they are informed # Finally, move the application to [[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors/Archive_{{CURRENTYEAR}}|this year's archive page]] [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 06:31, 6 November 2023 (UTC) ==Editorial board application of Laura G. Campo== {{WikiJournal editor application submitted | position =Editorial board | name =Laura G. Campo | qualifications =Bachelor Degree in Literature, Especialized in Edition | link =https://www.linkedin.com/in/laura-giselle-campo-sepulveda/ | areas_of_expertise =Literature, Education, Humanities | professional_experience =Literary analyst specializing in text editing. My career has been focused on the editing and proofreading of technical and literary documents. I also have experience accompanying research projects on journalism, literature, art and cultural articles. | publishing_experience =Journal editorial coordinator, Editorial assistant, Content creator,Copyeditor, Proofreader. | open_experience =Currently I coordinate the editorial production of the Universidad Pedagogica Nacional's (Colombia) scientistic journals | policy_confirm =I confirm that I will act in accordance with the policies of the WikiJournal of Humanities. [[User:LaGCampo|LaGCampo]] ([[User talk:LaGCampo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/LaGCampo|contribs]]) 13:39, 31 October 2023 (UTC) }} * I met Laura while presenting WikiJournal during Open Access week in Colombia. I '''support''' her application given her expertise in journal administration. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 06:29, 6 November 2023 (UTC) * I support this application. [[User:Fransplace|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">Fransplace</span></b>]][[User talk:Fransplace|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 21:27, 10 January 2024 (UTC) * Laura is highly qualified, I support this application.[[User:Jacknunn|Jacknunn]] ([[User talk:Jacknunn|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jacknunn|contribs]]) 10:13, 31 January 2024 (UTC) * I support, looks like an ideal addition [[User:Rwatson1955|Rwatson1955]] ([[User talk:Rwatson1955|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rwatson1955|contribs]]) 07:20, 2 February 2024 (UTC) * Sure, particularly given OhanaUnited met them in person. --[[User:Piotrus|Piotrus]] ([[User talk:Piotrus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Piotrus|contribs]]) 05:53, 5 December 2024 (UTC) * It's a support from me as well.[[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 02:41, 9 January 2025 (UTC) ==Associate editor application of Taofeeq Idowu ABDULKAREEM== {{WikiJournal editor application submitted | position =Associate editor | name = Taofeeq Idowu ABDULKAREEM | qualifications = B.A History and International Studies; Member of Historical Society of Nigeria; Founder and Writer for Taofeeq’s Exposure | link = https://www.linkedin.com/in/taofeeq-idowu-abdulkareem-mhsn-b3479a1b2 | areas_of_expertise = History and International Studies | professional_experience = His professional experience can be found in Research, Content writing and Proofreading. He has made series of research in different historical events among which were titled " 'The Great Wall of China', 'The first Nigeria’s National Anthem', 'India’s great voyage to the Mars' " among others. He made a pioneer work on a topic he used for his undergraduate project research titled "Change and Continuity in Sociopolitical Role of Women in Owo, 1900-1970". This significant work was a culmination of historical research and historical analysis which would be used for further reference in the subject matter. He was appointed as the Project Coordinator for the Undergraduate Project Research because of his resourcefulness in research and editing. During the period, he coordinated over 30 co-supervises and helped a lot of them with the research and also editing. This makes the Supervisor work much more easier. As a member of University of Ilorin Model United Nations, he has made numerous research on International happenings and International relations | publishing_experience = He is a content writer, content editor, researcher, proofreader. He was a member of the Editorial team of the 2023 Journal of the National Association of Ondo State Students, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria; He was the Assistant Director of Research and Editorial of the Alternative Dispute Resolution, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria; He was an astute writer and editor for Union of Campus Journalists, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria. He provided proofreading assistance for his Long Essay Undergraduate research Supervisor, thereby successfully proofread over 20 undergraduate Project Researches suitable for publication. His experience can also be found in helping editing articles that are suitable and professional for publish | open_experience = He is having over 3 years of experience in Wikimedia. He is keen interested individual in open source as he is more interested in people accessing information. He was the Vice President, Training and Development for Wikimedia Fan Club, University of Ilorin where he trained a lot of members on editing on Wikipedia and various other Sibling projects. He led Wikimedia Awareness in Ogbomosho Project where series of people were trained. He had also co-facilitated series of Projects among which are Wikimedia Promotion in Akure, Wikimedia Promotion in Lead City University, Wiki and Health Articles in Nigeria among other projects | policy_confirm = I confirm that I will act in accordance with the policies of the WikiJournal of Humanities. [[User:Taofeeq Abdulkareem|Taofeeq Abdulkareem]] ([[User talk:Taofeeq Abdulkareem|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Taofeeq Abdulkareem|contribs]]) 09:05, 11 September 2024 (UTC) }} * {{ping|Taofeeq Abdulkareem}} Sorry for the delay, I recently found time to review your application. You definitely have sufficient level of professional and open experience (as demonstrated in your contribution activities on wiki). I would like to know more about your publishing experience. Can you tell me more, such as providing links to your published works? Do you have a list of your publications? [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 03:46, 14 October 2024 (UTC) *:@[[User:OhanaUnited|OhanaUnited]] Thanks for the review and kind comments. *:Kindly find attached below the list of Publications: *:# Change and Continuity in Socio-political Role of Women in Owo, 1900-1970 *:# The Great Wall of China *:# The First Nigeria's National Anthem *:# India's great voyage to the Mars *:# 60 Years Journey of Nigeria's Independence *:Links to the Publications respectively: *:* https://drive.google.com/file/d/16c8WDHbArhFit9-p8isLMJ9CzgKklzBp/view?usp=drivesdk *:* https://taofeeqexposure.wordpress.com/2020/07/09/the-great-wall-of-china/ *:* https://taofeeqexposure.wordpress.com/2020/07/11/the-first-nigeria-national-anthem/ *:* https://taofeeqexposure.wordpress.com/2020/08/16/indiathe-pride-of-asia-the-great-journey-to-mars/ *:* https://taofeeqexposure.wordpress.com/2020/10/01/60-years-journey-of-nigerias-independence/ *:[[User:Taofeeq Abdulkareem|Taofeeq Abdulkareem]] ([[User talk:Taofeeq Abdulkareem|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Taofeeq Abdulkareem|contribs]]) 12:09, 16 October 2024 (UTC) *::@[[User:Taofeeq Abdulkareem|Taofeeq Abdulkareem]] Thank you. Blog posts are not what I considered as publishing experience. Other than the undergraduate thesis, do you have any examples of publishing in a peer-reviewed journal article or book chapter? [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 16:20, 24 October 2024 (UTC) *:::Thank you for your prompt response. I appreciate your feedback and understand your concerns regarding my publishing experience. While my publication record in peer-reviewed journals may be limited, I would like to highlight my research experience in significant aspects of humanities, including [cultural studies, historical analysis, among others aspects]. Although blog posts may not be traditional publications, they demonstrate my ability to make research and communicate complex ideas to diverse audiences. *:::Beyond publishing, I've developed valuable skills through Undergraduate thesis research, Editing and proofreading for others, Research assistance in humanities topics. *:::I bring strong research foundation in humanities, excellent writing, editing, and proofreading skills, ability to communicate complex ideas engagingly, experience working with diverse authors and topics, passion for promoting high-quality humanities research. I am eager to leverage these skills to support Wikimedia Journal's mission. I understand the importance of peer-reviewed publications and commit to further developing my expertise. *:::I would appreciate consideration of my application, recognizing the diverse experiences and skills I bring. Thank you for your time, and I look forward to your response. [[User:Taofeeq Abdulkareem|Taofeeq Abdulkareem]] ([[User talk:Taofeeq Abdulkareem|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Taofeeq Abdulkareem|contribs]]) 09:40, 27 October 2024 (UTC) *::::I am '''support'''ive of your associate editor application, contingent on mentorship from board members, to help you gain experience around the publishing area. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 18:54, 14 November 2024 (UTC) *:::::Thank you for your prompt and warm response. I am thrilled to join the team and contribute to the Humanities journal. As a passionate, ambitious, and evolving individual, I am committed to continuous learning, growth, and development. *:::::I would greatly appreciate mentorship from the board members to enhance my publishing knowledge and skills. I am eager to apply these skills in my role and contribute meaningfully to the team's growth and success. *:::::I look forward to the next steps and onboarding process, I am delighted to be part of this team and make a positive impact. [[User:Taofeeq Abdulkareem|Taofeeq Abdulkareem]] ([[User talk:Taofeeq Abdulkareem|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Taofeeq Abdulkareem|contribs]]) 20:25, 14 November 2024 (UTC) *::::::Please wait for other editorial board members to review and comment on your application. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 21:44, 18 November 2024 (UTC) *::::::: Support! [[User:Fransplace|Fransplace]] ([[User talk:Fransplace|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Fransplace|contribs]]) 23:04, 26 March 2025 (UTC) *'''Support'''. Having read the above, welcome aboard. --[[User:Piotrus|Piotrus]] ([[User talk:Piotrus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Piotrus|contribs]]) 05:54, 5 December 2024 (UTC) *{{Support}}.Wikimedia and other editorial experience is very good [[User:Rwatson1955|Rwatson1955]] ([[User talk:Rwatson1955|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rwatson1955|contribs]]) 14:22, 2 January 2025 (UTC) {{re|Taofeeq Abdulkareem}} My apologies for the delay in getting back to you. I have spoken with the editor-in-chief for WikiJournal of Humanities and as she [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AWikiJournal_of_Humanities%2FEditors&diff=2708834&oldid=2695018 has indicated] your support for the associate editor application, I am pleased to admit you to the WikiJournal of Humanities editorial board. '''Result: Accepted into the editorial board as associate editor.''' : [[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Adding editorial board members|Next steps]] (add <code>DONE</code> or <code><nowiki>{{Done}}</nowiki></code> after someone has performed the task): # {{done}} [[{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_board_member|Send a welcome message and confirm their preferred email address]] (usually in their provided website link, else via [[Special:EmailUser]]) {{clickable button 2|Onboarding email template|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_board_member}} # {{done}} Copy their information over to [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board page]] using the {{tlx|WikiJournal editor summary}} template # {{done}} Add their name and start data to the [d:{{WJQboard|default=Q75674277}} relevant editorial board] on wikidata # {{done}} Direct-add them to the {{WJX}}board mailing list ([https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=footer#!managemembers/{{WJX}}board/add via this link]) which will grant them access to the private page only visible to board members # Welcome them at the {{#if:|wjm|WJM}}board mailing list so that they are informed # Finally, move the application to [[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors/Archive_{{CURRENTYEAR}}|this year's archive page]] [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 20:22, 2 April 2025 (UTC) :Thanks for swift and positive response. :Looking forward to working with the team and making amazing contributions while also playing active part in the progress and development of the Board. :I will like to thank you once for considering my application. :I am pleased to be part of the team. Looking forward to the next steps of the onboarding process. :Kind regards, :Taofeeq Idowu ABDULKAREEM [[User:Taofeeq Abdulkareem|Taofeeq Abdulkareem]] ([[User talk:Taofeeq Abdulkareem|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Taofeeq Abdulkareem|contribs]]) 20:57, 2 April 2025 (UTC) ==Associate editor application of Sideeq Abubakar Galadima== {{WikiJournal editor application submitted | position =Associate editor | name =Sideeq Abubakar Galadima | qualifications =B.A. History and International Studies | link = | areas_of_expertise =History, Diplomacy, Planning and Management | professional_experience =His professional experience is deeply rooted in his academic background in History and International Studies, which has familiarized him with the intricacies of objective research, writing, and reportage. His expertise in these areas was further strengthened by his active engagement in news and report writing as a member of the Union of Campus Journalists during his undergraduate studies. Additionally, his experience as a Wikimedia editor has honed his proofreading skills. As an event planner, he has developed exceptional attention to detail, which has become an integral part of his skillset. Notably, his pioneering research work, titled "Colonialism and the Continuity of Ilorin Cultural Heritage, 1900-1960," demonstrates his ability to conduct in-depth historical analysis and research. This work will undoubtedly serve as a valuable reference for future studies in related fields, such as cultural diplomacy. | publishing_experience =He's a researcher, news and reports writer, content editor, proofreader | open_experience =He possesses over three years of experience in Wikimedia, driven by a strong interest in open-source initiatives. Notably, he served as the Special Duties Officer for the Wikimedia Fan Club at the University of Ilorin, where he played a pivotal role in facilitating and training sessions on Wikipedia and its sister projects, as well as co-facilitating workshops, including "Wiki and Health Articles in Nigeria" and "Wikimedia Awareness in Ogbomosho". Through these endeavors, He demonstrated his expertise in promoting open-source knowledge sharing and community engagement. His experience and commitment to Wikimedia's mission have equipped him with a unique skill set, poised to contribute to future initiatives. | policy_confirm =I confirm that I will act in accordance with the policies of the WikiJournal of Humanities. [[User:Albakry028|Albakry028]] ([[User talk:Albakry028|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Albakry028|contribs]]) 17:54, 11 September 2024 (UTC) }} * I really appreciate Sideeq's Wikipedia contributions to topics in Africa. It sounds like the highest degree earned is B.A., and no journal editor experience? I think normally we expect a PhD and some academic journal experience. Also it would be good to have a link to the ""Colonialism and the Continuity of Ilorin Cultural Heritage, 1900-1960", which I wasn't able to find. [[User:Aoholcombe|Aoholcombe]] ([[User talk:Aoholcombe|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Aoholcombe|contribs]]) 23:25, 2 October 2024 (UTC) *:I agree with your comment. I wasn't able to find this applicant's published work list and I am hesitant with professional experience even for applying as an associate editor position. While the applicant has some experience with open access, the activity was sporadic. However, I think it may be beneficial to have additional volunteers to support this journal that deals with the administrative side of things and less reliant on professional and publishing experiences' side of the journal. @[[User:Albakry028|Albakry028]], in case you didn't see the previous comment, can you provide us with more information? [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 03:55, 14 October 2024 (UTC) *:Thank you for acknowledging my contributions to African topics on Wikipedia. I appreciate your recognition of my efforts. Regarding your inquiries, I would like to clarify that my highest educational attainment is a Bachelor of Arts degree. Nevertheless, my editorial expertise has enabled me to assist colleagues with their research projects, leveraging my skills in research and academic writing. I understand and respect the standard expectations associated with academic roles. However, I was entrusted with this responsibility due to my demonstrated expertise. Regarding my research work, I am pleased to share the link to my project: "Colonialism and the Continuity of Ilorin Cultural Heritage, 1900-1960." https://drive.google.com/file/d/1bxysalU-AT7JakWfJCFxeWqwpFCz_C7s/view?usp=drivesdk @[[User:Aoholcombe|Aoholcombe]] @[[User:OhanaUnited|OhanaUnited]] [[User:Albakry028|Albakry028]] ([[User talk:Albakry028|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Albakry028|contribs]]) 13:50, 16 October 2024 (UTC) :@[[User:Albakry028|Albakry028]] Thanks very much for providing your writing example. Do you have any publishing experience? We are looking for something beyond undergraduate thesis (for example, peer-reviewed journal article or book chapters). I am trained as a scientist and therefore will need more information to assess an applicant's suitability in applying for a humanities position. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 16:18, 24 October 2024 (UTC) :Although my publishing experience is limited to my undergraduate thesis, I'm confident in my potential. I bring transferable skills: research expertise, writing proficiency, adaptability, analytical thinking and effective communication. I'm eager to apply research methodology perspectives to humanities contexts, quickly learn and adapt. I'm poised to contribute innovatively through interdisciplinary research, engaging teaching methods and collaborative projects. I appreciate your consideration of potential over conventional metrics. [[User:Albakry028|Albakry028]] ([[User talk:Albakry028|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Albakry028|contribs]]) 13:38, 25 October 2024 (UTC) ::I am happy to '''support''' your associate editor application, contingent on board members' availability, to mentor you to gain experience around the publishing area. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 18:55, 14 November 2024 (UTC) :::Thank you for your kind and supportive message. I am thrilled to join the team and grateful for the opportunity to work alongside experienced board members. I am eager to benefit from their mentorship and expertise, which will undoubtedly enhance my skills and knowledge in the publishing field. :::As a dedicated and passionate individual, I am committed to contributing to the humanities journal and supporting its growth. I am excited to embark on this journey and engage in meaningful discussions as a team member. :::I look forward to the next steps and onboarding process. [[User:Albakry028|Albakry028]] ([[User talk:Albakry028|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Albakry028|contribs]]) 20:44, 14 November 2024 (UTC) ::::Please wait for other editorial board members to review and comment on your application. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 21:38, 18 November 2024 (UTC) ::::: I support --[[User:Fransplace|Fransplace]] ([[User talk:Fransplace|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Fransplace|contribs]]) 23:12, 26 March 2025 (UTC) *'''Support'''. Having read the above, welcome aboard. --[[User:Piotrus|Piotrus]] ([[User talk:Piotrus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Piotrus|contribs]]) 05:56, 5 December 2024 (UTC) *{{Support}}.Wikimedia experience is positive [[User:Rwatson1955|Rwatson1955]] ([[User talk:Rwatson1955|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rwatson1955|contribs]]) 14:23, 2 January 2025 (UTC) {{re|Kamoranesi90}} My apologies for the delay in getting back to you. I have recently spoken with the editor-in-chief for WikiJournal of Humanities about editor applications. As she has [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Editors&diff=next&oldid=2708834 indicated her support] for your associate editor application, I am pleased to accept you into the board. '''Result: Accepted into the editorial board as associate editor.''' : [[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Adding editorial board members|Next steps]] (add <code>DONE</code> or <code><nowiki>{{Done}}</nowiki></code> after someone has performed the task): # {{done}} [[{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_board_member|Send a welcome message and confirm their preferred email address]] (usually in their provided website link, else via [[Special:EmailUser]]) {{clickable button 2|Onboarding email template|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_board_member}} # {{done}} Copy their information over to [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board page]] using the {{tlx|WikiJournal editor summary}} template # {{done}} Add their name and start data to the [d:{{WJQboard|default=Q75674277}} relevant editorial board] on wikidata # {{done}} Direct-add them to the {{WJX}}board mailing list ([https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=footer#!managemembers/{{WJX}}board/add via this link]) which will grant them access to the private page only visible to board members # Welcome them at the {{#if:|wjm|WJM}}board mailing list so that they are informed # Finally, move the application to [[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors/Archive_{{CURRENTYEAR}}|this year's archive page]] [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 20:26, 2 April 2025 (UTC) :Thank you for the opportunity to join the editorial board. I sincerely appreciate the consideration of my application and assure you that I am committed to making a meaningful impact. I look forward to collaborating with the team and contributing to the journal’s growth and success. [[User:Albakry028|Albakry028]] ([[User talk:Albakry028|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Albakry028|contribs]]) 21:13, 2 April 2025 (UTC) ==Editorial board application of Gauthami Penakalapati== {{WikiJournal editor application submitted | position =Editorial board | name =Gauthami Penakalapati | qualifications =PhD, MPH, BS | link =https://gauthamip.com/ | areas_of_expertise =global health, global development, gender and development, adolescents and development, evidence synthesis methodologies | professional_experience =I am an interdisciplinary social science researcher and development strategist with expertise in gender equity, adolescent well-being, and a climate-just transition. My research intersects global development, feminist philosophy, public health, science & technology studies, and geography. At UC Berkeley, I've taught undergraduate social science courses including "Gender & Environment," "Energy & Society," and "Introduction to Global Health." At the graduate level, I've taught courses on research and intervention trial design. My global development experience early in my career motivated my interest in epistemic justice and global development ethics. I designed lectures exploring the colonial underpinnings of global development and imagine anti-colonial approaches to science. | publishing_experience =peer-reviewer for PLoS Global Health | open_experience =I'm looking to get more involved in open knowledge projects. This has been a long standing interest of mine, and I'd love the chance to participate and engage with the community. | policy_confirm =I confirm that I will act in accordance with the policies of the WikiJournal of Humanities. [[User:Gauthamip|Gauthamip]] ([[User talk:Gauthamip|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Gauthamip|contribs]]) 21:22, 29 September 2025 (UTC) [[User:Gauthamip|Gauthamip]] ([[User talk:Gauthamip|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Gauthamip|contribs]]) 21:22, 29 September 2025 (UTC) = gauthamip 14:22 29 September 2025 (UTC -07:00) }} : Thanks for your application [[User:Gauthamip|Gauthamip]]. Do you have experience handling reviews (e.g. identifying and contacting potential peer reviewers) in editorial boards? [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 14:26, 31 October 2025 (UTC) ==Editorial board application of Patryk P. Tomaszewski== {{WikiJournal editor application submitted | position =Editorial board | name =Patryk P. Tomaszewski | qualifications =Ph.D.; M.Phil.; M.A. | link =www.patryktomaszewski.com | areas_of_expertise =history of art, modern European cultural and political history, exhibition history, visual culture of Central and Eastern Europe | professional_experience =Historian of art and visual culture specializing in twentieth-century Europe. I have written and presented on the Russian avant-gardes; interwar art in Central and Eastern Europe; Socialist Realism and state-directed cultural production across the former Eastern Bloc; and the transnational circulation of art between East and West during the Cold War. Previously held a Joan Tisch Teaching Fellowship at the Whitney Museum of American Art. I teach art history surveys at Fordham University. I served as peer reviewer for ''Latin American Jewish Studies'' and ''The Proceedings of the National Library of Latvia''. | publishing_experience =I recently published a peer-reviewed article in ''Curator: The Museum Journal'' and contributed a chapter to a scholarly edited volume by Muzeum Sztuki in Łódź. I also published catalogue essays with Skira Editore and the Kosciuszko Foundation. Online publications include a research article for ''post. Notes on Art in a Global Context'' (Museum of Modern Art) and multiple exhibition reviews for ''ArtMargins Online'', among others. | open_experience =Familiar with Wikipedia's editorial standards, sourcing policies, and content review processes. Interested in contributing to open-access scholarship in the humanities. | policy_confirm =I confirm that I will act in accordance with the policies of the WikiJournal of Humanities. [[User:PatrykPTomaszewski|PatrykPTomaszewski]] ([[User talk:PatrykPTomaszewski|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PatrykPTomaszewski|contribs]]) 01:25, 18 February 2026 (UTC) }} : Thank you for your application {{u|PatrykPTomaszewski}}. I have a question about your open experience. You wrote that you're {{tq|Familiar with Wikipedia's editorial standards, sourcing policies, and content review processes}} yet your account has no other edit aside from filling out this application. Can you elaborate on your open experience? Do you have an alternative wiki account? [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 20:22, 17 April 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:OhanaUnited|OhanaUnited]] Thank you for the question. I maintain a long-standing account on English Wikipedia under a different username, where I have contributed several thousand edits, including multiple GAs. I keep that account separate from my professional identity for privacy reasons. I am happy to disclose the account name privately to you or the editor-in-chief if that would be helpful for verification. [[User:PatrykPTomaszewski|PatrykPTomaszewski]] ([[User talk:PatrykPTomaszewski|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PatrykPTomaszewski|contribs]]) 20:54, 19 April 2026 (UTC) :::@[[User:PatrykPTomaszewski|PatrykPTomaszewski]] Thanks for the reply. Please use the [[Special:EmailUser]] function to privately disclose your other account to me. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 14:17, 20 April 2026 (UTC) :::: I have received the disclosed account which demonstrated open experience. I am happy to '''support''' this application. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 19:28, 22 April 2026 (UTC) : Supported! [[User:Aoholcombe|Aoholcombe]] ([[User talk:Aoholcombe|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Aoholcombe|contribs]]) 22:29, 23 April 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Aoholcombe|Aoholcombe]] @[[User:OhanaUnited|OhanaUnited]] Thank you both very much! [[User:PatrykPTomaszewski|PatrykPTomaszewski]] ([[User talk:PatrykPTomaszewski|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PatrykPTomaszewski|contribs]]) 01:58, 24 April 2026 (UTC) : I support this application [[User:TMorata|TMorata]] ([[User talk:TMorata|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TMorata|contribs]]) 20:50, 24 April 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:TMorata|TMorata]] Thank you! @[[User:OhanaUnited|OhanaUnited]] Is there anything else you might need from me? [[User:PatrykPTomaszewski|PatrykPTomaszewski]] ([[User talk:PatrykPTomaszewski|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PatrykPTomaszewski|contribs]]) 18:11, 1 July 2026 (UTC) 8bt54g7438emab8hc14zhg42nqx9n3q 0 260927 2817558 2799003 2026-07-02T00:11:08Z DimiDimi 3010017 ([[c:GR|GR]]) [[File:Apple iOS wordmark 2017.png]] → [[File:IOS wordmark (2017).svg]] png > svg 2817558 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{:{{Titleparts|1}}/Sidebar}}</noinclude> [[File:Operating system placement.svg|right|220px|Operating system role]] This lesson introduces operating systems and file systems. __TOC__ == Objectives and Skills == Objectives and skills for the operating systems portion of IT Fundamentals certification include:<ref>[https://certification.comptia.org/docs/default-source/exam-objectives/fc0-u61_objectives.pdf CompTIA: IT Fundamentals (ITF+) Exam Objectives FC0-U61]</ref> {{colbegin}} * Explain the purpose of operating systems. ** Interface between applications and hardware ** Disk management ** Process management/scheduling *** Kill process/end task ** Application management ** Memory management ** Device management ** Access control/protection ** Types of OS *** Mobile device OS *** Workstation OS *** Server OS *** Embedded OS **** Firmware *** Hypervisor (Type 1) * Compare and contrast components of an operating system. ** File systems and features *** File systems **** NTFS **** FAT32 **** HFS **** Ext4 ** Features *** Compression *** Encryption *** Permissions *** Journaling *** Limitations *** Naming rules ** File management *** Folders/directories *** File types and extensions *** Permissions ** Services ** Processes ** Drivers ** Utilities *** Task scheduling ** Interfaces *** Console/command line *** GUI {{colend}} == Readings == # [[Wikipedia: Operating system]] # [[Wikipedia: File system]] == Multimedia == # [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YqIveJ2t2Js YouTube: Purpose of Operating Systems] # [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tSqGGk7vxE8 YouTube: Components of an Operating System] # [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TssdLNi24ws YouTube: Chapter 5 - IT Fundamentals+ (FC0-U61) Understanding Operating Systems] == Activities == # Perform system updates: #* Windows: Review [http://windows.microsoft.com/en-us/windows7/products/features/windows-update Microsoft: Windows Update]. Run Windows Update and install any missing critical updates. #* macOS: Review [http://support.apple.com/en-us/HT201541 Apple: How to update the software on your Mac]. Check for software updates and install any missing updates. #* Linux: Review [https://www.linux.com/training-tutorials/linux-101-updating-your-system/ Linux.com: Updating Your System]. Check for system updates and install any missing updates. #* Chromium OS: Review [https://support.google.com/chromebook/answer/177889?hl=en Google: Update your Chromebook operating system]. Check for system updates and install any missing updates. # Update device drivers. #* Windows: Review [[Wikipedia: Device Manager]] and [https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/update-drivers-in-windows-10-ec62f46c-ff14-c91d-eead-d7126dc1f7b6 Microsoft: Update drivers in Windows 10]. Run Device Manager on a Windows system. Use Device Manager to check for updated drivers for all display adapters, network adapters, and sound controllers. #* macOS: Review [https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT201541 Apple: How to update the software on your Mac]. Use Software Update to update software on your system. #* Linux: Review [https://www.howtogeek.com/213488/how-to-install-hardware-drivers-on-linux/ How-To Geek: How to Install Hardware Drivers on Linux]. Run Software & Updates and check to see if any additional drivers are in use and update if necessary. # Use your system's monitoring utilities to review active processes and resources in use. #* Windows: Review [[Wikipedia: Task Manager (Windows)]] and [[Wikipedia: Resource Monitor]] and run both utilities. Check for any processes unexpectedly using system resources. #* macOS: Review [[Wikipedia: Activity Monitor]] and run the utility. Check for any processes unexpectedly using system resources. #* Linux: Review [https://help.gnome.org/users/gnome-system-monitor/ GNOME: System Monitor] and run the utility. Check for any processes unexpectedly using system resources. # Terminate a running application. #* Windows: Review [https://www.bleepingcomputer.com/tutorials/close-a-program-using-task-manager/ Bleeping Computer: How to close a program using Task Manager]. Start a program such as Notepad or Calculator and use Task Manager to terminate the program. #* macOS: Review [https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT201276 How to force an app to quit on your Mac]. Start a program such as TextEdit or Calculator and use Force Quit Applications to terminate the program. #* Linux: Review [https://itsfoss.com/task-manager-linux/ It's FOSS: Use Task Manager Equivalent in Linux]. Use System Monitor to review running processes in Linux. # Examine system health and recent events for your system: #* Windows: Review [[Wikipedia: Event Viewer]] and run the utility. Review recent events for potential issues or concerns. #* macOS: Review [[Wikipedia: Console (OS X)]] and run the utility. Review recent events for potential issues or concerns. #* Linux: Review [https://www.lifewire.com/introduction-to-linux-log-files-2192233 Lifewire: An Introduction to Linux Log Files] and view the system logs. Review recent events for potential issues or concerns. # Manage folders and files. #* Windows: Review [https://edu.gcfglobal.org/en/windowsbasics/working-with-files/1/ GCF Global: Windows Basics - Working with Files]. Review the existing structure and properties for the Documents folder. Improve file organization, if necessary. #* macOS: Review [https://edu.gcfglobal.org/en/macosbasics/working-with-files/1/ GCF Global: macOS Basics - Working with Files]. Review the existing structure and information for the Documents folder. Improve file organization, if necessary. #* Linux: Review [https://web.archive.org/web/20210501120740/https://developer.ibm.com/technologies/linux/tutorials/l-lpic1-103-3/ IBM: Learn Linux, 101: File and directory management]. Review the existing structure and detailed information for the Documents folder. Improve file organization, if necessary. # Schedule a task to run automatically. #* Windows: Review [https://www.windowscentral.com/how-create-automated-task-using-task-scheduler-windows-10 Windows Central: How to create an automated task using Task Scheduler on Windows 10]. Schedule a task to automatically run the calculator five minutes from now. Remove the task after it runs. #* macOS: Review [https://medium.com/swlh/how-to-use-launchd-to-run-services-in-macos-b972ed1e352 Medium: How to Use launchd to Run Services in macOS]. Use launchd to automatically run the calculator five minutes from now. Unload the job after it runs. #* Linux: Review [https://www.howtogeek.com/101288/how-to-schedule-tasks-on-linux-an-introduction-to-crontab-files/ How To Geek: How to Schedule Tasks on Linux: An Introduction to Crontab Files]. Schedule a task to automatically run the calculator five minutes from now. Remove the task after it runs. # Test other operating systems using your web browser: #* All: [https://www.onworks.net OnWorks: Free Online Workstations] #* Windows: [https://scratch.mit.edu/projects/87824979/fullscreen/ MIT: Windows 10 Simulator] #* macOS: [http://www.alessioatzeni.com/mac-osx-lion-css3/ alessioatzeni.com: Mac OSX Lion CSS3] - password is <code>admin</code> #* Linux: Test different Linux distributions using [https://distrotest.net/index.php distrotest.net]. Popular Linux desktop distributions include Ubuntu, Linux Mint, and Fedora. # Download and install virtualization software for your system. Use it to test other operating systems. This activity will also help you test databases in a future lesson. #* Windows: [[Wikipedia: Hyper-V|Microsoft Hyper-V]], [[Wikipedia: VirtualBox|Oracle VirtualBox]], or [[Wikipedia: VMware Player|VMware Player]]. #** [https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/virtualization/hyper-v-on-windows/quick-start/enable-hyper-v Microsoft: Enable Hyper-V] #** [http://www.thegeekstuff.com/2012/02/virtualbox-install-create-vm The Geek Stuff: How to install Oracle VirtualBox and Create a Virtual Machine] #** [https://kb.vmware.com/selfservice/microsites/search.do?language=en_US&cmd=displayKC&externalId=2053973 VMware: Downloading and Installing VMware Player and VMware Workstation Player] #* OS X: [[Wikipedia: VirtualBox|Oracle VirtualBox]], [[Wikipedia: Parallels Desktop for Mac|Parallels]], or [[Wikipedia: VMware Fusion|VMware Fusion]]. #** [http://www.thegeekstuff.com/2012/02/virtualbox-install-create-vm The Geek Stuff: How to install Oracle VirtualBox and Create a Virtual Machine] #* Linux: [[Wikipedia: VirtualBox|Oracle VirtualBox]] or [[Wikipedia: VMware Player|VMware Player]]. #** [http://www.thegeekstuff.com/2012/02/virtualbox-install-create-vm The Geek Stuff: How to install Oracle VirtualBox and Create a Virtual Machine] #** [https://kb.vmware.com/selfservice/microsites/search.do?language=en_US&cmd=displayKC&externalId=2053973 VMware: Downloading and Installing VMware Player and VMware Workstation Player] == Lesson Summary == === Operating System Concepts === [[File:Windows 10 Logo.svg|thumb|right|100px|Windows 10]] [[File:MacOS logo (2017).svg|thumb|right|100px|macOS]] [[File:Tux.svg|thumb|right|100px|Linux]] [[File:Google Chrome OS logo.png|thumb|right|100px|Chrome OS]] [[File:Android robot.svg|thumb|right|100px|Android]] [[File:IOS wordmark (2017).svg|thumb|right|100px|iOS]] * An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware, software resources, and provides common services for computer programs. For hardware functions such as input and output and memory allocation, the operating system acts as an intermediary between programs and the computer hardware.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Operating system]]</ref> * Access to data stored on disks is a central feature of all operating systems. Computers store data on disks using files, which are structured in specific ways in order to allow for faster access, higher reliability, and to make better use of the drive's available space. The specific way in which files are stored on a disk is called a file system, and enables files to have names and attributes. It also allows them to be stored in a hierarchy of directories or folders arranged in a directory tree.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Operating system]]</ref> * Multitasking refers to the running of multiple independent computer programs on the same computer; giving the appearance that it is performing the tasks at the same time. Since most computers can do at most one or two things at one time, this is generally done via time-sharing, which means that each program uses a share of the computer's time to execute.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Operating system]]</ref> * An operating system kernel contains a scheduling program which determines how much time each process spends executing, and in which order execution control should be passed to programs. Control is passed to a process by the kernel, which allows the program access to the CPU and memory. Later, control is returned to the kernel through some mechanism, so that another program may be allowed to use the CPU. This so-called passing of control between the kernel and applications is called a context switch. Modern operating systems have preemptive control over running applications, device drivers, and kernel code.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Operating system]]</ref> * Preemptive multitasking allows the operating system to terminate running processes that stop responding. Different operating systems refer to this capability by different names, such as ending tasks or killing processes.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Operating system]]</ref> * Modern CPUs support multiple modes of operation. CPUs with this capability offer at least two modes: user mode and supervisor mode. Supervisor mode is used by the kernel for low level tasks that need unrestricted access to hardware, such as controlling how memory is accessed, and communicating with devices such as disk drives and video display devices. User mode, in contrast, is used for almost everything else. Application programs, such as word processors and database managers, operate within user mode, and can only access machine resources by turning control over to the kernel, a process which causes a switch to supervisor mode.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Operating system]]</ref> * Among other things, a multiprogramming operating system kernel must be responsible for managing all system memory which is currently in use by programs. This ensures that a program does not interfere with memory already in use by another program. Since programs time share, each program must have independent access to memory.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Operating system]]</ref> * Modern operating systems must be capable of distinguishing between requests which should be allowed to be processed, and others which should not be processed. Systems commonly have some form of requester identity, such as a user name, and to establish identity there may be a process of authentication such as a password, ID card, and/or biometric data.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Operating system]]</ref> * Once authenticated, user access to resources must be authorized by verifying that the requester has permission to access the resource. Authorization permissions typically include separate options for read, create, modify, and delete.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Operating system]]</ref> * Resource permissions may be granted directly to users, or permissions may be granted to groups of users, and user accounts are added to various administrative groups to inherit permissions.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Operating system]]</ref> * Operating system resource management may also include auditing options. These would allow tracking of requests for access to resources (such as, "who has been reading this file?"). Internal security, or security from an already running program is only possible if all possibly harmful requests must be carried out through interrupts to the operating system kernel. If programs can directly access hardware and resources, they cannot be secured.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Operating system]]</ref> === Operating System Types === [[File:AMI 486DX EISA BIOS 20051109.jpg|thumb|right|100px|Firmware]] [[File:Hardware Virtualization.JPG|thumb|right|100px|Virtual machines]] [[File:Hyperviseur.svg|thumb|right|100px|Hypervisor types]] * A mobile operating system (or mobile OS) is an operating system for mobile phones, tablets, smartwatches, 2-in-1 PCs (that can be convert to a laptop mode or detach and work as a tablet mode) or other mobile devices. While computers such as typical laptops are 'mobile', the operating systems usually used on them are not considered mobile ones, as they were originally designed for desktop computers that historically did not have or need specific mobile features. This distinction is becoming blurred in some newer operating systems that are hybrids made for both uses.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Mobile operating system]]</ref> * Desktop or workstation operating systems manage computer hardware, software resources, and provides common services for personal computer programs. Popular workstation operating systems include Microsoft Windows, Apple macOS, and various Linux distributions.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Operating system]]</ref> * Server operating systems provide functionality for other programs or devices, called "clients". Common server use includes application servers, communication servers, computing servers, database servers, file servers, mail servers, media servers, print servers, virtual servers, and web servers. Popular server operating systems include Linux and Windows Server.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Server (computing)]]</ref> * An embedded operating system is an operating system for embedded computer systems, a combination of a computer processor, computer memory, and input/output peripheral devices—that has a dedicated function within a larger mechanical or electrical system. This type of operating system is typically designed to be resource-efficient and reliable.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Embedded operating system]]</ref><ref>[[Wikipedia: Embedded system]]</ref> * Firmware is a specific class of computer software that provides the low-level control for a device's specific hardware. Firmware can either provide a standardized operating environment for more complex device software, or, for less complex devices, act as the device's complete operating system, performing all control, monitoring and data manipulation functions.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Firmware]]</ref> * A hypervisor (or virtual machine monitor, VMM) is computer software, firmware or hardware that creates and runs virtual machines. A computer on which a hypervisor runs one or more virtual machines is called a host machine, and each virtual machine is called a guest machine. The hypervisor presents the guest operating systems with a virtual operating platform and manages the execution of the guest operating systems.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Hypervisor]]</ref> * Type-1, native or bare-metal hypervisors run directly on the host's hardware to control the hardware and to manage guest operating systems. Type-2 or hosted hypervisors run on a conventional operating system (OS) just as other computer programs do.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Hypervisor]]</ref> === File Systems === [[File:AHEADHierarchy.JPG|thumb|right|100px|File system hierarchy]] [[File:DynaFile Index Browser - Human Resources Example.jpg|thumb|right|100px|File system example]] [[File:File Manager Windows 10 screenshot.png|thumb|right|100px|Windows 10 File Manager]] [[File:Finder Icon macOS Big Sur.png|thumb|right|100px|macOS Finder Icon]] [[File:Files App icon iOS.png|thumb|right|100px|iOS Files App icon]] A file system or filesystem (often abbreviated to fs), controls how data is stored and retrieved.<ref>[[Wikipedia: File system]]</ref> * NTFS (New Technology File System) a proprietary journaling file system developed by Microsoft, for use with Windows NT and later Windows operating systems.<ref>[[Wikipedia: NTFS]]</ref> * FAT32 (32-bit File Allocation Table) is a legacy industry-standard computer file system with support for an increased number of possible clusters compared to previous versions.<ref>[[Wikipedia: File Allocation Table]]</ref> * HFS (Hierarchical File System) is a proprietary file system developed by Apple Inc. in 1998 for use in computer systems running macOS.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Hierarchical File System]]</ref> * APFS (Apple File System) is a proprietary file system released in 2017 for macOS, optimized for flash and solid-state drive storage, with a primary focus on encryption.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Apple File System]]</ref> * ext (extended file system) is a file system created specifically for the Linux kernel. ext4 is the fourth version of this file system.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Extended file system]]</ref> File system features include: * Compression is the process of encoding information using fewer bits than the original representation.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Data compression]]</ref> * Encryption is the process of encoding a message or information in such a way that only authorized parties can access it and those who are not authorized cannot.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Encryption]]</ref> * Permissions provide access rights to specific users and groups of users. These permissions control the ability of the users to view, change, navigate, and execute the contents of the file system.<ref>[[Wikipedia: File system permissions]]</ref> * Journaling keeps track of changes not yet committed to the file system's main part by recording the intentions of such changes in a data structure known as a "journal", which is usually a circular log. In the event of a system crash or power failure, such file systems can be brought back online more quickly with a lower likelihood of becoming corrupted.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Journaling file system]]</ref> * Not all file systems support all features. For example, the FAT32 file system doesn't support compression, encryption, permissions, or journaling.<ref>[[Wikipedia: File system]]</ref> * File systems often have restrictions on file names, such file name length and use of special characters in the name. There may also be special meaning given to specific characters, such as using a leading period (.) to indicate a hidden file or a tilde (~) for a temporary system file. File management includes directories (folders), file types and extensions, and permissions. * A directory is a file system cataloging structure which contains references to other computer files, and possibly other directories. On some file systems, directories are known as folders.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Directory (computing)]]</ref> * A file format is a standard way that information is encoded for storage in a computer file. It specifies how bits are used to encode information in a digital storage medium. Different operating systems have traditionally taken different approaches to determining a particular file's format, with each approach having its own advantages and disadvantages.<ref>[[Wikipedia: File format]]</ref> * A popular method used by many operating systems, including Windows, macOS, CP/M, DOS, VMS and VM/CMS is to determine the format of a file based on the end of its name, more specifically the letters following the final period. This is known as the filename extension.<ref>[[Wikipedia: File format]]</ref> * Another way of storing the format of a file is to explicitly store information about the format in the file system, rather than within the file or file name itself. This is known as external metadata.<ref>[[Wikipedia: File format]]</ref> * An access-control list (ACL) is a list of permissions attached to an object. An ACL specifies which users or system processes are granted access to objects, as well as what operations are allowed on given objects.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Access-control list]]</ref> === Operating System Components === [[File:Device Manager.webp|thumb|right|100px|Device Manager]] * A service, also known as a daemon, is a computer program that runs as a background process, rather than being under the direct control of an interactive user. Systems often start daemons at boot time which will respond to network requests, hardware activity, or other programs by performing some task.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Daemon (computing)]]</ref> * A process is the instance of a computer program that is being executed by one or many threads. It contains the program code and its activity. Depending on the operating system (OS), a process may be made up of multiple threads of execution that execute instructions concurrently.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Process (computing)]]</ref> * A device driver is a computer program that operates or controls a particular type of device that is attached to a computer. A driver provides a software interface to hardware devices, enabling operating systems and other computer programs to access hardware functions without needing to know precise details about the hardware being used.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Device driver]]</ref> * Utility software is software designed to help to analyze, configure, optimize or maintain a computer. It is used to support the computer infrastructure - in contrast to application software, which is aimed at directly performing tasks that benefit ordinary users. Common utility categories include system, storage device management, and file management.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Utility software]]</ref> * A task or job scheduler is a computer application or service for controlling unattended background program execution of tasks. Modern task schedulers typically provide a graphical user interface and a single point of control for definition and monitoring of background executions in a distributed network of computers.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Job scheduler]]</ref> === Operating System User Interfaces === [[File:GNOME Terminal icon 2019.svg|thumb|right|100px|Command line interface]] * A CLI (Command Line Interface) is a type of interface that processes commands to a computer program in the form of lines of text.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Command-line interface]]</ref> * A GUI (Graphical User Interface) is a form of user interface that allows users to interact with electronic devices through graphical icons.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Graphical user interface]]</ref> == Key Terms == [[File:Kernel.png|thumb|right|100px|Kernel]] ; APFS (Apple File System) : A proprietary file system released in 2017 for macOS, optimized for flash and solid-state drive storage, with a primary focus on encryption.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Apple File System]]</ref> ; CLI (Command Line Interface) : A type of interface that processes commands to a computer program in the form of lines of text.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Command-line interface]]</ref> ; ext (extended file system) : A file system created specifically for the Linux kernel.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Extended file system]]</ref> ; FAT (File Allocation Table) : A legacy computer file system architecture and a family of industry-standard file systems utilizing it.<ref>[[Wikipedia: File Allocation Table]]</ref> ; FAT32 (32-bit File Allocation Table) : An updated legacy computer file system which supports an increased number of possible clusters.<ref>[[Wikipedia: File Allocation Table]]</ref> ; HFS (Hierarchical File System) : A proprietary file system developed by Apple Inc. in 1998 for use in computer systems running macOS.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Hierarchical File System]]</ref> ; GUI (Graphical User Interface) : A form of user interface that allows users to interact with electronic devices through graphical icons.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Graphical user interface]]</ref> ; kernel : A computer program at the core of a computer's operating system with complete control over everything in the system.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Kernel (operating system)]]</ref> ; NTFS (New Technology File System) : A proprietary journaling file system developed by Microsoft, for use with Windows NT and later Windows operating systems.<ref>[[Wikipedia: NTFS]]</ref> ; OS (Operating System) : System software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Operating system]]</ref> == Assessments == * Flashcards: [https://quizlet.com/510938305/it-fundamentals-operating-systems-flash-cards/ Quizlet: IT Fundamentals - Operating Systems] * Quiz: [https://quizlet.com/510938305/test?answerTermSides=2&promptTermSides=6&questionCount=10&questionTypes=4&showImages=true Quizlet: IT Fundamentals - Operating Systems] == See Also == * [[Operating Systems]] == References == {{reflist}} {{subpage navbar}} {{DEFAULTSORT:{{SUBPAGENAME}}}} {{CourseCat}} [[Category:Operating systems]] lqoucikbqb4234cdmpf2eeuhm0es7u5 0 263978 2817553 2817483 2026-07-01T21:30:12Z Scogdill 1331941 2817553 wikitext text/x-wiki == Overview == The Dukedom of Abercorn is the last non-royal dukedom created. Queen Victoria created it in 1869. This page includes the Earl of Wicklow, the family of which married into the Abercorn family in 1816 when William Howard, 4th Earl of Wicklow married Lady Cecil Frances Hamilton — the daughter and only child of John Hamilton, 1st Marquess of Abercorn.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-24|title=William Howard, 4th Earl of Wicklow|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Howard,_4th_Earl_of_Wicklow&oldid=1360966619|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> William Howard, 4th Earl of Wicklow was succeeded by his nephew, Charles Howard, 5th Earl of Wicklow (5 November 1839 – 20 June 1881).<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2024-08-26|title=Charles Howard, 5th Earl of Wicklow|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles_Howard,_5th_Earl_of_Wicklow&oldid=1242455245|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> Also Ralph Howard, 7th Earl of Wicklow married Lady Gladys Mary Hamilton (daughter of the 2nd Duke of Abercorn) in 1902.<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-05|title=Cecil Howard, 6th Earl of Wicklow|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cecil_Howard,_6th_Earl_of_Wicklow&oldid=1304372795|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> The National Library of Ireland has papers from Sarah Howard and her children, including Lady Caroline Howard. == Also Known As == *Family name: Hamilton *the Duke of Abercorn **James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Abercorn (10 August 1868 – 31 October 1885)<ref name=":0">"James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Abercorn." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10144.htm#i101433|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}</ref> **James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn (31 October 1885 – 3 January 1913)<ref name=":12">"James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10104.htm#i101033|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}</ref> **James Albert Edward Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn (3 January 1913 – 12 September 1953)<ref name=":13">"James Albert Edward Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10104.htm#i101031|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}</ref> *the Duchess of Abercorn **Louisa Russell Hamilton, Duchess of Abercorn (10 August 1868 – 31 October 1885) **Maria Anna Curzon-Howe Hamilton (31 October 1885 – 3 January 1913) *Dowager Duchess of Hamilton **Louisa Russell Hamilton, Duchess of Abercorn (31 October 1885 – March 1905) **Maria Anna Curzon-Howe Hamilton (3 January 1913 – ) *Subsidiary titles: **Marquess of Hamilton (courtesy title for the heir apparent) ***James Albert Edward Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn (31 October 1885 – 12 September 1953) **Viscount Strabane (courtesy title for the heir apparent of the Marquess of Hamilton) == Acquaintances, Friends and Enemies == === Friends === *The Royal Family, especially [[Social Victorians/People/Albert Edward, Prince of Wales | Albert Edward, Prince]] and [[Social Victorians/People/Alexandra, Princess of Wales | Alexandra, Princess]] of Wales, in the generation of the 2nd duke. == Timeline == '''1832 October 25''', James Hamilton and Louisa Russell married at Gordon Castle, Fochabers, Morayshire, in Scotland.<ref name=":0" /> '''1854 May 23''', Beatrix Frances Hamilton and George Frederick D'Arcy Lambton married.<ref>"Lady Beatrix Frances Hamilton." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1147.htm#i11470|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}</ref> '''1855 April 10''', Harriet Georgiana Louisa Hamilton and Thomas George Anson married.<ref name=":2">"Lady Harriett Georgiana Louisa Hamilton." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1034.htm#i10332|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}</ref> '''1858 October 26''', Katherine Elizabeth Hamilton and William Henry Edgcumbe married.<ref>"Lady Katherine Elizabeth Hamilton." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1135.htm#i11344|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}</ref> '''1859 November 22''', Louisa Jane Hamilton and William Montagu Douglass Scott married.<ref>"Lady Louisa Jane Hamilton." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10359.htm#i103583|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}</ref> '''1868''', the title the Duke of Abercorn was created.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-06|title=James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Abercorn|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Hamilton,_1st_Duke_of_Abercorn&oldid=966293304|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> '''1869 January 7''', James Hamilton (2nd Duke) and Maria Anna Curzon-Howe married at St. George's Church, St. George Street, Hanover Square, in London.<ref name=":3">"Lady Mary Anna Curzon." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10104.htm#i101034|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}</ref> '''1869 November 8''', there may have been a double wedding: Albertha Frances Anne Hamilton and George Charles Spencer-Churchill married<ref name=":8">"Lady Albertha Frances Anne Hamilton." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10595.htm#i105942|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}</ref>, and Maud Evelyn Hamilton and Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice married<ref name=":1">"Lady Maud Evelyn Hamilton." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1163.htm#i11629|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}</ref>. '''1871 February 17, Friday''', Lady Caroline Howard attended a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1870s#Birmingham Tennis Court Club Ball|ball hosted by the "bachelors of the Tennis Court Club" in Birmingham]]. '''1871 November 28''', George Francis Hamilton and Maud Caroline Lascelles married.<ref name=":6">"Rt. Hon. Lord Sir George Francis Hamilton." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1133.htm#i11323|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}</ref> '''1872 January 5, Friday''', the Hon. Mrs. Howard and Lady Caroline Howard were reported to "have arrived at Morrisson's Hotel in Dublin.<ref>"Fashion and Varieties." ''Morning Mail'' (Dublin) 5 January 1872, Friday: 3 [of 4, digital], Col. 2c [of 10 on digital image]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0006103/18720105/067/0003. The digital image has the last 2 columns of the prior page on this page, so the citation should be to p. 2 [of 4], Col. 8c [of 8].</ref> '''1873 January 14, Saturday''', "Lord Dunally and suite, Hon. Mrs. Howard, Lady Alice Howard and suite, Lady Louise Howard and suite, and Lady Caroline Howard, have arrived at Morrisson's Hotel."<ref>"Fashionable Intelligence." ''Dublin Evening Post'' 14 January 1873, Tuesday: 3 [of 4], Col. 5a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000435/18730114/049/0003. Same print and digital title, print p. is n.p.</ref> '''1874 December 15, Tuesday''', the Right Hon. Sir Michael and Lady Lucy Hicks-Beach hosted a dinner in the Chief Secretary's Lodge, suggesting that this social event might have had a political purpose. Mr. LeFanu cannot be the Irish writer Sheridan Le Fanu, who died 7 February 1873.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-28|title=Sheridan Le Fanu|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sheridan_Le_Fanu&oldid=1361491348|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> Perhaps this LeFanu is a relation, a son or brother?<blockquote>THE CHIEF SECRETARY’S LODGE. The Right Hon. Sir Michael and Lady Lucy Hicks-Beach entertained the following at dinner on Tuesday evening at the Chief Secretary’s Lodge: — Sir Dominic Corrlgan, Sir Arthur and Lady Olive Guinness, Lady Mary Fortescue, the Hon. Mrs. Howard and Lady Caroline Howard, Mr. and Mrs. Percy Bernard, Colonel Henry, R.A., and Mrs. Henry; Mr. Donnelly. C.B., and Mrs. Donnelly; Mr., Mrs., and Miss lsaac; Mr. LeFanu, Colonel Forster, Colonel Hillier, and Mr. Caulfield.<ref>"Fashionable Intelligence." ''Cork Constitution'' 17 December 1874, Thursday: 4 [of 4; n.p. in print], Col. 1a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001648/18741217/099/0004. Print title: ''The Cork Constitution''.</ref></blockquote>'''1876 March 23''', Cecil Howard, 6th Earl of Wicklow and Francesca Maria Chamberlayne married.<ref name=":18" /> '''1877 July 25, Wednesday''', Miss Tottenham, Lady Caroline Howard, Miss Colley are reported to have arrived at Merton Lodge in Torquay.<ref>"The Torquay Directory." ''Torquay Directory and South Devon Journal'' 25 July 1877, Wednesday: 4 [of 8], Col. 7a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001246/18770725/085/0004. Same print and digital title and p.</ref> '''1877 July 28, Saturday''', Lady Caroline Howard is listed as one of the guests at Merton Lodge in Lincombe Hill Road Middle, Torquay. Other guests listed are Miss Kelly, Mrs. Frank Webber, Miss Tottenham and Miss Colley.<ref>"49. Lincombe Hill Road. Middle." "Torquay Directory." ''Torquay Times and South Devon Advertiser'' 28 July 1877, Saturday: 2 [of 8, both print and digital], Col. 3c [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001420/18770728/039/0002.</ref> '''1877 December 22, Saturday''', Sarah Howard, Lady Caroline Howard and Captain the Hon. Cecil Ralph Howard were visitors in Dagmar Terrace in Portsmouth. The following are all the people listed as visitors at Dagmar Terrace, with the odd numbering:<blockquote>D<small>AGMAR</small> T<small>ER</small><small>RACE</small>. # Captain the Hon. Cecil Ralph Howard, late 60th Rifles, & the Hon Mrs Howard Lady Caroline Howard # Captain & Mrs. Henderson ## [a] The Hon. Richard and Mrs. Bineham # [a] Captain and Mrs. Fearson and family # Mr.and Mrs. Hall Mrs. and the Misses Buchannans # The Rev Palms & fam # [a] Colonel Johnston [a] Mrs. Oldfield [a] Miss Flowers # Captain Parkinson and family<ref>"Visitors' List." ''Portsmouth Times and Naval Gazette'' 22 December 1877, Saturday: 3 [of 10, digital and print], Col. 5 [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001365/18771222/027/0003. Print title: ''Portsmouth Times and Naval Gazette, County Journal''.</ref> </blockquote>'''1878 July 20''', Claud John Hamilton and Carolina Chandos-Pole married.<ref name=":5">"Lord Claud John Hamilton." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p11067.htm#i110662|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}</ref> '''1880 June 2''', Cecil Howard, 6th Earl of Wicklow and Fanny Catherine Wingfield married.<ref name=":18" /> '''1881 July 25, Monday''', the ''Irish Times'' says that Lady Caroline Howard and "the Hon. Mrs. Howard and the Ladies Howard (2) have arrived at Kingstown from England."<ref>"Fashionable Intelligence." ''Irish Times'' 25 July 1881, Monday: 6 [of 8, digital and print], Col. 3a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001683/18810725/124/0006. Same print title and p.</ref> '''1881 August 10, Wednesday''', the Dublin Evening Mail says that Lady Caroline Howard "has left Kingstown for England."<ref>"Fashion and Varieties." ''Dublin Evening Mail'' 10 August 1881, Wednesday: 3 [of 4], Col. 9c [of 9]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000433/18810810/046/0003. Same print and digital title, print p. is n.p.</ref> '''1881 October 22, Saturday''', Lady Caroline Howard is listed as one of the visitors staying at the Crown Hotel "during the past week." The visitors listed are the following:<blockquote>Mr. Thomas Barber, Doctor and Mrs. Ayerst, Miss Noyce, Dr. Wilks, Mr. Nightingale, Mr. and Mrs. J. Hill, Lady Caroline Howard, the Hon. Mrs. Ross, Mr. Masters, Mr. Richardson and friend, Mr. Simpson, Mr. Wilson, &c.<ref>"Lyndhurst, Oct. 22." ''Hampshire Advertiser'' 22 October 1881, Saturday: 7 [of 8, both print and digital], Col. 2c [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000495/18811022/049/0007. Print title: ''Hampshire Advertiser County Newspaper''.</ref></blockquote>'''1882 March 16''', Georgiana Susan Hamilton and Edward Turnour married.<ref>"Lady Georgiana Susan Hamilton." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1180.htm#i11791|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}</ref> '''1883 November 20''', the marriage between Albertha Frances Anne Hamilton Spencer-Churchill and George Charles Spencer-Churchill was annulled by petition from Albertha Frances Anne Hamilton Spencer-Churchill (married in 1869).<ref name=":8" /> '''1891 June 2''', Ernest William Hamilton and Pamela Campbell married.<ref name=":7">"Pamela Campbell." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p2107.htm#i21063|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}</ref> '''1894 April 10''', Fanny Catherine Wingfield Howard, Dowager 6th Countess of Wicklow married her 2nd husband, Marcus Francis Beresford.<ref name=":18" /> '''1894 November 1''', James Albert Edward Hamilton and Rosaline Cecilia Caroline Bingham married at St. Paul's Church, Knightsbridge, in London.<ref name=":14">"Lady Rosalind Cecilia Caroline Bingham." {{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p10104.htm#i101032|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2021-05-15}}</ref> '''1895 July 13 to August 7''', the general election of 1895. Following the election, the brother-in-law of Cecil Howard, 6th Earl of Wicklow's (brother of his first wife Francesca Chamberlayne) was unseated because of allegations of misconduct.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-02-27|title=Thomas Chamberlayne (cricketer)|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Chamberlayne_(cricketer)&oldid=1340809770|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> '''1897 June 28, Monday''', according to the ''Morning Post'', James Hamilton, 2nd Duke and Maria, Duchess of Abercorn were invited to the [[Social Victorians/Diamond Jubilee Garden Party|Queen's Garden Party]], the official end of the Diamond Jubilee celebrations in London, as were James Albert Edward Hamilton, Marquis and Rosaline, Marchioness of Hamilton.<ref>“The Queen’s Garden Party.” ''Morning Post'' 29 June 1897, Tuesday: 4 [of 12], Cols. 1a–7c [of 7] and 5, Col. 1a–c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' ''<nowiki>https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000174/18970629/032/0004</nowiki>'' and ''<nowiki>https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970629/032/0005</nowiki>''.</ref> '''1897 July 2, Friday''', Alexandra Phyllis Hamilton attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball | Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House, as did her uncle Lord Frederick Spencer Hamilton, the Marquess of Hamilton, and a Mr. Ronald Hamilton. Besides these, probably, a Mr. and Mrs. Hamilton also attended. '''1902''', Ralph Howard, 7th Earl of Wicklow and Lady Gladys Mary Hamilton married. (She was the daughter of James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn.)<ref name=":18" /> '''1902 January 14''', Gladys Mary Hamilton and Ralph Francis Forward-Howard married.<ref>"Lady Gladys Mary Hamilton." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p2107.htm#i21066|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}</ref> '''1933 July 11''', Claud Nigel Hamilton and Violet Ruby Ashton married.<ref name=":4">"Captain Lord Sir Claud Nigel Hamilton." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p2109.htm#i21081|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}</ref> == Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball == [[File:Helen-Mary-Theresa-ne-Vane-Tempest-Stewart-Countess-of-Ilchester-when-Lady-Helen-Stewart-as-the-Archduchess-Marie-Christine-of-Austria.jpg|thumb|alt=Black-and-white photograph of a seated woman richly dressed in an historical costume with a white feather plume in her hair and a fan|Lady Helen Stewart as Arch-duchess Marie Christine of Austria. ©National Portrait Gallery, London.]] === Lady Alexandra Hamilton === Lady Alexandra Hamilton was one of the archduchesses — along with with 3 or 4 other young women — in [[Social Victorians/People/Londonderry#The Entourage of Maria Thérèse|the entourage of the Marchioness of Londonderry]], who led the Austrian procession as Marie Thérèse, Empress of the Holy Roman Empire.<ref>“The Ball at Devonshire House. Magnificent Spectacle. Description of the Dresses.” London ''Evening Standard'' 3 July 1897 Saturday: 3 [of 12], Cols. 1a–5b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000183/18970703/015/0004.</ref>{{rp|p. 3, Col. 3a}} These young women were present at the ball as the daughters of Marie Thérèse, and the young men dressed as archdukes were present as her sons. Lady Alexandra Hamilton went as "Archduchess Marie-Josepha in the Archduchess Marie-Karoline and Emperor Joseph II section of the Austrian Court of Maria Theresa Quadrille."<ref name=":9">"Fancy Dress Ball at Devonshire House." ''Morning Post'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 7 [of 12], Col. 4a–8 Col. 2b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970703/054/0007.</ref>{{rp|p. 7, Col. 6b}} <ref name=":10">"Ball at Devonshire House." The ''Times'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 12, Cols. 1a–4c ''The Times Digital Archive''. Web. 28 Nov. 2015.</ref> The newspapers report that the archduchesses were all dressed alike, but only one photograph exists of any of these young women in costume — that of [[Social Victorians/People/Londonderry#Helen Mary Theresa Vane-Tempest-Stewart|Helen Mary Theresa Vane-Tempest-Stewart]] (which is shown, right). The newspaper descriptions are on her page, with her portrait in costume, but they apply to all the archduchesses. === Lord Frederick Hamilton === [[File:Lord Frederick Spencer Hamilton Vanity Fair 1895-02-07.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Colored drawing of a man in a suit, his hands in his pockets, facing to the right|Lord Frederick Hamilton, ''Vanity Fair'', by "Spy," 7 February 1895]] Lord Frederick Spencer Hamilton was 6th son and 13th child of the 1st Duke of Abercorn. No photograph of him in costume exists. He is shown (at left) as he looked in 7 February 1895 in a Spy caricature in ''Vanity Fair''. This caricature portrait, by Leslie Ward ("Spy") is called ''The Pall Mall Magazine'' and is Number 647 in Vanity Fair's "Statesmen" series.<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2024-01-14|title=List of Vanity Fair (British magazine) caricatures (1895–1899)|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Vanity_Fair_(British_magazine)_caricatures_(1895%E2%80%931899)&oldid=1195518024|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> He was editor of the ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 1896–1900.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2023-09-23|title=Lord Frederick Spencer Hamilton|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lord_Frederick_Spencer_Hamilton&oldid=1176655264|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Frederick_Spencer_Hamilton.</ref> For the ball, Lord Frederick Hamilton was dressed *as a "gentleman of the Court of Queen Elizabeth," wearing "crimson cloth of gold with jewelled belt."<ref name=":15">“The Duchess of Devonshire’s Ball.” The ''Gentlewoman'' 10 July 1897 Saturday: 32–42 [of 76], Cols. 1a–3c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003340/18970710/155/0032.</ref>{{rp|p. 36, Col. 3b}} *as a "Gentleman of the Court of Queen Elizabeth. Costume of crimson and cloth of g [sic] with jewelled belt."<ref name=":9" />{{rp|p. 8, Col. 1b}} *"in crimson cloth of gold and jeweled belt."<ref>"Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy Ball. A Brilliant Spectacle. Some of the Dresses." London ''Daily News'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 5 [of 10], Col. 6a–6, Col. 1b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000051/18970703/024/0005 and http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000051/18970703/024/0006.</ref>{{rp|p. 5, Col. 7a}} *"as a gentleman of the court of Queen Elizabeth, was dressed in a costume of crimson cloth-of-gold, with a jewelled belt."<ref name=":11">“The Devonshire House Ball. A Brilliant Gathering.” The ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 3 July 1897, Saturday: 7 [of 10], Col. 2a–3a. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000098/18970703/019/0007.</ref> ==== Memoirs ==== * Hamilton, Frederic [sic] Spencer. ''My Yesterdays'' (3 vols.). Hodder and Stoughton, 1920. *# ''The Days Before Yesterday''. The Internet Archive has this: https://archive.org/details/daysbeforeyester00hamiuoft/page/n5/mode/2up. *# ''Vanished Pomps of Yesterday''. The Internet Archive has this: https://archive.org/details/vanishedpompsofy028823mbp. *# ''Here, There and Everywhere''. The Internet Archive has this: https://archive.org/details/herethereeverywh0000hami. [[File:James Hamilton 3rd Duke of Abercorn.png|thumb|alt=Old colored drawing of a man in a 19th-century officer's uniform of the 1st Life Guards with white gloves, a red stripe down the side of his pants and unbuttoned jacket and a hat, holding a white or silver sword under his left arm, facing 1/4 to his right|"He will be the 3rd Duke" (James Hamilton, Marquis of Hamilton), ''Vanity Fair'' 16 February 1899]] === James Hamilton, Marquess of Hamilton === James Hamilton, Marquis of Hamilton was dressed in a "black velvet tunic; breeches and cloak trimmed jet; large hat, feathers, wig, sword, &c., of the period" of Charles II.<ref name=":15" />{{rp|34, Col. 3a}} No photograph of him in costume exists. A caricature portrait (right) called ''He will be the 3rd Duke'' (James Hamilton, Marquess of Hamilton) by "Hadge" appeared in the 16 February 1899 issue of ''Vanity Fair'', as Number 739 in its "Men of the Day" series,<ref name=":16" /> giving a sense of what he looked like at about the time of the ball. In 1892 Hamilton joined the 1st Life Guards, so the uniform he is wearing in this portrait is likely that of an officer of the 1st Life Guards.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2024-01-12|title=James Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Hamilton,_3rd_Duke_of_Abercorn&oldid=1195216640|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hamilton,_3rd_Duke_of_Abercorn.</ref> James Hamilton's wife Lady Rosalind Hamilton is not reported as having been present at the ball, perhaps because she was pregnant with her second child and gave birth in August, five weeks later, so she was around 8 months pregnant. === Ronald Hamilton === Mr. Ronald Hamilton, possibly Ronald James Hamilton, was dressed as a "Gentleman of the Court of Queen Elizabeth, in black velvet trimmed with jet."<ref name=":9" />{{rp|p. 8, Col. 1c}} == Demographics == *Nationality: the title Duke of Abercorn is in the peerage of Ireland; the Marquess of Hamilton is in the peerage of the U.K. == Family == *James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Abercorn (21 January 1811 – 31 October 1885)<ref name=":0" /> *Louisa Russell Hamilton (– March 1905) #Lady '''Harriet Georgiana Louisa Hamilton''' Anson (6 July 1834 – 23 April 1913) #Lady Beatrix Frances Hamilton Lambton (21 July 1835 – 21 January 1871) #Lady Louisa Jane Hamilton Scott (26 August 1836 – 16 March 1912) #Lord '''James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn''' (24 August 1838 – 3 January 1913) #Lady Katherine Elizabeth Hamilton Edgcumbe (9 January 1840 – 3 September 1874) #Lady Georgiana Susan Hamilton Turnour (7 July 1841 – 23 March 1913) #Lord '''Claud John Hamilton''' (20 February 1843 – 26 January 1925) #Rt. Hon. Lord Sir '''George Francis Hamilton''' (17 December 1845 – 22 September 1927) #Lady Albertha Frances Anne Hamilton Spencer-Churchill (29 July 1847 – 7 January 1932) #Lord Ronald Douglas Hamilton (17 March 1849 – DVP<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-27|title=James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Hamilton,_2nd_Duke_of_Abercorn&oldid=969822724|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> 6 November 1867) #Lady Maud Evelyn Hamilton Petty-Fitzmaurice, the [[Social Victorians/People/Lansdowne | Marchioness of Lansdowne]] (17 December 1850 – 21 October 1932)<ref name=":1" /> #Lord Cosmo Hamilton (16 April 1853 – 16 April 1853) #Lord '''Frederick Spencer Hamilton''' (13 October 1856 – 11 August 1928) #Lord '''Ernest William Hamilton''' (5 September 1858 – 14 December 1939) *Harriet Georgiana Louisa Hamilton Anson (6 July 1834 – 23 April 1913)<ref name=":2" /> *Thomas George Anson, 2nd Earl of Lichfield (15 August 1825 – 7 January 1892) #Lady Evelyn Anson ( – 2 July 1895) #Thomas Francis Anson, 3rd Earl of Lichfield (31 January 1856 – 29 July 1918) #Hon. Sir George Augustus Anson (22 December 1857 – 25 May 1947) #Major Hon. Henry James Anson (29 December 1858 – 26 February 1904) #Lady Florence Beatrice Anson (1860 – 25 September 1946) #Hon. Frederic William Anson (4 February 1862 – 2 April 1917) #Hon. Claud Anson (11 January 1864 – 25 December 1947) #Lady Beatrice Anson (1865 – 15 December 1919) #Hon. Francis Anson (7 March 1867 – 13 April 1928) #Lady Mary Maud Anson (1869 – 22 September 1961) #Lady Edith Anson (1870 – 8 October 1932) #Hon. William Anson (19 April 1872 – 22 June 1926) #Hon. Alfred Anson (15 April 1876 – 25 March 1944) *James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn (24 August 1838 – 3 January 1913)<ref name=":12" /> *Maria Anna Curzon-Howe Hamilton (23 July 1848 – 10 May 1929)<ref name=":3" /> #James Albert Edward Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn (30 November 1869 – 12 September 1953) #Claud Penn Alexander Hamilton (18 October 1871 – 18 October 1871) #Charlie Hamilton (10 April 1874 – 10 April 1874) #'''Alexandra Phyllis Hamilton''' (23 January 1876 – 10 October 1918) #Claud Francis Hamilton (25 October 1878 – 25 December 1878) #Gladys Mary Hamilton Forward-Howard (10 December 1880 – 12 March 1917) #Arthur John Hamilton (20 August 1883 – 6 November 1914) #(unnamed son) Hamilton (31 October 1886 – 31 October 1886) #Claud Nigel Hamilton (10 November 1889 – 22 August 1975)<ref name=":4" /> * '''James Albert Edward Hamilton''', Marquess of Hamilton and 3rd Duke of Abercorn (30 November 1869 – 12 September 1953)<ref name=":13" /> * Lady Rosalind Cecilia Caroline Bingham (26 February 1869 – 18 January 1958)<ref name=":14" /> *# Lady Mary Cecilia Rhodesia Hamilton (21 January 1896 – 5 September 1984) *# Lady Cynthia Elinor Beatrix Hamilton (16 August 1897 – 4 December 1972) *# Lady Katharine Hamilton (25 February 1900 – 28 April 1985) *# James Edward Hamilton, 4th Duke of Abercorn (29 February 1904 – 4 June 1979) *# Captain Lord Claud David Hamilton (13 February 1907 – 15 February 1968) *Claud John Hamilton (20 February 1843 – 26 January 1925)<ref name=":5" /> *Carolina Chandos-Pole Hamilton (19 July 1857 – 21 September 1911)<ref>"Carolina Chandos-Pole." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p11067.htm#i110663|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}</ref> #Colonel Gilbert Claud Hamilton (21 April 1879 – 30 March 1943) #Ida Hamilton (23 July 1883 – November 1970) *George Francis Hamilton (17 December 1845 – 22 September 1927)<ref name=":6" /> *Lady Maud Caroline Lascelles Hamilton (1846 – 14 April 1938) #'''Ronald James Hamilton''' (26 September 1872 – 22 January 1958) #Anthony George Hamilton (17 December 1874 – 11 July 1936) #Robert Cecil Hamilton (31 January 1882 – 31 July 1947) *Ernest William Hamilton (5 September 1858 – 14 December 1939)<ref>"Lord Ernest William Hamilton." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p2107.htm#i21062|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}</ref> *Pamela Campbell Hamilton ( – 11 May 1931)<ref name=":7" /> #Guy Ernest Frederick Hamilton (11 November 1894 – 23 November 1914) #Mary Brenda Hamilton (28 March 1897 – 14 March 1985) #Jean Barbara Hamilton (6 September 1898 – 2 November 1989) #John George Peter Hamilton (15 October 1900 – 17 June 1967) === Earls of Wicklow === * Charles Hamilton (1772 – 29 September 1857)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p2139.htm#i21387|title=Charles Hamilton. Person Page #2139|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-19}}</ref> * Marianne '''Caroline Tighe''' ( – 29 July 1861)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p62375.htm#i623745|title=Marianne Caroline Tighe. Person Page #62375|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-19}}</ref> *# '''Sarah Hamilton''' (1805<ref name=":17" /> – 13 March 1892) *# Caroline Elizabeth Hamilton ( – 31 May 1909) *# Mary Hamilton *# Charles William Hamilton (1 April 1802 – 16 February 1880) *# William Tighe Hamilton (31 March 1807 – ) *# Frederick John Henry Fownes Hamilton (27 July 1816 – 1893) * Rev. Hon. Francis Howard (12 January 1797 – 16 February 1857)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p2140.htm#i21391|title=Rev. Hon. Francis Howard. Person Page #2140|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-19}}</ref> * Frances Beresford ( – 17 November 1833)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p3227.htm#i32266|title=Frances Beresford. Person Page #3227|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-19}}</ref> *# William George Howard (25 April 1825 – 12 October 1864) * '''Sarah Hamilton''' (1805<ref name=":17">{{Cite web|url=https://catalogue.nli.ie/Collection/vtls000572704|title=Tighe, Hamilton and Howard Papers,|date=1737|website=catalogue.nli.ie|language=English|access-date=2026-06-19}}</ref> – 13 March 1892)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p2141.htm#i21405|title=Sarah Hamilton. Person Page #2141|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-19}}</ref> *# 4 unnamed daughters [per The Peerage; The NLI has 3 daughters] *# Lady Alice Howard *# Lady Louisa 'Loulie' Howard *# Lady Caroline Howard (1836–1923)<ref name=":17" /> *# Charles Francis Arnold Howard, '''5th Earl of Wicklow''' (5 November 1839 – 20 June 1881) *# Cecil Ralph Howard, '''6th Earl of Wicklow''' (26 April 1842 – 24 July 1891) * Cecil Ralph Howard, '''6th Earl of Wicklow''' (26 April 1842 – 24 July 1891)<ref name=":18" /> * Francesca Maria Chamberlayne ( – 1877) *# Ralph Howard, 7th Earl of Wicklow (24 December 1877 – 11 October 1946)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p2140.htm#i21394|title=Cecil Ralph Howard, 6th Earl of Wicklow. Person Page 2140.|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-28}}</ref> * Fanny Catherine Wingfield (c. 1860 – 3 February 1914)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p2139.htm#i21388|title=Fanny Catherine Wingfield. Person Page 2139.|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-28}}</ref> *# Hon. Cecil Mervyn Malcolm Howard (18 November 1881 – 16 April 1882) *# Hon. Hugh Melville Howard (28 March 1883 – 17 February 1919) * Marcus Francis Beresford (26 December 1862 – 14 December 1896)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p3186.htm#i31858|title=Marcus Francis Beresford. Person Page #3186.|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-28}}</ref> == Memoirs and Archives == # The Abercorn Papers: GB 0255 PRONI/D623 (found via https://iar.ie/archive/abercorn-papers). A descriptive list is available to search online at: http://www.proni.gov.uk/. The collection is arranged as follows: D623/A Correspondence D623/B Title deeds and leases D623/C Rentals, accounts and vouchers D623/D Maps, plans, surveys, inventories and valuations D623/E Photographs, illuminations, addresses and albums D623/F Material still at Baronscourt D623/G Miscellaneous #Alexandra Phyllis Hamilton (#64 on the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball#List of People Who Attended|list of people who were present]]) attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball | Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House, as did her uncle Lord Frederick Spencer Hamilton (#84), the Marquess of Hamilton (#657), and a Mr. Ronald Hamilton (#105). Besides these, probably, a Mr. and Mrs. Hamilton also attended. == Questions and Notes == #DVP = decessit vita patris, died while the father was still living #Mr. Ronald Hamilton cannot be Frederick Hamilton's brother, who should be Lord Ronald Hamilton rather than Mr. Ronald Hamilton, and he died in 1867. He could be this Ronald Hamilton, who would be a Mr. Hamilton: http://www.thepeerage.com/p2163.htm#i21622. He was Lady Alexandra's cousin and nephew of the 1st Duke of Abercorn. #A Mr. Hamilton is mentioned in the ''Gentlewoman'' article: "Mr. Hamilton (Elizabethan costume), black velvet, trimmed gold."<ref name=":15" />{{rp|34, Col. 1c}} But a later reference in this same article to Mr. Ronald Hamilton matches the description in the ''Morning Post'' article, saying he wore black velvet with jet, rather than gold trim: "'''Mr. Ronald Hamilton''' (gentleman of the Court of Queen Elizabeth), black velvet with jet."<ref name=":15" /> (36, Col. 3b) I believe the other Mr. Hamilton is Mr. [[Social Victorians/People/Cole-Hamilton|Claud Cole-Hamilton]], particularly since Mrs. Hamilton was dressed as Amy Robsart and thus must be Lucy Charlewood Cole-Hamilton because of the description of her costume in the Album of photographs given to the Duchess of Devonshire later. #Claud John Hamilton is probably who attended the social events, because the other Claud, of whatever generation either died too young or was born too late. == Footnotes == {{reflist}} 21ibg0x0puub75il1uxsx6ix0ddrdap 2817554 2817553 2026-07-01T21:30:33Z Scogdill 1331941 /* Timeline */ 2817554 wikitext text/x-wiki == Overview == The Dukedom of Abercorn is the last non-royal dukedom created. Queen Victoria created it in 1869. This page includes the Earl of Wicklow, the family of which married into the Abercorn family in 1816 when William Howard, 4th Earl of Wicklow married Lady Cecil Frances Hamilton — the daughter and only child of John Hamilton, 1st Marquess of Abercorn.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-24|title=William Howard, 4th Earl of Wicklow|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Howard,_4th_Earl_of_Wicklow&oldid=1360966619|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> William Howard, 4th Earl of Wicklow was succeeded by his nephew, Charles Howard, 5th Earl of Wicklow (5 November 1839 – 20 June 1881).<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2024-08-26|title=Charles Howard, 5th Earl of Wicklow|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles_Howard,_5th_Earl_of_Wicklow&oldid=1242455245|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> Also Ralph Howard, 7th Earl of Wicklow married Lady Gladys Mary Hamilton (daughter of the 2nd Duke of Abercorn) in 1902.<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-05|title=Cecil Howard, 6th Earl of Wicklow|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cecil_Howard,_6th_Earl_of_Wicklow&oldid=1304372795|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> The National Library of Ireland has papers from Sarah Howard and her children, including Lady Caroline Howard. == Also Known As == *Family name: Hamilton *the Duke of Abercorn **James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Abercorn (10 August 1868 – 31 October 1885)<ref name=":0">"James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Abercorn." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10144.htm#i101433|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}</ref> **James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn (31 October 1885 – 3 January 1913)<ref name=":12">"James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10104.htm#i101033|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}</ref> **James Albert Edward Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn (3 January 1913 – 12 September 1953)<ref name=":13">"James Albert Edward Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10104.htm#i101031|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}</ref> *the Duchess of Abercorn **Louisa Russell Hamilton, Duchess of Abercorn (10 August 1868 – 31 October 1885) **Maria Anna Curzon-Howe Hamilton (31 October 1885 – 3 January 1913) *Dowager Duchess of Hamilton **Louisa Russell Hamilton, Duchess of Abercorn (31 October 1885 – March 1905) **Maria Anna Curzon-Howe Hamilton (3 January 1913 – ) *Subsidiary titles: **Marquess of Hamilton (courtesy title for the heir apparent) ***James Albert Edward Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn (31 October 1885 – 12 September 1953) **Viscount Strabane (courtesy title for the heir apparent of the Marquess of Hamilton) == Acquaintances, Friends and Enemies == === Friends === *The Royal Family, especially [[Social Victorians/People/Albert Edward, Prince of Wales | Albert Edward, Prince]] and [[Social Victorians/People/Alexandra, Princess of Wales | Alexandra, Princess]] of Wales, in the generation of the 2nd duke. == Timeline == '''1832 October 25''', James Hamilton and Louisa Russell married at Gordon Castle, Fochabers, Morayshire, in Scotland.<ref name=":0" /> '''1854 May 23''', Beatrix Frances Hamilton and George Frederick D'Arcy Lambton married.<ref>"Lady Beatrix Frances Hamilton." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1147.htm#i11470|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}</ref> '''1855 April 10''', Harriet Georgiana Louisa Hamilton and Thomas George Anson married.<ref name=":2">"Lady Harriett Georgiana Louisa Hamilton." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1034.htm#i10332|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}</ref> '''1858 October 26''', Katherine Elizabeth Hamilton and William Henry Edgcumbe married.<ref>"Lady Katherine Elizabeth Hamilton." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1135.htm#i11344|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}</ref> '''1859 November 22''', Louisa Jane Hamilton and William Montagu Douglass Scott married.<ref>"Lady Louisa Jane Hamilton." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10359.htm#i103583|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}</ref> '''1868''', the title the Duke of Abercorn was created.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-06|title=James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Abercorn|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Hamilton,_1st_Duke_of_Abercorn&oldid=966293304|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> '''1869 January 7''', James Hamilton (2nd Duke) and Maria Anna Curzon-Howe married at St. George's Church, St. George Street, Hanover Square, in London.<ref name=":3">"Lady Mary Anna Curzon." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10104.htm#i101034|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}</ref> '''1869 November 8''', there may have been a double wedding: Albertha Frances Anne Hamilton and George Charles Spencer-Churchill married<ref name=":8">"Lady Albertha Frances Anne Hamilton." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10595.htm#i105942|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}</ref>, and Maud Evelyn Hamilton and Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice married<ref name=":1">"Lady Maud Evelyn Hamilton." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1163.htm#i11629|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}</ref>. '''1871 February 17, Friday''', Lady Caroline Howard attended a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1870s#Birmingham Tennis Court Club Ball|ball hosted by the "bachelors of the Tennis Court Club" in Birmingham]]. '''1871 November 28''', George Francis Hamilton and Maud Caroline Lascelles married.<ref name=":6">"Rt. Hon. Lord Sir George Francis Hamilton." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1133.htm#i11323|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}</ref> '''1872 January 5, Friday''', the Hon. Mrs. Howard and Lady Caroline Howard were reported to "have arrived at Morrisson's Hotel in Dublin.<ref>"Fashion and Varieties." ''Morning Mail'' (Dublin) 5 January 1872, Friday: 3 [of 4, digital], Col. 2c [of 10 on digital image]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0006103/18720105/067/0003. The digital image has the last 2 columns of the prior page on this page, so the citation should be to p. 2 [of 4], Col. 8c [of 8].</ref> '''1873 January 14, Saturday''', "Lord Dunally and suite, Hon. Mrs. Howard, Lady Alice Howard and suite, Lady Louise Howard and suite, and Lady Caroline Howard, have arrived at Morrisson's Hotel."<ref>"Fashionable Intelligence." ''Dublin Evening Post'' 14 January 1873, Tuesday: 3 [of 4], Col. 5a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000435/18730114/049/0003. Same print and digital title, print p. is n.p.</ref> '''1874 December 15, Tuesday''', the Right Hon. Sir Michael and Lady Lucy Hicks-Beach hosted a dinner in the Chief Secretary's Lodge, suggesting that this social event might have had a political purpose. Mr. LeFanu cannot be the Irish writer Sheridan Le Fanu, who died 7 February 1873.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-28|title=Sheridan Le Fanu|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sheridan_Le_Fanu&oldid=1361491348|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> Perhaps this LeFanu is a relation, a son or brother?<blockquote>THE CHIEF SECRETARY’S LODGE.<p> The Right Hon. Sir Michael and Lady Lucy Hicks-Beach entertained the following at dinner on Tuesday evening at the Chief Secretary’s Lodge: — Sir Dominic Corrlgan, Sir Arthur and Lady Olive Guinness, Lady Mary Fortescue, the Hon. Mrs. Howard and Lady Caroline Howard, Mr. and Mrs. Percy Bernard, Colonel Henry, R.A., and Mrs. Henry; Mr. Donnelly. C.B., and Mrs. Donnelly; Mr., Mrs., and Miss lsaac; Mr. LeFanu, Colonel Forster, Colonel Hillier, and Mr. Caulfield.<ref>"Fashionable Intelligence." ''Cork Constitution'' 17 December 1874, Thursday: 4 [of 4; n.p. in print], Col. 1a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001648/18741217/099/0004. Print title: ''The Cork Constitution''.</ref></blockquote>'''1876 March 23''', Cecil Howard, 6th Earl of Wicklow and Francesca Maria Chamberlayne married.<ref name=":18" /> '''1877 July 25, Wednesday''', Miss Tottenham, Lady Caroline Howard, Miss Colley are reported to have arrived at Merton Lodge in Torquay.<ref>"The Torquay Directory." ''Torquay Directory and South Devon Journal'' 25 July 1877, Wednesday: 4 [of 8], Col. 7a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001246/18770725/085/0004. Same print and digital title and p.</ref> '''1877 July 28, Saturday''', Lady Caroline Howard is listed as one of the guests at Merton Lodge in Lincombe Hill Road Middle, Torquay. Other guests listed are Miss Kelly, Mrs. Frank Webber, Miss Tottenham and Miss Colley.<ref>"49. Lincombe Hill Road. Middle." "Torquay Directory." ''Torquay Times and South Devon Advertiser'' 28 July 1877, Saturday: 2 [of 8, both print and digital], Col. 3c [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001420/18770728/039/0002.</ref> '''1877 December 22, Saturday''', Sarah Howard, Lady Caroline Howard and Captain the Hon. Cecil Ralph Howard were visitors in Dagmar Terrace in Portsmouth. The following are all the people listed as visitors at Dagmar Terrace, with the odd numbering:<blockquote>D<small>AGMAR</small> T<small>ER</small><small>RACE</small>. # Captain the Hon. Cecil Ralph Howard, late 60th Rifles, & the Hon Mrs Howard Lady Caroline Howard # Captain & Mrs. Henderson ## [a] The Hon. Richard and Mrs. Bineham # [a] Captain and Mrs. Fearson and family # Mr.and Mrs. Hall Mrs. and the Misses Buchannans # The Rev Palms & fam # [a] Colonel Johnston [a] Mrs. Oldfield [a] Miss Flowers # Captain Parkinson and family<ref>"Visitors' List." ''Portsmouth Times and Naval Gazette'' 22 December 1877, Saturday: 3 [of 10, digital and print], Col. 5 [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001365/18771222/027/0003. Print title: ''Portsmouth Times and Naval Gazette, County Journal''.</ref> </blockquote>'''1878 July 20''', Claud John Hamilton and Carolina Chandos-Pole married.<ref name=":5">"Lord Claud John Hamilton." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p11067.htm#i110662|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}</ref> '''1880 June 2''', Cecil Howard, 6th Earl of Wicklow and Fanny Catherine Wingfield married.<ref name=":18" /> '''1881 July 25, Monday''', the ''Irish Times'' says that Lady Caroline Howard and "the Hon. Mrs. Howard and the Ladies Howard (2) have arrived at Kingstown from England."<ref>"Fashionable Intelligence." ''Irish Times'' 25 July 1881, Monday: 6 [of 8, digital and print], Col. 3a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001683/18810725/124/0006. Same print title and p.</ref> '''1881 August 10, Wednesday''', the Dublin Evening Mail says that Lady Caroline Howard "has left Kingstown for England."<ref>"Fashion and Varieties." ''Dublin Evening Mail'' 10 August 1881, Wednesday: 3 [of 4], Col. 9c [of 9]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000433/18810810/046/0003. Same print and digital title, print p. is n.p.</ref> '''1881 October 22, Saturday''', Lady Caroline Howard is listed as one of the visitors staying at the Crown Hotel "during the past week." The visitors listed are the following:<blockquote>Mr. Thomas Barber, Doctor and Mrs. Ayerst, Miss Noyce, Dr. Wilks, Mr. Nightingale, Mr. and Mrs. J. Hill, Lady Caroline Howard, the Hon. Mrs. Ross, Mr. Masters, Mr. Richardson and friend, Mr. Simpson, Mr. Wilson, &c.<ref>"Lyndhurst, Oct. 22." ''Hampshire Advertiser'' 22 October 1881, Saturday: 7 [of 8, both print and digital], Col. 2c [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000495/18811022/049/0007. Print title: ''Hampshire Advertiser County Newspaper''.</ref></blockquote>'''1882 March 16''', Georgiana Susan Hamilton and Edward Turnour married.<ref>"Lady Georgiana Susan Hamilton." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1180.htm#i11791|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}</ref> '''1883 November 20''', the marriage between Albertha Frances Anne Hamilton Spencer-Churchill and George Charles Spencer-Churchill was annulled by petition from Albertha Frances Anne Hamilton Spencer-Churchill (married in 1869).<ref name=":8" /> '''1891 June 2''', Ernest William Hamilton and Pamela Campbell married.<ref name=":7">"Pamela Campbell." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p2107.htm#i21063|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}</ref> '''1894 April 10''', Fanny Catherine Wingfield Howard, Dowager 6th Countess of Wicklow married her 2nd husband, Marcus Francis Beresford.<ref name=":18" /> '''1894 November 1''', James Albert Edward Hamilton and Rosaline Cecilia Caroline Bingham married at St. Paul's Church, Knightsbridge, in London.<ref name=":14">"Lady Rosalind Cecilia Caroline Bingham." {{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p10104.htm#i101032|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2021-05-15}}</ref> '''1895 July 13 to August 7''', the general election of 1895. Following the election, the brother-in-law of Cecil Howard, 6th Earl of Wicklow's (brother of his first wife Francesca Chamberlayne) was unseated because of allegations of misconduct.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-02-27|title=Thomas Chamberlayne (cricketer)|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Chamberlayne_(cricketer)&oldid=1340809770|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> '''1897 June 28, Monday''', according to the ''Morning Post'', James Hamilton, 2nd Duke and Maria, Duchess of Abercorn were invited to the [[Social Victorians/Diamond Jubilee Garden Party|Queen's Garden Party]], the official end of the Diamond Jubilee celebrations in London, as were James Albert Edward Hamilton, Marquis and Rosaline, Marchioness of Hamilton.<ref>“The Queen’s Garden Party.” ''Morning Post'' 29 June 1897, Tuesday: 4 [of 12], Cols. 1a–7c [of 7] and 5, Col. 1a–c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' ''<nowiki>https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000174/18970629/032/0004</nowiki>'' and ''<nowiki>https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970629/032/0005</nowiki>''.</ref> '''1897 July 2, Friday''', Alexandra Phyllis Hamilton attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball | Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House, as did her uncle Lord Frederick Spencer Hamilton, the Marquess of Hamilton, and a Mr. Ronald Hamilton. Besides these, probably, a Mr. and Mrs. Hamilton also attended. '''1902''', Ralph Howard, 7th Earl of Wicklow and Lady Gladys Mary Hamilton married. (She was the daughter of James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn.)<ref name=":18" /> '''1902 January 14''', Gladys Mary Hamilton and Ralph Francis Forward-Howard married.<ref>"Lady Gladys Mary Hamilton." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p2107.htm#i21066|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}</ref> '''1933 July 11''', Claud Nigel Hamilton and Violet Ruby Ashton married.<ref name=":4">"Captain Lord Sir Claud Nigel Hamilton." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p2109.htm#i21081|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}</ref> == Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball == [[File:Helen-Mary-Theresa-ne-Vane-Tempest-Stewart-Countess-of-Ilchester-when-Lady-Helen-Stewart-as-the-Archduchess-Marie-Christine-of-Austria.jpg|thumb|alt=Black-and-white photograph of a seated woman richly dressed in an historical costume with a white feather plume in her hair and a fan|Lady Helen Stewart as Arch-duchess Marie Christine of Austria. ©National Portrait Gallery, London.]] === Lady Alexandra Hamilton === Lady Alexandra Hamilton was one of the archduchesses — along with with 3 or 4 other young women — in [[Social Victorians/People/Londonderry#The Entourage of Maria Thérèse|the entourage of the Marchioness of Londonderry]], who led the Austrian procession as Marie Thérèse, Empress of the Holy Roman Empire.<ref>“The Ball at Devonshire House. Magnificent Spectacle. Description of the Dresses.” London ''Evening Standard'' 3 July 1897 Saturday: 3 [of 12], Cols. 1a–5b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000183/18970703/015/0004.</ref>{{rp|p. 3, Col. 3a}} These young women were present at the ball as the daughters of Marie Thérèse, and the young men dressed as archdukes were present as her sons. Lady Alexandra Hamilton went as "Archduchess Marie-Josepha in the Archduchess Marie-Karoline and Emperor Joseph II section of the Austrian Court of Maria Theresa Quadrille."<ref name=":9">"Fancy Dress Ball at Devonshire House." ''Morning Post'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 7 [of 12], Col. 4a–8 Col. 2b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970703/054/0007.</ref>{{rp|p. 7, Col. 6b}} <ref name=":10">"Ball at Devonshire House." The ''Times'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 12, Cols. 1a–4c ''The Times Digital Archive''. Web. 28 Nov. 2015.</ref> The newspapers report that the archduchesses were all dressed alike, but only one photograph exists of any of these young women in costume — that of [[Social Victorians/People/Londonderry#Helen Mary Theresa Vane-Tempest-Stewart|Helen Mary Theresa Vane-Tempest-Stewart]] (which is shown, right). The newspaper descriptions are on her page, with her portrait in costume, but they apply to all the archduchesses. === Lord Frederick Hamilton === [[File:Lord Frederick Spencer Hamilton Vanity Fair 1895-02-07.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Colored drawing of a man in a suit, his hands in his pockets, facing to the right|Lord Frederick Hamilton, ''Vanity Fair'', by "Spy," 7 February 1895]] Lord Frederick Spencer Hamilton was 6th son and 13th child of the 1st Duke of Abercorn. No photograph of him in costume exists. He is shown (at left) as he looked in 7 February 1895 in a Spy caricature in ''Vanity Fair''. This caricature portrait, by Leslie Ward ("Spy") is called ''The Pall Mall Magazine'' and is Number 647 in Vanity Fair's "Statesmen" series.<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2024-01-14|title=List of Vanity Fair (British magazine) caricatures (1895–1899)|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Vanity_Fair_(British_magazine)_caricatures_(1895%E2%80%931899)&oldid=1195518024|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> He was editor of the ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 1896–1900.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2023-09-23|title=Lord Frederick Spencer Hamilton|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lord_Frederick_Spencer_Hamilton&oldid=1176655264|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Frederick_Spencer_Hamilton.</ref> For the ball, Lord Frederick Hamilton was dressed *as a "gentleman of the Court of Queen Elizabeth," wearing "crimson cloth of gold with jewelled belt."<ref name=":15">“The Duchess of Devonshire’s Ball.” The ''Gentlewoman'' 10 July 1897 Saturday: 32–42 [of 76], Cols. 1a–3c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003340/18970710/155/0032.</ref>{{rp|p. 36, Col. 3b}} *as a "Gentleman of the Court of Queen Elizabeth. Costume of crimson and cloth of g [sic] with jewelled belt."<ref name=":9" />{{rp|p. 8, Col. 1b}} *"in crimson cloth of gold and jeweled belt."<ref>"Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy Ball. A Brilliant Spectacle. Some of the Dresses." London ''Daily News'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 5 [of 10], Col. 6a–6, Col. 1b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000051/18970703/024/0005 and http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000051/18970703/024/0006.</ref>{{rp|p. 5, Col. 7a}} *"as a gentleman of the court of Queen Elizabeth, was dressed in a costume of crimson cloth-of-gold, with a jewelled belt."<ref name=":11">“The Devonshire House Ball. A Brilliant Gathering.” The ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 3 July 1897, Saturday: 7 [of 10], Col. 2a–3a. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000098/18970703/019/0007.</ref> ==== Memoirs ==== * Hamilton, Frederic [sic] Spencer. ''My Yesterdays'' (3 vols.). Hodder and Stoughton, 1920. *# ''The Days Before Yesterday''. The Internet Archive has this: https://archive.org/details/daysbeforeyester00hamiuoft/page/n5/mode/2up. *# ''Vanished Pomps of Yesterday''. The Internet Archive has this: https://archive.org/details/vanishedpompsofy028823mbp. *# ''Here, There and Everywhere''. The Internet Archive has this: https://archive.org/details/herethereeverywh0000hami. [[File:James Hamilton 3rd Duke of Abercorn.png|thumb|alt=Old colored drawing of a man in a 19th-century officer's uniform of the 1st Life Guards with white gloves, a red stripe down the side of his pants and unbuttoned jacket and a hat, holding a white or silver sword under his left arm, facing 1/4 to his right|"He will be the 3rd Duke" (James Hamilton, Marquis of Hamilton), ''Vanity Fair'' 16 February 1899]] === James Hamilton, Marquess of Hamilton === James Hamilton, Marquis of Hamilton was dressed in a "black velvet tunic; breeches and cloak trimmed jet; large hat, feathers, wig, sword, &c., of the period" of Charles II.<ref name=":15" />{{rp|34, Col. 3a}} No photograph of him in costume exists. A caricature portrait (right) called ''He will be the 3rd Duke'' (James Hamilton, Marquess of Hamilton) by "Hadge" appeared in the 16 February 1899 issue of ''Vanity Fair'', as Number 739 in its "Men of the Day" series,<ref name=":16" /> giving a sense of what he looked like at about the time of the ball. In 1892 Hamilton joined the 1st Life Guards, so the uniform he is wearing in this portrait is likely that of an officer of the 1st Life Guards.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2024-01-12|title=James Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Hamilton,_3rd_Duke_of_Abercorn&oldid=1195216640|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hamilton,_3rd_Duke_of_Abercorn.</ref> James Hamilton's wife Lady Rosalind Hamilton is not reported as having been present at the ball, perhaps because she was pregnant with her second child and gave birth in August, five weeks later, so she was around 8 months pregnant. === Ronald Hamilton === Mr. Ronald Hamilton, possibly Ronald James Hamilton, was dressed as a "Gentleman of the Court of Queen Elizabeth, in black velvet trimmed with jet."<ref name=":9" />{{rp|p. 8, Col. 1c}} == Demographics == *Nationality: the title Duke of Abercorn is in the peerage of Ireland; the Marquess of Hamilton is in the peerage of the U.K. == Family == *James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Abercorn (21 January 1811 – 31 October 1885)<ref name=":0" /> *Louisa Russell Hamilton (– March 1905) #Lady '''Harriet Georgiana Louisa Hamilton''' Anson (6 July 1834 – 23 April 1913) #Lady Beatrix Frances Hamilton Lambton (21 July 1835 – 21 January 1871) #Lady Louisa Jane Hamilton Scott (26 August 1836 – 16 March 1912) #Lord '''James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn''' (24 August 1838 – 3 January 1913) #Lady Katherine Elizabeth Hamilton Edgcumbe (9 January 1840 – 3 September 1874) #Lady Georgiana Susan Hamilton Turnour (7 July 1841 – 23 March 1913) #Lord '''Claud John Hamilton''' (20 February 1843 – 26 January 1925) #Rt. Hon. Lord Sir '''George Francis Hamilton''' (17 December 1845 – 22 September 1927) #Lady Albertha Frances Anne Hamilton Spencer-Churchill (29 July 1847 – 7 January 1932) #Lord Ronald Douglas Hamilton (17 March 1849 – DVP<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-27|title=James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Hamilton,_2nd_Duke_of_Abercorn&oldid=969822724|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> 6 November 1867) #Lady Maud Evelyn Hamilton Petty-Fitzmaurice, the [[Social Victorians/People/Lansdowne | Marchioness of Lansdowne]] (17 December 1850 – 21 October 1932)<ref name=":1" /> #Lord Cosmo Hamilton (16 April 1853 – 16 April 1853) #Lord '''Frederick Spencer Hamilton''' (13 October 1856 – 11 August 1928) #Lord '''Ernest William Hamilton''' (5 September 1858 – 14 December 1939) *Harriet Georgiana Louisa Hamilton Anson (6 July 1834 – 23 April 1913)<ref name=":2" /> *Thomas George Anson, 2nd Earl of Lichfield (15 August 1825 – 7 January 1892) #Lady Evelyn Anson ( – 2 July 1895) #Thomas Francis Anson, 3rd Earl of Lichfield (31 January 1856 – 29 July 1918) #Hon. Sir George Augustus Anson (22 December 1857 – 25 May 1947) #Major Hon. Henry James Anson (29 December 1858 – 26 February 1904) #Lady Florence Beatrice Anson (1860 – 25 September 1946) #Hon. Frederic William Anson (4 February 1862 – 2 April 1917) #Hon. Claud Anson (11 January 1864 – 25 December 1947) #Lady Beatrice Anson (1865 – 15 December 1919) #Hon. Francis Anson (7 March 1867 – 13 April 1928) #Lady Mary Maud Anson (1869 – 22 September 1961) #Lady Edith Anson (1870 – 8 October 1932) #Hon. William Anson (19 April 1872 – 22 June 1926) #Hon. Alfred Anson (15 April 1876 – 25 March 1944) *James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn (24 August 1838 – 3 January 1913)<ref name=":12" /> *Maria Anna Curzon-Howe Hamilton (23 July 1848 – 10 May 1929)<ref name=":3" /> #James Albert Edward Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn (30 November 1869 – 12 September 1953) #Claud Penn Alexander Hamilton (18 October 1871 – 18 October 1871) #Charlie Hamilton (10 April 1874 – 10 April 1874) #'''Alexandra Phyllis Hamilton''' (23 January 1876 – 10 October 1918) #Claud Francis Hamilton (25 October 1878 – 25 December 1878) #Gladys Mary Hamilton Forward-Howard (10 December 1880 – 12 March 1917) #Arthur John Hamilton (20 August 1883 – 6 November 1914) #(unnamed son) Hamilton (31 October 1886 – 31 October 1886) #Claud Nigel Hamilton (10 November 1889 – 22 August 1975)<ref name=":4" /> * '''James Albert Edward Hamilton''', Marquess of Hamilton and 3rd Duke of Abercorn (30 November 1869 – 12 September 1953)<ref name=":13" /> * Lady Rosalind Cecilia Caroline Bingham (26 February 1869 – 18 January 1958)<ref name=":14" /> *# Lady Mary Cecilia Rhodesia Hamilton (21 January 1896 – 5 September 1984) *# Lady Cynthia Elinor Beatrix Hamilton (16 August 1897 – 4 December 1972) *# Lady Katharine Hamilton (25 February 1900 – 28 April 1985) *# James Edward Hamilton, 4th Duke of Abercorn (29 February 1904 – 4 June 1979) *# Captain Lord Claud David Hamilton (13 February 1907 – 15 February 1968) *Claud John Hamilton (20 February 1843 – 26 January 1925)<ref name=":5" /> *Carolina Chandos-Pole Hamilton (19 July 1857 – 21 September 1911)<ref>"Carolina Chandos-Pole." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p11067.htm#i110663|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}</ref> #Colonel Gilbert Claud Hamilton (21 April 1879 – 30 March 1943) #Ida Hamilton (23 July 1883 – November 1970) *George Francis Hamilton (17 December 1845 – 22 September 1927)<ref name=":6" /> *Lady Maud Caroline Lascelles Hamilton (1846 – 14 April 1938) #'''Ronald James Hamilton''' (26 September 1872 – 22 January 1958) #Anthony George Hamilton (17 December 1874 – 11 July 1936) #Robert Cecil Hamilton (31 January 1882 – 31 July 1947) *Ernest William Hamilton (5 September 1858 – 14 December 1939)<ref>"Lord Ernest William Hamilton." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p2107.htm#i21062|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}</ref> *Pamela Campbell Hamilton ( – 11 May 1931)<ref name=":7" /> #Guy Ernest Frederick Hamilton (11 November 1894 – 23 November 1914) #Mary Brenda Hamilton (28 March 1897 – 14 March 1985) #Jean Barbara Hamilton (6 September 1898 – 2 November 1989) #John George Peter Hamilton (15 October 1900 – 17 June 1967) === Earls of Wicklow === * Charles Hamilton (1772 – 29 September 1857)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p2139.htm#i21387|title=Charles Hamilton. Person Page #2139|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-19}}</ref> * Marianne '''Caroline Tighe''' ( – 29 July 1861)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p62375.htm#i623745|title=Marianne Caroline Tighe. Person Page #62375|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-19}}</ref> *# '''Sarah Hamilton''' (1805<ref name=":17" /> – 13 March 1892) *# Caroline Elizabeth Hamilton ( – 31 May 1909) *# Mary Hamilton *# Charles William Hamilton (1 April 1802 – 16 February 1880) *# William Tighe Hamilton (31 March 1807 – ) *# Frederick John Henry Fownes Hamilton (27 July 1816 – 1893) * Rev. Hon. Francis Howard (12 January 1797 – 16 February 1857)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p2140.htm#i21391|title=Rev. Hon. Francis Howard. Person Page #2140|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-19}}</ref> * Frances Beresford ( – 17 November 1833)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p3227.htm#i32266|title=Frances Beresford. Person Page #3227|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-19}}</ref> *# William George Howard (25 April 1825 – 12 October 1864) * '''Sarah Hamilton''' (1805<ref name=":17">{{Cite web|url=https://catalogue.nli.ie/Collection/vtls000572704|title=Tighe, Hamilton and Howard Papers,|date=1737|website=catalogue.nli.ie|language=English|access-date=2026-06-19}}</ref> – 13 March 1892)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p2141.htm#i21405|title=Sarah Hamilton. Person Page #2141|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-19}}</ref> *# 4 unnamed daughters [per The Peerage; The NLI has 3 daughters] *# Lady Alice Howard *# Lady Louisa 'Loulie' Howard *# Lady Caroline Howard (1836–1923)<ref name=":17" /> *# Charles Francis Arnold Howard, '''5th Earl of Wicklow''' (5 November 1839 – 20 June 1881) *# Cecil Ralph Howard, '''6th Earl of Wicklow''' (26 April 1842 – 24 July 1891) * Cecil Ralph Howard, '''6th Earl of Wicklow''' (26 April 1842 – 24 July 1891)<ref name=":18" /> * Francesca Maria Chamberlayne ( – 1877) *# Ralph Howard, 7th Earl of Wicklow (24 December 1877 – 11 October 1946)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p2140.htm#i21394|title=Cecil Ralph Howard, 6th Earl of Wicklow. Person Page 2140.|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-28}}</ref> * Fanny Catherine Wingfield (c. 1860 – 3 February 1914)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p2139.htm#i21388|title=Fanny Catherine Wingfield. Person Page 2139.|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-28}}</ref> *# Hon. Cecil Mervyn Malcolm Howard (18 November 1881 – 16 April 1882) *# Hon. Hugh Melville Howard (28 March 1883 – 17 February 1919) * Marcus Francis Beresford (26 December 1862 – 14 December 1896)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p3186.htm#i31858|title=Marcus Francis Beresford. Person Page #3186.|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-28}}</ref> == Memoirs and Archives == # The Abercorn Papers: GB 0255 PRONI/D623 (found via https://iar.ie/archive/abercorn-papers). A descriptive list is available to search online at: http://www.proni.gov.uk/. The collection is arranged as follows: D623/A Correspondence D623/B Title deeds and leases D623/C Rentals, accounts and vouchers D623/D Maps, plans, surveys, inventories and valuations D623/E Photographs, illuminations, addresses and albums D623/F Material still at Baronscourt D623/G Miscellaneous #Alexandra Phyllis Hamilton (#64 on the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball#List of People Who Attended|list of people who were present]]) attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball | Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House, as did her uncle Lord Frederick Spencer Hamilton (#84), the Marquess of Hamilton (#657), and a Mr. Ronald Hamilton (#105). Besides these, probably, a Mr. and Mrs. Hamilton also attended. == Questions and Notes == #DVP = decessit vita patris, died while the father was still living #Mr. Ronald Hamilton cannot be Frederick Hamilton's brother, who should be Lord Ronald Hamilton rather than Mr. Ronald Hamilton, and he died in 1867. He could be this Ronald Hamilton, who would be a Mr. Hamilton: http://www.thepeerage.com/p2163.htm#i21622. He was Lady Alexandra's cousin and nephew of the 1st Duke of Abercorn. #A Mr. Hamilton is mentioned in the ''Gentlewoman'' article: "Mr. Hamilton (Elizabethan costume), black velvet, trimmed gold."<ref name=":15" />{{rp|34, Col. 1c}} But a later reference in this same article to Mr. Ronald Hamilton matches the description in the ''Morning Post'' article, saying he wore black velvet with jet, rather than gold trim: "'''Mr. Ronald Hamilton''' (gentleman of the Court of Queen Elizabeth), black velvet with jet."<ref name=":15" /> (36, Col. 3b) I believe the other Mr. Hamilton is Mr. [[Social Victorians/People/Cole-Hamilton|Claud Cole-Hamilton]], particularly since Mrs. Hamilton was dressed as Amy Robsart and thus must be Lucy Charlewood Cole-Hamilton because of the description of her costume in the Album of photographs given to the Duchess of Devonshire later. #Claud John Hamilton is probably who attended the social events, because the other Claud, of whatever generation either died too young or was born too late. == Footnotes == {{reflist}} g7gu0m10fjf1t3no5xndtcu4cp6wjba 0 269370 2817545 2817306 2026-07-01T17:43:56Z James500 297601 /* Japan */ Add 2817545 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} See also [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]. See [[w:Category:Bibliographies of countries or regions]] and [[w:Category:Works about countries]]. This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of countries (including former countries). ==Countries== *Bateman and Egan (eds). The Encyclopedia of World Geography: A Country by Country Guide. 1993. Revised 1997. *Peter Stalker. Handbook of the World. 2000. A Guide to Countries of the World. (Oxford Guide to Countries of the World. 2nd Ed: 2004, 2nd Revised Ed: 2007 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GtztAAAAMAAJ], 3rd Ed: 2010 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gvKvfxkbZ1AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Countries of the World and Their Leaders Yearbook. Gale. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5etKAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p41OAAAAIAAJ] *Hutchinson Guide to Countries of the World [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgpjUe4kN_IC] *The World Guide: Global Reference, Country by Country. 11th Ed: 2007 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EoWoLgAACAAJ] *Spence. The World Today: A Nation-by-Nation Guide. Cassell. 1994. 1999. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ub8qOQAACAAJ] *Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I0oYAQAAMAAJ] *Kurian. Encyclopedia of the World's Nations. Facts on File. Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Y1EnAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lz0RAQAAMAAJ] *Michael O'Mara. Facts about the World's Nations. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mygYAAAAIAAJ] *Status of the World's Nations. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sftEyRbAXMUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kw2U_Cg2gKYC&pg=PP3#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *[[s:Author:John Alexander Hammerton|Hammerton, John Alexander]] (ed). Countries of the World. Published at the Fleetway House. 6 vols. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e6IaAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K5oaAQAAMAAJ] *[[s:Author:Robert Brown (1842-1895)|Brown, Robert]]. The Countries of the World. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nO0DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP13#v=onepage&q&f=false] *A Morely Dell. The Countries of the World. (Harrap's New Geographical Series). 1932. (School certificate). Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oSS9PB_Jf7AC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BicVAAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5qBOAAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbwcAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sc1AAAAAIAAJ] General series: *National Geographic Countries of the World [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IT2wfzVIPykC] *Countries of the World. Evans Brothers. (GCSE) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=a3sZvWc7E1EC&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *One Europe. Longman. [https://search.worldcat.org/en/title/west-germany-adapted-by-lj-russon-from-the-original-german-by-sylvia-lof-ingrid-mallberg-dietrich-rosenthal/oclc/561591761] *Collier's Nations of the World. The Nations of the World: An Historical Series. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VJY-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PP8#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Collier's History of Nations. The History of Nations. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fmSUfTY5E80C] *The Story of the Nations. T Fisher Unwin. *The World and Its Peoples. (The Illustrated Library of the World and Its Peoples). Greystone Press, New York. *World and Its Peoples. Marshall Cavendish. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oms5xjI7ba0C&pg=PA141#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==England== ===Counties=== See [[s:Portal:Counties]] * Harrison, "County Bibliography" (1886) 3 Library Chronicle [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wz9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA49#v=onepage&q&f=false 49] General series *Victoria County History *Oxford County Histories *Pinnock's County Histories *Shire County Guides. Shire Publications. *Cambridge County Geographies *Pike's New Century Series *[[s:Page:County Churches of Cornwall.djvu/6|County Churches]]. G Allen. Avon *Moore. Avon Local History Handbook. Phillimore. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h0kjAAAAMAAJ] Bibliography, p 102 Bedfordshire *Conisbee, Lewis Ralph. A Bedfordshire Bibliography. Bedfordshire Historical Record Society. Bedford. 1962. Supplements 1967, 1971, 1978. Third supplement by Threadgill. Review: 6 Archives 52 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oOMZAAAAYAAJ]. See also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MjspAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PejgAAAAMAAJ] *Godber. History of Bedfordshire. 1969. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jdvwPQAACAAJ] *Pinnock. The History and Topography of Bedfordshire [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9bJYAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Parry. Select Illustrations, Historical and Topographical, of Bedfordshire [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UTUJAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Blyth. The History of Bedford and Visitor's Guide. 1873 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IuIGAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Cambridge County Geographies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kTc8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Buckinghamshire *Reed. A History of Buckinghamshire. 1993 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BtkWAQAAIAAJ] Cambridgeshire *Carter. History of the County of Cambridge [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jXpbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Babington. Ancient Cambridgeshire [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DPrCAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Devon *Ravenhill and Rowe. Devon Maps and Map-makers [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tjf2yAEACAAJ] *Wright. A Plea for a Devonshire Bibliography. 1885 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8ZUDAAAAQAAJ] Derbyshire *Woore. A Catalogue of Local Maps of Derbyshire, C.1528-1800. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oWmCMwEACAAJ] *O'Neal. A Bibliography of Derbyshire Lead Mining. 1961 Essex *Cunnington. Catalogue of Books, Maps and Manuscripts, relating to or connected with the County of Essex. 1902 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oIcqpibGE4MC] *"The Bibliography of Essex" (1882) 1 Antiquarian Magazine & Bibliographer [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dEkEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA72#v=onepage&q&f=false 72]. See also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dEkEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA283#v=onepage&q&f=false p 283]. *"The Bibliography of Essex" (1891) 5 The Essex Naturalist 30 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iIo1AQAAMAAJ] *Moon. Essex Literature. 1900. Review: 61 Literary World 438 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2T0ZAAAAYAAJ] See also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Y4UAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C_pEAAAAMAAJ] *Fenn and Lowery, "An Essex Bibliography", Journal of the South West Essex Technical College, vols 2 & 3 *Victoria County History bibliography. 1959 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2EJAQAAIAAJ] *O'Leary, John Gerard. A Supplement to the Essex Bibliography. Dagenham. 1962. *A Bibliography of Essex Archaeology & History *Essex and Dagenham: A Catalogue of Books, Pamphlets and Maps. Dagenham. 1961 *Essex Archaeology and History: The Transactions of the Essex Society for Archaeological and History [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CtFAAAAAYAAJ] *Essex Naturalist: Being the Journal of the Essex Field Club *Wright. The History and Topography of the County of Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SgQVAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP9#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ogborne, The History of Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IeVSAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Suckling. Memorials of the Antiquities and Architecture, Family History and Heraldry of the County of Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bcw_AAAAcAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hunter, The Essex Landscape: A Study of Its Form and History [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=w9kWAQAAIAAJ] *Cambridge County Geography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GPHa_X_0qo0C&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Sokoll. Essex  Pauper Letters, 1731-1837 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rCLia7XlqtMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Morant. The History and Antiquities of Colchester in the County of Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DDgtAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP9#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Wallen. The History and Antiquities of the Round Church at Little Maplestead, Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FPYVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kent *Smith. Bibliotheca Cantiana. 1837. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1dJDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP11#v=onepage&q&f=false] Leicestershire *Kirkby, C V (compiler). Catalogue of the books, pamphlets, &c., relating to Leicestershire in the Central Reference Library. Leicester Free Public Libraries. 1893. Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3boqAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA84#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UcHnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA728#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Leicestershire and Rutland Bibliography, 1963-65 (1966) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-OhVAAAAYAAJ 40] Leicestershire Archaeological and Historical Society: Transactions (1964/5) 92. Available as pdf from University of Leicester. *Leicestershire and Rutland Bibliography, 1961-63. Available as pdf from University of Leicester. *Leicestershire and Rutland Bibliography, 1960-61. Available as pdf from University of Leicester. *A Bibliography of the Small Towns in Leicestershire and Rutland, 1600–1850. (Dissertation). [https://repository.lboro.ac.uk/articles/educational_resource/A_bibliography_of_the_small_towns_in_Leicestershire_and_Rutland_1600_1850/9414200] *Loughborough's Heritage: A Bibliography of the Holdings of Leicestershire Libraries and Information Service and Record Office. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Bwx2zgEACAAJ] *Keith Ambrose and Frank Williams, "Bibliography of the Geology of Leicestershire and Rutland: Part 2: 1971-2003" (2004) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U-tQAQAAIAAJ 16] The Mercian Geologist 5. Available as pdf from East Midlands Geological Society. *Parsons and Brandwood. A Bibliography of Leicestershire Churches. 1978. *Education in Leicestershire: A Bibliography. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X6EfzQEACAAJ] Sussex *Brent, Fletcher and McCann. Sussex in the 16th and 17th Centuries: A Bibliography. 2nd Ed [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I7UtAAAAYAAJ] *Farrant. Sussex in the 18th and 19th Centuries: A Bibliography. 1st Ed: 1973, 2nd Ed: 1977 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MLUtAAAAYAAJ], 3rd Ed: 1979 ==France== Bibliography: *Bibliographie de la France. Commentary: Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science, vol 37, supplement 2, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=10rgjNvOV8oC&pg=PA145#v=onepage&q&f=false p 145]; The Bookseller, 6 January 1881, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4dsiAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA10#v=onepage&q&f=false p 10]; Stein, Manuel de bibliographie générale, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lJYPyKjV1qYC&pg=PA23#v=onepage&q&f=false p 23]. *Girault de Saint-Fargeau. Bibliographie historique et topographique de la France. 1845 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kClB9CQNZoMC&pg=PP9#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Catalogue d'une collection d'ouvrages sur l'histoire des provinces de la France. 1842 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qQBX5WZouzAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Landscape: *Beaujeu-Garnier. France. (The World's Landscapes). 1975. [https://books.google.com/books?id=nwxDAQAAIAAJ] Agenais: *Andrieu. Bibliographie générale de l’Agenais et des parties du Condomois et du Bazadais. 1886 to 1891. Reprinted 1969. Alsace: *Ristelhuber. Bibliographie alsacienne. 1869 to 1873 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mhLAQAAMAAJ&pg=PP13#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Bibliographie alsacienne: Revue critique des publications concernant l'Alsace. 1918 to 1936 *Ritter. Répertoire bibliographique des livres imprimés en Alsace aux XVe et XVIe siècles [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DewaAQAAMAAJ] Angoumois: *Castaigne. Essai d'une bibliothèque historique de l'Angoumois, ou Catalogue raisonné des principaux ouvrages qui traitent des différentes branches de l'histoire de cette province. 1847 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R-UanmmlvAEC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] Anjou: *Braguier and Braguier. Archéologie en Anjou: bibliographie. 1984 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LvsmAQAAIAAJ] Auvergne: *Gonot. Catalogue des ouvrages imprimés et manuscrits concernant l'Auvergne, extrait du catalogue général de la Bibliotlèque de Clermont-Fd (Puy-de-Dome). 1849. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yCFtbObRCbUC&pg=PP13#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Catalogue des livres et estampes concernant l'ancienne Province d'Auvergne (Puy-de-Dôme, Cantal, Haute-Loire) réunis par feu M. G. Desbouis. 1865. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ui4S8_D0N74C&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] Béarn *"Bibliographie Béarnaise", Revue de Pau et du Béarn [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FuZnAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FQYqvPo9D9IC&pg=PA158#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RL9VAAAAYAAJ] Brittany *Sacher. Bibliographie de la Bretagne, ou Catalogue général des ouvrages historiques, littéraires et scientifiques parus sur la Bretagne, avec la liste des revues publiées en cette province, les prix approximatifs des volumes rares, etc. 1881 [https://archive.org/details/bibliographiede00sach] Burgundy: *Milsand. Bibliographie bourguignonne; ou, Catalogue méthodique d'ouvrages relatifs à la Bourgogne: Sciences - Arts - Histoire. 1885 [https://archive.org/details/bibliographiebo00milsgoog] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographiebo00sciegoog] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CxIIAAAAQAAJ] *Catalogue des manuscrits de la Bibliothèque royale des ducs de Bourgogne. 1842 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX5MAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *The Companion Guide to Burgundy [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NraRP0AkDT0C&pg=PP3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lecat. The Golden Book of Burgundy. (The Golden Book) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FyzR9qU1Zl4C&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gwynn. Burgundy: With Chapters on the Jura and Savoy. (Kitbag Travel Books). 1935 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ny1LAAAAMAAJ] *Bazin. Wonderful Burgundy. 1988. 1997 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Yt1CRdICWCUC] *Bailey. Burgundy. (Insight Guides). 1993 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q69a1dMW2NQC] *Dunlop. Burgundy. Hamilton.1990 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S_1OAAAAMAAJ] Champagne: *Lhermitte. Ouvrages sur la Champagne: contribution à la bibliographie champenoise. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jbPfAAAAMAAJ] Dauphiné: *Mélanges biographiques et bibliographiques relatifs à l'histoire littéraire du Dauphiné par Colomb de Batines et Ollivier Jules. 1837 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2F5MAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Lorraine: *Bibliographie lorraine. Académie nationale de Metz [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n-DfAAAAMAAJ] Maine: *Desportes. Bibliographie du Maine, précédée de la description topographique et hydrographique du diocése du Mans, Sarthe et Mayenne. 1844. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hSk-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Normandy: *Frère. Manuel du bibliographe Normand ou dictionnaire bibliographique et historique. 1858 to 1860. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dp6geJClg1YC&pg=PP13#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1] ==Japan== Bibliography *Jozef Rogala. A Collector's Guide to Books on Japan in English: An Annotated List of Over 2500 Titles with Subject Index. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7KI9ao-w2FEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ria Koopmans-de Bruijn. Area Bibliography of Japan. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies). Scarecrow Press. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hlx2OMjgUi0C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Frank Joseph Shulman. Japan. (World Bibliographical Series, vol 103). Clio Press. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LsoUAQAAIAAJ] *Eibun Nihon Kankei Tosho Mokuroku, 1945-1981. (Japanese: 英文日本関係図書目録, 1945-1981). (English: Catalogue of Books in English on Japan, 1945-1981). Japan Foundation. Tokyo. 1986. *Japan: analytical bibliography: with supplementary research aids: and selected data on Okinawa . . . Department of the Army. Washington. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h4d4nYxrxtMC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Books on Japan in Western Languages. The International Christian University Library. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2bQAAAAMAAJ] *Books on Japan: A List of Acquisitions, 1955-1970. International House of Japan Library. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8sWAQAAIAAJ] *Fukuda. Union Catalog of Books on Japan in Western Languages. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HKYyAQAAIAAJ] *A Classified List of Books in Western Languages Relating to Japan. University of Tokyo Press. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U8MUAQAAIAAJ] *Katsuji Yabuki (ed). Japan Bibliographic Annual. Published by the Hokuseido Press for the Japan Writers Society. 1956 and 1957. **Japan Bibliographic Annual 1956. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9XLQAAAAMAAJ] **Japan Bibliographic Annual 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vesSAAAAIAAJ]. Reviews: (1957) 13 Monumenta Nipponica 166 (April-July) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8S1yb-iwrOwC] (1957) 25 The Oriental Economist 212 (April) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QELoAAAAMAAJ] *Haring. Books on Japan: A Reference List. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RbDoAAAAMAAJ] *Borton. A Selected List of Books and Articles on Japan in English, French, and German. 1940: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YYIsAAAAYAAJ]. Revised and enlarged. Harvard University Press. 1954: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8O2VwJUPUkC]. **A Selected List of Books on Japan in Western Languages (1945-1960). (Studies on Asia Abroad, vol 1). The Information Centre of Asian Studies, The Toyo Bunko. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i1_QAAAAMAAJ] *Oskar Nachod. Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0001oska/page/n8/mode/1up vol 1]. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/n6/mode/1up vol 2]. *Fr. von Wenckstern. A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire: being a Classified List of All Books, Essays and Maps in European Languages relating to Dai Nihon (Great Japan) published in Europe, America and in the East from 1859-93 . . . 1895. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v7lO4ddqDywC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Volume 2, from 1894 to the middle of 1906. 1907. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/n6/mode/1up] *Hyman Kublin. What Shall I Read on Japan? An Introductory Guide. Japan Society, New York. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yRRUAAAAYAAJ] Japanese studies *An Introductory Bibliography for Japanese Studies. The Japan Foundation. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=53O6AAAAIAAJ] *Richard Perren. Japanese Studies from Pre-History to 1990: A Bibliographical Guide. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CN9RAQAAIAAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. "Bibliographies" at pp 1 to 3. *K.B.S. Bibliography of Standard Reference Books for Japanese Studies, with Descriptive Notes. University of Tokyo Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=95wbAAAAMAAJ] *[[w:en:Japan Forum]]. British Association for Japanese Studies. [https://www.tandfonline.com/journals/rjfo20] History and culture *John W Dower. Japanese History & Culture from Ancient to Modern Times: Seven Basic Bibliographies. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NX67AAAAIAAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. "Bibliographies & Research Guides" at chapter 6. Research guides *Mindy L Kotler. Information Gathering on Japan: A Primer. Search Associates. 1988. ISBN 9780962546006. Catalogue: [https://search.worldcat.org/zh-cn/title/Information-gathering-on-Japan-Joho-:-a-primer/oclc/20530148]. Review: (1989) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NZLiAAAAMAAJ 27] Choice 82 Encyclopedias See also [[w:ja:Japanese encyclopedias]] *Louis-Frédéric. Japan Encyclopedia. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Japan: An Illustrated Encyclopedia. Kodansha. 1993. **Japan: Profile of a Nation. Kodansha. 1995. Revised Edition. 1999. *[[w:Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan|Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan]]. 1983. Supplement. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WvApAQAAMAAJ] *Dorothy Perkins. Encyclopedia of Japan: Japanese History and Culture, from Abacus to Zori. Facts on File. A Roundtable Press Book. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JLKGAAAAIAAJ] *Pictorial Encyclopedia of Modern Japan. Gakken. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0FgKAQAAIAAJ] *Boye Layfayette De Mente. Japan Encyclopedia. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=f9c7AAAAMAAJ] **Boye De Mente. Everything Japanese. [The Authoritave Reference on Japan Today]. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Duku89bARgoC] Media *[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-15217593 Japan media guide]. News. BBC. 20 March 2023. *Masaaki Kasagi. Mass Media in Japan. (Orientation seminars on Japan, number 14). 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=odkgAAAAIAAJ] *Routledge Handbook of Japanese Media [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zilKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Publishers *[https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/international/international-book-news/article/99729-get-to-know-these-japanese-publishing-companies.html Get to Know These Japanese Publishing Companies]. Publishers Weekly. 20 February 2026. Press and journalism *[https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/digital-news-report/2025/japan Japan]. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. 17 June 2025. *Marjane Aalam and Philippe Régnier. The Japanese Press and Information System. The Graduate Institute of International Studies. Geneva. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RTcbAQAAIAAJ] *The Japanese Press: Past and Present. Japan Newspaper Publishers' and Editors' Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5tcQAAAAIAAJ 1949]. *Anthony Rausch. Japanese Journalism and the Japanese Newspaper: A Supplemental Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mZrToQEACAAJ] *Frank L Martin. The Journalism of Japan. 1918. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ruYzAQAAMAAJ] *William De Lange. A History of Japanese Journalism. Japan Library. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Rd5tb0cuz8QC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kanesada Hanazono. The Development of Japanese Journalism. Osaka. 1924. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z99ZAAAAMAAJ] *Kanesada Hanazono. Journalism in Japan and Its Early Pioneers. 1926. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IGTFfLc4bq0C] *César Castellvi. A Sociology of Journalism in Japan: The Last Empire of the Press. 2024. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=a2z8EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] *"Japan". Christopher H Sterling (ed). Encyclopedia of Journalism. A Sage Reference Publication. 2009. ISBN 9780761929574. vol 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZQhDq8fPj2IC&pg=PA809#v=onepage&q&f=false 809] to 815. Press annuals *The Japanese Press. (Nihon Shinbun Kyokai). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AfvyAAAAMAAJ 1979] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Au3yAAAAMAAJ 1998] Summaries of the press *Daily Summary of Japanese Press Foreign correspondents *Foreign Correspondents in Japan: Reporting a Half Century of Upheavals, from 1945 to the Present. Tuttle. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YI3TAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Periodicals *Nunn (comp). Japanese Periodicals and Newspapers in Western Languages: An International Union List. Mansell. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEROAQAAIAAJ] *Japan Periodicals. Keizai Koho Center. 3rd Ed [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ATm0AAAAIAAJ]. Japan Periodicals, 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PkMyAAAAMAAJ] *Japanese Periodicals Index **Humanities and Social Sciences [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nXX_RpPGf3AC] **Natural Sciences [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FCJIAAAAYAAJ] *Current Japanese Periodicals [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FjO5AAAAIAAJ] *Check-list of Japanese Periodicals Held in British University and Research Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VZgsAAAAYAAJ] *Union List of Current Japanese Periodicals in the East Asian Libraries of Columbia, Harvard, Princeton, and Yale Universities. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yw7kAAAAMAAJ] *List of Japanese Periodicals in the Library of the School of Oriental & African Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RREjAQAAIAAJ] *Gianni Simone. [https://www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2011/04/26/issues/english-mags-approach-milestone-crossroads/ English mags approach milestone, crossroads]. The Japan Times. 26 April 2011. *Japan Report (1955 onwards) (Consulate General of Japan, Japan Information Center). Vol 39 published in 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MX4BN_frv4IC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] editions:jYuMSMIQC-AC **Japan Information *Japan Now [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nul7DRQaexMC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Japan Quarterly. (Asahi Shimbun). 1954 to 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nZMMAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_RwVAAAAMAAJ] 189 issues. *Japan Illustrated: The Japan Times Quarterly [Pictorial] Magazine (October 1963 to Summer 1977) 15 vols [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=D7UThOmE8T4C] *[[w:Japan Spotlight|Japan Spotlight]]. Economy, Culture & History: Japan Spotlight: Bimonthly. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i7C0AAAAIAAJ] *Focus Japan. (Japan External Trade Organization, JETRO). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2fG2hsEZpRkC] *The Japan Journal [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2V3hAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CJwoAQAAMAAJ] *Japan Magazine. Muromachi Publicity Corporation. (vols 1 to 5: 1957 to 1963). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Swd18PnVeUgC] *The Japan Magazine: A Representative Monthly of Things Japanese [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ubGKo-p6O_0C] [https://archive.org/details/jm-1914-v4.9-5.2/mode/1up] *Transactions and Proceedings of the Japan Society, London [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B75nnph5qHgC&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Bulletin. [Bulletin of the Japan Society, London.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pd9KvyhnpjMC] **The Japan Society of London Bulletin [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XxlxAAAAMAAJ] *About Japan. Japan Society, New York. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nf5OAQAAIAAJ] **News Bulletin [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_QcA3AQAAIAAJ/page/n2/mode/1up] *[[w:en:Metropolis (free magazine)|Metropolis]] (metropolisjapan.com) *[[w:en:Tokyo Weekender|Tokyo Weekender]] (トーキョー・ウィークエンダー) [https://www.tokyoweekender.com/japan-life/news-and-opinion/nhk-world-features-the-tokyo-weekender-magazine/] *The Japan Gazette [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WSopAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *The Tokio Times [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UDfiFBu0vB4C&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *[[w:en:Look Japan|Look Japan]]. (Look Japan Ltd). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QnO6AAAAIAAJ]. Commentary: Gale Directory of Publications and Broadcast Media [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ve4dAQAAMAAJ] *[[w:en:Japan Echo|Japan Echo]]. 1974 to 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Cmq6AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fpmEPpl-85UC] *PHP Intersect. (Where Japan Meets Asia and the World). PHP Institute. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i74TAQAAMAAJ] **Intersect Japan [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sL8TAQAAMAAJ] *Speaking of Japan [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U7S0AAAAIAAJ]. [Speeches.] *The Hansei Zasshi: A Monthly Magazine [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6qBhfHZo7Q0C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false][https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dyIsvnYjpwEC&pg=PP6#v=onepage&q&f=false] **The Orient. 1899 onwards [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nS1omYYnnd4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Today's Japan. Orient/West Incorporated. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g2ASAAAAMAAJ] *Japan Review: Bulletin of the International Research Center for Japanese Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GggOAQAAMAAJ] Newspapers See also [[w:List of newspapers in Japan]] *Tanner. English Language Newspapers in Bakumatsu Japan. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=a2z8EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *[https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2009/03/03/reference/newspapers-here-soldiering-on/ Newspapers here soldiering on]. The Japan Times. 3 March 2009. *[[w:The Japan Times|The Japan Times]] **The Japan Times: Weekly Edition [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KoQ-AQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yYQ-AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Japan Daily Mail *Japan Weekly Mail *The Japan Chronicle **Weekly Edition [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vXdRAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *The Japan News. (The Japan News by The Yomiuri Shimbun) **Yomiuri Japan News (from 1955) **The Yomiuri (from 1958) **The Daily Yomiuri (from 1970) *The Asahi Shimbun: Asia & Japan Watch. [https://www.asahi.com/sp/ajw/] **Asahi Evening News (from 1954) ***Tokyo Evening News (1952 to 1954) [https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/books/R100000002-I000000145073] *The Mainichi. [https://mainichi.jp/english/] **Mainichi Daily News (1922 to 2001) [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/02/27/business/worldbusiness/IHT-tech-briefstop-the-presses.html] [https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/books/R100000002-I000000144910] Sports newspapers; sports dailies *Louise do Rosario, "News-stand stars" in "Japan" (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T_GzAAAAIAAJ 155] [[w:en:Far Eastern Economic Review|Far Eastern Economic Review]], 24 to 31 December 1992, p 21 *[[w:ja:岡崎満義|Mitsuyoshi Okazaki]], "Unsportsmanlike Journalism: Japan's sports dailies may be popular, but are they sporting?" in "Sport", [[w:en:Look Japan|Look Japan]], [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lD3tAAAAMAAJ January 1995], p 39 News *[[w:en:Japan Today|Japan Today]] (ジャパントゥデイ). GPlusMedia. Gakken Holdings. Annuals and year books *This is Japan. Asahi Shimbun. 1954 to 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2X9DAQAAIAAJ]. Commentary: A Victorian Sailor's Grave in the Seto Inland Sea, p 244 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OegkAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA244#v=onepage&q&f=false] *The Japan Year Book. The Japan Year Book Office. 1905 onwards. [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_arFPAAAAMAAJ/page/n10/mode/1up 1906]. [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.553496/page/n27/mode/1up 1915]. *The "Japan Gazette" Japan Year Book. The Japan Gazette. [https://archive.org/details/japan-year-book-1913-1914/page/n15/mode/1up 1913-14] *The Japan Times Year Book Almanacs *Asahi Shimbun Japan Almanac. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SEEEAQAAIAAJ 1995]. *Japan Almanac. (The Mainichi Newspapers). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ufAIAQAAIAAJ 1972]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X4eXWRkbtFsC 1973]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7rMrAAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=krMrAAAAIAAJ] *[[w:Boyé Lafayette De Mente|Boye De Mente]]. Passport's Japan Almanac. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=741wAAAAMAAJ] General *Japan: A Country Study. (Area Handbook series). 4th Ed: 1983: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HkM5N3JNc5IC]. 5th Ed: 1992: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ze-wupXxpvEC] *Area Handbook for Japan. 2nd Ed: 1964: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WucdAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 3rd Ed: 1974: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LG2aoq1U_eoC&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] (DA Pam 550-30). *Colin Simpson. Picture of Japan. **Japan: An Intimate View. A S Barnes. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3hkeAAAAMAAJ] **This is Japan. Angus & Robertson. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HJEJAQAAIAAJ] *Japan. (The World and Its Peoples). Greystone Press, New York. 1964. Volume 1: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yysUAQAAMAAJ]. Volume 2 "Japan Korea", including Korea: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQAUAQAAMAAJ]. See pp 1 to 375 for Japan, and pp 376 to 379 for Ryukyu and Bonin Islands. *Japan. (World and its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia, volume 8). Marshall Cavendish. 2008. ISBN 9780761476412. *Edward Seidensticker. This Country, Japan. Kodansha International. 1979. ISBN 9780870112294. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=88wwAQAAIAAJ] *Hall and Beardsley. Twelve Doors to Japan. McGraw-Hill. New York. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0KpxAAAAMAAJ] Handbooks *Heenan (ed). The Japan Handbook. (Regional Handbooks of Economic Development). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IMG2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introduction *Introducing Japan Through Books: A Selected Bibliography. Public Information Bureau, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvsyAQAAIAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vj0XAQAAMAAJ]. *Donald Ritchie. Introducing Japan. 1st Ed: 1978. Revised Ed: 1986. 6th printing: 1989: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FE-nxxoKayQC]. 2nd Revised Ed: 1990. 2nd printing: 1991: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hz4UAQAAIAAJ]. 1994: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FMvT6m4SgIQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Webb. An Introduction to Japan. 2nd Ed: 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YQ8MAQAAIAAJ]. *Introducing Modern Japan. A publication of the Japan Information and Culture Center, Embassy of Japan. Today and yesterday *Ray Downs. Japan Yesterday and Today. Praeger Publishers. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PwKxAAAAIAAJ] Today *Buckley. Japan Today. 3rd Ed [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=thyqBtJp2DcC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Contemporary *Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Japan. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yfH3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2011#v=onepage&q&f=false] *McCargo. Contemporary Japan. 3rd Ed: 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8I5KEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kingston. Contemporary Japan: History, Politics, and Social Change since the 1980s. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=enJQZA3R4FMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Modern *Cortazzi. Modern Japan: A Concise Survey. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Cf--DAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] The Japanese *Tasker. The Japanese: Portrait of a Nation. 1989 [https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1N8ld78wwQC] **The Japanese: A Major Exploration of Modern Japan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CW-6AAAAIAAJ] **Inside Japan: Wealth, Work and Power in the New Japanese Empire. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2OJuAAAAMAAJ] Travel books *DK Eyewitness Travel: Japan. Reprinted with revisions. 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g2NaBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vg15DQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Dodd and Richmond. The Rough Guide to Japan. 2nd Ed: 2001: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pRGq95ytWZoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Frommer's Japan. 5th Ed: 2000: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-QC8mVyvPa8C]. *Fodor's Japan YYYY. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aH2Ow27HUQ0C 1986]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gTTf6nbv20C 1987]. 1988. **Fodor's YY Japan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9QMHllzldlYC 91]. 92. 93. **Fodor's Japan. 13th Ed: 1996: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cZxZAAAAYAAJ] *The New Official Guide: Japan. Japan Travel Bureau. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HoxxAAAAMAAJ] *Here is Japan. Asahi Broadcasting Corporation. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8QXRCTMNG7MC] *Japan. (Nagel Travel Guide Series, vol 32). 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QsbXAAAAMAAJ] *Clark. All the Best in Japan: with Manila, Hong Kong, and Macao. ("All the Best" series). 1959. Reprinted 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yUq4YaaryrwC]. Reviews: [https://archive.dartmouthalumnimagazine.com/article/1958/6/1/all-the-best-in-japan] (1958) 110 Travel 51 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UVwXAQAAMAAJ] 3 Bulletin of the Japan Society, London, No 11: June 1960, p 25 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oy74hRRXk4C] **All the Best in Japan and the Orient. 1967. Languages See [[Universal Bibliography/Languages/Japanese|Japanese]] Music See [[Universal Bibliography/Music#Japanese and Japan|Music of Japan]] ==Korea== *Korea Journal [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O6XfBexsp6gC] [[Category:Countries]] g9e3u0blemeuxllzz0uiy3pc9apq81w 14 273009 2817549 2816838 2026-07-01T18:19:23Z DavidMCEddy 218607 /* Table of episodes */ typo 2817549 wikitext text/x-wiki A number of seemingly credible sources are describing an increase in political polarization worldwide. [[w:Maria Ressa|Maria Ressa]] describes how [[w:Rodrigo Duterte|Rodrigo Duterte]], former President of the [[w:Philippines|Philippines]] "started ... with five hundred volunteers<ref>Ressa (2022, pp. 147-8).</ref> (1) creating “sock puppets,” or fake accounts that attack or praise; (2) “mass reporting,” or organizing to negatively impact a targeted account; and (3) “astroturfing,” or fake posts or lies designed to look like grassroots support or interest.<ref>Ressa (2022, pp. 152-3).</ref> These actions tricked the algorithms of social media companies like Facebook and Twitter into amplifying fraudulent messages including incitements to violence and criminal prosecutions based on trumped up charges. The results easily overwhelmed honest media. [[w:Leila de Lima|Leila de Lima]], a Senator and former Secretary of Justice of the Philippines, spent years in pretrial detention before the charges were dropped for lack of evidence.<ref>Ressa (2022, p. 158ff) and Wikipedia, "[[w:Leila de Lima|Leila de Lima]]", accessed 2024-07-22.</ref> Ressa's news organization, [[w:Rappler|Rappler]].com, was ordered to close. Ressa herself was convicted on questionable charges. Both continued operating while the legal procedures against them were appealed.<ref>Ressa (2022, pp. 152-3) and Wikipedia, "[[w:Maria Ressa|Maria Ressa]]", accessed 2024-07-22.</ref> Ressa says similar procedures are making major contributions to the rise of fascism and far-right nationalist populists in the US, Europe, Turkey, India, Russia, and elsewhere.<ref>Ressa (2022, pp. 152-3).</ref> [[w:H. R. McMaster|H. R. McMaster]], former President Trump's second National Security advisor, said that "The internet and social media thus provided [Russia] with a low-cost, easy way to divide and weaken America from within."<ref>McMaster (2020, pp. 47-48).</ref> The [[w:2021 Facebook leak|2021 Facebook leak]] documented how executives of [[w:Facebook|Facebook]] and [[w:Meta Platforms|Meta]] knowingly prioritized profits over action to limit incitements to violence, even facilitating the [[w:Rohingya genocide|Rohingya genocide]] in [[w:Myanmar|Myanmar]], because doing otherwise would have reduced their profits. This "Category:Media reform to improve democracy" include videos of experts and activists working this issue along with 29:00 mm:ss audio files submitted to a ''Media & Democracy'' series syndicated on the [[w:List of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates|Pacifica radio network]]<ref><!--Media & Democracy on Audioport-->{{cite Q|Q127839818}}</ref> plus text and space for moderated discussions. Some of this work is cited in the book on ''[[Media Literacy and You]]'', which is being written -- [[w:Crowdsourcing|crowdsourced]] -- to help humans better understand how they can counter the trend toward increasing political polarization and violence by talking politics, calmly, with respect and humility, with others with whom they may vehemently disagree, because the alternative is killing humans over misunderstanding. The goal is ''not'' to convince anyone that they are wrong. Rather it is to build relationships where humans can agree to disagree agreeably and collaborate to improve issues of common concern. == Table of episodes == {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ Episodes of "Media & Democracy" for the [[w:List of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates|Pacifica Radio Network]] |- ! !! colspan=3 | Date !! |- ! no. || recorded !! broadcasted on [[w:KKFI|KKFI]] !! released to Pacifica !! Episode |- | 56 || || 2026-07-21 || 2026-07-25 || [[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]] |- | 55 || 2026-07-02 || 2026-07-07 || 2026-07-11 || [[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]] |- | 54 || 2026-06-20 || 2026-06-23 || 2026-06-27 || [[Peace Economy Project]] |- | 53 || 2026-05-28 || 2026-06-09 || 2026-06-13 || [[Let's agree to disagree and seek common ground]] |- | 52 || 2026-05-14 || 2026-05-26 ||2026-05-30 || [[How women are centered and silenced in the major media]] |- | 51 || 2026-05-06 || 2026-05-12 || 2026-05-16 || [[Online platforms' effects on public health, safety and democracy]] |- | 50 || 2026-04-09 || 2026-04-28 || 2026-05-02 || [[How US media threaten the health of all]] |- | 49 || 2026-04-06 || 2026-04-14 || 2026-04-18 || [[News suppressed for those who control money for the media]] |- | 48 || 2026-03-27 || 2026-03-31 || 2026-04-04 || [[Media and war]] |- | 47 || 2026-03-12 || 2026-03-17 || 2026-03-21 || [[Media literacy to dispel myths and improve public policy]] |- | 46 || 2026-02-26 || 2026-03-03 || 2026-03-07 || [[Concerns about media, especially in Germany]] |- | 45 || 2026-02-12 || 2026-02-17 || 2026-02-21 || [[Underserved serve themselves with low-power FM]] |- | 44 || 2026-01-30 || 2026-02-03 || 2026-02-07 || [[Conservative media are different]] |- | 43 || 2026-01-15 || 2026-01-20 || 2026-01-24 || [[Medill says you can help yourself by helping improve local media]] |- | 42 || 2026-01-03 || 2026-01-06 || 2026-01-10 || [[Lisa Loving on media literacy and how you can report for your community]] |- | 41 || 2015-12-11 || 2025-12-23 || 2025-12-27 || [[John Maxwell Hamilton on American propaganda]] |- | 40 || 2025-12-05 || 2025-12-09 || 2025-12-13 || [[You can better protect yourself from Big Tech]] |- | 39 || 2025-11-20 || 2025-11-25 || 2025-11-29 || [[Differences between media outlets including coverage of Gaza]] |- | 38 || 2025-11-06 || 2025-11-11 || 2025-11-15 || [[Media & Democracy lessons for the future]] |- | 37 || 2025-10-23 || 2025-20-28 || 2025-11-01 || [[Media reform initiatives in West Africa]] |- | 36 || 2025-10-03 || 2025-10-14 || 2025-10-18 || [[Seth Radwell says that the two Enlightenments tell us how to heal US political polarization]] |- | 35 || 2025-09-25 || 2025-09-30 || 2025-10-04 || [[Media Reform Coalition challenges anti-democratic media bias in the UK]] |- | 34 || 2025-09-12 || 2025-09-16 || 2025-09-20 || [[Fighting back against the campaign of censorship and control]] |- | 33 || 2025-08-28 || 2025-09-02 || 2025-09-06 || [[The role of the media in conflict]] |- | 32 || 2025-07-31 || 2025-08-19 || 2025-08-21 || [[Evidence-informed public policy]] |- | 31 || 2025-08-01 || 2025-08-05 || 2025-08-09 || [[What the Left can learn from Fox]] |- | 30 || 2025-07-17 || 2025-07-22 || 2025-07-26 || [[Democratic delusions: Fix the media to fix democracy]] |- | 29 || 2025-07-03 || 2025-07-08 || 2025-07-12 || [[News from Germany 1900-1945 and implications for today]] |- | 28 || 2025-06-12 || 2025-06-24 || 2025-06-28 || [[How news impacts democracy per USD Communications Professor Nik Usher]] |- | 27 || 2025-06-08 || 2025-06-10 || 2025-06-14 || [[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]] |- | 26 || 2025-05-21 || 2025-05-27 || 2025-05-31 || [[Dean Starkman and the watchdog that didn't bark]] |- | 25 || 2025-05-08 || 2025-05-13 || 2025-05-17 || [[Freedom of the Press Foundation says...]] |- | 24 || 2025-04-24 || 2025-04-29 || 2025-05-03 || [[Canadian journalist Marc Edge on media reform to improve democracy]] |- | 23 || 2025-04-10 || 2025-04-15 || 2025-04-19 || [[The value of indigenous and community radio]] |- | 22 || 2025-03-28 || 2025-04-01 || 2025-04-05 || [[Trump ordered changes in public data]] |- | 21 || 2025-03-06 || 2025-03-11 || 2025-03-22 || [[Vulture capitalists destroying newspapers]] |- | 20 || 2025-02-25 || 2025-02-25 || 2025-03-08 || [[Local newspapers limit malfeasance]] |- | 19 || 2025-02-06 || 2025-02-11 || 2025-02-22 || [[Palast says Trump lost, vote suppression won the 2024 elections]] |- | 18 || 2025-01-25 || 2025-02-04 || 2025-02-12 || [[Defend free speech hybrid town hall]] |- | 17 || 2025-01-13 || 2025-01-14 || 2025-01-25 || [[Media in the Syrian conflict]] |- | 16 || 2024-12-20 || 2024-12-31 || 2025-01-04 || [[HR 9495, the nonprofit-killer bill, per Michael Novick]] |- | 15 || 2024-12-13 || 2024-12-24 || 2024-12-21 || [[Information is a public good per communications prof Pickard]] |- | 14 || 2024-12-02 || 2024-12-10 || 2024-12-07 || [[Media literacy for the Arab World per Ahmed Al-Rawi]] |- | 13 || 2024-11-21 || 2024-11-26 || 2024-11-23 || [[Thom Hartmann on The Hidden History of the American Dream]] |- | 12 || 2024-10-25 || 2024-11-05 || 2024-11-09 || [[Legal concerns of Wikimedia Europe]] |- | 11 || 2024-10-26 || 2024-10-19 || 2024-10-27 || [[Project 2025 per Professor Brooks]] |- | 10 || 2024-10-01 || 2024-10-01 || 2024-10-12 || [[Jacob Ware on far-right terrorism in the US]] |- | 9 || 2024-09-13 || 2024-09-17 || 2024-09-29 || [[Dis- and misinformation and their threats to democracy]] |- | 8 || 2024-09-11 || 2024-11-12 || 2024-09-14 || [[22nd Century Initiative]] |- | 7 || 2024-08-22|| 2024-08-27 || 2024-08-31 || [[Global Project Against Hate & Extremism (GPAHE)]] |- | 6 || 2024-08-19 || 2024-08-20 || 2024-08-24 || [[Facebook whistleblower Frances Haugen says]] |- | 5 || 2024-08-13 || 2024-08-13 || 2024-08-17 || [[Legal concerns of Free Press including Section 230]] |- | 4 || 2024-08-02 || 2024-08-06 || 2024-08-10 || [[How psychological and interpersonal processes are influenced by human-computer interactions]] |- | 3 || 2024-07-30 || 2024-07-30 || 2024-08-03 || [[Dean Baker on Internet companies threatening democracy internationally and how to fix that]] |- | 2 || 2021-04-29 || 2021-04-29 || 2021-05-16 || [[Media reform per Freepress.net]] |- | 1 || 2021-02-23 || 2021-02-23 || 2021-03-17 ||[[Unrigging the media and the economy]] |} == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- H. R. McMaster (2020) Battlegrounds: The Fight to Defend the Free World-->{{cite Q|Q104774898}} * <!--Maria Ressa (2022) How to Stand Up To a Dictator-->{{cite Q|Q117559286}} [[Category:Interdisciplinary studies]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] [[Category:Videoconferences on media and democracy]] miv2bqe6sqpo24dw6dqula4l2l0p2ft 0 285380 2817524 2817411 2026-07-01T13:38:52Z Young1lim 21186 /* Applications */ 2817524 wikitext text/x-wiki === Introduction === * Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling a Big Work === * Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Series of Data === ==== Background ==== * Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Basics ==== * Pointers ([[Media:C04.S1.Pointer.1A.20240524.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Arrays ([[Media:C04.S2.Array.1A.20240514.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.S3.ArrayPointer.1A.20240208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20221130.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.1111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]]) ==== Examples ==== * Spreadsheet Example Programs :: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Applications ==== * Address-of and de-reference operators ([[Media:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20260701.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA1.AppPointer.1A.20241121.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.SA2.AppArray.1A.20240715.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA3.AppArrayPointer.1A.20240210.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]]) === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Low Level Operations === * Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Declarations === * Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]]) * Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]]) * Scope === Class Notes === * TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]]) * Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library * Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements * Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers * Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts * Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops * Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control * Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions * Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope * Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion * Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions * Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications * Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions * Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications * Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) * Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2) * Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO * Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions * Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications * Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum * Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List * Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing * Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/ == '''Old Materials '''== until 201201 * Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) <br> until 201107 * Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]]) * Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]]) * Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ] [[Category:C programming language]] </br> 3wnqvoaxq5omnvb8uzc2q6psnvy3br1 2817569 2817524 2026-07-02T08:17:55Z Young1lim 21186 /* Applications */ 2817569 wikitext text/x-wiki === Introduction === * Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling a Big Work === * Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Series of Data === ==== Background ==== * Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Basics ==== * Pointers ([[Media:C04.S1.Pointer.1A.20240524.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Arrays ([[Media:C04.S2.Array.1A.20240514.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.S3.ArrayPointer.1A.20240208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20221130.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.1111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]]) ==== Examples ==== * Spreadsheet Example Programs :: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Applications ==== * Address-of and de-reference operators ([[Media:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20260702.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA1.AppPointer.1A.20241121.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.SA2.AppArray.1A.20240715.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA3.AppArrayPointer.1A.20240210.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]]) === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Low Level Operations === * Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Declarations === * Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]]) * Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]]) * Scope === Class Notes === * TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]]) * Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library * Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements * Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers * Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts * Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops * Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control * Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions * Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope * Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion * Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions * Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications * Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions * Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications * Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) * Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2) * Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO * Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions * Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications * Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum * Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List * Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing * Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/ == '''Old Materials '''== until 201201 * Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) <br> until 201107 * Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]]) * Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]]) * Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ] [[Category:C programming language]] </br> nsfpfll398ux1hspmumllnvkknk7vf2 0 321771 2817546 2817338 2026-07-01T17:58:39Z Atcovi 276019 2817546 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine <!-- WikiJournal of Medicine, Science, or Humanities --> | last1 = Azeez | orcid1 = 0009-0007-9202-4614 | first1 = Aaqib | last2 = | first2 = | last3 = | first3 = | last4 = | first4 = <!-- up to 9 authors can be added in this above format --> | et_al = <!-- if there are >9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --> | affiliation1 = Old Dominion University | correspondence1 = aaqib.azeez@yahoo.com | affiliations = institutes / affiliations | correspondence = email@address.com | keywords = <!-- up to 6 keywords --> | license = <!-- default is CC-BY --> | abstract = This is a narrative review. }} [abstract will be put in after the paper has been completed] == Introduction == Mental health continues to be a critically relevant topic as the island nation has experienced decades of [[w:Black_July|violent ethnic conflict]], terrorist attacks, war crimes, and economic disruptions. Sri Lanka continues to recover from a [[w:Sri_Lankan_economic_crisis_(2019–2024)|severe economic crisis (2019 - 2024)]], a [[w:Sri_Lankan_civil_war|nearly 30-year civil war ending in 2009]], a [[w:2019_Sri_Lanka_Easter_bombings|2019 terrorist attack]], and continues to face the ripple effects of the [[w:2004_Boxing_Day_tsunami|2004 Boxing Day tsunami]]. The exact effect these major events have had on mental health in the country is "unknown", but the statistics remain alarming despite a declining trend. Suicide rates in the country during the mid-1990s were the second-highest in the world with ingesting toxic products being the main suicide method. Despite the decline in suicide numbers since then—possibly attributed to Sri Lanka's ban on toxic products—evidence from a 2023 study reports an upward trend in suicide through hanging from 2016 to 2021—independent of the [[w:COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sri_Lanka|COVID-19 pandemic]]. Several risk factors for suicide, such as poverty and economic instability, are still prevalent and even increasing in the country<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakse|first=Thilini|last2=Silva|first2=Tharuka|last3=Hettiarachchi|first3=Nirosha Madhuwanthi|last4=Gunnell|first4=David|last5=Metcalfe|first5=Chris|last6=Spittal|first6=Matthew J.|last7=Knipe|first7=Duleeka|date=2023-01-19|title=The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic and Lockdowns on Self-Poisoning and Suicide in Sri Lanka: An Interrupted Time Series Analysis|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914278/|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=20|issue=3|pages=1833|doi=10.3390/ijerph20031833|issn=1660-4601|pmc=9914278|pmid=36767200}}</ref>. == Methods == A narrative review was conducted on mental health in Sri Lanka, with peer-reviewed journal articles, relevant books, government health pages, historical documents, and governmental/non-governmental reports being used as sources. These sources were found on Google Scholar, PubMed/PMC, Sri Lankan-affiliated journals, official Sri Lankan govenrmental websites displayed relevant statistics/reports, and ==Historical Development of Mental Health Services== Records attest to the care of the mentally ill through established hospitals in the island since the 4th century.<ref name=":17" /> Prior to the incarceration of the mentally ill by the European colonizing forces, the mentally ill were regarded as ''Pissowetitch'', or people who had "the spirit of the Gods within him" and "whatsoever he pronounceth, is looked upon as spoken by God himself, and the people will speak to him, as if it were the very person of God"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/14346/14346-h/14346-h.htm|title=An Historical Relation Of the Island Ceylon, in the East-Indies: Together, With an Account of the Detaining in Captivity the Author and divers other Englishmen now Living there, and of the Author’s Miraculous Escape.|last=Knox|first=Robert|website=www.gutenberg.org|language=en-us|access-date=2026-06-29}}</ref>. With this religious understanding, Lucien de Alwis reasoned that the mentally ill in Sri Lanka were "placed... at a higher social status than the mentally ill in the Western world", with this notion correlating with the unsurprising absence of evidence in there being a "large scale segregation of mentally ill from society"<ref name=":17" />. In the 1800s, established care for mental health began shifting primarily from indigenous practices, mainly derived from [[w:Ayurveda|Ayurveda medicine]], [[w:Siddha_medicine|Siddha medicine]], and [[w:Unani_medicine|Unani medicine]], to a Western mode by the British<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":0">Gambheera, H. (2011). [https://www.saarcpsychiatry.com/viewText?chapter=c6 The evolution of psychiatric services in Sri Lanka]. South Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 2(1), 25–27.</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|title=Social Psychiatry in Sri Lanka|last=Baminiwatta|first=Anuradha|last2=Williams|first2=Shehan|date=2025|publisher=Springer Nature|isbn=978-981-96-8078-8|editor-last=Arafat|editor-first=S. M. Yasir|location=Singapore|pages=141–158|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|editor-last2=Singh|editor-first2=Amit|editor-last3=Kar|editor-first3=Sujita Kumar}}</ref>. === Adoption of a Western-based mental healthcare model and ordinances === In 1839, [[w:James_Alexander_Stewart-Mackenzie|James Alexander Stewart-Mackenzie]], the 7th Governor of British Ceylon, released the Lunacy Ordinance, authorizing municipal authorities to create lunatic asylums for the mentally ill in the country<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=6&Itemid=125&lang=en|title=History - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-10}}</ref>. The ordinance was concerned with the legal frameworks of detaining individuals considered dangerous to others or individuals falsely presenting themselves as mentally ill, and not on medical treatments to alleviate the conditions of detained individuals. UK psychiatrist [[w:Edward_Mapother|Edward Mapother]] critiqued the ordinance during his 1937 inspection of British Ceylon's mental health institutions in a series of reports titled ''A Disgrace to a Civilised Community'', remarking that the ordinance "[did] not seem to have contemplated treatment as a contingency to be considered"<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Permeable walls: historical perspectives on hospital and asylum visiting|date=2009|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-2599-8|editor-last=Mooney|editor-first=Graham|series=Clio medica|location=Amsterdam New York, NY|editor-last2=Reinarz|editor-first2=Jonathan}}</ref>. In 1840, the 1839 Ordinance was repealed and replaced by the 1840 Ordinance. The 1839 Ordinance was almost identical to the 1840 Ordinance, except the removal of two previous requirements: the requirement for official medical diagnoses of the mentally ill and the mandate to maintain adequate staff-to-patient ratios within lunatic asylums<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. de|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. L.|last3=Mendis|first3=T. S. S.|last4=Abhayanayaka|first4=C.|date=2024-12-31|title=The development of laws related to the disposal of forensic patients in Sri Lanka: A historical review|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=15|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. In 1873, a third Ordinance was released. It included linguistic changes, where the term, "insane", was replaced with "of unsound mind". The Ordinance also gave more power to medical professionals in determining insanity diagnoses, and more power to detainees in appealing their commitment to the mental asylum. Despite this Ordinance being the most comprehensive legislation on mental healthcare in the country at the time, the legal frameworks behind the detainment of the criminally insane were left identical to previous ordinances<ref name=":3" />. === Development of mental asylums === At the time the 1839 ordinance was released, mentally ill patients were placed either in prisons throughout the country or leprosy hospitals, such as the [[w:Hendala_Leprosy_Hospital|Hendala Leprosy Hospital]] in the Gampaha district<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" />. After the creation of the first mental asylum in Borella in 1846, patients from the Hendala Leprosy Hospital were transferred to the institute in Borella. Overcrowding soon became an issue and patients were sent to prisons across the country. [[File:Edward Mapother.jpg|thumb|A portrait taken of Edward Mapother during his time working at [[w:Maudsley_Hospital|Maudsley Hospital]] in London. ]] As medical institutions were being made to house the mentally ill, another mental asylum was created in the [[w:Cinnamon_Gardens|Cinnamon Gardens]] area of Colombo in 1884, though this mental asylum faced overcrowding in just one year<ref name=":0" />. Treatment in these asylums was limited to occupational and protection therapy, failing to provide treatment for the root causes of the mental disorders. In 1926, the Angoda Mental Hospital was established, marginally alleviating the severe overcrowding issues that were plaguing the preceding mental asylums. Despite the addition of 1,700 beds to the facility, treatment was still vastly limited and the patients were left in significantly poor conditions. === Edward Mapother's 1937 inspection of British Ceylon === Edward Mapother was born in Dublin, Ireland, on July 12, 1881 and moved to London when he was 7 years old<ref>{{Cite book|title=Madness to mental illness: a history of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|last=Bewley|first=Thomas|date=2008|publisher=RCPsych Publications ; Distributed in North America by Balogh International|isbn=978-1-904671-35-0|location=London : [S.l.]}}</ref>. Mapother attained his M.D. in 1908. While Mapother was the Medical Superintendent of Maudsley Hospital in London, England, he was invited to inspect British Ceylon's mental health institutions by Dr S. T. Gunasekara, the first Medical Director of British Ceylon<ref name=":1" />. In Mapother's visit, he commented that the Angoda Mental Hospital had the atmosphere of "a prison that is neglected and dilapidated"<ref name=":1" />. Overcrowding was still a major issue, with the institute hosting 3,000 patients—more than double the intended capacity. Patients were sleeping on mats and were clearly out of reach of adequate treatment. Mapother also noted that only 4% of public health expenditure in the country was being set for hospitals, drawing a stark comparison to London's 25%<ref name=":1" />. Mapother offered a vivid and grim account of the hospital in his reports: <blockquote> The floor, roof and walls of each cell consist alike of drab cement without any attempt at colouring or decoration. High up in one wall is a small window with stout iron bars. In the floor is a large hole into which the patient may pass his motion and urine. These cells are incompletely divided from one another by a partition which does not reach the roof so that the noise and stink from any one cell may reach at least all the others of the same row. Into these empty cells I was informed that the most noisy and troublesome patients in the hospital; were turned at night completely naked. The doors of the cell contain no observation window, and considering the violent character of many of these patients there is every ground for believing that the doors are rarely opened in the night by the solitary attendant on duty. It needs little imagination to picture the suffering of any patient in an early stage of bodily illness passing a night under such conditions, a situation which must frequently arise. I am told that the noise proceeding from this building is like that on a bad night in a menagerie<ref name=":0" />.</blockquote>Mapother proposed a series of reinforcements to the legal, institutional, and medical frameworks of mental health care in British Ceylon. This included the decentralization of the psychiatric services, a reworking of the Lunacy Ordinance to incorporate treatment into the legal framework, and the establishment of a separate service of medical professionals dedicated to psychiatry. Mapother's recommendations led to several of the best local medical professionals to be sent to London for extensive training in psychiatry, while nurses from England were sent to British Ceylon to supervise hospital operations and train local staff<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />. On August 25, 1938, the Executive Committee of Health approved the strategies proposed by Mapother, though the Government was unable to fully implement all of Mapother's interventions due to the 'heavy cost'. In fact, the Government decided to forego one of his proposals, which was the suggestion of a "Visiting Committee". This committee was tasked to "meet at the hospital, carry out inspections, and make recommendations" to the Executive Committee of Health<ref name=":1" />. The Government realized that deficiencies in their mental healthcare system could prove to be "costly" for their reputation. Mapother was reportedly enraged when he found out. Mapother intended to contact the Secretary of State regarding the "distortion" of his plans, but was interrupted by events preceding [[w:World_War_II|World War II]]<ref name=":1" />. Mapother passed away on March 20, 1940, without materializing his follow-up plans. === Post-Mapother developments and further innovations === [[File:Sri Lanka districts Colombo.svg|thumb|A map of Sri Lanka highlighting the Colombo District, where the capital is located. |right|250px]]Mapother's insights on the mental healthcare structure in British Ceylon proved to be the catalyst of massive renovations. In 1939, the first outpatient clinic was established in the [[w:National_Hospital_of_Sri_Lanka|National Hospital of Sri Lanka]] in Colombo. The first trained Ceylonese psychiatrists began practice in the 1940s, leading to the establishment of the first neuropsychiatric clinic in Colombo in 1943. Treatments for the mentally ill improved dramatically, as [[w:insulin_shock_therapy|insulin shock therapy]] and [[w:Electroconvulsive_therapy|cardiazol convulsive therapy]] were utilized<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Kathriarachchi|first=Samudra T.|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. Lakmi|last3=Amarakoon|first3=Luckshika|date=2019-06|title=Development of Mental Health Care in Sri Lanka: Lessons Learned|url=https://journals.lww.com/tpsy/fulltext/2019/33020/development_of_mental_health_care_in_sri_lanka_.1.aspx|journal=Taiwanese Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=33|issue=2|pages=55|doi=10.4103/TPSY.TPSY_15_19|issn=1028-3684}}</ref>. Mapother's advocation for the decentralization of services were further honored through the 1947 establishment of a first child guidance clinic in Colombo General Hospital<ref name=":0" />. In 1948, British Ceylon was granted independence from the British after the [[w:Sri_Lankan_independence_movement|Sri Lankan independence movement]]. Changes in the mental healthcare structure were not immediate following independence, but rapid expansions of mental healthcare services were still ongoing. The following decades saw positive institutional developments, such as the creation of a second hospital in [[w:Mulleriyawa|Mulleriyawa]] in 1957, and the creation of a psychiatric inpatient unit in Colombo General Hospital in 1967—effectively granting the city of Colombo the luxury of hosting the top psychiatric care in the country<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|title=Mental Health System Development in Sri Lanka|last=Minas|first=Harry|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Hall|first3=Teresa|date=2017|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4899-7997-1|editor-last=Minas|editor-first=Harry|location=Boston, MA|pages=59–77|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|editor-last2=Lewis|editor-first2=Milton}}</ref>. The 1950s was also the start of psychopharmacological innovations, with the introduction of [[w:Lithium_(medication)|lithium]] and long-acting injectable antipsychotics ([[w:Depot_injection|depot]] [[w:Antipsychotic|neuroleptics]]) in the succeeding years<ref name=":4" />. Additionally, the number of public psychiatrist positions increased by 400% from 1953 to 1967<ref name=":5" />. After 1960, mental health services were being established beyond the capital to other cities in the country<ref name=":2" />. In 1980, the [[w:Postgraduate_Institute_of_Medicine|Postgraduate Institute of Medicine]] began a program where students would enroll in a 5-year medical course and attain an MD in psychiatry, curbing the need for Sri Lankan medical students to be sent abroad to complete their training. Many of the medical students sent abroad for training never returned to Sri Lanka to practice, resulting in a "1:500,000 to 1000,000" ratio of psychiatrists to patients on "most occasions"<ref name=":0" />. === Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956 === In 1956, the 1873 Ordinance was revised a second time and renamed the "Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956"<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Hapangama|first=Aruni|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Kuruppuarachchi|first3=K. a. L. A.|date=2023-02|title=Why are we still living in the past? Sri Lanka needs urgent and timely reforms of its archaic mental health laws|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-international/article/why-are-we-still-living-in-the-past-sri-lanka-needs-urgent-and-timely-reforms-of-its-archaic-mental-health-laws/B18B03DC962CC6F09BC6D7877E390EE4|journal=BJPsych International|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=4–6|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.26|issn=2056-4740|pmc=9909436|pmid=36812028}}</ref>. Another linguistic development is seen with the new revision as "lunacy" was replaced with "mental disease"<ref name=":6" />. The Ordinance paved the way for community-based services to be delivered to patients closer to their residences rather than solely allocating services to just hospitals. This led to the creation of a [[w:WHO|WHO]]-backed community clinic near the [[w:University_of_Colombo|University of Colombo]] in the 1970s, where the focus was to eventually ease patients in the Angoda Mental Hospital back into the general population<ref name=":5" />. === Developments from the 1990s === The 1990s and onwards saw further positive developments in framing the mental healthcare system, including the establishment of the [https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=featured&Itemid=101&lang=en Directorate of Mental Health] in 1998. The Directorate of Mental Health is a part of the [[w:Ministry_of_Health_(Sri_Lanka)|Ministry of Health]] who is responsible for the monitoring and implementation of mental health programs across the country<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?lang=en|title=Home - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}</ref>. As of 2025, the current director of the Directorate of Mental Health is Dr. Chithramalee de Silva<ref name=":2" />. On November 11, 2005, the Mental Health Policy was approved by the Government of Sri Lanka, advocating for establishments of more de-centralized, community-based mental health services across the country beyond the capital (Colombo). The policy aimed to concisely define the rigorous standards needed to be completed for each respected medical professional, including psychiatrists and clinical psychologists<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakshe|first=Onali Bimalka Wickramaseckara|last2=Mohan|first2=Mohapradeep|last3=Singh|first3=Swaran Preet|date=2023-05|title=Development of adolescent mental health services in Sri Lanka|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10895478/|journal=BJPsych international|volume=20|issue=2|pages=41–43|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.32|issn=2056-4740|pmc=10895478|pmid=38414998}}</ref>. The policy also included a new position, the "Medical Officer of Mental Health", who oversees and assists in the implementation of community-based mental health services<ref name=":0" />. This same year, the Sri Lankan government began implementing psychological services in state institutions, such as the military<ref name=":8" />. In 2007, the National Mental Health Advisory Council (NMHAC) was created to serve as an 'advisory' board for the Ministry of Health on what actions should be executed by the Directorate of Mental Health<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=9&Itemid=220&lang=en|title=Introduction - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}</ref>. In 2008, the Angoda Mental Hospital was restructured as the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)<ref name=":7" />. === Modern-day Sri Lanka === [[File:Feeding Children in Sri Lanka.jpg|left|thumb|Despite the noteworthy improvements in mental healthcare services in recent decades, mental health remains a significant issue due to rising poverty. ]] As of 2025, the Mental Health Act (mental health legislation) has been undergoing development since 2005 and is currently awaiting to be considered for the final stage of approval. This is expected to replace the 1956 Mental Health Ordinance<ref name=":7" />. Currently, there are 7 tertiary care hospitals, 61 adult patient units, 3 child inpatient units, and 1 forensic unit with over 100 psychiatrists all throughout the 22 districts<ref name=":4" />. The [[w:Lady_Ridgeway_Hospital_for_Children|Lady Ridgeway Hospital]] in Colombo and the Sirimavo Bandaranayke Specialized Children Hospital in Kandy are tailored towards alleviating children with [[w:Learning_disability|SLD]], [[w:ADHD|ADHD]], [[w:Autism_Spectrum_Disorder|ASD]] and family support for diagnosed children. As of 2017, 22 rehabilitation centers exist through the country, including 7 alcohol rehab centers<ref name=":7" />. Despite the impressive advancements in mental healthcare in the last couple of decades, Sri Lanka still suffers significant mental health issues due to increasing poverty levels in the country. The [[w:World_Bank|World Bank]] reported that [https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2024/04/08/eesc-a08.html the poverty levels in Sri Lanka increased from 11% in 2019 to 26% in 2024], with 60% of Sri Lankan households facing "decreased incomes"<ref>Lakhtakia, Shruti, Atapattu Mudiyanselage, Udahiruni Shashadari Atapat, Walker, Richard Ancrum. ''Sri Lanka Development Update - Bridge to Recovery (English).'' Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. <nowiki>http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/099634104012434919</nowiki></ref>. This was exacerbated by Sri Lanka's excessive foreign debt, economic troubles stemming from [[w:Gotabaya_Rajapaksa|Gotabaya Rajapaksa]]'s presidential term, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the [[w:Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine|ongoing invasion of Ukraine by Russia (2022)]]. According to [[w:NYU|New York University]] graduate student [https://gc-cuny.academia.edu/NadiaAugustyniak Nadia Augustyniak] in her 2025 overview of Sri Lanka's public mental healthcare system, poverty-induced financial precarity remains a major obstacle to receiving access to mental healthcare services. Even though trauma from adverse weather and conflict is deleterious to mental health, issues originating from every-day struggles, especially struggles related to poverty, could arguably play a more significant role<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. == Impact of Conflicts, Terrorism, Political Instability & Natural Disasters == === Sri Lankan Civil War === The '''Sri Lankan Civil War''' was a domestic conflict that took place between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (abbreviated as the ''LTTE),'' a militant group formed in the 1970s as a result of rising tensions between the majority Sinhalese and minority Tamil population. The group is considered a terrorist organization<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.start.umd.edu/baad/database/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-ltte-1998.html|title=BAAD - Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) - 1998 {{!}} START.umd.edu|website=www.start.umd.edu|access-date=2025-06-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-aka-tamil-tigers-sri-lanka-separatists|title=Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (aka Tamil Tigers) (Sri Lanka, separatists) {{!}} Council on Foreign Relations|last=Bhattacharji|first=Preeti|website=www.cfr.org|language=en|access-date=2025-06-09}}</ref>. Through brutal massacres, assassinations, and suicide bombings, the LTTE waged decades of terror which led to civilian displacement, infrastructure collapse, and the reduction of mental health services available in the northern region.[[File:DFID-funded, UNHCR emergency shelter tents, in the IDP camp at Menik Farm, Sri Lanka (3694081492).jpg|thumb|350x350px|An IDP camp in Menik Farm, Sri Lanka in 2009 ([https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-19703826 now closed]). Suicide rates in IDP camps were three times the general population.]]The civil war mainly affected the northeastern portion of the country, including the [[w:Vanni_(Sri_Lanka)|Vanni region]]. The conflict caused mass destruction to local mental healthcare facilities. Local residents described the conflict with the phrase ''varthayal varnicca mudiyathavai'', roughly translating into English as 'beyond description by words'<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}</ref>. In 2003, only two psychiatrists were found in the region, operating on extremely limited resources and further deepening long-term trauma and mental health deterioration in the population<ref name=":5" />. In 2002, the humanitarian organization [https://www.msf.org/ Médecins Sans Frontières] (MSF) performed an investigation of mental health needs in the [[w:Vavuniya|Vavuniya]] area, the site of intense conflict during the civil war (including the [[w:1985_Vavuniya_massacre|1985 Vavuniya massacre]]), and found that many of the residents suffered from high suicide rates, alcohol abuse, domestic violence, grief, and a "sense of ‘learnt helplessness’"<ref name=":5" />. A team from the University of Konstanz in Germany found that 92% of grade school children in the region were exposed to "combat, shelling, and witnessing the death of loved ones"<ref name=":9" />. [[File:Tractors. Jan 2009 displacement in the Vanni.jpg|left|thumb|350x350px|Displaced civilians originating from the Kilinochchi and Mullaitivu Districts due to military campaigns by the Sri Lankan military (January 2009). Displaced civilians had to avoid both the atrocities committed by the LTTE and the Sri Lankan government.]] Accusation of war crimes towards [[w:War_crimes_during_the_final_stages_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war|the Sri Lankan government]] have been documented by various external organizations, despite the government's attempts at removing any [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e_p1TfTguW0 mentions] or [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vtm54Y9USEg investigations] of it<ref>See also [[w:Sexual violence in the Sri Lankan civil war]].</ref>. A 2009 HRW report stated that the Sri Lankan government assumed native Tamil population residing in war zones to be "siding with the LTTE and [therefore, were] treated as combatants", leading to indiscriminate shellings and massacres of civilians<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2009-02-19|title=War on the Displaced|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/02/19/war-displaced/sri-lankan-army-and-ltte-abuses-against-civilians-vanni|journal=Human Rights Watch|language=en}}</ref>. Alongside the oppression by the Sri Lankan military, the Vanni population also endured the brutal theatrics of the LTTE, which recruited men, women, and even children with minimal training, effectively rendering them cannon fodder. Over 200,000 Tamil civilians were moved into [[w:Internally_displaced_persons_in_Sri_Lanka|designated displacement camps during the war]], where conditions were abysmal<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000}}</ref>. The suicide rate in these displacement camps were three times the community-level (2002), with a ratio of 103.5 per 10,000 compared to the Sri Lankan general population's rate of 37.5 per 10,000. Almost all suicide attempts involved poisonous substances. Other forms of violence included domestic violence and child abuse. Local health officials in Vavuniya admitted that mental health concerns were a major problem, but were unable to address these concerns due to a lack of resources and support from the government. During the [[wikipedia:Sri_Lankan_civil_war#2002_peace_process_(2002%E2%80%932006)|brief 2002 ceasefire]], the MSF implemented a "community-based programme" which included "increasing awareness, community strengthening, reinforcing coping-strategies for long-term war-affected communities, and counselling". The MSF also advocated for restrictions of poisonous substances due to the suicide attempts, and stressed that "much more [than resettlement]" would need to be done to help alleviate the psychological pain the northern population had faced<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Jong|first=Kaz|last2=Mulhern|first2=Maureen|last3=Ford|first3=Nathan|last4=Simpson|first4=Isabel|last5=Swan|first5=Alison|last6=van der Kam|first6=Saskia|date=2002-04|title=Psychological trauma of the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673602084209|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=359|issue=9316|pages=1517–1518|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08420-9}}</ref>. The ceasefire ended in 2006 and led to the [[w:Eelam_War_IV|final phase of the civil war]], eventually ending in 2009 with the [[w:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velupillai_Prabhakaran#Sri_Lankan_Army_Northern_offensive_and_death|death of the LTTE's leader]]. '''Post-war''' [[File:Puttalam district.svg|left|thumb|Puttalam District, unlike its northern counterparts, was largely spared from the intense conflict, possibly explaining the lower rates of common mental disorders (CMDs).]] The first district-wide cross-sectional multistage cluster sample survey was conducted in the [[w:Jaffna_District|Jaffna District]] shortly after the war ended. The study's sample included 1517 households and 2 internally displaced peoples camps. With a response rate of 92%, the study found that symptoms for PTSD were found in 7% of participants, symptoms of anxiety were found in 32.6% of participants, and symptoms of depression were found in 22.2% of participants. 2% of respondents were currently placed in internally displaced peoples camps at the time of the study, 29.5% were freshly resettled from the internally displaced peoples camps, and the rest of the participants (68.5%) were never placed into camps. In comparison to residents who were never placed into camps, participants that were actively held in camps tend to report more symptoms of PTSD, anxiety, and depression. The researchers also found that women were especially vulnerable to deteriorating mental health conditions. This was explained by two factors: women having to assume the roles of both the father and the mother in the family setting after the, either voluntary or forced, departure of the husband to war, and sexist violence<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Husain|first=Farah|last2=Anderson|first2=Mark|last3=Lopes Cardozo|first3=Barbara|last4=Becknell|first4=Kristin|last5=Blanton|first5=Curtis|last6=Araki|first6=Diane|last7=Kottegoda Vithana|first7=Eeshara|date=2011-08-03|title=Prevalence of War-Related Mental Health Conditions and Association With Displacement Status in Postwar Jaffna District, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1052|journal=JAMA|volume=306|issue=5|pages=522–531|doi=10.1001/jama.2011.1052|issn=0098-7484}}</ref>. A 2013 study on adult patients in [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232631/ primary care settings] (divisional hospitals, primary medical care units) found major depression to be significantly higher in females (5.1%) than males (3.6%), bolstering the observation seen in the 2009 study<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senarath|first=Upul|last2=Wickramage|first2=Kolitha|last3=Peiris|first3=Sharika Lasanthi|date=2014-03-24|title=Prevalence of depression and its associated factors among patients attending primary care settings in the post-conflict Northern Province in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|journal=BMC Psychiatry|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=85|doi=10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|issn=1471-244X|pmc=3987835|pmid=24661436}}</ref>. Muslims in Northern Sri Lanka during the conflict also faced violence and discrimination, most notably [[w:Expulsion_of_Muslims_from_the_Northern_Province_of_Sri_Lanka|the October 1990 expulsion of Muslims from the North to the Puttalam District or Jaffna]] and the [[w:Kattankudy_mosque_massacre|1990 Kattankudy mosque massacre]]. The only study testing the displaced Muslim population post-civil war was completed in 2011, where a cross-sectional survey of 450 internally displaced people or people born into displacement (ages 18 - 65) revealed 18.8% of the sample suffering from common mental health disorders (CMD), including [[w:Somatoform_disorder|somatoform disorder]] (14%), "other depressive syndromes" (7.3%), major depression (5.1%), and anxiety disorder (2.8%). The percentages found in this study for somatoform disorder and major depression were "considerably higher" than the national percentages, though the researchers noted that the prevalence of CMD was lower in comparison to other countries marred with conflict, including Palestine (40.3%) and Ethiopia (27.8%). The researchers explained that the lower rate of CMD may be attributed to the [[w:Puttalam_District|serenity of the post-settlement destination]], as conflict was mainly centered in the North and East. In contrast to earlier findings, this study did not observe a higher prevalence of CMDs among women, although increased rates of somatoform disorders were noted (though the researchers did not show the data behind this)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siriwardhana|first=Chesmal|last2=Adikari|first2=Anushka|last3=Pannala|first3=Gayani|last4=Siribaddana|first4=Sisira|last5=Abas|first5=Melanie|last6=Sumathipala|first6=Athula|last7=Stewart|first7=Robert|date=2013-05-22|title=Prolonged Internal Displacement and Common Mental Disorders in Sri Lanka: The COMRAID Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|pages=e64742|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3661540|pmid=23717656}}</ref>. Research on the mental state of combatants has been limited, but a post-war 2009 study done between soldiers of the [[w:Sri_Lanka_Army_Special_Forces_Regiment|Special Forces]] and regular soldiers showed higher levels of exposure to traumatic events for units of the Special Forces, yet the former exhibited significantly less symptoms of CMDs compared to the latter. The authors of this study, [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=cVKEBdwAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao Raveen Hanwella] and [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=ZRj74qMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra Varuni de Silva], offers the camaraderie of the unit as an explanation for the discrepancy<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|date=2012-08|title=Mental health of Special Forces personnel deployed in battle|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22038567|journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology|volume=47|issue=8|pages=1343–1351|doi=10.1007/s00127-011-0442-0|issn=1433-9285|pmid=22038567}}</ref>. A follow-up study was completed by the pair (with the addition of former Director-General of the Health Services of the Sri Lanka Navy [[w:Nicholas_Jayasekera|Nicholas Jayasekera]]), where the findings were similar, though the statistically significant bridge between the two cohorts in the previous study evaporated in the follow-up study. This may be due to the significant decline in mental health problems observed in the regular unit forces, potentially reflecting resilience in the aftermath of jarring conflict<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=Jayasekera|first2=Nicholas E. L. W.|last3=Silva|first3=Varuni A. de|date=2014-09-25|title=Mental Health Status of Sri Lanka Navy Personnel Three Years after End of Combat Operations: A Follow Up Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=9|issue=9|pages=e108113|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4177866|pmid=25254557}}</ref>. Amputees or soldiers with spinal injuries exhibited drastically different numbers, with approximately 40% of nearly 100 male-veterans in a post-war 2009 study displaying PTSD-like symptoms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abeyasinghe|first=N. L.|last2=de Zoysa|first2=P.|last3=Bandara|first3=K.M.K.C.|last4=Bartholameuz|first4=N. A.|last5=Bandara|first5=J. M.U.J.|date=2012-05-01|title=The prevalence of symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder among soldiers with amputation of a limb or spinal injury: A report from a rehabilitation centre in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|journal=Psychology, Health & Medicine|volume=17|issue=3|pages=376–381|doi=10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|issn=1354-8506|pmid=21942815}}</ref>. About a decade after the conflict ceased, a few notable studies have emerged to help guide understanding on the longer-term mental health effects on victims of the civil war. From July 2019 to October 2020, a study was conducted on 585 local adolescents (ages 12-19) in the Vavuniya district revealed that despite 15.6% of the statistic having faced one or more war-related events, only 3.9% of the participants had moderate - severe depression. In addition to considerably low depression rates, only 5.7% of participants age 17+ were found to have moderate - severe hopelessness<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000|pmc=10472617|pmid=37653394}}</ref>. The authors referenced a 2010 observation by psychiatrist [https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/author/daya-somasundaram Daya Somasundaram], who noted that many Tamil IDPs exhibited "remarkable resilience and post-traumatic growth" after the civil war—an outcome he attributed to the close-knit, family-centered nature of Tamil communities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}</ref>. Findings originating from a 2019 study undertook by several faculty members from the University of Kelaniya, the University of Jaffna, the [[w:Gampaha_Wickramarachchi_University_of_Indigenous_Medicine|Gampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous Medicine]], and the [https://onur.gov.lk/ Office for National Unity and Reconciliation (ONUR)] in Jaffna, found contrasting statistics. Out of 336 participants from districts that faced significant ramifications of the conflict (Jaffna, Kilinochchi, Mullaithivu, Vavuniya, and Mannar districts), 50.5% had extreme anxiety symptoms and 36.5% exhibited "extremely severe" symptoms of depression. 92.5% of families in the sample experienced suicidal ideation, with an observed negative correlation between trauma exposure and life satisfaction with families. Drug abuse (86.2%) and alcohol abuse (84.5%) were the two highest problematic behaviors recorded on a community-level, suggesting that the negative consequences of the civil war still persist, possibly on a substantial scale than previously recognized, in Tamil communities in the North<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thamotharampillai|first=Umaharan|last2=Perera|first2=Ruwanthi|last3=Wickremasinghe|first3=Rajitha|last4=Williams|first4=Shehan|last5=Vijayasangar|first5=Thedsanamoorthy|last6=Sivatharsan|first6=Balasubramaniam|last7=Hilbert|first7=Vanceline|last8=Somasundaram|first8=Daya|date=2025-05-06|title=Collective Trauma- Psychosocial consequences of war in northern Sri Lanka 10 years on, a mixed methods study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000696|journal=SSM - Mental Health|pages=100457|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100457|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Further research should be conducted in this field. In 2019, [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/R-M-M-Monaragala-2087692299 Dr. R. M. M. Monaragala] conducted a study on 1,845 soldiers with combat experience, finding that 3.9% of the sample suffered from PTSD. Dr. Monaragala noted that "probable depression, fatigue, aggression, and family history of mental disorder" were correlative of PTSD presence. He suggested that "screening and psychosocial intervention" were recommended avenues to alleviate CMDs of former combatants<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Monaragala|first=R. M. M.|date=2024-04-19|title=Exploring the effects of the past civil war in terms of the prevalence and associating factors of PTSD|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=14|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. === 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami === The '''2004 Boxing Day Tsunami''' was a natural disaster where a tsunami spawned off a 9.2–9.3 magnitude earthquake off the coast of Aceh in Indonesia on December 26. The tsunami greatly affected the coastlines of the country, with the death toll reaching to about 35,000 deaths. In addition, 90,000 houses were destroyed and 516,000 people were forced to migrate due to severe infrastructural damage<ref name=":5" />. It stands as the [http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/tsunami_relief/119821.htm worst natural disaster to have ever hit Sri Lanka]. [[File:Tsunami relief 2004 02.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Volunteers from [[w:Royal_College,_Colombo|Royal College in Colombo]] assisting in tsunami relief efforts (Sarvodaya Headquaters, Moratuwa).]] A survey conducted on schoolchildren (ages 8-14) in Manadkadu (Tamil-majority village in the northern coast), [[w:Kosgoda|Kosgoda]] (western coast), and [[w:Galle|Galle]] (southern coast), just a few weeks after the tsunami hit Sri Lanka, revealed that 33.8%, 13.9%, and 38.8% of children interviewed exhibited signs of PTSD (according to the DSM-IV's criteria), respectively (minus the time criteria, as the DSM-IV does not permit diagnosis of PTSD within 4 weeks of a traumatic incident). The loss of family members and exposure to previously traumatic incidents seem to highly correlate with PTSD development<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Neuner|first=Frank|last2=Schauer|first2=Elisabeth|last3=Catani|first3=Claudia|last4=Ruf|first4=Martina|last5=Elbert|first5=Thomas|date=2006|title=Post-tsunami stress: A study of posttraumatic stress disorder in children living in three severely affected regions in Sri Lanka|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jts.20121|journal=Journal of Traumatic Stress|language=en|volume=19|issue=3|pages=339–347|doi=10.1002/jts.20121|issn=1573-6598}}</ref>. Many victims in the Jaffna area suffered with "[https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/prolonged-grief-disorder pathological grief], phobias, depression and PTSD" post-tsunami. Schizophrenia in the Jaffna Tamil community, which had already suffered elevated prevalence of PTSD prior to the tsunami, had worsened—highlighting the need for specialized care in response to cumulative exposures to chronic and acute traumas. In a study published in the journal ''International Psychiatry'' (2006), Jaffna-based researchers noted that, contrary to their initial inclinations, there was not a "large[r] (than expected) rise in [the] number of people" seeking mental health support 3 months after the tsunami. However, 10 months after the disaster, the researchers anticipated that "more psychiatric disorders" would emerge due to "very little rebuilding [efforts]" and an apparent "unfairness in the aid system".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=D. J.|last2=Yoganathan|first2=S.|last3=Ganesvaran|first3=T.|date=1993-09|title=Schizophrenia in northern Sri Lanka|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7828234|journal=The Ceylon Medical Journal..|volume=38|issue=3|pages=131–135|issn=0009-0875|pmid=7828234}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Danvers|first=K.|last2=Sivayokan|first2=S.|last3=Somasundaram|first3=D. J.|last4=Sivashankar|first4=R.|date=2006-07|title=Ten months on: qualitative assessment of psychosocial issues in northern Sri Lanka following the tsunami|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6734678/|journal=International Psychiatry: Bulletin of the Board of International Affairs of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|volume=3|issue=3|pages=5–8|issn=1749-3676|pmc=6734678|pmid=31507850}}</ref> At the February 2005 ''After the Tsunami: Mental Health Challenges to the Community for Today and Tomorrow'' conference in Thailand, [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Chandanie-Hewage Dr. Chandanie Hewage] of the [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] commentated that measures taken to assist the affected were "not coordinated" due to poor "communication systems and road [conditions]." Regardless, efforts were continued by the government and health professionals to alleviate the struggles the victims were facing, including the psychological ramifications of the disaster. Several issues in the delivery of these services were highlighted by Dr. Hewage, including poor maintenance of health records, lack of awareness on drug consumption by the patients themselves, and shortages of health professionals. Dr. Hewage points out that personnel had "little" mental health training prior to the disaster, suggesting increased "research" and adequate "provision[ing] and training of staff" in the long-term<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Davidson|first=Jonathan R. T.|date=2006|title=Foreword. After the tsunami: mental health challenges to the community for today and tomorrow|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16602809|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=67 Suppl 2|pages=3–8|issn=0160-6689|pmid=16602809}}</ref>. With inadequate documentation, no systematic procedures in place, and insufficient personnel, tsunami victims with mental health concerns may not receive the services they need, further compacting neuropsychological ailments. In 2008 (about 3-4 years after the tsunami), researchers in the hard-hit village of [[w:Peraliya|Peraliya]] (Galle District) found that from a sample of approximately 90 adults, 25% suffered from moderate–severe PTSD, with women scoring "above the cut-off for anxiety" and reporting more "somatic symptoms", though researchers inferred that the PTSD rate found in the study may be influenced by war or economic hardship<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hollifield|first=Michael|last2=Hewage|first2=Chandanie|last3=Gunawardena|first3=Charlotte N.|last4=Kodituwakku|first4=Piyadasa|last5=Bopagoda|first5=Kalum|last6=Weerarathnege|first6=Krishantha|last7=Group|first7=International Post-Tsunami Study|date=2008-01|title=Symptoms and coping in Sri Lanka 20–21 months after the 2004 tsunami|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/symptoms-and-coping-in-sri-lanka-2021-months-after-the-2004-tsunami/CB33752239AF362A0BFD55B3668D60B0|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=192|issue=1|pages=39–44|doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.107.038422|issn=0007-1250}}</ref>. === 2019 Easter Bombings === The '''2019 Easter Bombings''' were a series of coordinated attacks perpetrated by the Islamic extremist group, [[w:National_Thowheeth_Jama'ath|National Thowheeth Jama'ath]], on April 21, 2019. The attack targeted three churches and three hotels in the Colombo area, killing nearly 300 people and injuring over 500. The attack was also attributed to the incompetency of the Sri Lankan government, who ignored [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48044636 multiple warnings regarding the attacks]. The attacks negatively affected the Sri Lankan Catholic community and further weakened relations between the major religious groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. In the aftermath of the attacks, professionals in the [[w:Gampaha_District|Gampaha District]] resorted to "low-cost methodological" responses to children and adolescents affected by the attack as a "severe shortage" of children and adolescent mental health experts were exposed<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chandradasa|first=Miyuru|last2=Rathnayake|first2=Layani C|last3=Rowel|first3=Madushi|last4=Fernando|first4=Lalin|date=2020-06-01|title=Early phase child and adolescent psychiatry response after mass trauma: Lessons learned from the Easter Sunday attack in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020913314|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry|language=EN|volume=66|issue=4|pages=331–334|doi=10.1177/0020764020913314|issn=0020-7640}}</ref>. In a qualitative study of 8 survivors of the attacks receiving grief counseling, [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] assistant professor [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Virasha-Godakanda Virasha Godakanda] observed that 70% of the sample size expressed "doubts" in adequate mental health interventions from the government, reducing the quality of such services. Professor Godakanda strongly endorsed for "culturally-sensitive" programs, a diversity in therapeutic approaches (including nature-based therapy), and "prolonged investigations" to track developments in mental health resources and impacts of implemented interventions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Godakanda|first=Virasha|date=2025-01-29|title=A GRIEF COUNSELING INTERVENTION AFTER THE MASS TRAUMA: LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE VICTIMS OF THE EASTER SUNDAY ATTACK IN SRI LANKA|url=https://kjmr.com.pk/kjmr/article/view/216|journal=Kashf Journal of Multidisciplinary Research|language=en|volume=2|issue=01|pages=13–32|doi=10.71146/kjmr216|issn=3007-200X}}</ref>. A few weeks following the attacks, Muslims in Sri Lanka were subjected to [[w:2019_anti-Muslim_riots_in_Sri_Lanka|violent, coordinated riots]] masterminded by Sinhalese national forces<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mujahidin|first=Muhammad Saekul|date=2023-07-03|title=Extremism and Islamophobia Against the Muslim Minority in Sri Lanka|url=https://www.ajis.org/|journal=American Journal of Islam and Society|language=en|volume=40|issue=1-2|pages=213–241|doi=10.35632/ajis.v40i1-2.3135|issn=2690-3741}}</ref>. Riots were mainly centered in the [[w:Kurunegala_District|Kurunegala]], Gampaha, and [[w:Kandy_District|Kandy]] Districts. At least [https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/5/21/in-sri-lanka-muslims-say-sinhala-neighbours-turned-against-them one confirmed death was reported]. Calls for vague ''niqab'' and ''burqa'' bans were increasingly prominent, eventually leading to the 2021 burqa ban by the Sri Lankan government. Pakistani and Afghani refugees fleeing religious persecution in Negombo were forced to be "made refugees again" after local protests were orchestrated against their settlement. Islamophobic sentiment was "unleashed online, in the law, and on the street"<ref>{{Cite book|title=CARTOGRAPHIC JOURNEY OF RACE, GENDER AND POWER: global identity|date=2021|publisher=CAMBRIDGE SCHOLARS PUBLIS|isbn=978-1-5275-6965-2|location=S.l.}}</ref>. Albeit its relevancy to the attacks, no in-depth mental health studies were administered on the minority Muslim population following the Easter bombings. Further research is imperative in exploring the sustained psychological effects of Islamophobia and its effect on the Muslim minority community in the aftermath of the 2019 Easter attacks. Literature on the impact of the 2019 Easter Bombings on mental health is limited and further research should be conducted. === 2019-2024 Economic Crisis === The '''2019-2024 Economic Crisis''' refers to a 5 year period where the Sri Lankan economy experienced massive inflation and an abrupt hike in prices on basic, everyday items. It is the worse economic crisis the country has faced since the Sri Lankans were granted independence in 1948. Schools in Sri Lanka were forced to postpone examinations due to paper shortages. Gas shortages led to long lines at gas stations, some lasting for days, throughout the island. Shortages in electricity, cooking gas, and aviation were additional results of the economic crisis. Healthcare workers faced a barrage of mental health during the crisis, including a lopsided work-life balance due to unprecedented demand, increased stress and mental fatigue from a lack of resources and personnel, unhealthy coping mechanisms, job dissatisfaction, and a reduction in work quality. Such effects perpetuate a self-enforcing cycle of psychologically distressed mental healthcare workers providing subpar services, affecting patients and amplifying mental health issues experienced by both the workforce and their patients<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dilogini|first=S.|last2=Grace|first2=H. H.|last3=Thasika|first3=T.|date=2024|title=Exploring The Mental Health and Well-Being of Public Healthcare Workers (HCWs) Amid Economic Crisis in Sri Lanka|url=http://repo.lib.jfn.ac.lk/ujrr/handle/123456789/11092|language=en|publisher=Chartered Institute of Personnel Management}}</ref>. Medical students from the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Colombo reported that the economic crisis forced abrupt changes in dietary consumption, increased hopelessness in the future, increased stress and anxiety, and a decrease in interest in pursuing a "clinical post-graduate career"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Adikaranayake|first=Pesala Randika|last2=Perera|first2=Anusha Nimrod|last3=Nilaweera|first3=Akhila Imantha|last4=Fernando|first4=Desha Rajni|last5=Wijayaratne|first5=Dilushi Rowena|date=2025-07-01|title=Effects of Sri Lankan economic crisis on health, lifestyle and education of medical students in Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo – an online survey|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|journal=BMC Medical Education|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=938|doi=10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|issn=1472-6920|pmc=12211748}}</ref>. 283 government-school teachers completed a web-based cross-sectional survey in April 2024, with majority of the participants reporting a severe reduction in monthly income & 1/3 of participants exhibiting "clinical levels of psychological distress"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C. P.|last2=Senarathne|first2=D. L. P.|last3=Fernando|first3=M. S.|last4=Senevirathne|first4=S. P.|date=2025-05-28|title=Examining the economic burden and mental health distress among government school teachers in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|journal=BMC Psychology|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=572|doi=10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|issn=2050-7283}}</ref>. A study published in that same year reported that out of 261 nurses working in teaching hospitals, 91.6% were forced to allocate their finances to strictly "general needs", while more than 50% looked into international opportunism for employment. Notably, the study reported an overall near "twofold greater" rate of depression, anxiety, and stress compared to previously conducted studies on nurses<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C.P|last2=Senarathne|first2=L.|last3=Fernando|first3=M.|date=2024-04-01|title=Exploring the Association Between Behavioural Modification in Response to the Prevailing Economic Crisis and Mental Health Outcomes of Nurses from Teaching Hospitals, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/23779608241272679|journal=SAGE Open Nursing|language=EN|volume=10|pages=23779608241272679|doi=10.1177/23779608241272679|issn=2377-9608|pmc=11311183}}</ref>. The detrimental effects the crisis has had on the mental health sector reveal a concerning area of underappreciation and under compensation by the Sri Lankan government towards a critical sector for the well-being of the country. Comprehensive mental health interventions need to be prepared and ready to implement at times of national emergencies. == Present-Day Challenges == === Ethnic tension === Despite the end of the Sri Lankan civil war and the introduction of pluralist policies, such as the [https://srilankaembassy.fr/sites/default/files/files/media/pdf/NationalPolicy-English.pdf 2017 National Policy on Reconciliation and Coexistence] under the Sirisena administration, tensions amongst members of the ethnic groups still persist in the country. Evidence of these tensions was found through a 2022 study conducted in the Ratnapura district, where religious leaders expressed skepticisms, through semi-structured interviews, for "conflict transformation". A Tamil citizen of the Ratnapura community recounted that they were forced to "hide in jungles" and consume "dirty water in drainage[s]" due to scarcity of food and drinkable water as a result of the conflict. In certain personal accounts, ethnic conflicts appear to affect the social behavior and identity of the majority ethnic group. One Sinhala participant recounted his objection to the war-time retaliatory destruction of a shop run by a Tamil shopkeeper was met with interrogative questions about "whether [he was] Sinhalese or not". Both accounts convey interethnic tensions stemming from decade-long conflicts<ref>Jayathilaka, Aruna & Gamage, Sayuri. (2024). Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders in the Post-War Conflict Transformation Process: A Study Based on Rathnapura District in Srilanka. ''Retrieved from'' https://gandhimargjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Volume-46-Issue-1-April-June-2024.pdf#page=66</ref>. Beyond individual accounts and the official end of the civil war, the minority groups in the country continue to feel ostracized. The Sri Lankan Tamil population remains dissatisfied with the Sri Lankan government and their accountability of perpetrators of war crimes and information on the whereabouts of [[w:Enforced_disappearances_in_Sri_Lanka|thousands of enforced disappearances]] that took place from the 1980s. Additionally, rising anti-Muslim sentiment in recent years contribute to increased ethnic tensions, a stark contrast to the previous centuries of peaceful co-existence between the groups. [[File:Bodu Bala Sena symbol.svg|thumb|The symbol for Bodu Bala Sena, a nationalistic Sinhala Buddhist group criticized for catalyzing ethnic tensions in Sri Lanka.]] Laws passed by the Sri Lankan government, such as the [[w:Prevention_of_Terrorism_Act_(Sri_Lanka)|Prevention of Terrorism Act]] and [[wikipedia:Anti-conversion_law#Sri_Lanka|anti-conversion laws]], have forced the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom to label Sri Lanka as a nation that "[engages] or [tolerates] severe violations of religious freedom" in their 2024 report. The government has been criticized by human rights organizations for "disproportionately targeting religious minorities"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Additionally, the implementation of the three dominant languages, English, Sinhala, and Tamil, across formal education and government services have been lackadaisical, narrowing opportunities of foundational social interactions between the groups. Persistent discrimination and prejudice towards minority groups can lead to an array of complex and self-deprecating mental health issues. Effort to mitigate ethnic tensions include strategies like [[w:Community-based_participatory_research|community-based participatory research]] (CBPR), task-sharing, and securing online mental health services in order to expand mental health services. However, the implementation of evidence-based plans has been met with difficulty due to inaccessibility, high costs, and shortages of adequately-trained personnel. Movements aiming for improved intra group and inter group coexistences, such as the Jaffna People’s Forum for Coexistence developed in the wake of the 2019 Easter bombings, should be emphasized on a systematic and multi-level basis, including but not limited to education, public sectors, and within communities. Pluralistic values should be stressed across both private and public schools to foster cultural sensitivity and tolerance. Measures should be taken against threatening extremist groups promoting sectarian hostility, such as the [[w:Bodu_Bala_Sena|Bodu Bala Sena]]. === Poverty === It has been proven that poverty significantly increases the chances of developing mental illnesses. This is further amplified by possible discrimination<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knifton|first=Lee|last2=Inglis|first2=Greig|date=2020-10|title=Poverty and mental health: policy, practice and research implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7525587/|journal=BJPsych bulletin|volume=44|issue=5|pages=193–196|doi=10.1192/bjb.2020.78|issn=2056-4694|pmc=7525587|pmid=32744210}}</ref>. Poverty also affects the ability for individuals with mental health concerns to receive the treatment they need. Due to the repercussions of the economic crisis, clients in Sri Lanka could not attend further counseling sessions<ref name=":8" />. Poverty from 2021 to 2022 [https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/poverty/987B9C90-CB9F-4D93-AE8C-750588BF00QA/current/Global_POVEQ_LKA.pdf reportedly doubled], with future forecasts predicting the poverty line to "remain above 25 percent". Suicide has been empirically linked to economic hardships in previous studies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}</ref>. A 2013 study done on suicidal patients in [[w:Batticaloa_Teaching_Hospital|Batticaloa Teaching Hospital]] revealed 76% of patients who attempted suicide were from rural areas while 15% were from urban areas<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://ir.lib.seu.ac.lk/handle/123456789/1457|title=The influence of common risk factors for the patient with attempted suicide hospitalized at the teaching hospital, Batticaloa|last=Kisokanth|first=G.|last2=Najeem|first2=M. M.|last3=Karunakaran|first3=K. E.|date=2014-08-02|publisher=South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, University Park, Oluvil #32360, Sri Lanka|isbn=978-955-627-053-2|language=en-US}}</ref>. The Sri Lankan government should consider the economical impacts that poverty has on mental health and implement ways to aid poverty-stricken individuals with mental health concerns. === Stigmas === Stigma consists of the "combined effect of prejudice, ignorance and discrimination."<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|url=http://www.researchgate.net/publication/233990797_The_Stigma_of_Mental_Illness_in_Sri_Lanka_The_Perspectives_of_Community_Mental_Health_Workers|title=(PDF) The Stigma of Mental Illness in Sri Lanka: The Perspectives of Community Mental Health Workers|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2025-07-25}}</ref>. A 2012 interview consisting of nine participants (two doctors, three nurses, one occupational therapist, one development worker, and two volunteers) revealed a number of concerning societal viewpoints on individuals with mental health concerns. The interviews revealed that negative judgements were not only levied against the individual with the mental illness, but also the family. Families hid mentally ill family members from the public to avoid "shame" and possible hinderances in marriage proposals. Views that mentally ill individuals were "violent" served as the motivating factor behind socially isolating those with mental illness from their communities. Interviewees mentioned that individuals dealing with mental health challenges would have stones and "derogatory names" launched at them. A lack of community awareness regarding mental health and negative portrayals of mentally ill individuals in media exacerbates stigmatization, though the researchers commented that the media was "improving" in their depiction of mental illness. Beliefs that illnesses are caused by "spirits" can be problematic for individuals dealing with mental health issues and serves as evidence to poor mental health awareness in the country. Mental health workers themselves believed that they were being stigmatized, as mental health is reportedly not taken as seriously as physical health. Despite the intriguing perspectives provided, the small sample size and usage of snow sampling raise questionable concerns regarding the contextualization of the results<ref name=":10" />. Improving media portrayal of subjects concerning mental health and involving community members in interventions dealing with mental health issues are ways that could destigmatize mental health amongst communities in Sri Lanka. Tying collaborations between allopathic services and traditional healers instead of having these two services work individually could enhance engagement between traditional medicine and Western medicine. === Suicide Trends & Risk Factors === Suicide is defined as "the act of killing oneself deliberately, initiated and performed by the person concerned in the full knowledge or expectation of its fatal outcome"<ref name=":11">{{Cite book|title=The neuroscience of suicidal behavior|last=Heeringen|first=Kees van|date=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-60290-4|series=Cambridge fundamentals of neuroscience in psychology|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom New York, NY, USA Port Melbourne, VIC, Australia New Delhi, India Singapore}}</ref>. Although Sri Lanka has seen a significant reduction in suicide rates from the mid 1990s due to its banning of extremely toxic pesticide products, suicide and self harm remains a significant issue. The suicide rate per 100,000 people increased from 14.0 in 2019 to [https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide 15.0 in 2022] (according to WHO). On average, 27 males per 100,000 males and 5 females per 100,000 females committed suicide in 2022<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}</ref>. Hanging appears to be the most used method for suicide for both males and females, with studies revealing a steady increase in recent years<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Bandara|first=Piumee|last2=Wickrama|first2=Prabath|last3=Sivayokan|first3=Sambasivamoorthy|last4=Knipe|first4=Duleeka|last5=Rajapakse|first5=Thilini|date=2024-04-17|title=Reflections on the trends of suicide in Sri Lanka, 1997–2022: The need for continued vigilance|url=https://journals.plos.org/globalpublichealth/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|journal=PLOS Global Public Health|language=en|volume=4|issue=4|pages=e0003054|doi=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|issn=2767-3375|pmc=11023397|pmid=38630779}}</ref>. From 2023 to 2024, a group of researchers from the [[w:Eastern_University,_Sri_Lanka|Eastern University in Sri Lanka]] assessed 828 patients admitted to the Teaching Hospital in [[w:Batticaloa,_Sri_Lanka|Batticaloa, Sri Lanka]] for attempted suicide. They concluded that suicide prevention programs should be attuned to younger people (ages 15 to 35 in the study), emphasize the importance of education and reducing unemployment, and increase social support in the Tamil community. Despite the relevant insights into certain aspects of an average Sri Lankan's life that could lead to suicidal ideation (ie, poverty), the results from this study suffer in external validity as 90% of the patients were Tamil and over 50% were between 16 and 25 years. In addition, correlations between suicide and unemployment rates have been questioned, with [[w:Austerity|austerity]] being a more reliable indicator of suicide rates than unemployment rates<ref name=":11" />. Further comprehensive studies on risk factors relating to suicide should be studied to assess correlations between unemployment rates and austerity measures. The WHO suggests implementing evidence-based suicide prevention programs, such as [https://www.who.int/initiatives/live-life-initiative-for-suicide-prevention LIVE LIFE], to reduce the national suicide rate<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide|title=World Suicide Prevention day 2024 “Changing the Narrative on Suicide”|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2025-07-29}}</ref>. Media depictions of suicidal methods, such as hanging, can lead to sensationalism and the media should be cautious of such displays in movies and TV shows<ref name=":12" />. Awareness of depression and other mental health issues can serve as a safeguard against suicidal ideation in Sri Lankan men and women. == Role of Religion == According to the last demographic report (2012), 70.2% of Sri Lankans are Buddhist, 12.6% are Hindus, 9.7% are Muslims, and 7.4% are Christians. The Theravada Buddhist community makes up the majority in several provinces throughout the country<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sri-lanka/|title=Sri Lanka|website=United States Department of State|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-07}}</ref>. Religion, especially Theravada Buddhism, has had a significant influence on not only the historical treatment of mental health in the country, but also everyday life<ref name=":15" />. The [[w:Mahāvaṃsa|''Mahāvaṃsa'']] affirms hospitals treating patients suffering from mental health issues as early as the 4th century BC. Additionally, the 1700s Nayaka king [[w:Kirti_Sri_Rajasinha|Kirthi Sri Rajasinghe]] detailed the implementation of Buddhist philosophy in psychiatry<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. De|date=2017-12-05|title=Development of civil commitment statutes (laws of involuntary detention and treatment) in Sri Lanka: a historical review|url=https://mljsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|journal=Medico-Legal Journal of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|doi=10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|issn=2012-8231}}</ref>. Modern-day empirical studies have attested to the usefulness of religion in mitigating stress and elevating mental health<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|title=Religion and Mental Health|last=Schieman|first=Scott|last2=Bierman|first2=Alex|last3=Ellison|first3=Christopher G.|date=2013|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-94-007-4276-5|editor-last=Aneshensel|editor-first=Carol S.|location=Dordrecht|pages=457–478|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|editor-last2=Phelan|editor-first2=Jo C.|editor-last3=Bierman|editor-first3=Alex}}</ref>. Religion has been found to be positively correlated with improved mental health, and more religious patients were concluded to have "better mental health and adapt[ed] more quickly to health problems" versus patients who weren't religious<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koenig|first=Harold G.|date=2012|title=Religion, spirituality, and health: the research and clinical implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3671693/|journal=ISRN psychiatry|volume=2012|pages=278730|doi=10.5402/2012/278730|issn=2090-7966|pmc=3671693|pmid=23762764}}</ref>. [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/T-N-Wickramarathna-2247724082 Dr. Wickramarathna] of the University Psychiatry Unit (UPU) at the National Hospital of Sri Lanka (NHSL) argues that psychiatrists must strive for a balance in their approach to patients and "make positive use of religion in [their] practice[s]"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wickramarathna|first=T. N.|date=2022-12-31|title=Psychiatrists should stand far from the shrine: why and why not we should separate religion from psychiatry|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=13|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. === Buddhism === 27 Sinhalese Buddhists from four Buddhist temples were selected for a series of 70-minute interviews and focus group discussions with the aim of learning the Sinhala Buddhist understanding and experience of spiritual well-being and psychological well-being. The interviewees held spiritual wellness to be the "center" of overall wellness, the "precondition for a successful life"<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|language=en-US|volume=44|issue=1|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=0258-9710}}</ref>. Sinhala Buddhists believe that wellness cannot be achieved without spiritual tranquility. The report states that participants emphasized that spirituality "cannot be directly intervened" and can only be seen through "[interactions] with society"<ref name=":14" />. Despite the ''athmaya'' (soul) being "unreachable", it can be "intervened", or treated, through the actions of the mind and body with society<ref name=":14" />. One being "psychologically ill" can affect one's spiritual being, as the participants reported in their interviews, and can be affected through "lifestyle stressors, environmental and socio-cultural causes, non-human related causes and bad-karma in the past lives"<ref name=":14" />. The researchers concluded that despite Sinhala Buddhists not being able to articulately decipher the discrepancies between psychological well-being and spiritual well-being, they are able to conceptualize and maintain a culturally embedded understanding between the two, serving as reputable evidence of the integration of mental health in Sinhala Buddhist practices. However, it is important to note that these results come from a very small sample size and cannot be generalized to all Sri Lankan Buddhists. In addition, a 2009 study found that a belief in karma was correlated with poor health. However, an earlier study found a positive correlation between the reliance on the [[w:Karma_in_Buddhism|Buddhist concept of karma]] and trauma, inferencing Buddhist karma being a prevalent response to trauma<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Levy|first=Becca R.|last2=Slade|first2=Martin D.|last3=Ranasinghe|first3=Padmini|date=2009-03|title=Causal thinking after a tsunami wave: karma beliefs, pessimistic explanatory style and health among Sri Lankan survivors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19229624|journal=Journal of Religion and Health|volume=48|issue=1|pages=38–45|doi=10.1007/s10943-008-9162-5|issn=1573-6571|pmid=19229624}}</ref>. Overall, the effectiveness of karma as a coping mechanism appears to be conflicted. Studies indicate that other practices of Buddhism seem to be utilized by individuals affected by the war. 40% of Sri Lankan Buddhists affected by the 2004 tsunami found the Buddhist ritual ''Bodhipuja'' to be helpful in dealing with traumatic experiences<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jmvh.org/article/mental-health-and-the-role-of-cultural-and-religious-support-in-the-assistance-of-disabled-veterans-in-sri-lanka/|title=Mental Health and the Role of Cultural and Religious Support in the Assistance of Disabled Veterans in Sri Lanka|website=JMVH|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-12}}</ref>. === Catholicism === Catholic counseling refers to "a nuanced and holistic mental health care paradigm that intricately weaves together psychological science with the moral, spiritual, and pastoral traditions of the Catholic Church"<ref name=":13">Perera, U. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera/publication/394095042_Catholic_Counselling_in_Sri_Lanka_Integrating_Faith_Psychology_and_Cultural_Healing/links/6889303af8031739e6098c79/Catholic-Counselling-in-Sri-Lanka-Integrating-Faith-Psychology-and-Cultural-Healing.pdf Catholic Counselling in Sri Lanka: Integrating Faith, Psychology, and Cultural Healing]. July 2025.</ref> and aims to assimilate Catholic theology and evidence-based psychological treatment while including Sri Lankan cultural elements. This is achieved through emphasis on community cohesion and a locally-based understanding of "personhood"<ref name=":13" />. The origins of Catholic counseling trace back to the introduction of Roman Catholicism to the island in the 1600s, with the focus of the early Sri Lankan Catholic community being on "[[w:Evangelism|evangelization]], education, and sacramental formation". Demand for counseling services in general increased due to the impacts of the Sri Lankan Civil War, where Catholic organizations (Caritas Sri Lanka, Seth Sarana, Subodhi Integral Centre (Piliyandala), etc.) established several Catholic-based trauma-informed programmes for victims of the Civil War. Programmes use group therapy, forgiveness rituals, and narrative repairs to alleviate war trauma. Examples of integration of Catholic virtues and counseling can be seen in [[w:Cognitive_Behavioral_Therapy|Cognitive Behavioral Therapy]] (CBT), where "hope" and "humility" are used as the frameworks for creating spiritual resilience<ref name=":13" />. The general Christian call of "agape love and acceptance" is echoed by the concept of [[w:Unconditional_positive_regard|unconditional positive regard]]. ''[[w:Lectio_Divina|Lectio Divina]]'' (Catholic prayer and meditation) and ''Marian devotions'' are integrated into therapeutic practices to achieve emotional regulation and mindfulness. Senior Lecturer [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera Udeshini Perera] of the University of Colombo articulates a critical role of Catholic counseling. She claims that secular counseling fails to address the "spiritual roots of distress and moral confusion". Catholic counseling fills in this gap by integrating "psychological insights with a transcendent orientation, supporting lasting transformation and integrity"<ref name=":13" />. As of 2025, no formal accreditation or standardized training exists for [[w:Pastoral_counseling|pastoral counselors]] in Sri Lanka, hampering the legitimacy of Catholic counseling. Udeshini Perera remarks that mental health stigma, lack of standardized training, research regarding Catholic counseling effectiveness, and acceptance of the combination of religion and science in a professional setting present challenges for Catholic pastoral counseling in the country. Additionally, Catholic psychiatry in Sri Lanka appears to be under-researched, and evidence of its empirical effects on followers appears sparse. Further research is needed in assessing the empirical effects of Catholic counseling in Sri Lanka. === Islam === The literature on the empirical effects of Islamic-based psychotherapy in Sri Lanka is limited. Research has revealed a 2012 case study where a 21-year-old Muslim woman was experiencing episodic possession states. The patient ceased attending psychiatric services and opted for religious rituals. The patient reported, in a follow-up visit, that the possession states had been absent for 3 months since her switch to religious rituals. The woman and her family attributed the apparent improvement of her condition to religious rituals<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|last3=Yoosuf|first3=Alam|last4=Karunaratne|first4=Sanjeewani|last5=de Silva|first5=Pushpa|date=2012|title=Religious Beliefs, Possession States, and Spirits: Three Case Studies from Sri Lanka|url=http://www.hindawi.com/journals/crips/2012/232740/|journal=Case Reports in Psychiatry|language=en|volume=2012|pages=1–3|doi=10.1155/2012/232740|issn=2090-682X|pmc=3437272|pmid=22970398}}</ref>. Future recommendations would be to employ resources to research the foundations of Islamic psychiatry in the country, and to observe the rituals employed and their effects on patients. Studies have found that Islamic prayer can be an effective means of "support and coping"<ref name=":15" />. Seven world-wide case studies using Islamic-based psychotherapy on patients, consisting of religious rituals such as scriptural reading from the [[w:Quran|Quran]], teaching of fundamental Islamic concepts (such as ''[[w:Tawakkul|tawakkul]]''), and active implementation of contemplation (''[[w:Tadabbur|tadabbur]]''), have reported positive effects in decreasing cognitive and emotional symptoms associated with "religious, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorder, grief, and substance use disorder.”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kurhade|first=Chhaya Shantaram|last2=Jagannathan|first2=Aarti|last3=Varambally|first3=Shivarama|last4=Shivanna|first4=Sushrutha|date=2022-01|title=Religion-based interventions for mental health disorders: A systematic review|url=https://journals.lww.com/10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|journal=Journal of Applied Consciousness Studies|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=20–33|doi=10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|issn=2949-6993}}</ref> Additionally, a community-based study of elderly patients in Bangalore, India receiving Islamic-based psychotherapy observed decreased exhibitions of sleep disorders, eating disorders, and emotional distress<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hafeez|first=Nimin|last2=Sanjay|first2=Thittamaranahalli Varadappa|last3=Puthussery|first3=Yannick Poulose|last4=Madhusudan|first4=Muralidhar|last5=Kariyappa|first5=Poornima Muddaiah|last6=Kulkarni|first6=Sridevi|last7=Raj|first7=Lavanya|date=2023-12-31|title=Spiritual practices among elderly, prevalence, pattern and associated factors: a community-based study from rural Bengaluru, India|url=https://jccpsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|journal=Journal of the College of Community Physicians of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=29|issue=4|doi=10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|issn=1391-3174}}</ref>. === Hinduism === Despite Hindus being 12.6% of the population of Sri Lanka, the research on Hinduism-based therapy in the country is limited. Ayurvedic medicine, a form of medicine originating from ancient India, predominated the Sri Lankan medical landscape for over 2,000 years and even had a symbiotic relationship with Sinhalese medicine, which also played a significant and influential role in the country's medical framework<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/article/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990/|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|volume=44|issue=1|pages=33|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=2478-1169}}</ref>. Despite its historical dominance, Ayurvedic medicine has been challenged against modern evidence-based medical standards<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://philarchive.org/rec/DOMAAT|title=Ayurveda: Ancient Tradition or Pseudoscientific Practice? A Philosophical Inquiry|last=Dominic|first=Shubham K.}}</ref>. === Comparative synthesis === Taking an overarching review of the role of religion in Sri Lanka, methods to improve mental well-being are practiced by adherents of Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. These methods are practiced through karma, tawakkul, hope, and humility. Additionally, these practices are implemented in traditionally-oriented mental health care, which has been reported to be preferred over psychiatric care at times. These rituals practiced across these religions indicate a common theme of psychologically integrated aspects of well-being. Interpretation of trauma is a central use in religion, with religious principles, such as karma and ''tawakkul'', serving as psychologically analogous mechanisms during times of distress. In terms of methodological comparisons to the studies described, qualitative interviews have documented Buddhist practices and principles, like Bodhipuja and the belief in karma, in response to traumatic events, while case studies found religious practices by other religious groups, such as a Muslim patient reading Islamic scripture and observing prayer to reduce emotional distress. Peer-reviewed sources have documented Catholic practices and principles, such as ''Lectio Divina'' and unconditional positive regard, in improving mindfulness and emotional regulation. The paper acknowledges limitations in the evaluation of certain findings, such as in Islam and Hinduism. These shortcomings, however, are a reflection of the existing literature and its deficiencies. Empirical findings indicate mental health practices are complex and are multifaceted in their effects. Evidently, religion serves a parallel role to psychiatric services in improving mental health. Despite its perceived benefits, the findings surrounding religions' role in mental health suffer from conflicting, and sometimes contradictory, results. Additionally, a disproportionate amount of empirical findings seem to be Buddhist-predominant, while other religions are underrepresented in the research. Regarding research barriers, the methodological approaches implemented to study the practices of religious followers vary, though much of the research was brought from qualitative or case-based studies, impeding generalizability. Another noteworthy issue is that many studies do not utilize standardized, psychiatric measures. == Future Outlook == Despite significant changes to the mental health environment in Sri Lanka, the current legal framework shaping mental health in the country has not been updated since 1956. A Cambridge University Press article detailed many limitations of the Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956, including discrepancies between the legal provisions of involuntary admissions and modern practices, potential exposure to trauma through extra-legal detentions of the mentally ill, and an absence of legal guidelines addressing the restraint of violent patients<ref name=":6" />. Participants from Sri Lanka reported in a comparative legislative questionnaire that they felt the mental health laws were "outdated" and descriptions of clinical roles remained ambiguous<ref name=":16" />. A draft mental health legislation from 2007 includes provisions for human rights, but due to "bureaucratic processes" and a "lack of consensus", the draft has not been officially approved. These limitations pose challenges to the standardization of mental healthcare admissions and may impact the rights of detained patients. Detained patients may have their human rights violated due to a lack of an up-to-date legal framework, thereby impeding the identification of such violations. Additionally, with the lack of clarity on clinical roles, clinical responsibilities may not be routinely recognized and observed, leading to role confusion and potential legal ramifications<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Dey|first=Sangeeta|last2=Mellsop|first2=Graham|last3=Diesfeld|first3=Kate|last4=Dharmawardene|first4=Vajira|last5=Mendis|first5=Susitha|last6=Chaudhuri|first6=Sreemanti|last7=Deb|first7=Aniruddha|last8=Huq|first8=Nafisa|last9=Ahmed|first9=Helal Uddin|date=2019-10-24|title=Comparing legislation for involuntary admission and treatment of mental illness in four South Asian countries|url=https://ijmhs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=13|issue=1|pages=67|doi=10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|issn=1752-4458|pmc=6813093|pmid=31666805}}</ref>. Lastly, current efforts should increase beyond just addressing poverty-centered matters, but also expand efforts to domestic violence victims and children with disabilities, as shelters and specialized services are limited<ref name=":82">{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Stagnation in policy development leaves Sri Lanka without a practical, up-to-date, and comprehensive mental health legislation, which could put both clinicians and patients at risk. Future reforms should include clarification on the treatment and detention process of involuntary admissions of patients and a clear delineation of clinical roles and their responsibilities. Without the necessary reforms to advance Sri Lankan mental health legislation, clinicians and vulnerable patients may suffer from a lack of comprehensive oversight. ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== Any people, organisations, or funding sources that you would like to thank. ===Competing interests=== No competing interests. ===Ethics statement=== An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section. ==References== {{reflist|35em}} [[Category:Mental health]] [[Category:Sri Lanka]] q74o0pfzq62i5l8lr91tlrknj0df8vt 2817560 2817546 2026-07-02T01:32:33Z Atcovi 276019 /* Methods */ 2817560 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine <!-- WikiJournal of Medicine, Science, or Humanities --> | last1 = Azeez | orcid1 = 0009-0007-9202-4614 | first1 = Aaqib | last2 = | first2 = | last3 = | first3 = | last4 = | first4 = <!-- up to 9 authors can be added in this above format --> | et_al = <!-- if there are >9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --> | affiliation1 = Old Dominion University | correspondence1 = aaqib.azeez@yahoo.com | affiliations = institutes / affiliations | correspondence = email@address.com | keywords = <!-- up to 6 keywords --> | license = <!-- default is CC-BY --> | abstract = This is a narrative review. }} [abstract will be put in after the paper has been completed] == Introduction == Mental health continues to be a critically relevant topic as the island nation has experienced decades of [[w:Black_July|violent ethnic conflict]], terrorist attacks, war crimes, and economic disruptions. Sri Lanka continues to recover from a [[w:Sri_Lankan_economic_crisis_(2019–2024)|severe economic crisis (2019 - 2024)]], a [[w:Sri_Lankan_civil_war|nearly 30-year civil war ending in 2009]], a [[w:2019_Sri_Lanka_Easter_bombings|2019 terrorist attack]], and continues to face the ripple effects of the [[w:2004_Boxing_Day_tsunami|2004 Boxing Day tsunami]]. The exact effect these major events have had on mental health in the country is "unknown", but the statistics remain alarming despite a declining trend. Suicide rates in the country during the mid-1990s were the second-highest in the world with ingesting toxic products being the main suicide method. Despite the decline in suicide numbers since then—possibly attributed to Sri Lanka's ban on toxic products—evidence from a 2023 study reports an upward trend in suicide through hanging from 2016 to 2021—independent of the [[w:COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sri_Lanka|COVID-19 pandemic]]. Several risk factors for suicide, such as poverty and economic instability, are still prevalent and even increasing in the country<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakse|first=Thilini|last2=Silva|first2=Tharuka|last3=Hettiarachchi|first3=Nirosha Madhuwanthi|last4=Gunnell|first4=David|last5=Metcalfe|first5=Chris|last6=Spittal|first6=Matthew J.|last7=Knipe|first7=Duleeka|date=2023-01-19|title=The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic and Lockdowns on Self-Poisoning and Suicide in Sri Lanka: An Interrupted Time Series Analysis|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914278/|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=20|issue=3|pages=1833|doi=10.3390/ijerph20031833|issn=1660-4601|pmc=9914278|pmid=36767200}}</ref>. == Methods == A narrative review was conducted on mental health in Sri Lanka. Sources used included peer-reviewed journal articles, relevant books, historical documents, and governmental/non-governmental reports. These sources were found on Google Scholar, PubMed/PMC, Sri Lankan journals, and official Sri Lankan governmental websites displaying relevant statistics/reports. Studies included were published prior to 2026. Keywords used to initiate searches include, but not limited to were: "Sri Lanka mental health", "Sri Lanka civil war trauma", "Sri Lanka suicide", "Sri Lanka mental health ordinances", "Sri Lanka religion and mental health", "Sri Lanka public mental healthcare", and "Sri Lanka poverty/economic crisis mental health impact." Studies that were included were relevant to the topic (Sri Lanka, South Asian mental health law, suicide, public mental health, conflict/disaster trauma, or cultural/religious practice), had full text available, and were in the English language. Non-peer-reviewed sources were primarily used to explain historical claims or contextualize non-clinical claims. ''[include date of final search when needed]'' ==Historical Development of Mental Health Services== Records attest to the care of the mentally ill through established hospitals in the island since the 4th century.<ref name=":17" /> Prior to the incarceration of the mentally ill by the European colonizing forces, the mentally ill were regarded as ''Pissowetitch'', or people who had "the spirit of the Gods within him" and "whatsoever he pronounceth, is looked upon as spoken by God himself, and the people will speak to him, as if it were the very person of God"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/14346/14346-h/14346-h.htm|title=An Historical Relation Of the Island Ceylon, in the East-Indies: Together, With an Account of the Detaining in Captivity the Author and divers other Englishmen now Living there, and of the Author’s Miraculous Escape.|last=Knox|first=Robert|website=www.gutenberg.org|language=en-us|access-date=2026-06-29}}</ref>. With this religious understanding, Lucien de Alwis reasoned that the mentally ill in Sri Lanka were "placed... at a higher social status than the mentally ill in the Western world", with this notion correlating with the unsurprising absence of evidence in there being a "large scale segregation of mentally ill from society"<ref name=":17" />. In the 1800s, established care for mental health began shifting primarily from indigenous practices, mainly derived from [[w:Ayurveda|Ayurveda medicine]], [[w:Siddha_medicine|Siddha medicine]], and [[w:Unani_medicine|Unani medicine]], to a Western mode by the British<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":0">Gambheera, H. (2011). [https://www.saarcpsychiatry.com/viewText?chapter=c6 The evolution of psychiatric services in Sri Lanka]. South Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 2(1), 25–27.</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|title=Social Psychiatry in Sri Lanka|last=Baminiwatta|first=Anuradha|last2=Williams|first2=Shehan|date=2025|publisher=Springer Nature|isbn=978-981-96-8078-8|editor-last=Arafat|editor-first=S. M. Yasir|location=Singapore|pages=141–158|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|editor-last2=Singh|editor-first2=Amit|editor-last3=Kar|editor-first3=Sujita Kumar}}</ref>. === Adoption of a Western-based mental healthcare model and ordinances === In 1839, [[w:James_Alexander_Stewart-Mackenzie|James Alexander Stewart-Mackenzie]], the 7th Governor of British Ceylon, released the Lunacy Ordinance, authorizing municipal authorities to create lunatic asylums for the mentally ill in the country<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=6&Itemid=125&lang=en|title=History - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-10}}</ref>. The ordinance was concerned with the legal frameworks of detaining individuals considered dangerous to others or individuals falsely presenting themselves as mentally ill, and not on medical treatments to alleviate the conditions of detained individuals. UK psychiatrist [[w:Edward_Mapother|Edward Mapother]] critiqued the ordinance during his 1937 inspection of British Ceylon's mental health institutions in a series of reports titled ''A Disgrace to a Civilised Community'', remarking that the ordinance "[did] not seem to have contemplated treatment as a contingency to be considered"<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Permeable walls: historical perspectives on hospital and asylum visiting|date=2009|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-2599-8|editor-last=Mooney|editor-first=Graham|series=Clio medica|location=Amsterdam New York, NY|editor-last2=Reinarz|editor-first2=Jonathan}}</ref>. In 1840, the 1839 Ordinance was repealed and replaced by the 1840 Ordinance. The 1839 Ordinance was almost identical to the 1840 Ordinance, except the removal of two previous requirements: the requirement for official medical diagnoses of the mentally ill and the mandate to maintain adequate staff-to-patient ratios within lunatic asylums<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. de|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. L.|last3=Mendis|first3=T. S. S.|last4=Abhayanayaka|first4=C.|date=2024-12-31|title=The development of laws related to the disposal of forensic patients in Sri Lanka: A historical review|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=15|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. In 1873, a third Ordinance was released. It included linguistic changes, where the term, "insane", was replaced with "of unsound mind". The Ordinance also gave more power to medical professionals in determining insanity diagnoses, and more power to detainees in appealing their commitment to the mental asylum. Despite this Ordinance being the most comprehensive legislation on mental healthcare in the country at the time, the legal frameworks behind the detainment of the criminally insane were left identical to previous ordinances<ref name=":3" />. === Development of mental asylums === At the time the 1839 ordinance was released, mentally ill patients were placed either in prisons throughout the country or leprosy hospitals, such as the [[w:Hendala_Leprosy_Hospital|Hendala Leprosy Hospital]] in the Gampaha district<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" />. After the creation of the first mental asylum in Borella in 1846, patients from the Hendala Leprosy Hospital were transferred to the institute in Borella. Overcrowding soon became an issue and patients were sent to prisons across the country. [[File:Edward Mapother.jpg|thumb|A portrait taken of Edward Mapother during his time working at [[w:Maudsley_Hospital|Maudsley Hospital]] in London. ]] As medical institutions were being made to house the mentally ill, another mental asylum was created in the [[w:Cinnamon_Gardens|Cinnamon Gardens]] area of Colombo in 1884, though this mental asylum faced overcrowding in just one year<ref name=":0" />. Treatment in these asylums was limited to occupational and protection therapy, failing to provide treatment for the root causes of the mental disorders. In 1926, the Angoda Mental Hospital was established, marginally alleviating the severe overcrowding issues that were plaguing the preceding mental asylums. Despite the addition of 1,700 beds to the facility, treatment was still vastly limited and the patients were left in significantly poor conditions. === Edward Mapother's 1937 inspection of British Ceylon === Edward Mapother was born in Dublin, Ireland, on July 12, 1881 and moved to London when he was 7 years old<ref>{{Cite book|title=Madness to mental illness: a history of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|last=Bewley|first=Thomas|date=2008|publisher=RCPsych Publications ; Distributed in North America by Balogh International|isbn=978-1-904671-35-0|location=London : [S.l.]}}</ref>. Mapother attained his M.D. in 1908. While Mapother was the Medical Superintendent of Maudsley Hospital in London, England, he was invited to inspect British Ceylon's mental health institutions by Dr S. T. Gunasekara, the first Medical Director of British Ceylon<ref name=":1" />. In Mapother's visit, he commented that the Angoda Mental Hospital had the atmosphere of "a prison that is neglected and dilapidated"<ref name=":1" />. Overcrowding was still a major issue, with the institute hosting 3,000 patients—more than double the intended capacity. Patients were sleeping on mats and were clearly out of reach of adequate treatment. Mapother also noted that only 4% of public health expenditure in the country was being set for hospitals, drawing a stark comparison to London's 25%<ref name=":1" />. Mapother offered a vivid and grim account of the hospital in his reports: <blockquote> The floor, roof and walls of each cell consist alike of drab cement without any attempt at colouring or decoration. High up in one wall is a small window with stout iron bars. In the floor is a large hole into which the patient may pass his motion and urine. These cells are incompletely divided from one another by a partition which does not reach the roof so that the noise and stink from any one cell may reach at least all the others of the same row. Into these empty cells I was informed that the most noisy and troublesome patients in the hospital; were turned at night completely naked. The doors of the cell contain no observation window, and considering the violent character of many of these patients there is every ground for believing that the doors are rarely opened in the night by the solitary attendant on duty. It needs little imagination to picture the suffering of any patient in an early stage of bodily illness passing a night under such conditions, a situation which must frequently arise. I am told that the noise proceeding from this building is like that on a bad night in a menagerie<ref name=":0" />.</blockquote>Mapother proposed a series of reinforcements to the legal, institutional, and medical frameworks of mental health care in British Ceylon. This included the decentralization of the psychiatric services, a reworking of the Lunacy Ordinance to incorporate treatment into the legal framework, and the establishment of a separate service of medical professionals dedicated to psychiatry. Mapother's recommendations led to several of the best local medical professionals to be sent to London for extensive training in psychiatry, while nurses from England were sent to British Ceylon to supervise hospital operations and train local staff<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />. On August 25, 1938, the Executive Committee of Health approved the strategies proposed by Mapother, though the Government was unable to fully implement all of Mapother's interventions due to the 'heavy cost'. In fact, the Government decided to forego one of his proposals, which was the suggestion of a "Visiting Committee". This committee was tasked to "meet at the hospital, carry out inspections, and make recommendations" to the Executive Committee of Health<ref name=":1" />. The Government realized that deficiencies in their mental healthcare system could prove to be "costly" for their reputation. Mapother was reportedly enraged when he found out. Mapother intended to contact the Secretary of State regarding the "distortion" of his plans, but was interrupted by events preceding [[w:World_War_II|World War II]]<ref name=":1" />. Mapother passed away on March 20, 1940, without materializing his follow-up plans. === Post-Mapother developments and further innovations === [[File:Sri Lanka districts Colombo.svg|thumb|A map of Sri Lanka highlighting the Colombo District, where the capital is located. |right|250px]]Mapother's insights on the mental healthcare structure in British Ceylon proved to be the catalyst of massive renovations. In 1939, the first outpatient clinic was established in the [[w:National_Hospital_of_Sri_Lanka|National Hospital of Sri Lanka]] in Colombo. The first trained Ceylonese psychiatrists began practice in the 1940s, leading to the establishment of the first neuropsychiatric clinic in Colombo in 1943. Treatments for the mentally ill improved dramatically, as [[w:insulin_shock_therapy|insulin shock therapy]] and [[w:Electroconvulsive_therapy|cardiazol convulsive therapy]] were utilized<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Kathriarachchi|first=Samudra T.|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. Lakmi|last3=Amarakoon|first3=Luckshika|date=2019-06|title=Development of Mental Health Care in Sri Lanka: Lessons Learned|url=https://journals.lww.com/tpsy/fulltext/2019/33020/development_of_mental_health_care_in_sri_lanka_.1.aspx|journal=Taiwanese Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=33|issue=2|pages=55|doi=10.4103/TPSY.TPSY_15_19|issn=1028-3684}}</ref>. Mapother's advocation for the decentralization of services were further honored through the 1947 establishment of a first child guidance clinic in Colombo General Hospital<ref name=":0" />. In 1948, British Ceylon was granted independence from the British after the [[w:Sri_Lankan_independence_movement|Sri Lankan independence movement]]. Changes in the mental healthcare structure were not immediate following independence, but rapid expansions of mental healthcare services were still ongoing. The following decades saw positive institutional developments, such as the creation of a second hospital in [[w:Mulleriyawa|Mulleriyawa]] in 1957, and the creation of a psychiatric inpatient unit in Colombo General Hospital in 1967—effectively granting the city of Colombo the luxury of hosting the top psychiatric care in the country<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|title=Mental Health System Development in Sri Lanka|last=Minas|first=Harry|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Hall|first3=Teresa|date=2017|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4899-7997-1|editor-last=Minas|editor-first=Harry|location=Boston, MA|pages=59–77|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|editor-last2=Lewis|editor-first2=Milton}}</ref>. The 1950s was also the start of psychopharmacological innovations, with the introduction of [[w:Lithium_(medication)|lithium]] and long-acting injectable antipsychotics ([[w:Depot_injection|depot]] [[w:Antipsychotic|neuroleptics]]) in the succeeding years<ref name=":4" />. Additionally, the number of public psychiatrist positions increased by 400% from 1953 to 1967<ref name=":5" />. After 1960, mental health services were being established beyond the capital to other cities in the country<ref name=":2" />. In 1980, the [[w:Postgraduate_Institute_of_Medicine|Postgraduate Institute of Medicine]] began a program where students would enroll in a 5-year medical course and attain an MD in psychiatry, curbing the need for Sri Lankan medical students to be sent abroad to complete their training. Many of the medical students sent abroad for training never returned to Sri Lanka to practice, resulting in a "1:500,000 to 1000,000" ratio of psychiatrists to patients on "most occasions"<ref name=":0" />. === Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956 === In 1956, the 1873 Ordinance was revised a second time and renamed the "Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956"<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Hapangama|first=Aruni|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Kuruppuarachchi|first3=K. a. L. A.|date=2023-02|title=Why are we still living in the past? Sri Lanka needs urgent and timely reforms of its archaic mental health laws|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-international/article/why-are-we-still-living-in-the-past-sri-lanka-needs-urgent-and-timely-reforms-of-its-archaic-mental-health-laws/B18B03DC962CC6F09BC6D7877E390EE4|journal=BJPsych International|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=4–6|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.26|issn=2056-4740|pmc=9909436|pmid=36812028}}</ref>. Another linguistic development is seen with the new revision as "lunacy" was replaced with "mental disease"<ref name=":6" />. The Ordinance paved the way for community-based services to be delivered to patients closer to their residences rather than solely allocating services to just hospitals. This led to the creation of a [[w:WHO|WHO]]-backed community clinic near the [[w:University_of_Colombo|University of Colombo]] in the 1970s, where the focus was to eventually ease patients in the Angoda Mental Hospital back into the general population<ref name=":5" />. === Developments from the 1990s === The 1990s and onwards saw further positive developments in framing the mental healthcare system, including the establishment of the [https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=featured&Itemid=101&lang=en Directorate of Mental Health] in 1998. The Directorate of Mental Health is a part of the [[w:Ministry_of_Health_(Sri_Lanka)|Ministry of Health]] who is responsible for the monitoring and implementation of mental health programs across the country<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?lang=en|title=Home - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}</ref>. As of 2025, the current director of the Directorate of Mental Health is Dr. Chithramalee de Silva<ref name=":2" />. On November 11, 2005, the Mental Health Policy was approved by the Government of Sri Lanka, advocating for establishments of more de-centralized, community-based mental health services across the country beyond the capital (Colombo). The policy aimed to concisely define the rigorous standards needed to be completed for each respected medical professional, including psychiatrists and clinical psychologists<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakshe|first=Onali Bimalka Wickramaseckara|last2=Mohan|first2=Mohapradeep|last3=Singh|first3=Swaran Preet|date=2023-05|title=Development of adolescent mental health services in Sri Lanka|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10895478/|journal=BJPsych international|volume=20|issue=2|pages=41–43|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.32|issn=2056-4740|pmc=10895478|pmid=38414998}}</ref>. The policy also included a new position, the "Medical Officer of Mental Health", who oversees and assists in the implementation of community-based mental health services<ref name=":0" />. This same year, the Sri Lankan government began implementing psychological services in state institutions, such as the military<ref name=":8" />. In 2007, the National Mental Health Advisory Council (NMHAC) was created to serve as an 'advisory' board for the Ministry of Health on what actions should be executed by the Directorate of Mental Health<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=9&Itemid=220&lang=en|title=Introduction - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}</ref>. In 2008, the Angoda Mental Hospital was restructured as the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)<ref name=":7" />. === Modern-day Sri Lanka === [[File:Feeding Children in Sri Lanka.jpg|left|thumb|Despite the noteworthy improvements in mental healthcare services in recent decades, mental health remains a significant issue due to rising poverty. ]] As of 2025, the Mental Health Act (mental health legislation) has been undergoing development since 2005 and is currently awaiting to be considered for the final stage of approval. This is expected to replace the 1956 Mental Health Ordinance<ref name=":7" />. Currently, there are 7 tertiary care hospitals, 61 adult patient units, 3 child inpatient units, and 1 forensic unit with over 100 psychiatrists all throughout the 22 districts<ref name=":4" />. The [[w:Lady_Ridgeway_Hospital_for_Children|Lady Ridgeway Hospital]] in Colombo and the Sirimavo Bandaranayke Specialized Children Hospital in Kandy are tailored towards alleviating children with [[w:Learning_disability|SLD]], [[w:ADHD|ADHD]], [[w:Autism_Spectrum_Disorder|ASD]] and family support for diagnosed children. As of 2017, 22 rehabilitation centers exist through the country, including 7 alcohol rehab centers<ref name=":7" />. Despite the impressive advancements in mental healthcare in the last couple of decades, Sri Lanka still suffers significant mental health issues due to increasing poverty levels in the country. The [[w:World_Bank|World Bank]] reported that [https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2024/04/08/eesc-a08.html the poverty levels in Sri Lanka increased from 11% in 2019 to 26% in 2024], with 60% of Sri Lankan households facing "decreased incomes"<ref>Lakhtakia, Shruti, Atapattu Mudiyanselage, Udahiruni Shashadari Atapat, Walker, Richard Ancrum. ''Sri Lanka Development Update - Bridge to Recovery (English).'' Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. <nowiki>http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/099634104012434919</nowiki></ref>. This was exacerbated by Sri Lanka's excessive foreign debt, economic troubles stemming from [[w:Gotabaya_Rajapaksa|Gotabaya Rajapaksa]]'s presidential term, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the [[w:Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine|ongoing invasion of Ukraine by Russia (2022)]]. According to [[w:NYU|New York University]] graduate student [https://gc-cuny.academia.edu/NadiaAugustyniak Nadia Augustyniak] in her 2025 overview of Sri Lanka's public mental healthcare system, poverty-induced financial precarity remains a major obstacle to receiving access to mental healthcare services. Even though trauma from adverse weather and conflict is deleterious to mental health, issues originating from every-day struggles, especially struggles related to poverty, could arguably play a more significant role<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. == Impact of Conflicts, Terrorism, Political Instability & Natural Disasters == === Sri Lankan Civil War === The '''Sri Lankan Civil War''' was a domestic conflict that took place between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (abbreviated as the ''LTTE),'' a militant group formed in the 1970s as a result of rising tensions between the majority Sinhalese and minority Tamil population. The group is considered a terrorist organization<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.start.umd.edu/baad/database/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-ltte-1998.html|title=BAAD - Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) - 1998 {{!}} START.umd.edu|website=www.start.umd.edu|access-date=2025-06-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-aka-tamil-tigers-sri-lanka-separatists|title=Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (aka Tamil Tigers) (Sri Lanka, separatists) {{!}} Council on Foreign Relations|last=Bhattacharji|first=Preeti|website=www.cfr.org|language=en|access-date=2025-06-09}}</ref>. Through brutal massacres, assassinations, and suicide bombings, the LTTE waged decades of terror which led to civilian displacement, infrastructure collapse, and the reduction of mental health services available in the northern region.[[File:DFID-funded, UNHCR emergency shelter tents, in the IDP camp at Menik Farm, Sri Lanka (3694081492).jpg|thumb|350x350px|An IDP camp in Menik Farm, Sri Lanka in 2009 ([https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-19703826 now closed]). Suicide rates in IDP camps were three times the general population.]]The civil war mainly affected the northeastern portion of the country, including the [[w:Vanni_(Sri_Lanka)|Vanni region]]. The conflict caused mass destruction to local mental healthcare facilities. Local residents described the conflict with the phrase ''varthayal varnicca mudiyathavai'', roughly translating into English as 'beyond description by words'<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}</ref>. In 2003, only two psychiatrists were found in the region, operating on extremely limited resources and further deepening long-term trauma and mental health deterioration in the population<ref name=":5" />. In 2002, the humanitarian organization [https://www.msf.org/ Médecins Sans Frontières] (MSF) performed an investigation of mental health needs in the [[w:Vavuniya|Vavuniya]] area, the site of intense conflict during the civil war (including the [[w:1985_Vavuniya_massacre|1985 Vavuniya massacre]]), and found that many of the residents suffered from high suicide rates, alcohol abuse, domestic violence, grief, and a "sense of ‘learnt helplessness’"<ref name=":5" />. A team from the University of Konstanz in Germany found that 92% of grade school children in the region were exposed to "combat, shelling, and witnessing the death of loved ones"<ref name=":9" />. [[File:Tractors. Jan 2009 displacement in the Vanni.jpg|left|thumb|350x350px|Displaced civilians originating from the Kilinochchi and Mullaitivu Districts due to military campaigns by the Sri Lankan military (January 2009). Displaced civilians had to avoid both the atrocities committed by the LTTE and the Sri Lankan government.]] Accusation of war crimes towards [[w:War_crimes_during_the_final_stages_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war|the Sri Lankan government]] have been documented by various external organizations, despite the government's attempts at removing any [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e_p1TfTguW0 mentions] or [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vtm54Y9USEg investigations] of it<ref>See also [[w:Sexual violence in the Sri Lankan civil war]].</ref>. A 2009 HRW report stated that the Sri Lankan government assumed native Tamil population residing in war zones to be "siding with the LTTE and [therefore, were] treated as combatants", leading to indiscriminate shellings and massacres of civilians<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2009-02-19|title=War on the Displaced|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/02/19/war-displaced/sri-lankan-army-and-ltte-abuses-against-civilians-vanni|journal=Human Rights Watch|language=en}}</ref>. Alongside the oppression by the Sri Lankan military, the Vanni population also endured the brutal theatrics of the LTTE, which recruited men, women, and even children with minimal training, effectively rendering them cannon fodder. Over 200,000 Tamil civilians were moved into [[w:Internally_displaced_persons_in_Sri_Lanka|designated displacement camps during the war]], where conditions were abysmal<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000}}</ref>. The suicide rate in these displacement camps were three times the community-level (2002), with a ratio of 103.5 per 10,000 compared to the Sri Lankan general population's rate of 37.5 per 10,000. Almost all suicide attempts involved poisonous substances. Other forms of violence included domestic violence and child abuse. Local health officials in Vavuniya admitted that mental health concerns were a major problem, but were unable to address these concerns due to a lack of resources and support from the government. During the [[wikipedia:Sri_Lankan_civil_war#2002_peace_process_(2002%E2%80%932006)|brief 2002 ceasefire]], the MSF implemented a "community-based programme" which included "increasing awareness, community strengthening, reinforcing coping-strategies for long-term war-affected communities, and counselling". The MSF also advocated for restrictions of poisonous substances due to the suicide attempts, and stressed that "much more [than resettlement]" would need to be done to help alleviate the psychological pain the northern population had faced<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Jong|first=Kaz|last2=Mulhern|first2=Maureen|last3=Ford|first3=Nathan|last4=Simpson|first4=Isabel|last5=Swan|first5=Alison|last6=van der Kam|first6=Saskia|date=2002-04|title=Psychological trauma of the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673602084209|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=359|issue=9316|pages=1517–1518|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08420-9}}</ref>. The ceasefire ended in 2006 and led to the [[w:Eelam_War_IV|final phase of the civil war]], eventually ending in 2009 with the [[w:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velupillai_Prabhakaran#Sri_Lankan_Army_Northern_offensive_and_death|death of the LTTE's leader]]. '''Post-war''' [[File:Puttalam district.svg|left|thumb|Puttalam District, unlike its northern counterparts, was largely spared from the intense conflict, possibly explaining the lower rates of common mental disorders (CMDs).]] The first district-wide cross-sectional multistage cluster sample survey was conducted in the [[w:Jaffna_District|Jaffna District]] shortly after the war ended. The study's sample included 1517 households and 2 internally displaced peoples camps. With a response rate of 92%, the study found that symptoms for PTSD were found in 7% of participants, symptoms of anxiety were found in 32.6% of participants, and symptoms of depression were found in 22.2% of participants. 2% of respondents were currently placed in internally displaced peoples camps at the time of the study, 29.5% were freshly resettled from the internally displaced peoples camps, and the rest of the participants (68.5%) were never placed into camps. In comparison to residents who were never placed into camps, participants that were actively held in camps tend to report more symptoms of PTSD, anxiety, and depression. The researchers also found that women were especially vulnerable to deteriorating mental health conditions. This was explained by two factors: women having to assume the roles of both the father and the mother in the family setting after the, either voluntary or forced, departure of the husband to war, and sexist violence<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Husain|first=Farah|last2=Anderson|first2=Mark|last3=Lopes Cardozo|first3=Barbara|last4=Becknell|first4=Kristin|last5=Blanton|first5=Curtis|last6=Araki|first6=Diane|last7=Kottegoda Vithana|first7=Eeshara|date=2011-08-03|title=Prevalence of War-Related Mental Health Conditions and Association With Displacement Status in Postwar Jaffna District, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1052|journal=JAMA|volume=306|issue=5|pages=522–531|doi=10.1001/jama.2011.1052|issn=0098-7484}}</ref>. A 2013 study on adult patients in [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232631/ primary care settings] (divisional hospitals, primary medical care units) found major depression to be significantly higher in females (5.1%) than males (3.6%), bolstering the observation seen in the 2009 study<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senarath|first=Upul|last2=Wickramage|first2=Kolitha|last3=Peiris|first3=Sharika Lasanthi|date=2014-03-24|title=Prevalence of depression and its associated factors among patients attending primary care settings in the post-conflict Northern Province in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|journal=BMC Psychiatry|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=85|doi=10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|issn=1471-244X|pmc=3987835|pmid=24661436}}</ref>. Muslims in Northern Sri Lanka during the conflict also faced violence and discrimination, most notably [[w:Expulsion_of_Muslims_from_the_Northern_Province_of_Sri_Lanka|the October 1990 expulsion of Muslims from the North to the Puttalam District or Jaffna]] and the [[w:Kattankudy_mosque_massacre|1990 Kattankudy mosque massacre]]. The only study testing the displaced Muslim population post-civil war was completed in 2011, where a cross-sectional survey of 450 internally displaced people or people born into displacement (ages 18 - 65) revealed 18.8% of the sample suffering from common mental health disorders (CMD), including [[w:Somatoform_disorder|somatoform disorder]] (14%), "other depressive syndromes" (7.3%), major depression (5.1%), and anxiety disorder (2.8%). The percentages found in this study for somatoform disorder and major depression were "considerably higher" than the national percentages, though the researchers noted that the prevalence of CMD was lower in comparison to other countries marred with conflict, including Palestine (40.3%) and Ethiopia (27.8%). The researchers explained that the lower rate of CMD may be attributed to the [[w:Puttalam_District|serenity of the post-settlement destination]], as conflict was mainly centered in the North and East. In contrast to earlier findings, this study did not observe a higher prevalence of CMDs among women, although increased rates of somatoform disorders were noted (though the researchers did not show the data behind this)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siriwardhana|first=Chesmal|last2=Adikari|first2=Anushka|last3=Pannala|first3=Gayani|last4=Siribaddana|first4=Sisira|last5=Abas|first5=Melanie|last6=Sumathipala|first6=Athula|last7=Stewart|first7=Robert|date=2013-05-22|title=Prolonged Internal Displacement and Common Mental Disorders in Sri Lanka: The COMRAID Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|pages=e64742|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3661540|pmid=23717656}}</ref>. Research on the mental state of combatants has been limited, but a post-war 2009 study done between soldiers of the [[w:Sri_Lanka_Army_Special_Forces_Regiment|Special Forces]] and regular soldiers showed higher levels of exposure to traumatic events for units of the Special Forces, yet the former exhibited significantly less symptoms of CMDs compared to the latter. The authors of this study, [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=cVKEBdwAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao Raveen Hanwella] and [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=ZRj74qMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra Varuni de Silva], offers the camaraderie of the unit as an explanation for the discrepancy<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|date=2012-08|title=Mental health of Special Forces personnel deployed in battle|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22038567|journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology|volume=47|issue=8|pages=1343–1351|doi=10.1007/s00127-011-0442-0|issn=1433-9285|pmid=22038567}}</ref>. A follow-up study was completed by the pair (with the addition of former Director-General of the Health Services of the Sri Lanka Navy [[w:Nicholas_Jayasekera|Nicholas Jayasekera]]), where the findings were similar, though the statistically significant bridge between the two cohorts in the previous study evaporated in the follow-up study. This may be due to the significant decline in mental health problems observed in the regular unit forces, potentially reflecting resilience in the aftermath of jarring conflict<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=Jayasekera|first2=Nicholas E. L. W.|last3=Silva|first3=Varuni A. de|date=2014-09-25|title=Mental Health Status of Sri Lanka Navy Personnel Three Years after End of Combat Operations: A Follow Up Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=9|issue=9|pages=e108113|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4177866|pmid=25254557}}</ref>. Amputees or soldiers with spinal injuries exhibited drastically different numbers, with approximately 40% of nearly 100 male-veterans in a post-war 2009 study displaying PTSD-like symptoms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abeyasinghe|first=N. L.|last2=de Zoysa|first2=P.|last3=Bandara|first3=K.M.K.C.|last4=Bartholameuz|first4=N. A.|last5=Bandara|first5=J. M.U.J.|date=2012-05-01|title=The prevalence of symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder among soldiers with amputation of a limb or spinal injury: A report from a rehabilitation centre in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|journal=Psychology, Health & Medicine|volume=17|issue=3|pages=376–381|doi=10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|issn=1354-8506|pmid=21942815}}</ref>. About a decade after the conflict ceased, a few notable studies have emerged to help guide understanding on the longer-term mental health effects on victims of the civil war. From July 2019 to October 2020, a study was conducted on 585 local adolescents (ages 12-19) in the Vavuniya district revealed that despite 15.6% of the statistic having faced one or more war-related events, only 3.9% of the participants had moderate - severe depression. In addition to considerably low depression rates, only 5.7% of participants age 17+ were found to have moderate - severe hopelessness<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000|pmc=10472617|pmid=37653394}}</ref>. The authors referenced a 2010 observation by psychiatrist [https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/author/daya-somasundaram Daya Somasundaram], who noted that many Tamil IDPs exhibited "remarkable resilience and post-traumatic growth" after the civil war—an outcome he attributed to the close-knit, family-centered nature of Tamil communities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}</ref>. Findings originating from a 2019 study undertook by several faculty members from the University of Kelaniya, the University of Jaffna, the [[w:Gampaha_Wickramarachchi_University_of_Indigenous_Medicine|Gampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous Medicine]], and the [https://onur.gov.lk/ Office for National Unity and Reconciliation (ONUR)] in Jaffna, found contrasting statistics. Out of 336 participants from districts that faced significant ramifications of the conflict (Jaffna, Kilinochchi, Mullaithivu, Vavuniya, and Mannar districts), 50.5% had extreme anxiety symptoms and 36.5% exhibited "extremely severe" symptoms of depression. 92.5% of families in the sample experienced suicidal ideation, with an observed negative correlation between trauma exposure and life satisfaction with families. Drug abuse (86.2%) and alcohol abuse (84.5%) were the two highest problematic behaviors recorded on a community-level, suggesting that the negative consequences of the civil war still persist, possibly on a substantial scale than previously recognized, in Tamil communities in the North<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thamotharampillai|first=Umaharan|last2=Perera|first2=Ruwanthi|last3=Wickremasinghe|first3=Rajitha|last4=Williams|first4=Shehan|last5=Vijayasangar|first5=Thedsanamoorthy|last6=Sivatharsan|first6=Balasubramaniam|last7=Hilbert|first7=Vanceline|last8=Somasundaram|first8=Daya|date=2025-05-06|title=Collective Trauma- Psychosocial consequences of war in northern Sri Lanka 10 years on, a mixed methods study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000696|journal=SSM - Mental Health|pages=100457|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100457|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Further research should be conducted in this field. In 2019, [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/R-M-M-Monaragala-2087692299 Dr. R. M. M. Monaragala] conducted a study on 1,845 soldiers with combat experience, finding that 3.9% of the sample suffered from PTSD. Dr. Monaragala noted that "probable depression, fatigue, aggression, and family history of mental disorder" were correlative of PTSD presence. He suggested that "screening and psychosocial intervention" were recommended avenues to alleviate CMDs of former combatants<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Monaragala|first=R. M. M.|date=2024-04-19|title=Exploring the effects of the past civil war in terms of the prevalence and associating factors of PTSD|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=14|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. === 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami === The '''2004 Boxing Day Tsunami''' was a natural disaster where a tsunami spawned off a 9.2–9.3 magnitude earthquake off the coast of Aceh in Indonesia on December 26. The tsunami greatly affected the coastlines of the country, with the death toll reaching to about 35,000 deaths. In addition, 90,000 houses were destroyed and 516,000 people were forced to migrate due to severe infrastructural damage<ref name=":5" />. It stands as the [http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/tsunami_relief/119821.htm worst natural disaster to have ever hit Sri Lanka]. [[File:Tsunami relief 2004 02.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Volunteers from [[w:Royal_College,_Colombo|Royal College in Colombo]] assisting in tsunami relief efforts (Sarvodaya Headquaters, Moratuwa).]] A survey conducted on schoolchildren (ages 8-14) in Manadkadu (Tamil-majority village in the northern coast), [[w:Kosgoda|Kosgoda]] (western coast), and [[w:Galle|Galle]] (southern coast), just a few weeks after the tsunami hit Sri Lanka, revealed that 33.8%, 13.9%, and 38.8% of children interviewed exhibited signs of PTSD (according to the DSM-IV's criteria), respectively (minus the time criteria, as the DSM-IV does not permit diagnosis of PTSD within 4 weeks of a traumatic incident). The loss of family members and exposure to previously traumatic incidents seem to highly correlate with PTSD development<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Neuner|first=Frank|last2=Schauer|first2=Elisabeth|last3=Catani|first3=Claudia|last4=Ruf|first4=Martina|last5=Elbert|first5=Thomas|date=2006|title=Post-tsunami stress: A study of posttraumatic stress disorder in children living in three severely affected regions in Sri Lanka|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jts.20121|journal=Journal of Traumatic Stress|language=en|volume=19|issue=3|pages=339–347|doi=10.1002/jts.20121|issn=1573-6598}}</ref>. Many victims in the Jaffna area suffered with "[https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/prolonged-grief-disorder pathological grief], phobias, depression and PTSD" post-tsunami. Schizophrenia in the Jaffna Tamil community, which had already suffered elevated prevalence of PTSD prior to the tsunami, had worsened—highlighting the need for specialized care in response to cumulative exposures to chronic and acute traumas. In a study published in the journal ''International Psychiatry'' (2006), Jaffna-based researchers noted that, contrary to their initial inclinations, there was not a "large[r] (than expected) rise in [the] number of people" seeking mental health support 3 months after the tsunami. However, 10 months after the disaster, the researchers anticipated that "more psychiatric disorders" would emerge due to "very little rebuilding [efforts]" and an apparent "unfairness in the aid system".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=D. J.|last2=Yoganathan|first2=S.|last3=Ganesvaran|first3=T.|date=1993-09|title=Schizophrenia in northern Sri Lanka|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7828234|journal=The Ceylon Medical Journal..|volume=38|issue=3|pages=131–135|issn=0009-0875|pmid=7828234}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Danvers|first=K.|last2=Sivayokan|first2=S.|last3=Somasundaram|first3=D. J.|last4=Sivashankar|first4=R.|date=2006-07|title=Ten months on: qualitative assessment of psychosocial issues in northern Sri Lanka following the tsunami|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6734678/|journal=International Psychiatry: Bulletin of the Board of International Affairs of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|volume=3|issue=3|pages=5–8|issn=1749-3676|pmc=6734678|pmid=31507850}}</ref> At the February 2005 ''After the Tsunami: Mental Health Challenges to the Community for Today and Tomorrow'' conference in Thailand, [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Chandanie-Hewage Dr. Chandanie Hewage] of the [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] commentated that measures taken to assist the affected were "not coordinated" due to poor "communication systems and road [conditions]." Regardless, efforts were continued by the government and health professionals to alleviate the struggles the victims were facing, including the psychological ramifications of the disaster. Several issues in the delivery of these services were highlighted by Dr. Hewage, including poor maintenance of health records, lack of awareness on drug consumption by the patients themselves, and shortages of health professionals. Dr. Hewage points out that personnel had "little" mental health training prior to the disaster, suggesting increased "research" and adequate "provision[ing] and training of staff" in the long-term<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Davidson|first=Jonathan R. T.|date=2006|title=Foreword. After the tsunami: mental health challenges to the community for today and tomorrow|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16602809|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=67 Suppl 2|pages=3–8|issn=0160-6689|pmid=16602809}}</ref>. With inadequate documentation, no systematic procedures in place, and insufficient personnel, tsunami victims with mental health concerns may not receive the services they need, further compacting neuropsychological ailments. In 2008 (about 3-4 years after the tsunami), researchers in the hard-hit village of [[w:Peraliya|Peraliya]] (Galle District) found that from a sample of approximately 90 adults, 25% suffered from moderate–severe PTSD, with women scoring "above the cut-off for anxiety" and reporting more "somatic symptoms", though researchers inferred that the PTSD rate found in the study may be influenced by war or economic hardship<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hollifield|first=Michael|last2=Hewage|first2=Chandanie|last3=Gunawardena|first3=Charlotte N.|last4=Kodituwakku|first4=Piyadasa|last5=Bopagoda|first5=Kalum|last6=Weerarathnege|first6=Krishantha|last7=Group|first7=International Post-Tsunami Study|date=2008-01|title=Symptoms and coping in Sri Lanka 20–21 months after the 2004 tsunami|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/symptoms-and-coping-in-sri-lanka-2021-months-after-the-2004-tsunami/CB33752239AF362A0BFD55B3668D60B0|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=192|issue=1|pages=39–44|doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.107.038422|issn=0007-1250}}</ref>. === 2019 Easter Bombings === The '''2019 Easter Bombings''' were a series of coordinated attacks perpetrated by the Islamic extremist group, [[w:National_Thowheeth_Jama'ath|National Thowheeth Jama'ath]], on April 21, 2019. The attack targeted three churches and three hotels in the Colombo area, killing nearly 300 people and injuring over 500. The attack was also attributed to the incompetency of the Sri Lankan government, who ignored [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48044636 multiple warnings regarding the attacks]. The attacks negatively affected the Sri Lankan Catholic community and further weakened relations between the major religious groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. In the aftermath of the attacks, professionals in the [[w:Gampaha_District|Gampaha District]] resorted to "low-cost methodological" responses to children and adolescents affected by the attack as a "severe shortage" of children and adolescent mental health experts were exposed<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chandradasa|first=Miyuru|last2=Rathnayake|first2=Layani C|last3=Rowel|first3=Madushi|last4=Fernando|first4=Lalin|date=2020-06-01|title=Early phase child and adolescent psychiatry response after mass trauma: Lessons learned from the Easter Sunday attack in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020913314|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry|language=EN|volume=66|issue=4|pages=331–334|doi=10.1177/0020764020913314|issn=0020-7640}}</ref>. In a qualitative study of 8 survivors of the attacks receiving grief counseling, [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] assistant professor [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Virasha-Godakanda Virasha Godakanda] observed that 70% of the sample size expressed "doubts" in adequate mental health interventions from the government, reducing the quality of such services. Professor Godakanda strongly endorsed for "culturally-sensitive" programs, a diversity in therapeutic approaches (including nature-based therapy), and "prolonged investigations" to track developments in mental health resources and impacts of implemented interventions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Godakanda|first=Virasha|date=2025-01-29|title=A GRIEF COUNSELING INTERVENTION AFTER THE MASS TRAUMA: LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE VICTIMS OF THE EASTER SUNDAY ATTACK IN SRI LANKA|url=https://kjmr.com.pk/kjmr/article/view/216|journal=Kashf Journal of Multidisciplinary Research|language=en|volume=2|issue=01|pages=13–32|doi=10.71146/kjmr216|issn=3007-200X}}</ref>. A few weeks following the attacks, Muslims in Sri Lanka were subjected to [[w:2019_anti-Muslim_riots_in_Sri_Lanka|violent, coordinated riots]] masterminded by Sinhalese national forces<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mujahidin|first=Muhammad Saekul|date=2023-07-03|title=Extremism and Islamophobia Against the Muslim Minority in Sri Lanka|url=https://www.ajis.org/|journal=American Journal of Islam and Society|language=en|volume=40|issue=1-2|pages=213–241|doi=10.35632/ajis.v40i1-2.3135|issn=2690-3741}}</ref>. Riots were mainly centered in the [[w:Kurunegala_District|Kurunegala]], Gampaha, and [[w:Kandy_District|Kandy]] Districts. At least [https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/5/21/in-sri-lanka-muslims-say-sinhala-neighbours-turned-against-them one confirmed death was reported]. Calls for vague ''niqab'' and ''burqa'' bans were increasingly prominent, eventually leading to the 2021 burqa ban by the Sri Lankan government. Pakistani and Afghani refugees fleeing religious persecution in Negombo were forced to be "made refugees again" after local protests were orchestrated against their settlement. Islamophobic sentiment was "unleashed online, in the law, and on the street"<ref>{{Cite book|title=CARTOGRAPHIC JOURNEY OF RACE, GENDER AND POWER: global identity|date=2021|publisher=CAMBRIDGE SCHOLARS PUBLIS|isbn=978-1-5275-6965-2|location=S.l.}}</ref>. Albeit its relevancy to the attacks, no in-depth mental health studies were administered on the minority Muslim population following the Easter bombings. Further research is imperative in exploring the sustained psychological effects of Islamophobia and its effect on the Muslim minority community in the aftermath of the 2019 Easter attacks. Literature on the impact of the 2019 Easter Bombings on mental health is limited and further research should be conducted. === 2019-2024 Economic Crisis === The '''2019-2024 Economic Crisis''' refers to a 5 year period where the Sri Lankan economy experienced massive inflation and an abrupt hike in prices on basic, everyday items. It is the worse economic crisis the country has faced since the Sri Lankans were granted independence in 1948. Schools in Sri Lanka were forced to postpone examinations due to paper shortages. Gas shortages led to long lines at gas stations, some lasting for days, throughout the island. Shortages in electricity, cooking gas, and aviation were additional results of the economic crisis. Healthcare workers faced a barrage of mental health during the crisis, including a lopsided work-life balance due to unprecedented demand, increased stress and mental fatigue from a lack of resources and personnel, unhealthy coping mechanisms, job dissatisfaction, and a reduction in work quality. Such effects perpetuate a self-enforcing cycle of psychologically distressed mental healthcare workers providing subpar services, affecting patients and amplifying mental health issues experienced by both the workforce and their patients<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dilogini|first=S.|last2=Grace|first2=H. H.|last3=Thasika|first3=T.|date=2024|title=Exploring The Mental Health and Well-Being of Public Healthcare Workers (HCWs) Amid Economic Crisis in Sri Lanka|url=http://repo.lib.jfn.ac.lk/ujrr/handle/123456789/11092|language=en|publisher=Chartered Institute of Personnel Management}}</ref>. Medical students from the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Colombo reported that the economic crisis forced abrupt changes in dietary consumption, increased hopelessness in the future, increased stress and anxiety, and a decrease in interest in pursuing a "clinical post-graduate career"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Adikaranayake|first=Pesala Randika|last2=Perera|first2=Anusha Nimrod|last3=Nilaweera|first3=Akhila Imantha|last4=Fernando|first4=Desha Rajni|last5=Wijayaratne|first5=Dilushi Rowena|date=2025-07-01|title=Effects of Sri Lankan economic crisis on health, lifestyle and education of medical students in Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo – an online survey|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|journal=BMC Medical Education|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=938|doi=10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|issn=1472-6920|pmc=12211748}}</ref>. 283 government-school teachers completed a web-based cross-sectional survey in April 2024, with majority of the participants reporting a severe reduction in monthly income & 1/3 of participants exhibiting "clinical levels of psychological distress"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C. P.|last2=Senarathne|first2=D. L. P.|last3=Fernando|first3=M. S.|last4=Senevirathne|first4=S. P.|date=2025-05-28|title=Examining the economic burden and mental health distress among government school teachers in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|journal=BMC Psychology|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=572|doi=10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|issn=2050-7283}}</ref>. A study published in that same year reported that out of 261 nurses working in teaching hospitals, 91.6% were forced to allocate their finances to strictly "general needs", while more than 50% looked into international opportunism for employment. Notably, the study reported an overall near "twofold greater" rate of depression, anxiety, and stress compared to previously conducted studies on nurses<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C.P|last2=Senarathne|first2=L.|last3=Fernando|first3=M.|date=2024-04-01|title=Exploring the Association Between Behavioural Modification in Response to the Prevailing Economic Crisis and Mental Health Outcomes of Nurses from Teaching Hospitals, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/23779608241272679|journal=SAGE Open Nursing|language=EN|volume=10|pages=23779608241272679|doi=10.1177/23779608241272679|issn=2377-9608|pmc=11311183}}</ref>. The detrimental effects the crisis has had on the mental health sector reveal a concerning area of underappreciation and under compensation by the Sri Lankan government towards a critical sector for the well-being of the country. Comprehensive mental health interventions need to be prepared and ready to implement at times of national emergencies. == Present-Day Challenges == === Ethnic tension === Despite the end of the Sri Lankan civil war and the introduction of pluralist policies, such as the [https://srilankaembassy.fr/sites/default/files/files/media/pdf/NationalPolicy-English.pdf 2017 National Policy on Reconciliation and Coexistence] under the Sirisena administration, tensions amongst members of the ethnic groups still persist in the country. Evidence of these tensions was found through a 2022 study conducted in the Ratnapura district, where religious leaders expressed skepticisms, through semi-structured interviews, for "conflict transformation". A Tamil citizen of the Ratnapura community recounted that they were forced to "hide in jungles" and consume "dirty water in drainage[s]" due to scarcity of food and drinkable water as a result of the conflict. In certain personal accounts, ethnic conflicts appear to affect the social behavior and identity of the majority ethnic group. One Sinhala participant recounted his objection to the war-time retaliatory destruction of a shop run by a Tamil shopkeeper was met with interrogative questions about "whether [he was] Sinhalese or not". Both accounts convey interethnic tensions stemming from decade-long conflicts<ref>Jayathilaka, Aruna & Gamage, Sayuri. (2024). Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders in the Post-War Conflict Transformation Process: A Study Based on Rathnapura District in Srilanka. ''Retrieved from'' https://gandhimargjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Volume-46-Issue-1-April-June-2024.pdf#page=66</ref>. Beyond individual accounts and the official end of the civil war, the minority groups in the country continue to feel ostracized. The Sri Lankan Tamil population remains dissatisfied with the Sri Lankan government and their accountability of perpetrators of war crimes and information on the whereabouts of [[w:Enforced_disappearances_in_Sri_Lanka|thousands of enforced disappearances]] that took place from the 1980s. Additionally, rising anti-Muslim sentiment in recent years contribute to increased ethnic tensions, a stark contrast to the previous centuries of peaceful co-existence between the groups. [[File:Bodu Bala Sena symbol.svg|thumb|The symbol for Bodu Bala Sena, a nationalistic Sinhala Buddhist group criticized for catalyzing ethnic tensions in Sri Lanka.]] Laws passed by the Sri Lankan government, such as the [[w:Prevention_of_Terrorism_Act_(Sri_Lanka)|Prevention of Terrorism Act]] and [[wikipedia:Anti-conversion_law#Sri_Lanka|anti-conversion laws]], have forced the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom to label Sri Lanka as a nation that "[engages] or [tolerates] severe violations of religious freedom" in their 2024 report. The government has been criticized by human rights organizations for "disproportionately targeting religious minorities"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Additionally, the implementation of the three dominant languages, English, Sinhala, and Tamil, across formal education and government services have been lackadaisical, narrowing opportunities of foundational social interactions between the groups. Persistent discrimination and prejudice towards minority groups can lead to an array of complex and self-deprecating mental health issues. Effort to mitigate ethnic tensions include strategies like [[w:Community-based_participatory_research|community-based participatory research]] (CBPR), task-sharing, and securing online mental health services in order to expand mental health services. However, the implementation of evidence-based plans has been met with difficulty due to inaccessibility, high costs, and shortages of adequately-trained personnel. Movements aiming for improved intra group and inter group coexistences, such as the Jaffna People’s Forum for Coexistence developed in the wake of the 2019 Easter bombings, should be emphasized on a systematic and multi-level basis, including but not limited to education, public sectors, and within communities. Pluralistic values should be stressed across both private and public schools to foster cultural sensitivity and tolerance. Measures should be taken against threatening extremist groups promoting sectarian hostility, such as the [[w:Bodu_Bala_Sena|Bodu Bala Sena]]. === Poverty === It has been proven that poverty significantly increases the chances of developing mental illnesses. This is further amplified by possible discrimination<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knifton|first=Lee|last2=Inglis|first2=Greig|date=2020-10|title=Poverty and mental health: policy, practice and research implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7525587/|journal=BJPsych bulletin|volume=44|issue=5|pages=193–196|doi=10.1192/bjb.2020.78|issn=2056-4694|pmc=7525587|pmid=32744210}}</ref>. Poverty also affects the ability for individuals with mental health concerns to receive the treatment they need. Due to the repercussions of the economic crisis, clients in Sri Lanka could not attend further counseling sessions<ref name=":8" />. Poverty from 2021 to 2022 [https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/poverty/987B9C90-CB9F-4D93-AE8C-750588BF00QA/current/Global_POVEQ_LKA.pdf reportedly doubled], with future forecasts predicting the poverty line to "remain above 25 percent". Suicide has been empirically linked to economic hardships in previous studies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}</ref>. A 2013 study done on suicidal patients in [[w:Batticaloa_Teaching_Hospital|Batticaloa Teaching Hospital]] revealed 76% of patients who attempted suicide were from rural areas while 15% were from urban areas<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://ir.lib.seu.ac.lk/handle/123456789/1457|title=The influence of common risk factors for the patient with attempted suicide hospitalized at the teaching hospital, Batticaloa|last=Kisokanth|first=G.|last2=Najeem|first2=M. M.|last3=Karunakaran|first3=K. E.|date=2014-08-02|publisher=South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, University Park, Oluvil #32360, Sri Lanka|isbn=978-955-627-053-2|language=en-US}}</ref>. The Sri Lankan government should consider the economical impacts that poverty has on mental health and implement ways to aid poverty-stricken individuals with mental health concerns. === Stigmas === Stigma consists of the "combined effect of prejudice, ignorance and discrimination."<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|url=http://www.researchgate.net/publication/233990797_The_Stigma_of_Mental_Illness_in_Sri_Lanka_The_Perspectives_of_Community_Mental_Health_Workers|title=(PDF) The Stigma of Mental Illness in Sri Lanka: The Perspectives of Community Mental Health Workers|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2025-07-25}}</ref>. A 2012 interview consisting of nine participants (two doctors, three nurses, one occupational therapist, one development worker, and two volunteers) revealed a number of concerning societal viewpoints on individuals with mental health concerns. The interviews revealed that negative judgements were not only levied against the individual with the mental illness, but also the family. Families hid mentally ill family members from the public to avoid "shame" and possible hinderances in marriage proposals. Views that mentally ill individuals were "violent" served as the motivating factor behind socially isolating those with mental illness from their communities. Interviewees mentioned that individuals dealing with mental health challenges would have stones and "derogatory names" launched at them. A lack of community awareness regarding mental health and negative portrayals of mentally ill individuals in media exacerbates stigmatization, though the researchers commented that the media was "improving" in their depiction of mental illness. Beliefs that illnesses are caused by "spirits" can be problematic for individuals dealing with mental health issues and serves as evidence to poor mental health awareness in the country. Mental health workers themselves believed that they were being stigmatized, as mental health is reportedly not taken as seriously as physical health. Despite the intriguing perspectives provided, the small sample size and usage of snow sampling raise questionable concerns regarding the contextualization of the results<ref name=":10" />. Improving media portrayal of subjects concerning mental health and involving community members in interventions dealing with mental health issues are ways that could destigmatize mental health amongst communities in Sri Lanka. Tying collaborations between allopathic services and traditional healers instead of having these two services work individually could enhance engagement between traditional medicine and Western medicine. === Suicide Trends & Risk Factors === Suicide is defined as "the act of killing oneself deliberately, initiated and performed by the person concerned in the full knowledge or expectation of its fatal outcome"<ref name=":11">{{Cite book|title=The neuroscience of suicidal behavior|last=Heeringen|first=Kees van|date=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-60290-4|series=Cambridge fundamentals of neuroscience in psychology|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom New York, NY, USA Port Melbourne, VIC, Australia New Delhi, India Singapore}}</ref>. Although Sri Lanka has seen a significant reduction in suicide rates from the mid 1990s due to its banning of extremely toxic pesticide products, suicide and self harm remains a significant issue. The suicide rate per 100,000 people increased from 14.0 in 2019 to [https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide 15.0 in 2022] (according to WHO). On average, 27 males per 100,000 males and 5 females per 100,000 females committed suicide in 2022<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}</ref>. Hanging appears to be the most used method for suicide for both males and females, with studies revealing a steady increase in recent years<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Bandara|first=Piumee|last2=Wickrama|first2=Prabath|last3=Sivayokan|first3=Sambasivamoorthy|last4=Knipe|first4=Duleeka|last5=Rajapakse|first5=Thilini|date=2024-04-17|title=Reflections on the trends of suicide in Sri Lanka, 1997–2022: The need for continued vigilance|url=https://journals.plos.org/globalpublichealth/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|journal=PLOS Global Public Health|language=en|volume=4|issue=4|pages=e0003054|doi=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|issn=2767-3375|pmc=11023397|pmid=38630779}}</ref>. From 2023 to 2024, a group of researchers from the [[w:Eastern_University,_Sri_Lanka|Eastern University in Sri Lanka]] assessed 828 patients admitted to the Teaching Hospital in [[w:Batticaloa,_Sri_Lanka|Batticaloa, Sri Lanka]] for attempted suicide. They concluded that suicide prevention programs should be attuned to younger people (ages 15 to 35 in the study), emphasize the importance of education and reducing unemployment, and increase social support in the Tamil community. Despite the relevant insights into certain aspects of an average Sri Lankan's life that could lead to suicidal ideation (ie, poverty), the results from this study suffer in external validity as 90% of the patients were Tamil and over 50% were between 16 and 25 years. In addition, correlations between suicide and unemployment rates have been questioned, with [[w:Austerity|austerity]] being a more reliable indicator of suicide rates than unemployment rates<ref name=":11" />. Further comprehensive studies on risk factors relating to suicide should be studied to assess correlations between unemployment rates and austerity measures. The WHO suggests implementing evidence-based suicide prevention programs, such as [https://www.who.int/initiatives/live-life-initiative-for-suicide-prevention LIVE LIFE], to reduce the national suicide rate<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide|title=World Suicide Prevention day 2024 “Changing the Narrative on Suicide”|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2025-07-29}}</ref>. Media depictions of suicidal methods, such as hanging, can lead to sensationalism and the media should be cautious of such displays in movies and TV shows<ref name=":12" />. Awareness of depression and other mental health issues can serve as a safeguard against suicidal ideation in Sri Lankan men and women. == Role of Religion == According to the last demographic report (2012), 70.2% of Sri Lankans are Buddhist, 12.6% are Hindus, 9.7% are Muslims, and 7.4% are Christians. The Theravada Buddhist community makes up the majority in several provinces throughout the country<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sri-lanka/|title=Sri Lanka|website=United States Department of State|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-07}}</ref>. Religion, especially Theravada Buddhism, has had a significant influence on not only the historical treatment of mental health in the country, but also everyday life<ref name=":15" />. The [[w:Mahāvaṃsa|''Mahāvaṃsa'']] affirms hospitals treating patients suffering from mental health issues as early as the 4th century BC. Additionally, the 1700s Nayaka king [[w:Kirti_Sri_Rajasinha|Kirthi Sri Rajasinghe]] detailed the implementation of Buddhist philosophy in psychiatry<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. De|date=2017-12-05|title=Development of civil commitment statutes (laws of involuntary detention and treatment) in Sri Lanka: a historical review|url=https://mljsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|journal=Medico-Legal Journal of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|doi=10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|issn=2012-8231}}</ref>. Modern-day empirical studies have attested to the usefulness of religion in mitigating stress and elevating mental health<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|title=Religion and Mental Health|last=Schieman|first=Scott|last2=Bierman|first2=Alex|last3=Ellison|first3=Christopher G.|date=2013|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-94-007-4276-5|editor-last=Aneshensel|editor-first=Carol S.|location=Dordrecht|pages=457–478|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|editor-last2=Phelan|editor-first2=Jo C.|editor-last3=Bierman|editor-first3=Alex}}</ref>. Religion has been found to be positively correlated with improved mental health, and more religious patients were concluded to have "better mental health and adapt[ed] more quickly to health problems" versus patients who weren't religious<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koenig|first=Harold G.|date=2012|title=Religion, spirituality, and health: the research and clinical implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3671693/|journal=ISRN psychiatry|volume=2012|pages=278730|doi=10.5402/2012/278730|issn=2090-7966|pmc=3671693|pmid=23762764}}</ref>. [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/T-N-Wickramarathna-2247724082 Dr. Wickramarathna] of the University Psychiatry Unit (UPU) at the National Hospital of Sri Lanka (NHSL) argues that psychiatrists must strive for a balance in their approach to patients and "make positive use of religion in [their] practice[s]"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wickramarathna|first=T. N.|date=2022-12-31|title=Psychiatrists should stand far from the shrine: why and why not we should separate religion from psychiatry|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=13|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. === Buddhism === 27 Sinhalese Buddhists from four Buddhist temples were selected for a series of 70-minute interviews and focus group discussions with the aim of learning the Sinhala Buddhist understanding and experience of spiritual well-being and psychological well-being. The interviewees held spiritual wellness to be the "center" of overall wellness, the "precondition for a successful life"<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|language=en-US|volume=44|issue=1|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=0258-9710}}</ref>. Sinhala Buddhists believe that wellness cannot be achieved without spiritual tranquility. The report states that participants emphasized that spirituality "cannot be directly intervened" and can only be seen through "[interactions] with society"<ref name=":14" />. Despite the ''athmaya'' (soul) being "unreachable", it can be "intervened", or treated, through the actions of the mind and body with society<ref name=":14" />. One being "psychologically ill" can affect one's spiritual being, as the participants reported in their interviews, and can be affected through "lifestyle stressors, environmental and socio-cultural causes, non-human related causes and bad-karma in the past lives"<ref name=":14" />. The researchers concluded that despite Sinhala Buddhists not being able to articulately decipher the discrepancies between psychological well-being and spiritual well-being, they are able to conceptualize and maintain a culturally embedded understanding between the two, serving as reputable evidence of the integration of mental health in Sinhala Buddhist practices. However, it is important to note that these results come from a very small sample size and cannot be generalized to all Sri Lankan Buddhists. In addition, a 2009 study found that a belief in karma was correlated with poor health. However, an earlier study found a positive correlation between the reliance on the [[w:Karma_in_Buddhism|Buddhist concept of karma]] and trauma, inferencing Buddhist karma being a prevalent response to trauma<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Levy|first=Becca R.|last2=Slade|first2=Martin D.|last3=Ranasinghe|first3=Padmini|date=2009-03|title=Causal thinking after a tsunami wave: karma beliefs, pessimistic explanatory style and health among Sri Lankan survivors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19229624|journal=Journal of Religion and Health|volume=48|issue=1|pages=38–45|doi=10.1007/s10943-008-9162-5|issn=1573-6571|pmid=19229624}}</ref>. Overall, the effectiveness of karma as a coping mechanism appears to be conflicted. Studies indicate that other practices of Buddhism seem to be utilized by individuals affected by the war. 40% of Sri Lankan Buddhists affected by the 2004 tsunami found the Buddhist ritual ''Bodhipuja'' to be helpful in dealing with traumatic experiences<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jmvh.org/article/mental-health-and-the-role-of-cultural-and-religious-support-in-the-assistance-of-disabled-veterans-in-sri-lanka/|title=Mental Health and the Role of Cultural and Religious Support in the Assistance of Disabled Veterans in Sri Lanka|website=JMVH|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-12}}</ref>. === Catholicism === Catholic counseling refers to "a nuanced and holistic mental health care paradigm that intricately weaves together psychological science with the moral, spiritual, and pastoral traditions of the Catholic Church"<ref name=":13">Perera, U. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera/publication/394095042_Catholic_Counselling_in_Sri_Lanka_Integrating_Faith_Psychology_and_Cultural_Healing/links/6889303af8031739e6098c79/Catholic-Counselling-in-Sri-Lanka-Integrating-Faith-Psychology-and-Cultural-Healing.pdf Catholic Counselling in Sri Lanka: Integrating Faith, Psychology, and Cultural Healing]. July 2025.</ref> and aims to assimilate Catholic theology and evidence-based psychological treatment while including Sri Lankan cultural elements. This is achieved through emphasis on community cohesion and a locally-based understanding of "personhood"<ref name=":13" />. The origins of Catholic counseling trace back to the introduction of Roman Catholicism to the island in the 1600s, with the focus of the early Sri Lankan Catholic community being on "[[w:Evangelism|evangelization]], education, and sacramental formation". Demand for counseling services in general increased due to the impacts of the Sri Lankan Civil War, where Catholic organizations (Caritas Sri Lanka, Seth Sarana, Subodhi Integral Centre (Piliyandala), etc.) established several Catholic-based trauma-informed programmes for victims of the Civil War. Programmes use group therapy, forgiveness rituals, and narrative repairs to alleviate war trauma. Examples of integration of Catholic virtues and counseling can be seen in [[w:Cognitive_Behavioral_Therapy|Cognitive Behavioral Therapy]] (CBT), where "hope" and "humility" are used as the frameworks for creating spiritual resilience<ref name=":13" />. The general Christian call of "agape love and acceptance" is echoed by the concept of [[w:Unconditional_positive_regard|unconditional positive regard]]. ''[[w:Lectio_Divina|Lectio Divina]]'' (Catholic prayer and meditation) and ''Marian devotions'' are integrated into therapeutic practices to achieve emotional regulation and mindfulness. Senior Lecturer [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera Udeshini Perera] of the University of Colombo articulates a critical role of Catholic counseling. She claims that secular counseling fails to address the "spiritual roots of distress and moral confusion". Catholic counseling fills in this gap by integrating "psychological insights with a transcendent orientation, supporting lasting transformation and integrity"<ref name=":13" />. As of 2025, no formal accreditation or standardized training exists for [[w:Pastoral_counseling|pastoral counselors]] in Sri Lanka, hampering the legitimacy of Catholic counseling. Udeshini Perera remarks that mental health stigma, lack of standardized training, research regarding Catholic counseling effectiveness, and acceptance of the combination of religion and science in a professional setting present challenges for Catholic pastoral counseling in the country. Additionally, Catholic psychiatry in Sri Lanka appears to be under-researched, and evidence of its empirical effects on followers appears sparse. Further research is needed in assessing the empirical effects of Catholic counseling in Sri Lanka. === Islam === The literature on the empirical effects of Islamic-based psychotherapy in Sri Lanka is limited. Research has revealed a 2012 case study where a 21-year-old Muslim woman was experiencing episodic possession states. The patient ceased attending psychiatric services and opted for religious rituals. The patient reported, in a follow-up visit, that the possession states had been absent for 3 months since her switch to religious rituals. The woman and her family attributed the apparent improvement of her condition to religious rituals<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|last3=Yoosuf|first3=Alam|last4=Karunaratne|first4=Sanjeewani|last5=de Silva|first5=Pushpa|date=2012|title=Religious Beliefs, Possession States, and Spirits: Three Case Studies from Sri Lanka|url=http://www.hindawi.com/journals/crips/2012/232740/|journal=Case Reports in Psychiatry|language=en|volume=2012|pages=1–3|doi=10.1155/2012/232740|issn=2090-682X|pmc=3437272|pmid=22970398}}</ref>. Future recommendations would be to employ resources to research the foundations of Islamic psychiatry in the country, and to observe the rituals employed and their effects on patients. Studies have found that Islamic prayer can be an effective means of "support and coping"<ref name=":15" />. Seven world-wide case studies using Islamic-based psychotherapy on patients, consisting of religious rituals such as scriptural reading from the [[w:Quran|Quran]], teaching of fundamental Islamic concepts (such as ''[[w:Tawakkul|tawakkul]]''), and active implementation of contemplation (''[[w:Tadabbur|tadabbur]]''), have reported positive effects in decreasing cognitive and emotional symptoms associated with "religious, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorder, grief, and substance use disorder.”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kurhade|first=Chhaya Shantaram|last2=Jagannathan|first2=Aarti|last3=Varambally|first3=Shivarama|last4=Shivanna|first4=Sushrutha|date=2022-01|title=Religion-based interventions for mental health disorders: A systematic review|url=https://journals.lww.com/10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|journal=Journal of Applied Consciousness Studies|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=20–33|doi=10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|issn=2949-6993}}</ref> Additionally, a community-based study of elderly patients in Bangalore, India receiving Islamic-based psychotherapy observed decreased exhibitions of sleep disorders, eating disorders, and emotional distress<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hafeez|first=Nimin|last2=Sanjay|first2=Thittamaranahalli Varadappa|last3=Puthussery|first3=Yannick Poulose|last4=Madhusudan|first4=Muralidhar|last5=Kariyappa|first5=Poornima Muddaiah|last6=Kulkarni|first6=Sridevi|last7=Raj|first7=Lavanya|date=2023-12-31|title=Spiritual practices among elderly, prevalence, pattern and associated factors: a community-based study from rural Bengaluru, India|url=https://jccpsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|journal=Journal of the College of Community Physicians of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=29|issue=4|doi=10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|issn=1391-3174}}</ref>. === Hinduism === Despite Hindus being 12.6% of the population of Sri Lanka, the research on Hinduism-based therapy in the country is limited. Ayurvedic medicine, a form of medicine originating from ancient India, predominated the Sri Lankan medical landscape for over 2,000 years and even had a symbiotic relationship with Sinhalese medicine, which also played a significant and influential role in the country's medical framework<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/article/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990/|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|volume=44|issue=1|pages=33|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=2478-1169}}</ref>. Despite its historical dominance, Ayurvedic medicine has been challenged against modern evidence-based medical standards<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://philarchive.org/rec/DOMAAT|title=Ayurveda: Ancient Tradition or Pseudoscientific Practice? A Philosophical Inquiry|last=Dominic|first=Shubham K.}}</ref>. === Comparative synthesis === Taking an overarching review of the role of religion in Sri Lanka, methods to improve mental well-being are practiced by adherents of Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. These methods are practiced through karma, tawakkul, hope, and humility. Additionally, these practices are implemented in traditionally-oriented mental health care, which has been reported to be preferred over psychiatric care at times. These rituals practiced across these religions indicate a common theme of psychologically integrated aspects of well-being. Interpretation of trauma is a central use in religion, with religious principles, such as karma and ''tawakkul'', serving as psychologically analogous mechanisms during times of distress. In terms of methodological comparisons to the studies described, qualitative interviews have documented Buddhist practices and principles, like Bodhipuja and the belief in karma, in response to traumatic events, while case studies found religious practices by other religious groups, such as a Muslim patient reading Islamic scripture and observing prayer to reduce emotional distress. Peer-reviewed sources have documented Catholic practices and principles, such as ''Lectio Divina'' and unconditional positive regard, in improving mindfulness and emotional regulation. The paper acknowledges limitations in the evaluation of certain findings, such as in Islam and Hinduism. These shortcomings, however, are a reflection of the existing literature and its deficiencies. Empirical findings indicate mental health practices are complex and are multifaceted in their effects. Evidently, religion serves a parallel role to psychiatric services in improving mental health. Despite its perceived benefits, the findings surrounding religions' role in mental health suffer from conflicting, and sometimes contradictory, results. Additionally, a disproportionate amount of empirical findings seem to be Buddhist-predominant, while other religions are underrepresented in the research. Regarding research barriers, the methodological approaches implemented to study the practices of religious followers vary, though much of the research was brought from qualitative or case-based studies, impeding generalizability. Another noteworthy issue is that many studies do not utilize standardized, psychiatric measures. == Future Outlook == Despite significant changes to the mental health environment in Sri Lanka, the current legal framework shaping mental health in the country has not been updated since 1956. A Cambridge University Press article detailed many limitations of the Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956, including discrepancies between the legal provisions of involuntary admissions and modern practices, potential exposure to trauma through extra-legal detentions of the mentally ill, and an absence of legal guidelines addressing the restraint of violent patients<ref name=":6" />. Participants from Sri Lanka reported in a comparative legislative questionnaire that they felt the mental health laws were "outdated" and descriptions of clinical roles remained ambiguous<ref name=":16" />. A draft mental health legislation from 2007 includes provisions for human rights, but due to "bureaucratic processes" and a "lack of consensus", the draft has not been officially approved. These limitations pose challenges to the standardization of mental healthcare admissions and may impact the rights of detained patients. Detained patients may have their human rights violated due to a lack of an up-to-date legal framework, thereby impeding the identification of such violations. Additionally, with the lack of clarity on clinical roles, clinical responsibilities may not be routinely recognized and observed, leading to role confusion and potential legal ramifications<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Dey|first=Sangeeta|last2=Mellsop|first2=Graham|last3=Diesfeld|first3=Kate|last4=Dharmawardene|first4=Vajira|last5=Mendis|first5=Susitha|last6=Chaudhuri|first6=Sreemanti|last7=Deb|first7=Aniruddha|last8=Huq|first8=Nafisa|last9=Ahmed|first9=Helal Uddin|date=2019-10-24|title=Comparing legislation for involuntary admission and treatment of mental illness in four South Asian countries|url=https://ijmhs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=13|issue=1|pages=67|doi=10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|issn=1752-4458|pmc=6813093|pmid=31666805}}</ref>. Lastly, current efforts should increase beyond just addressing poverty-centered matters, but also expand efforts to domestic violence victims and children with disabilities, as shelters and specialized services are limited<ref name=":82">{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Stagnation in policy development leaves Sri Lanka without a practical, up-to-date, and comprehensive mental health legislation, which could put both clinicians and patients at risk. Future reforms should include clarification on the treatment and detention process of involuntary admissions of patients and a clear delineation of clinical roles and their responsibilities. Without the necessary reforms to advance Sri Lankan mental health legislation, clinicians and vulnerable patients may suffer from a lack of comprehensive oversight. ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== Any people, organisations, or funding sources that you would like to thank. ===Competing interests=== No competing interests. ===Ethics statement=== An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section. ==References== {{reflist|35em}} [[Category:Mental health]] [[Category:Sri Lanka]] rfor57k78ux4p5cxavreyosjkm0guez 0 324939 2817574 2817321 2026-07-02T09:40:56Z Dcortesvel 3098200 /* Introduction */ Expanded and revised the article by improving the introduction, historical overview, theoretical definitions, and take-home messages. Clarified the distinction between UTT and CTT, added a more balanced discussion of translanguaging, and updated references. 2817574 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting Activity == [[File:Translanguaging in Paris.png|alt=Translanguaging in Paris|thumb|Figure 1 - Translanguaging in Paris]] Imagine you are observing a classroom where students from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds interact. * How do they switch between languages? * Do they use different languages for different purposes (e.g. socializing, academic tasks)? * How would you describe their language use: do they mix languages or use them separately? Look at the following examples (see Figure 1 and Figure 2): Signs where multiple languages are used (see Linguistic Landscapes in Education). Now think about the questions below: * How are these languages being used and why? * Try to think of monolingual versions of the examples. How would the communication/messages be different?[[File:Languages in Paris.png|alt=Languages in Paris|thumb|Figure 2 - Languages in Paris]] == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * Recognize different theoretical perspectives on plurilingualism. * Understand the implications of a translanguaging approach to language use. * Develop a critical awareness of how plurilingualism functions in everyday communication and education. == Keywords == Plurilingualism, linguistic repertoire, bilingualism, multilingualism, translanguaging, language practices, sociolinguistics, education. == Table of Contents == # Introduction # History of the Concept # Definitions and Theoretical Perspectives # Practical Examples # Take-Home Messages # Self-Assessment # Resources to Go Further # Bibliography == Introduction == The study of plurilingualism and its implications for education has evolved significantly over the past decades. Traditionally, language use was conceptualized through monolingual ideologies, where each language was seen as a separate, countable entity. However, more recent theories, such as translanguaging, Unitary Translanguaging Theory (UTT) and Crosslinguistic Translanguaging Theory (CTT), argue for a more fluid and dynamic vision of language use. Within this evolving field, the concept of translanguaging has become particularly influential. Rather than viewing multilingual speakers as alternating between separate language systems, translanguaging perspectives emphasize that individuals draw flexibly on their entire linguistic and semiotic repertoire to communicate and make meaning. At the same time, this perspective has generated considerable debate. While some scholars argue that multilingual language use is best understood as a unitary system, others maintain that socially recognized (named) languages continue to have theoretical, cognitive, and pedagogical relevance. This debate is reflected in the distinction between the Unitary Translanguaging Theory (UTT) and the Crosslinguistic Translanguaging Theory (CTT) (Cummins, 2021). Plurilingualism therefore refers not only to the knowledge of multiple languages, but also to the ability to mobilize and integrate diverse linguistic resources according to communicative purposes and social contexts. Understanding the different theoretical perspectives on plurilingualism is important because they influence how multilingual competence is conceptualized and how languages are taught, learned, and valued in educational settings. == History of the Concept == The concept of plurilingualism has developed alongside changing perspectives on bilingualism, multilingualism, and language itself. Over time, researchers have moved from viewing languages as separate, autonomous systems to exploring more dynamic and integrated models of multilingual competence. However, these developments have also generated theoretical debate, and different perspectives continue to coexist. === Early views (1950s–1980s) === Early research on bilingualism generally conceptualized languages as separate, stable systems. Bilingual speakers were often assumed to alternate between distinct languages, each functioning independently. For example, Penfield and Roberts (1959) described bilingual speakers as having an "automatic switch" between languages, reflecting the view that languages were stored and accessed separately. === Holistic perspectives (1980s–1990s) === From the 1980s onwards, researchers began challenging strictly monolingual conceptions of bilingualism. Grosjean (1982, 1989) famously argued that "the bilingual is not two monolinguals in one person," emphasizing that bilingual competence should be understood as a unique and integrated phenomenon. Similarly, Coste, Moore, and Zarate (1997) described plurilingual competence as a complex and composite repertoire rather than the simple addition of separate languages. === Dynamic approaches (2002) === Building on these holistic perspectives, Herdina and Jessner's Dynamic Model of Multilingualism (2002) proposed that multilingual competence is constantly evolving through interactions among languages, cognitive processes, and environmental influences. Their work highlighted that multilingual systems are dynamic rather than static. === Critical perspectives (2007–2009) === Critical sociolinguists further questioned the status of languages as natural, bounded entities. Makoni and Pennycook (2007) argued that named languages should be understood as social and political constructs rather than pre-existing objects. García (2009) extended this perspective by proposing that multilingual speakers draw on an integrated linguistic repertoire instead of operating separate language systems. === Translanguaging theories (2009–present) === Building on these developments, García (2009) reconceptualized the notion of translanguaging, a term originally introduced by Cen Williams in Wales to describe bilingual pedagogical practices. While Williams' conception referred primarily to alternating languages for learning activities (e.g., reading in one language and discussing or writing in another), García broadened the concept into a theoretical framework that views multilingual speakers as drawing flexibly on an integrated linguistic repertoire. This broader interpretation has become highly influential in multilingual education, while also giving rise to considerable theoretical debate. More recently, however, scholars have debated how multilingual competence should be understood theoretically. Cummins (2021) distinguishes between two major perspectives. The Unitary Translanguaging Theory (UTT) proposes that multilinguals draw on a single integrated linguistic system and questions the cognitive reality of separate languages. In contrast, the Crosslinguistic Translanguaging Theory (CTT) accepts that languages are socially constructed rather than natural entities but argues that named languages remain meaningful categories for understanding multilingual competence, crosslinguistic transfer, and educational practice. Consequently, contemporary research no longer focuses on whether multilingual speakers use all their linguistic resources—they clearly do—but rather on how these resources should be conceptualized. While UTT emphasizes a unitary linguistic repertoire, CTT maintains that socially recognized languages continue to play an important role in cognition, communication, and education. This ongoing debate has important implications for language teaching, curriculum design, and multilingual pedagogy. == Definitions and Theoretical Perspectives == * '''Plurilingualism''': “the dynamic and developing linguistic repertoire of an individual user/learner” (Council of Europe, 2020, p. 30) * '''Translanguaging''': A perspective that sees language use as fluid, where speakers move across linguistic boundaries without adhering to rigid categorizations. According to Otheguy, García, and Reid (2015, p. 281), translanguaging refers to the deployment of multilingual speakers' full linguistic, semiotic, and multimodal repertoire "without regard for watchful adherence to the socially and politically defined boundaries of named languages." Canagarajah (2011) describes translanguaging as the strategic use of all available linguistic resources to communicate effectively. This perspective emphasizes that multilingual speakers select linguistic forms according to their communicative needs and contexts, challenging the traditional view of languages as separate, autonomous systems. Similarly, Li Wei (2011) argues that multilingual speakers create translanguaging spaces, in which they draw on their full linguistic repertoires to make meaning, communicate, and construct knowledge. Although translanguaging has become an influential framework, its theoretical assumptions remain the subject of scholarly debate. Critics argue that the unitary conception of multilingual competence may underestimate the continuing relevance of named languages as socially recognized constructs, particularly in education, language policy, and language assessment (Cummins, 2021; Treffers-Daller, 2024). * '''Linguistic Repertoire''': The full range of linguistic and semiotic resources an individual has access to, regardless of conventional language boundaries. A linguistic repertoire includes resources acquired through different experiences, such as languages learned at home, in school, or independently, and speakers may have varying levels of proficiency in each. These resources can serve different communicative functions—for example, in family interactions, education, work, or identity construction—and are often used in combination. Rather than being fixed, linguistic repertoires are dynamic and continually evolve as individuals encounter new communicative situations. From this perspective, language learning is understood as a process of extending, reorganizing, and enriching one's repertoire. Unitary Translanguaging Theory (UTT) (Cummins, 2021): UTT proposes that multilingual speakers draw on a single, integrated linguistic system rather than on separate language systems. Consequently, named languages are viewed primarily as social constructs rather than as distinct cognitive entities. Crosslinguistic Translanguaging Theory (CTT) (Cummins, 2021): CTT recognizes the flexible use of multilingual speakers' full linguistic repertoire while maintaining that named languages remain meaningful categories for understanding multilingual competence, crosslinguistic transfer, and language education. According to Cummins (2021), the principal difference between these perspectives lies in how they conceptualize the status of named languages. UTT argues that multilinguals operate through a unitary linguistic system, whereas CTT accepts that, although languages are socially constructed, they remain useful theoretical and pedagogical constructs. CTT therefore emphasizes the importance of crosslinguistic relationships, transfer, additive bilingualism, and explicit connections between languages in educational contexts. Both theories recognize that languages are shaped by social contexts rather than being fixed, natural entities, and both challenge traditional assumptions that languages should always be kept strictly separate in educational settings. They also agree that multilingual speakers flexibly mobilize their available linguistic resources according to communicative needs. However, they differ in the extent to which they attribute theoretical, cognitive, and pedagogical significance to named languages. == Practical Examples == === Example 1: Linguistic Landscapes === [[File:Multilingual signs, fingerposts in Brisbane, Australia 02.jpg|alt=Multilingual signs, fingerposts in Brisbane, Australia|thumb|Figure 3 - Multilingual signs, fingerposts in Brisbane, Australia]] Multilingual signs in public spaces demonstrate how languages coexist and interact. A street sign in Brussels may include French, Dutch, and English, reflecting social and political dimensions of plurilingualism. === Example 2: Classroom Translanguaging Practices === Students in a bilingual classroom use English for academic tasks but switch to their home language for peer discussions. This challenges traditional monolingual teaching models. An engaging activity to promote the use of one's entire linguistic repertoire could be a plurilingual debate. Students are given a topic and asked to prepare several arguments. During the debate, they present their points while intentionally switching between the different languages they can use. === Example 3: Crosslinguistic Transfer in Writing === One possible activity for exploiting similarities between languages is described in Kursiša & Richter-Vapaatalo (2018, p. 63). Finnish learners of German compare the typical structure and expressions used in informal emails in German, English, Swedish and Finnish, identifying similarities and differences. Link: “Mehr als Deutsch”: https://www.goethe.de/prj/dlp/de/unterrichtsmaterial/mehr_als_deutsch === Example 4: Plurilingual Digital Communication === WhatsApp messages mixing multiple languages, emojis, and voice recordings showcase how plurilingualism is naturally integrated into daily interactions. == Take-Home Messages == * Plurilingualism refers to the dynamic ability of individuals to draw on and develop their linguistic repertoire for communication and learning across different contexts. * Translanguaging emphasizes the flexible use of multilingual speakers' linguistic resources and challenges traditional views of languages as strictly separate systems. * Unitary Translanguaging Theory (UTT) and Crosslinguistic Translanguaging Theory (CTT) offer different explanations of how multilingual competence is organized. While both recognize the flexible use of linguistic resources, they differ in the role they attribute to named languages. * Both theories agree that languages are shaped by social contexts rather than being fixed entities and question rigid language separation in education. However, there is ongoing debate about the cognitive and pedagogical status of named languages and about the implications of translanguaging for language teaching and learning. == Self-Assessment == <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best aligns with Unitary Translanguaging Theory (UTT)?} -A) Bilinguals have an automatic switch that separates languages in their minds. +B) Multilingual speakers access their linguistic resources as part of a single cognitive system. -C) Languages should be taught separately to avoid interference. -D) Translanguaging only happens in informal settings. {What is the main critique of traditional bilingual models according to translanguaging theories?} +A) They assume bilinguals speak two completely separate languages. -B) They support language diversity in education. -C) They promote crosslinguistic mediation. -D) They encourage translanguaging in the classroom. {Which statement best aligns with CTT?} -A) CTT rejects the idea of a unitary linguistic system. +B) CTT advocates for maintaining the concept of specific languages while also supporting additive bilingualism and the transfer of academic skills across languages. -C) CTT criticizes switching between languages because it assumes the existence of two separate linguistic systems. -D) CTT believes that languages do not exist as real entities. </quiz> == Resources to go further == * '''CEFR and Plurilingualism''': https://www.coe.int/en/web/language-policy/plurilingualism * '''CARAP/FREPA:''' https://carap.ecml.at/ * '''Research on Translanguaging''': https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14790718.2017.1400501 * '''CUNY-NYSIEB Translanguaging Resources''': The City University of New York's New York State Initiative on Emergent Bilinguals offers a comprehensive collection of materials, including articles, videos, and classroom strategies, to support the implementation of translanguaging in educational settings. https://www.cuny-nysieb.org/translanguaging-resources == Bibliography == * Canagarajah, S. (2011). Translanguaging in the classroom: Emerging issues for research and pedagogy. ''International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 14''(3), 271–283.''Relations.'' Routledge. * Canagarajah, S. (2013). ''Translingual Practice: Global Englishes and Cosmopolitan'' * Cavallaro, C. J., & Sembiante, S. F. (2020). Facilitating culturally sustaining, functional literacy practices in a middle school ESOL reading program: a design-based research study. ''Language and Education'', ''35''(2), 160–179. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500782.2020.1775244 * Cummins, J. (2021). Translanguaging: A critical analysis of theoretical claims. In P. Juvonen & M. Källkvist (Eds.), ''Pedagogical Translanguaging: Theoretical, Methodological and Empirical Perspectives'' (pp. 7–36). Multilingual Matters.  https://doi.org/10.21832/9781788927383 * García, O. (2009). ''Bilingual education in the 21st century: A global perspective.'' Wiley-Blackwell, München. * García, O., & Lin, A. (2017). ''Translanguaging in Bilingual Education''. Springer. * Kasula, A. J. (2016). Olowalu Review: Developing identity through translanguaging in a multilingual literary magazine. ''Colomb. Appl. Linguist. J., 18''(2), 109–118. * Kursiša, A., & Richter-Vapaatalo, U. (Eds.). (2018). ''Mehr als Deutsch!'' Goethe-Institut Finnland. https://www.goethe.de/prj/dlp/de/unterrichtsmaterial/mehr_als_deutsch * Makoni, S., & Pennycook, A. (2007). ''Disinventing and Reconstituting Languages.'' Multilingual Matters. * Otheguy, R., García, O., & Reid, W. (2015). Clarifying Translanguaging and Deconstructing Named Languages. ''Applied Linguistics Review, 6(3),'' 281–307. * Otheguy, R., García, O., & Reid, W. (2015). Translanguaging and the role of language in social identity. ''International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 18''(3), 281–297. * Penfield, W., & Roberts, L. (1959). S''peech and Brain Mechanisms''. Princeton University Press. * Treffers-Daller, J. (2024). ''Unravelling translanguaging: A critical appraisal''. ''ELT Journal, 78''(1), 64–71. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccad058 ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Diego Cortés Velásquez (Università Roma Tre) * Anastasia Gkaintartzi (University of Thessaly) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] mtbuahuli9hwo2bifb5zeglmu1y03eb 2817575 2817574 2026-07-02T10:15:44Z Dcortesvel 3098200 Added a reference to Plurilanguaging 2817575 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting Activity == [[File:Translanguaging in Paris.png|alt=Translanguaging in Paris|thumb|Figure 1 - Translanguaging in Paris]] Imagine you are observing a classroom where students from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds interact. * How do they switch between languages? * Do they use different languages for different purposes (e.g. socializing, academic tasks)? * How would you describe their language use: do they mix languages or use them separately? Look at the following examples (see Figure 1 and Figure 2): Signs where multiple languages are used (see Linguistic Landscapes in Education). Now think about the questions below: * How are these languages being used and why? * Try to think of monolingual versions of the examples. How would the communication/messages be different?[[File:Languages in Paris.png|alt=Languages in Paris|thumb|Figure 2 - Languages in Paris]] == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * Recognize different theoretical perspectives on plurilingualism. * Understand the implications of a translanguaging approach to language use. * Develop a critical awareness of how plurilingualism functions in everyday communication and education. == Keywords == Plurilingualism, linguistic repertoire, bilingualism, multilingualism, translanguaging, language practices, sociolinguistics, education. == Table of Contents == # Introduction # History of the Concept # Definitions and Theoretical Perspectives # Practical Examples # Take-Home Messages # Self-Assessment # Resources to Go Further # Bibliography == Introduction == The study of plurilingualism and its implications for education has evolved significantly over the past decades. Traditionally, language use was conceptualized through monolingual ideologies, where each language was seen as a separate, countable entity. However, more recent theories, such as translanguaging, Unitary Translanguaging Theory (UTT) and Crosslinguistic Translanguaging Theory (CTT), argue for a more fluid and dynamic vision of language use. Within this evolving field, the concept of translanguaging has become particularly influential. Rather than viewing multilingual speakers as alternating between separate language systems, translanguaging perspectives emphasize that individuals draw flexibly on their entire linguistic and semiotic repertoire to communicate and make meaning. At the same time, this perspective has generated considerable debate. While some scholars argue that multilingual language use is best understood as a unitary system, others maintain that socially recognized (named) languages continue to have theoretical, cognitive, and pedagogical relevance. This debate is reflected in the distinction between the Unitary Translanguaging Theory (UTT) and the Crosslinguistic Translanguaging Theory (CTT) (Cummins, 2021). Plurilingualism therefore refers not only to the knowledge of multiple languages, but also to the ability to mobilize and integrate diverse linguistic resources according to communicative purposes and social contexts. Understanding the different theoretical perspectives on plurilingualism is important because they influence how multilingual competence is conceptualized and how languages are taught, learned, and valued in educational settings. == History of the Concept == The concept of plurilingualism has developed alongside changing perspectives on bilingualism, multilingualism, and language itself. Over time, researchers have moved from viewing languages as separate, autonomous systems to exploring more dynamic and integrated models of multilingual competence. However, these developments have also generated theoretical debate, and different perspectives continue to coexist. === Early views (1950s–1980s) === Early research on bilingualism generally conceptualized languages as separate, stable systems. Bilingual speakers were often assumed to alternate between distinct languages, each functioning independently. For example, Penfield and Roberts (1959) described bilingual speakers as having an "automatic switch" between languages, reflecting the view that languages were stored and accessed separately. === Holistic perspectives (1980s–1990s) === From the 1980s onwards, researchers began challenging strictly monolingual conceptions of bilingualism. Grosjean (1982, 1989) famously argued that "the bilingual is not two monolinguals in one person," emphasizing that bilingual competence should be understood as a unique and integrated phenomenon. Similarly, Coste, Moore, and Zarate (1997) described plurilingual competence as a complex and composite repertoire rather than the simple addition of separate languages. === Dynamic approaches (2002) === Building on these holistic perspectives, Herdina and Jessner's Dynamic Model of Multilingualism (2002) proposed that multilingual competence is constantly evolving through interactions among languages, cognitive processes, and environmental influences. Their work highlighted that multilingual systems are dynamic rather than static. === Critical perspectives (2007–2009) === Critical sociolinguists further questioned the status of languages as natural, bounded entities. Makoni and Pennycook (2007) argued that named languages should be understood as social and political constructs rather than pre-existing objects. García (2009) extended this perspective by proposing that multilingual speakers draw on an integrated linguistic repertoire instead of operating separate language systems. === Translanguaging theories (2009–present) === Building on these developments, García (2009) reconceptualized the notion of translanguaging, a term originally introduced by Cen Williams in Wales to describe bilingual pedagogical practices. While Williams' conception referred primarily to alternating languages for learning activities (e.g., reading in one language and discussing or writing in another), García broadened the concept into a theoretical framework that views multilingual speakers as drawing flexibly on an integrated linguistic repertoire. This broader interpretation has become highly influential in multilingual education, while also giving rise to considerable theoretical debate. More recently, however, scholars have debated how multilingual competence should be understood theoretically. Cummins (2021) distinguishes between two major perspectives. The Unitary Translanguaging Theory (UTT) proposes that multilinguals draw on a single integrated linguistic system and questions the cognitive reality of separate languages. In contrast, the Crosslinguistic Translanguaging Theory (CTT) accepts that languages are socially constructed rather than natural entities but argues that named languages remain meaningful categories for understanding multilingual competence, crosslinguistic transfer, and educational practice. Consequently, contemporary research no longer focuses on whether multilingual speakers use all their linguistic resources—they clearly do—but rather on how these resources should be conceptualized. While UTT emphasizes a unitary linguistic repertoire, CTT maintains that socially recognized languages continue to play an important role in cognition, communication, and education. This ongoing debate has important implications for language teaching, curriculum design, and multilingual pedagogy. == Definitions and Theoretical Perspectives == * '''Plurilingualism''': “the dynamic and developing linguistic repertoire of an individual user/learner” (Council of Europe, 2020, p. 30) * '''Translanguaging''': A perspective that sees language use as fluid, where speakers move across linguistic boundaries without adhering to rigid categorizations. According to Otheguy, García, and Reid (2015, p. 281), translanguaging refers to the deployment of multilingual speakers' full linguistic, semiotic, and multimodal repertoire "without regard for watchful adherence to the socially and politically defined boundaries of named languages." Canagarajah (2011) describes translanguaging as the strategic use of all available linguistic resources to communicate effectively. This perspective emphasizes that multilingual speakers select linguistic forms according to their communicative needs and contexts, challenging the traditional view of languages as separate, autonomous systems. Similarly, Li Wei (2011) argues that multilingual speakers create translanguaging spaces, in which they draw on their full linguistic repertoires to make meaning, communicate, and construct knowledge. Although translanguaging has become an influential framework, its theoretical assumptions remain the subject of scholarly debate. Critics argue that the unitary conception of multilingual competence may underestimate the continuing relevance of named languages as socially recognized constructs, particularly in education, language policy, and language assessment (Cummins, 2021; Treffers-Daller, 2024). * '''Linguistic Repertoire''': The full range of linguistic and semiotic resources an individual has access to, regardless of conventional language boundaries. A linguistic repertoire includes resources acquired through different experiences, such as languages learned at home, in school, or independently, and speakers may have varying levels of proficiency in each. These resources can serve different communicative functions—for example, in family interactions, education, work, or identity construction—and are often used in combination. Rather than being fixed, linguistic repertoires are dynamic and continually evolve as individuals encounter new communicative situations. From this perspective, language learning is understood as a process of extending, reorganizing, and enriching one's repertoire. More recently, Piccardo (2017) has proposed the concept of plurilanguaging, extending the notion of languaging to emphasize the dynamic, agentive, and emergent nature of plurilingual communication and learning. Drawing on Complex Dynamic Systems Theory, she argues that language learning is not a linear process of acquiring separate languages but a recursive process in which learners actively construct meaning through mediation, awareness, and the flexible use of linguistic and semiotic resources. In this perspective, plurilanguaging can be understood as the operationalization of plurilingualism in educational contexts. * '''Unitary Translanguaging Theory (UTT) (Cummins, 2021):''' UTT proposes that multilingual speakers draw on a single, integrated linguistic system rather than on separate language systems. Consequently, named languages are viewed primarily as social constructs rather than as distinct cognitive entities. * '''Crosslinguistic Translanguaging Theory (CTT) (Cummins, 2021):''' CTT recognizes the flexible use of multilingual speakers' full linguistic repertoire while maintaining that named languages remain meaningful categories for understanding multilingual competence, crosslinguistic transfer, and language education. According to Cummins (2021), the principal difference between these perspectives lies in how they conceptualize the status of named languages. UTT argues that multilinguals operate through a unitary linguistic system, whereas CTT accepts that, although languages are socially constructed, they remain useful theoretical and pedagogical constructs. CTT therefore emphasizes the importance of crosslinguistic relationships, transfer, additive bilingualism, and explicit connections between languages in educational contexts. Both theories recognize that languages are shaped by social contexts rather than being fixed, natural entities, and both challenge traditional assumptions that languages should always be kept strictly separate in educational settings. They also agree that multilingual speakers flexibly mobilize their available linguistic resources according to communicative needs. However, they differ in the extent to which they attribute theoretical, cognitive, and pedagogical significance to named languages. == Practical Examples == === Example 1: Linguistic Landscapes === [[File:Multilingual signs, fingerposts in Brisbane, Australia 02.jpg|alt=Multilingual signs, fingerposts in Brisbane, Australia|thumb|Figure 3 - Multilingual signs, fingerposts in Brisbane, Australia]] Multilingual signs in public spaces demonstrate how languages coexist and interact. A street sign in Brussels may include French, Dutch, and English, reflecting social and political dimensions of plurilingualism. === Example 2: Classroom Translanguaging Practices === Students in a bilingual classroom use English for academic tasks but switch to their home language for peer discussions. This challenges traditional monolingual teaching models. An engaging activity to promote the use of one's entire linguistic repertoire could be a plurilingual debate. Students are given a topic and asked to prepare several arguments. During the debate, they present their points while intentionally switching between the different languages they can use. === Example 3: Crosslinguistic Transfer in Writing === One possible activity for exploiting similarities between languages is described in Kursiša & Richter-Vapaatalo (2018, p. 63). Finnish learners of German compare the typical structure and expressions used in informal emails in German, English, Swedish and Finnish, identifying similarities and differences. Link: “Mehr als Deutsch”: https://www.goethe.de/prj/dlp/de/unterrichtsmaterial/mehr_als_deutsch === Example 4: Plurilingual Digital Communication === WhatsApp messages mixing multiple languages, emojis, and voice recordings showcase how plurilingualism is naturally integrated into daily interactions. == Take-Home Messages == * Plurilingualism refers to the dynamic ability of individuals to draw on and develop their linguistic repertoire for communication and learning across different contexts. * Translanguaging emphasizes the flexible use of multilingual speakers' linguistic resources and challenges traditional views of languages as strictly separate systems. * Unitary Translanguaging Theory (UTT) and Crosslinguistic Translanguaging Theory (CTT) offer different explanations of how multilingual competence is organized. While both recognize the flexible use of linguistic resources, they differ in the role they attribute to named languages. * Both theories agree that languages are shaped by social contexts rather than being fixed entities and question rigid language separation in education. However, there is ongoing debate about the cognitive and pedagogical status of named languages and about the implications of translanguaging for language teaching and learning. == Self-Assessment == <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best aligns with Unitary Translanguaging Theory (UTT)?} -A) Bilinguals have an automatic switch that separates languages in their minds. +B) Multilingual speakers access their linguistic resources as part of a single cognitive system. -C) Languages should be taught separately to avoid interference. -D) Translanguaging only happens in informal settings. {What is the main critique of traditional bilingual models according to translanguaging theories?} +A) They assume bilinguals speak two completely separate languages. -B) They support language diversity in education. -C) They promote crosslinguistic mediation. -D) They encourage translanguaging in the classroom. {Which statement best aligns with CTT?} -A) CTT rejects the idea of a unitary linguistic system. +B) CTT advocates for maintaining the concept of specific languages while also supporting additive bilingualism and the transfer of academic skills across languages. -C) CTT criticizes switching between languages because it assumes the existence of two separate linguistic systems. -D) CTT believes that languages do not exist as real entities. </quiz> == Resources to go further == * '''CEFR and Plurilingualism''': https://www.coe.int/en/web/language-policy/plurilingualism * '''CARAP/FREPA:''' https://carap.ecml.at/ * '''Research on Translanguaging''': https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14790718.2017.1400501 * '''CUNY-NYSIEB Translanguaging Resources''': The City University of New York's New York State Initiative on Emergent Bilinguals offers a comprehensive collection of materials, including articles, videos, and classroom strategies, to support the implementation of translanguaging in educational settings. https://www.cuny-nysieb.org/translanguaging-resources == Bibliography == * Canagarajah, S. (2011). Translanguaging in the classroom: Emerging issues for research and pedagogy. ''International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 14''(3), 271–283.''Relations.'' Routledge. * Canagarajah, S. (2013). ''Translingual Practice: Global Englishes and Cosmopolitan'' * Cavallaro, C. J., & Sembiante, S. F. (2020). Facilitating culturally sustaining, functional literacy practices in a middle school ESOL reading program: a design-based research study. ''Language and Education'', ''35''(2), 160–179. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500782.2020.1775244 * Cummins, J. (2021). Translanguaging: A critical analysis of theoretical claims. In P. Juvonen & M. Källkvist (Eds.), ''Pedagogical Translanguaging: Theoretical, Methodological and Empirical Perspectives'' (pp. 7–36). Multilingual Matters.  https://doi.org/10.21832/9781788927383 * García, O. (2009). ''Bilingual education in the 21st century: A global perspective.'' Wiley-Blackwell, München. * García, O., & Lin, A. (2017). ''Translanguaging in Bilingual Education''. Springer. * Kasula, A. J. (2016). Olowalu Review: Developing identity through translanguaging in a multilingual literary magazine. ''Colomb. Appl. Linguist. J., 18''(2), 109–118. * Kursiša, A., & Richter-Vapaatalo, U. (Eds.). (2018). ''Mehr als Deutsch!'' Goethe-Institut Finnland. https://www.goethe.de/prj/dlp/de/unterrichtsmaterial/mehr_als_deutsch * Makoni, S., & Pennycook, A. (2007). ''Disinventing and Reconstituting Languages.'' Multilingual Matters. * Otheguy, R., García, O., & Reid, W. (2015). Clarifying Translanguaging and Deconstructing Named Languages. ''Applied Linguistics Review, 6(3),'' 281–307. * Otheguy, R., García, O., & Reid, W. (2015). Translanguaging and the role of language in social identity. ''International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 18''(3), 281–297. * Penfield, W., & Roberts, L. (1959). S''peech and Brain Mechanisms''. Princeton University Press. * Piccardo, E. (2017). ''Plurilingualism as a catalyst for creativity in superdiverse societies: A systemic analysis''. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 8'', Article 2169. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02169 * Treffers-Daller, J. (2024). ''Unravelling translanguaging: A critical appraisal''. ''ELT Journal, 78''(1), 64–71. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccad058 ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Diego Cortés Velásquez (Università Roma Tre) * Anastasia Gkaintartzi (University of Thessaly) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] 4pqzzyqafrk3d45twe8fdsfdlc7gu53 118 325789 2817557 2799179 2026-07-02T00:04:40Z ~2026-37797-74 3098325 คำผิด 2817557 wikitext text/x-wiki <!--==Addizioni sessagesimali (scuola media) == <!--(scegliere una di queste voci: dialogo, piccola storia, cambio-sfondo, movimento, cambio sprite, suoni, disegno libero, disegno geometrico, quiz a domande,gioco--> == Learning Objectives == To make a map that, when clicked, responds with the time of the specific time zone. <br> To show a map of the whole Earth with its respective time zones. Starting from the local time in Rome, Berlin, and Central Europe, provide the day and the hour in different time zones of the Earth.[[File:World Time Zones Map.svg|thumb|An example of a map with the Earth's time zones. In this project, you will be making an interactive map]] == Example Map == A good example of an interactive time zone map is [https://www.timeanddate.com/time/map/ time and date map] ==Time zones== The Earth rotates on its axis, causing the hours of the day to pass. Thinking about it for a moment, you realize that it's not possible for time to be the same in all parts of the Earth. For example, midday is the moment when the sun is at its highest point in the sky, which can only occur on the side of the Earth facing the sun, since the Earth is a rotating "sphere." At the antipodes, on the other side of the Earth, it is necessarily midnight. And so, because the sky moves 15° every hour, we will calculate 360 divided by 24: <math> \frac{360^\circ}{24} = 15^\circ</math> The Earth is divided in 24 'slices', each 15° wide, that sometimes take account of state borders. Typically, between two time zones the difference is an hour, however it may be thirty minutes in some regions. [[File:time Zones (2012).gif|center|600px|time zones of the World]] Each of these time zones has a different time due to the different positions of the sun in the sky. For example, in Italy, when it is 10am, in England it would be 9am and in Russia it would be 12pm. Typically, and for historical reasons, the meridian passes through Greenwich, hence the name, 'The Greenwich Meridian'. <br/>While in the middle of the Pacific Ocean there is a line known as the International Date Line. If I go from Alaska towards Kamchatka from Saturday on Sunday, we add a day, in contrast to Kamchatka to Alaska, where we subtract a day. (Everything will become clearer once we have built our Scratch project.) To calculate the time in a place on Earth that is not in our time zone, which is Central European Time, you can refer to the map. For example, if in Italy the time is 7:15 in the morning on Saturday in Mexico it would be quarter past midnight. Sure enough, Italy is 1 hour ahead of Greenwich, whereas Mexico is 6 hours behind Greenwich. As a result, there is a difference of 7 time zones, counting the difference between them starting from Mexico. 7:15 - 7 = 0:15 If we go further west in Alaska it would be 9:15 pm on Sunday evening; in fact, if I do the calculation considering that a day has 24 hours and therefore by subtracting hours from the clock I go back to the previous day, I find that 7:15 - 10 = 21:15 but in Yakutia, where they are 9 hours ahead 7:15 + 9 = 16:15 it would be quarter past four on Sunday afternoon. You have to pay attention to the date change. For example, if it is 2 a.m. on Sunday in Italy, when you calculate the time in Alaska — which is UTC-9 — and take into account how the hours work, you have to consider that the date may shift. 2-10 = 18 That is, it is still 6 p.m. on Saturday. On the contrary, at 9pm on Saturday in Italy, it would be 21 + 8 = 5 5am on Sunday morning on the east coast of China. ==The completed project== To obtain an automatic calculator of the time zones we can complete the project [https://scratch.mit.edu/projects/1083255368/ Fuso orario]]. ===The backdrop=== The project [https://scratch.mit.edu/projects/1083255368/ Fuso orario] already has a backdrop that shows the time zones of the Earth. The[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:time_Zones_(2012).gif image] showing the time zones used in the paragraph above is available for download on Wikimedia commons, and if you want to make the project from scratch, you can download and upload the file on [https://scratch.mit.edu]]. ===Buttons on the map=== To interact with the map, you must add buttons that let the user select the time zone they want to check. [[File:ScratchSpriteTastiFusoOrario.png|600px|center|scratch sprite]] The balls—ball1 and ball2—each in different colours and matching the coloured tiles in the time-zone map, will act as buttons. When placed on a time zone, they will show the corresponding local time. === Reference for time zone === [[File:CurrentHour.png|center|300px|scratch blocks]] Once you have started the program with the green flag ( [[File:Greenflag.svg|frameless|17x17px]] ), the stage must show the date and the hour of the relevant time zone. In the case of Italy, this would be the Rome-Berlin time zone, also known as Central European Time. [[File:ScratchCurrentTime.png|left|200px|scratch current time]]This is achieved by using the appropriate function and choosing what to display from the day, the current hour,the current minute, followed by a check mark. And so they appear on the stage: the date, month, year, hour and minutes. {{-}} [[File:ScratchStageFusoOrario.png|600px|center|Scratch stage]] ===The days of the week=== Something we need to keep in mind when we write the code is if we want to obtain the day of the week, we need to introduce a sprite that links the day of the week with the ‘Day of the week’ function, which in Scratch returns numbers from 1 to 7 corresponding to the days. {| class="wikitable" |+ The number and the corresponding day ! Number !! Day |- | 1 || Sunday |- | 2 || Monday |- | 3 || Tuesday |- | 4 || Wednesday |- | 5 || Thursday |- | 6 || Friday |- | 7 || Saturday |} Therefore you must create a list of the days of the week, choose a sprite and assign some code that says the item of the corresponding list to return the number of the day of the week. We do this by using the 'current day of week' block. <gallery widths=200 heights=170 perrow=3 mode="packed"> File:ScratchDayWeekBird.png|Scratch sprite File:ScratchLstaDayWeek.png|Scratch list File:ScratchDayWeekCode.png|scratch code blocks </gallery> ===Calculating the hour of the time zone=== It must be kept in mind, as written above, that the time zone in Rome is one hour ahead of the 0° meridian, 15° east of Greenwich. So we can move on to preparing our first sprite button that calculates the time of the time zone on which it will be placed. [[File:ScratchStageFusoOrario.png|600px|center|Scratch stage]] Referring to the stage shown above, here is the code for the third button, the purple one, positioned on the -9 time zone, which includes Alaska. Since the difference between the -9 time zone and our +1 time zone is 10 time zones, the code simply subtracts 10 hours from our time. [[File:ScratchCodiceFuso Orario.png|600px|center|scratch blocks]]In the first part of the code there is an ''if'' block, se in Italian, which is used to control the days of the week. If the subtraction or addition operation for calculating the time zone results in a negative number or a number greater than 24, the day of the week must be adjusted accordingly. To prepare the code for a button, it is enough to duplicate the sprite, place it on the stage, and modify the code according to the time zone in which it is positioned. Here you can learn the names of cities around the world that belong to different time zones: [https://www.timeanddate.com/time/map/ time and date map] ==Possible improvements== A project that is user friendly could have: *More extensive areas to click and more corresponding to the specific times * Even more correctly positioned cities on the map. ==Note== <references/> == Bibliography == * Guida all’uso di Scratch Versione Studenti; Alberto Barbero, Marco Marchisotti, Alberto Davì; Associazione Dschola, Iniziativa realizzata nell’ambito del project Diderot della Fondazione CRT, 2014 - (in Italian) ==External resources== * http://scratchblocks.github.io * [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikibooks/it/4/4b/Diderot_2014_Guida_Studenti.pdf Guida all’uso di Scratch Versione Studenti] - (in Italian) * [https://www.timeanddate.com/time/map/ time and date map] *[[V:it:Fusi orari (scuola media)|Original Italian version]] ge4uz8xv1aqzc31c7v0h3tl7rfv55a9 0 326171 2817576 2817319 2026-07-02T10:39:08Z Dcortesvel 3098200 Expanded and revised the page by improving the introduction, conceptual framework, literature review, and take-home messages. Added recent references and updated the discussion on teachers' beliefs about plurilingualism. 2817576 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting Activity == Reflect on your own experiences as a language learner or teacher: * For you, what role does plurilingualism play in language learning? * Do you think teachers should integrate students' multiple linguistic resources into their teaching? Why or why not? * Have you ever encountered resistance (your own or others') to plurilingual education? What were the reasons behind it? == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * Define teachers’ beliefs and their role in shaping pedagogical practices. * Understand the relationship between teachers’ cognition and plurilingual education. * Identify challenges and barriers that influence the implementation of plurilingual approaches in classrooms. * Explore possible solutions and strategies to bridge the gap between both positive and negative beliefs and real classroom practices. == Keywords == Teacher cognition, pedagogical beliefs, plurilingual education, language policy, multilingualism in education, language diversity, teaching practices. == Table of Contents == # Introduction # Definition and history of the concept # Results of empirical studies and practical examples # Take-home messages # Self-assessment # Resources to go further # Bibliography == '''Introduction''' == In recent decades, research has increasingly focused on teachers' beliefs and teacher cognition as key factors influencing language teaching practices. While linguistic and educational policies increasingly promote plurilingualism, particularly in the European context, the actual implementation of plurilingual pedagogies in classrooms often remains limited and sporadic. In the literature, teachers' beliefs about multilingualism, plurilingualism, language learning, language teaching, and language itself are understood as influencing their teaching methods, their interactions with students, and their openness to integrating multiple languages in the classroom. As summarized by Lundberg (2020, p. 26), "the idea that teacher cognition, consisting of teachers' beliefs and knowledge, informs teachers' perceptions, judgements, decision making and guides their behaviour or in other words drives their pedagogical actions is relatively uncontested in research". Nevertheless, a direct correlation between beliefs and classroom practices is difficult to establish (Wilken, 2020). In the context of plurilingualism and plurilingual education, some language educators embrace plurilingual approaches and linguistically responsive practices, recognizing their cognitive, social, and educational benefits. Others may hesitate to adopt such approaches because of pedagogical concerns, institutional constraints, limited training, or personal beliefs about language learning and language use. As a result, some teachers integrate plurilingual pedagogies into their practice, while others do not. Despite widespread advocacy for multilingual and plurilingual education at policy level, for example in the CEFR and European language policies, the practical adoption of plurilingual approaches varies significantly across educational contexts. This variation may illustrate a mismatch between language policies, classroom practices, and teachers' beliefs. == '''Definition and history of the concept''' == The concept of teachers' beliefs has been described as a "messy construct" (Pajares, 1992) because it is often used interchangeably with, or closely associated with, related concepts such as attitudes, perspectives, representations, and ideologies. Although these concepts are not identical, they all contribute to understanding how teachers interpret and respond to educational situations. Teachers' beliefs can be broadly understood as implicit or explicit assumptions that teachers hold to be true about teaching, learning, learners, language, and education. Teachers' beliefs are generally understood as implicit or explicit suppositions that teachers hold to be true about different aspects of their professional responsibilities, including teaching, learning, learners, language, and education (Weger, 2026). Unlike knowledge, which is generally regarded as being validated through evidence and professional discourse, beliefs are often rooted in teachers' personal experiences, educational backgrounds, social contexts, and professional development. Together with teachers' knowledge and emotions, beliefs form teacher cognition, the complex system of mental processes that shapes how teachers perceive, interpret, and approach their work (Borg, 2006; Weger, 2026). Within this broad field, teachers' beliefs have frequently been examined from three complementary perspectives: epistemological beliefs, concerning teaching, learning, and language; personal beliefs, concerning teachers themselves and their learners; and contextual beliefs, concerning the school environment and wider society. Language is relevant across all three dimensions. For example, teachers may hold beliefs about the educational value of learners' home languages, about multilingual learners' linguistic abilities, or about the languages that should be used for communication within the school community (Weger, 2026). Since the beginning of the twenty-first century, research has increasingly focused on teachers' beliefs about multilingualism and plurilingualism. Studies have explored teachers' views on multilingual pedagogies, translanguaging, and the integration of learners' home languages into classroom practices. Overall, research suggests that teachers generally express positive beliefs towards plurilingual education. However, these beliefs are often complex, sometimes contradictory, and do not necessarily translate into classroom practices. Limited training, insufficient pedagogical resources, institutional constraints, and monolingual curricular traditions continue to hinder the implementation of plurilingual approaches (Bonvino & Cortés Velásquez, 2026; Weger, 2026). Finally, although teachers' beliefs tend to be relatively stable, contemporary research no longer considers them immutable. Rather, beliefs are understood as interconnected systems that can evolve through reflection, professional learning, and classroom experience. Teacher education therefore plays an important role in making beliefs explicit and supporting teachers in critically examining their assumptions about language, learning, and linguistic diversity (Fives & Buehl, 2012; Weger, 2026). == '''Results of empirical studies and practical examples''' == As stated in a narrative synthesis by Melo-Pfeifer & Schröder-Sura (2024, p. 495, our translation), “studies on language teachers' beliefs about multilingual approaches in foreign language teaching, with or without mention of pluralistic approaches, have become more frequent in recent years (see Araújo e Sá & Melo-Pfeifer, 2015; Barras et al, 2019; Haukås, 2016; Le Pape Racine & Brühwiler, 2020 ; Lundberg, 2019; Melo-Pfeifer, 2020 and 2018b; Pérez-Peitx & Sánchez-Quintana 2019; Portolés & Martí 2018). Despite differences in national contexts, professional experience, and subjects taught, these studies generally reveal consistent and comparable results and conclusions. The key findings of these studies can be summarized as follows, according to Melo-Pfeifer & Schröder-Sura” (2024, p. 496; our translation): * In-service and pre-service language teachers recognize the affective value of multilingual approaches in language teaching in terms of motivation and respectful recognition of learners' language repertoires. * Although they do not always fully accept this (e.g., due to fears of negative inter- or intralingual interference or the fossilization of errors), future teachers recognize the cognitive advantages of mobilizing language skills. * Future teachers contrast structural problems in curricula with the recognition of cognitive and affective advantages, such as continued monolingual assessment, the separation of school subjects, etc., as well as problems related to time and resource management. Teaching (inadequate textbooks, limited communication between teachers of different languages in schools) or even language management in the classroom, either because they fear losing their role as language experts or because they do not perceive themselves as “sufficiently multilingual.” * Language teachers often point to the contradictions between what they have observed or experienced in their language teaching (at school or university) and the challenges posed by multilingual teaching, and regard these as insurmountable tasks that threaten their identity as language teachers. All in all, studies on teachers' beliefs about multilingualism show that teachers “[...] generally consider multilingualism to be a resource and valuable, but are rather skeptical about its constructive integration into their teaching and do not feel sufficiently qualified or professional” (Huxel, 2018, p. 110). In 2025, results of a survey of the Erasmus Plus project PEP (Promotion de l’Education Plurilingue; see Cortés Velásquez, 2025, p. 9) showed that: * “teachers emphasize the cultural and societal benefits of plurilingualism, including intercultural dialogue, linguistic diversity, and social inclusion. * classroom practices often incorporate multiple languages for fostering comprehension, emotional engagement, and metalinguistic awareness. * plurilingual assessment practices remain limited, indicating a need for alignment between teaching and evaluation. * teachers report significant challenges in the implementation of plurilingual practices, including insufficient institutional support, resources, specific training, and time”. These findings are broadly consistent with more recent studies, which continue to report a discrepancy between teachers' generally positive beliefs about plurilingualism and the relatively limited implementation of plurilingual pedagogies in everyday classroom practice (Bonvino & Cortés Velásquez, 2026; Weger, 2026). === Example 1: Teachers’ Conflicting Beliefs About Plurilingualism === A study by Haukås (2015) found that while many teachers support plurilingual education in theory, they often avoid implementing it due to concerns that multiple languages in the classroom might confuse students or hinder the development of the dominant language. === Example 2: Institutional Barriers and the "Monolingual Myth" === Even when teachers have positive attitudes toward plurilingual practices, they face structural challenges such as monolingual curricula, lack of pedagogical resources, and administrative pressure to teach in a single target language (Bredthauer & Engfer, 2016). === Example 3: Teachers Using Translanguaging as a Strategy === Despite challenges, some educators integrate translanguaging strategies—allowing students to use all their linguistic resources to support learning. For example, an English teacher in a multilingual classroom might encourage students to take notes in their home language before summarizing in English. === Example 4: Teacher Training Programs and Plurilingual Awareness === Research has shown that teachers who receive training on plurilingual pedagogies are more likely to implement them in their teaching (Burner & Carlsen, 2023). == '''Take-Home Messages''' == * Teachers' beliefs play a crucial role in the implementation of plurilingual education, although the relationship between teachers' beliefs and classroom practices is complex and not always direct. * Many teachers hold positive beliefs about plurilingualism and plurilingual education but remain reluctant to adopt plurilingual pedagogies because of institutional and structural barriers, concerns about their own self-efficacy and agency, or a perceived lack of preparation. * Insufficient teacher education, limited pedagogical resources, and inadequate institutional support contribute to the gap between policy recommendations and the implementation of plurilingual approaches in classroom practice. * Teachers' beliefs are not fixed; they can evolve through professional development, reflective practice, and experience, making teacher education an important lever for supporting plurilingual pedagogies. == '''Self-Assessment''' == <quiz display=simple> {Teachers’ actions are always consistent with their beliefs.} -True +False {What is a common reason why teachers may hesitate to implement plurilingual approaches?} -They believe that plurilingualism accelerates learning. +They feel that integrating multiple languages could hinder the development of the dominant or the target language. -They are required to exclusively use monolingual pedagogies. -They have no personal beliefs about language teaching. {According to research, what factor can increase the likelihood of teachers implementing plurilingual pedagogies?} -Their personal experience as monolingual speakers. -The presence of language policies favoring strict monolingual instruction. +Their participation in training programs that focus on plurilingual teaching. -The lack of multilingual students in their classroom. </quiz> == '''Resources to Go Further''' == * Council of Europe – Plurilingual Education: https://www.coe.int/en/web/language-policy/plurilingualism * Research on Teacher Cognition: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308502263_Teacher_cognition_and_language_teaching == '''Bibliography''' == Barkhuizen, G. (2019). ''Qualitative Research Topics in Language Teacher Education''. Routledge. Bonvino, E., & Cortés Velásquez, D. (2026). ''Croyances des enseignants sur le plurilinguisme''. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l'éducation plurilingue'' (pp. 116–118). Peter Lang. https://doi.org/10.3726/b23455 Borg, S. (2006). ''Teacher Cognition and Language Education''. Continuum. Borg, S. (2003). Teacher cognition in language teaching: a review of research on what language teachers think, know, believe, and do. ''Language Teaching'' 36, 81–109. Bredthauer, S., & Engfer, H. (2016). Multilingualism is great – but is it really my business? ''Sustainable Multilingualism'', 9, 104–121. Burner, T., & Carlsen, C. (2023). Teachers' multilingual beliefs and practices in English classrooms: A scoping review. ''Review of Education'', 11. Cortés Velásquez, D., Strasser, M., Bogensperger, T., Hülsmann, C., & Zini, D. (coord.), Bonvino, E., Brinkmann, L.M., Capucho, F., Damaskou, E., Gaillat, T., Gerwers, F., Gkaintartzi, Kitsiou, R., Kratochwil, L., Lamonaca, M., Melo-Pfeifer, S., Ollivier, C., Vetter, E., & Wagner, P., (2025). ''Language use in secondary and higher education: Teachers’ beliefs and practices. Survey Report.'' PEP – Promoting Plurilingual Education. https://doi.org/10.25592/uhhfdm.16755. Haukås, Å. (2015). Teachers’ beliefs about multilingualism and a multilingual pedagogical approach. ''International Journal of Multilingualism'', 13(1), 1–18. Huxel, K. (2018). Lehrer*insein in der Migrationsgesellschaft. Professionalisierung in einem widersprüchlichen Feld. ''ZISU'' 7, 109–121. Lundberg, A. (2020). ''Viewpoints about educational language policies. Multilingualism in Sweden and Switzerland''. Malmö University. Melo-Pfeifer, S., & Schröder-Sura, A. (2024). Überzeugungen zu Pluralen Ansätzen – Zwei Untersuchungen in der ersten und dritten Phase der LehrerInnenbildung. In D. Reimann (Ed.), ''Geschichte und Gegenwart der romanistischen Fachdidaktik und Lehrerbildung in deutschsprachigen und romanophonen Kontexten'' (pp. 49-512). Narr Verlag. Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teachers’ Beliefs and Educational Research: Cleaning Up a Messy Construct. ''Review of Educational Research'', ''62''(3), 307-332. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543062003307 Weger, D. (2026). Teachers' beliefs on multilingualism. In C. Ollivier & S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), Encyclopaedia of plurilingual education (pp. 119–121). Peter Lang. https://doi.org/10.3726/b23455 Wilken, A. (2020). ''Professionalisierung durch Schüler*innen-Mehrsprachigkeit? Englischlehrer*innen im Spannungsfeld zwischen Habitus und Norm''. PhD Thesis. Hamburg: Universität Hamburg. ==Credits== This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Diego Cortes Velasquez (Università Roma Tre) * Sílvia Melo-Pfeifer (Universität Hamburg) [[Portal: Plurilingual education]] iwr75ma558kble90t47qpwzkch3n5s1 5 330057 2817564 2816840 2026-07-02T08:08:17Z Juandev 2651 /* Notice to colloquium */ Reply 2817564 wikitext text/x-wiki == Notice to colloquium == What is the sence of noticing community about that? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:10, 8 June 2026 (UTC) : A notice would be posted at the inactive SSM's user talk page, and a separate notification at the village pump listing the inactive support staff member(s). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:46, 25 June 2026 (UTC) ::And the reasoning behind why whole community should know, there is inactive staff? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:08, 2 July 2026 (UTC) == Inactive curator template == Just a note if this policy is agreet the template should be fixed. No it counts with 2 years. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:12, 8 June 2026 (UTC) : I'm not sure what you are trying to explain. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:47, 25 June 2026 (UTC) == Communication with the SSM and deadlines == A notification on the user's user page is a decent way to communicate with support staff. If they don't respond, it's clear that there's no point in waiting any longer and their rights have been revoked. On the contrary, if they respond, they suspect that they should start working on Wikiversity, but it may happen that they won't, i.e. SSM will respond, but they will continue to be inactive, so they will have another year of "peace". I would probably reduce the inactivity time to '''8 months''' (i.e. 6 months + 2 months, which may take to creat a custodian), but I would leave the response time at a '''month or more'''. I assume that sometimes the reason for inactivity is health problems or personal problems, and in such situations a person is usually not very reactive - i.e. they don't manage to respond quickly to all the requests that come to them. Another reason may be the busy work schedule of university teachers, who, for example, are on the job for 4 months during exams. This means, yes, you have been inactive for a while for some reason and then someone invites you to return to activity, but you are sick, or you are writing a scientific article, grant report, etc. and you don't have much time right now. Here, it would perhaps require standardized posts for all SSM roles, where a notice would be written that according to the policy, a SSM cannot be inactive for a given period. ''Then a question whether they will resume activity within 2 months.'' Yes - rights retained, no/no answer - rights removed within a month. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:29, 8 June 2026 (UTC) : I still think we should leave the timeframe as one year to maintain consistency with some other projects. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:40, 25 June 2026 (UTC) ::Well, why not. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:25, 25 June 2026 (UTC) 2mxu4cypnscad7pjv6xtfxbstwaf4b0 2817565 2817564 2026-07-02T08:10:45Z Juandev 2651 /* Inactive curator template */ Reply 2817565 wikitext text/x-wiki == Notice to colloquium == What is the sence of noticing community about that? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:10, 8 June 2026 (UTC) : A notice would be posted at the inactive SSM's user talk page, and a separate notification at the village pump listing the inactive support staff member(s). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:46, 25 June 2026 (UTC) ::And the reasoning behind why whole community should know, there is inactive staff? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:08, 2 July 2026 (UTC) == Inactive curator template == Just a note if this policy is agreet the template should be fixed. No it counts with 2 years. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:12, 8 June 2026 (UTC) : I'm not sure what you are trying to explain. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:47, 25 June 2026 (UTC) ::I am saying that if the inactive period is changed, the {{tl|Inactive curator}} template text ''"no edits or no logged actions for 2 years"'' should be changed to the appropriate one. This is just a notice, not to forget to do so. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:10, 2 July 2026 (UTC) == Communication with the SSM and deadlines == A notification on the user's user page is a decent way to communicate with support staff. If they don't respond, it's clear that there's no point in waiting any longer and their rights have been revoked. On the contrary, if they respond, they suspect that they should start working on Wikiversity, but it may happen that they won't, i.e. SSM will respond, but they will continue to be inactive, so they will have another year of "peace". I would probably reduce the inactivity time to '''8 months''' (i.e. 6 months + 2 months, which may take to creat a custodian), but I would leave the response time at a '''month or more'''. I assume that sometimes the reason for inactivity is health problems or personal problems, and in such situations a person is usually not very reactive - i.e. they don't manage to respond quickly to all the requests that come to them. Another reason may be the busy work schedule of university teachers, who, for example, are on the job for 4 months during exams. This means, yes, you have been inactive for a while for some reason and then someone invites you to return to activity, but you are sick, or you are writing a scientific article, grant report, etc. and you don't have much time right now. Here, it would perhaps require standardized posts for all SSM roles, where a notice would be written that according to the policy, a SSM cannot be inactive for a given period. ''Then a question whether they will resume activity within 2 months.'' Yes - rights retained, no/no answer - rights removed within a month. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:29, 8 June 2026 (UTC) : I still think we should leave the timeframe as one year to maintain consistency with some other projects. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:40, 25 June 2026 (UTC) ::Well, why not. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:25, 25 June 2026 (UTC) ai0dyvf3sc2c95vl7zkcldw0hva84vx 0 330317 2817531 2817501 2026-07-01T14:25:39Z James500 297601 /* */ Add 2817531 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages. World *Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. 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[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ] *Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Prehistory *Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ] History *Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Social history *Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Story *Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ] *[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952) Classification *April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ] Extinct *Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ] *K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Dead *Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Indo-European *Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993. *Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ] Anatolian *Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26. Hittite *Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ] *Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936. Maltese *See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]] Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) *See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]] Asian *Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] South Asian *Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] East Asian *Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC] *Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ] *Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Chinese, Japanese and Korean *Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Insup Taylor and Martin M Taylor. Writing and Literacy in Chinese, Korean and Japanese. (Studies in Written Language and Literacy 3). 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WDw4gBaPjZgC&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XW9IAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Chinese and Japanese *Teruhiro Ishiguro and Kang Kwong Luke. Grammar in Cross-Linguistic Perspective: The Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics of Japanese and Chinese. (Linguistic insights, vol 57). Peter Lang. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p1OqlAEACAAJ] Japan and Korea; Japanese and Korean *Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hajime Hoji (ed). Japanese/Korean Linguistics. 1990. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Suwm4WrQB6IC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ] Japonic *Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japanese and Ryukyuan *Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japan *Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Handbook of Historical Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xjz3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Christopher Seeley. A History of Writing in Japan. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KCZ2ya6cg88C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Series *Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics Ryukyuan *Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Ainu *Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ] *Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ] *Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up]. *Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C] ==Japanese== See [[Universal Bibliography/Languages/Japanese|Japanese]] [[Category:Languages]] k604444my6k0rljvmzgquf8l5lpl56k 0 330398 2817573 2817403 2026-07-02T09:13:28Z Aokoroko 2811879 /* C++ Source Code */ 2817573 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == This page contains the original C++ source code used to render high-precision fragments of the Mandelbrot set using perturbation theory and 8x8 Super-Sampling Anti-Aliasing (SSAA). Created by [[User:Aokoroko]]. == Key Features == * '''High-Precision Reference:''' The 5000-bit reference trajectory is computed exactly once per zoom layer. * '''Hardware-Native Performance:''' Blazing-fast math for billions of pixels utilizing hardware-native double registers. * When using double-precision floating-point numbers (on the order of 10⁻¹⁵), perturbation theory only allows you to zoom down to the '''10⁻³⁰⁸ level—no further.''' * '''Innovative Algorithm:''' Revolutionary *Reference Reset to Zero* implementation. * '''True 8x8 SSAA:''' Pristine, anti-aliased image quality with 64 independent samples per pixel. * '''OpenMP Multi-threading:''' High-speed parallel computing to maximize CPU utilization. == C++ Source Code == <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp"> #include <iostream> #include <fstream> #include <vector> #include <cmath> #include <cstdint> #include <string> #include <atomic> #include <omp.h> #include <cstdio> #include <iomanip> #include <gmp.h> #include <mpfr.h> using namespace std; const double PI = 3.14159265358979323846; const mpfr_prec_t MPFR_BITS = 5000; #pragma pack(push, 1) struct BMPHeader { uint16_t type{0x4D42}; uint32_t size{0}; uint16_t reserved1{0}; uint16_t reserved2{0}; uint32_t offBits{54}; uint32_t structSize{40}; int32_t width{0}; int32_t height{0}; uint16_t planes{1}; uint16_t bitCount{24}; uint32_t compression{0}; uint32_t sizeImage{0}; int32_t xpelsPerMeter{2834}; int32_t ypelsPerMeter{2834}; uint32_t clrUsed{0}; uint32_t clrImportant{0}; }; #pragma pack(pop) struct ComplexDouble { double re; double im; }; int main() { string absc_str, ordi_str, size_str; absc_str = "-1.7491311840575335110236048528001036247123430447933925298694915282522178938437759580179"; ordi_str = "-0.0001996960702541036804654299663680287246637758588467627907752429037173153157138373325"; size_str = "2.84e-82"; const int targetW = 2160; const int targetH = 2160; const int scale = 8; const int rawW = targetW * scale; const int rawH = targetH * scale; const int frame = 140; cout << "Step 1: Calculating Reference Orbit using Perturbation..." << endl; mpfr_t rx, ry, zr, zi, zr2, zi2, tmp, sz, st; mpfr_inits2(MPFR_BITS, rx, ry, zr, zi, zr2, zi2, tmp, sz, st, NULL); mpfr_set_str(rx, absc_str.c_str(), 10, MPFR_RNDN); mpfr_set_str(ry, ordi_str.c_str(), 10, MPFR_RNDN); mpfr_set_str(sz, size_str.c_str(), 10, MPFR_RNDN); mpfr_div_ui(st, sz, rawW, MPFR_RNDN); double step_d = mpfr_get_d(st, MPFR_RNDN); vector<ComplexDouble> ref_orbit_double(50005); mpfr_set_ui(zr, 0, MPFR_RNDN); mpfr_set_ui(zi, 0, MPFR_RNDN); mpfr_set_ui(zr2, 0, MPFR_RNDN); mpfr_set_ui(zi2, 0, MPFR_RNDN); uint32_t ref_i = 0; bool escaped = false; while (ref_i < 50000) { ref_orbit_double[ref_i].re = mpfr_get_d(zr, MPFR_RNDN); ref_orbit_double[ref_i].im = mpfr_get_d(zi, MPFR_RNDN); mpfr_mul(tmp, zr, zi, MPFR_RNDN); mpfr_mul_ui(zi, tmp, 2, MPFR_RNDN); mpfr_add(zi, zi, ry, MPFR_RNDN); mpfr_sub(zr, zr2, zi2, MPFR_RNDN); mpfr_add(zr, zr, rx, MPFR_RNDN); mpfr_mul(zr2, zr, zr, MPFR_RNDN); mpfr_mul(zi2, zi, zi, MPFR_RNDN); if (escaped) { ref_i++; break; } mpfr_add(tmp, zr2, zi2, MPFR_RNDN); if (mpfr_cmp_d(tmp, 4.0) >= 0) { escaped = true; } ref_i++; } ref_orbit_double[ref_i].re = mpfr_get_d(zr, MPFR_RNDN); ref_orbit_double[ref_i].im = mpfr_get_d(zi, MPFR_RNDN); uint32_t max_valid_ref_iter = ref_i; mpfr_clears(rx, ry, zr, zi, zr2, zi2, tmp, sz, st, NULL); uint8_t pal[256][3]; for (int a = 0; a < 255; ++a) { pal[a][0] = (uint8_t)round(127.0 + 127.0 * cos(2.0 * PI * a / 255.0)); // Blue pal[a][1] = (uint8_t)round(127.0 + 127.0 * sin(2.0 * PI * a / 255.0)); // Green pal[a][2] = (uint8_t)round(127.0 + 127.0 * sin(2.0 * PI * a / 255.0)); // Red } pal[255][0] = 255; pal[255][1] = 255; pal[255][2] = 255; cout << "Step 2: Stream rendering Mandelbrot140.bmp (" << targetW << "x" << targetH << ")..." << endl; int rowSize = (targetW * 3 + 3) & ~3; BMPHeader header; header.width = targetW; header.height = targetH; header.sizeImage = rowSize * targetH; header.size = header.sizeImage + 54; ofstream f("Mandelbrot140.bmp", ios::binary); f.write(reinterpret_cast<char*>(&header), 54); vector<uint8_t> rowBuffer(rowSize); for (int y = 0; y < targetH; ++y) { #pragma omp parallel for schedule(dynamic) for (int x = 0; x < targetW; ++x) { uint32_t rSum = 0, gSum = 0, bSum = 0; const ComplexDouble* ref_ptr = ref_orbit_double.data(); for (int j = 0; j < scale; ++j) { size_t b = (size_t)y * scale + j; double delta_imc = (double)((long long)b - (rawH / 2)) * step_d; for (int i = 0; i < scale; ++i) { size_t a = (size_t)x * scale + i; double delta_rec = (double)((long long)a - (rawW / 2)) * step_d; uint32_t index = 0; double delta_re = 0.0; double delta_im = 0.0; double z_re = 0.0; double z_im = 0.0; uint32_t iter = 0; while (iter < max_valid_ref_iter) { if ((z_re * z_re + z_im * z_im) >= 40000.0) { break; } if ((z_re * z_re + z_im * z_im) < (delta_re * delta_re + delta_im * delta_im)) { index = 0; delta_re = z_re; delta_im = z_im; } for (int k = 0; k < 2; ++k) { double Ur = ref_ptr[index].re; double Ui = ref_ptr[index].im; double next_delta_im = 2.0 * Ur * delta_im + 2.0 * Ui * delta_re + 2.0 * delta_re * delta_im + delta_imc; delta_re = 2.0 * Ur * delta_re - 2.0 * Ui * delta_im + delta_re * delta_re - delta_im * delta_im + delta_rec; delta_im = next_delta_im; index++; } z_re = ref_ptr[index].re + delta_re; z_im = ref_ptr[index].im + delta_im; iter += 2; } int final_t = 50000 - iter; uint8_t t = (final_t == 0) ? 255 : (uint8_t)(final_t % 254); int colorIdx = (t == 255) ? 255 : (t - frame + 255) % 255; bSum += pal[colorIdx][0]; gSum += pal[colorIdx][1]; rSum += pal[colorIdx][2]; } } int outIdx = x * 3; rowBuffer[outIdx + 0] = (uint8_t)(bSum >> 6); rowBuffer[outIdx + 1] = (uint8_t)(gSum >> 6); rowBuffer[outIdx + 2] = (uint8_t)(rSum >> 6); } f.write(reinterpret_cast<const char*>(rowBuffer.data()), rowSize); if ((y + 1) % 10 == 0 || y == targetH - 1) { cout << "Progress: " << (y + 1) << "/" << targetH << "\r" << flush; } } f.close(); cout << "\nDone! Mandelbrot140.bmp successfully saved." << endl; return 0; } </syntaxhighlight> == Rendered Examples == <gallery mode="packed" heights="200"> File:Mandelbrot Set Image 107.png|Mandelbrot set fragment using perturbation theory. Final resolution 10,000 x 10,000 pixels. File:Mandelbrot Set Image 108.png|Mandelbrot set fragment using perturbation theory. Final resolution 10,000 x 10,000 pixels. File:Mandelbrot Set Image 109.png|Mandelbrot set fragment using perturbation theory. Final resolution 10,000 x 10,000 pixels. File:Mandelbrot Set Image 110.png|Mandelbrot set fragment using perturbation theory. Final resolution 10,000 x 10,000 pixels. </gallery> == External Links == * [https://github.com/Divetoxx/Mandelbrot Official Mandelbrot CLI Repository on GitHub] — source code, documentation, and pre-compiled releases. * [https://rosettacode.org/wiki/Mandelbrot_set#Perturbation_Theory Rosetta Code: Mandelbrot set Implementation] — C++ perturbation theory optimization showcased in the global code repository. [[Category:Computer graphics]] [[Category:Fractals]] hddor36p2g9dhnznlqky71pb1rert5y 2 330421 2817550 2817484 2026-07-01T18:59:37Z Sabbier 3098112 /* Bartending Wikiversity Course */ 2817550 wikitext text/x-wiki Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity. == Things I'm working on == [[Creating Wikiversity Courses]] === Bartending Wikiversity Course === ==== Things Yet to Do ==== # Look at structures of other wiki courses ## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity? ## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson? # Gather Wikimedia photos for use ==== Notes to Myself ==== # Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organie. ==== Course Outline ==== # What is bartending?/Bartending basics ## Types of alcohol ### Spirits portal ## Tools and their uses ## Preparation ## Glasses ## Safety ## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists # Mixing Drinks ## Taxonomy of cocktails ## All the basic recipes # Hospitality and Industry ## Wages + tips ## Hours + Working conditions ## Unions # References ## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide ### Available on Internet Archive ## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page ## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] kfn96pvm6u8oi4zazza6kwfhp21zz5r 2817551 2817550 2026-07-01T20:01:03Z Sabbier 3098112 2817551 wikitext text/x-wiki Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity. == Things I'm working on == [[Creating Wikiversity Courses]] === Bartending Wikiversity Course === ==== Things Yet to Do ==== # Look at structures of other wiki courses ## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity? ## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson? # Gather Wikimedia photos for use ==== Notes to Myself ==== # Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize. ==== Course Outline ==== # What is bartending?/Bartending basics ## Types of alcohol ### Spirits portal ## Tools and their uses ## Preparation ## Glasses ## Safety ## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists # Mixing Drinks ## Taxonomy of cocktails ## All the basic recipes # Hospitality and Industry ## Wages + tips ## Hours + Working conditions ## Unions # References ## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide ### Available on Internet Archive ## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page ## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] ## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending == Bartending for Beginners == === Introduction === Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for anyone wanting to learn the trade of bartending, whether that be for a job or at home. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history. This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse it's contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting it's contents will be formally assigned as part of the course. === Structure of the Course === This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below: # Bartending Basics # Mixing Drinks # Hospitality and Industry === Recommended Materials === Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are: [[File:The Best Way To Shake A Cocktail - Drinks Made Easy.webm|border|thumb|250x250px|Boston Cocktail Shaker]] # Boston shaker (Not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find) # Bar Spoon # Jigger # Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics. == Bartending Basics == What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At it's simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. hq08vj0hblf2u15l3u4vux7p9i4idvh 2817552 2817551 2026-07-01T20:56:21Z Sabbier 3098112 2817552 wikitext text/x-wiki Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity. == Things I'm working on == [[Creating Wikiversity Courses]] === Bartending Wikiversity Course === ==== Things Yet to Do ==== # Look at structures of other wiki courses ## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity? ## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson? # Gather Wikimedia photos for use ==== Notes to Myself ==== # Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize. ==== Course Outline ==== # What is bartending?/Bartending basics ## Types of alcohol ### Spirits portal ## Tools and their uses ## Preparation ## Glasses ## Safety # Mixing Drinks ## Taxonomy of cocktails ## All the basic recipes # Hospitality and Industry ## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists ## Wages + tips ## Hours + Working conditions ## Unions # References ## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide ### Available on Internet Archive ## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page ## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] ## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending == Bartending for Beginners == === Introduction === Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for anyone wanting to learn the trade of bartending, whether that be for a job or at home. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history. This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse it's contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting it's contents will be formally assigned as part of the course. === Structure of the Course === This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below: # Bartending Basics # Mixing Drinks # Hospitality and Industry === Recommended Materials === Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are: # Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.) # Hawthorn Strainer # Bar Spoon # Jigger #A glass for mixing, and glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10oz of liquid.) [[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]] [[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]] [[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]] In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one. Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics. == Bartending Basics == What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At it's simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars. This lesson covers *Types of alcohol * Tools and their uses * Preparation * Glasses * Safety h815njl2hppjiqdl32j5naxg1afy46s 2817555 2817552 2026-07-01T23:04:03Z Sabbier 3098112 2817555 wikitext text/x-wiki Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity. == Things I'm working on == [[Creating Wikiversity Courses]] === Bartending Wikiversity Course === ==== Things Yet to Do ==== # Look at structures of other wiki courses ## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity? ## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson? # Gather Wikimedia photos for use ==== Notes to Myself ==== # Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize. ==== Course Outline ==== # What is bartending?/Bartending basics ## Types of alcohol ### Spirits portal ## Tools and their uses ## Preparation ## Glasses ## Safety # Mixing Drinks ## Taxonomy of cocktails ## All the basic recipes # Hospitality and Industry ## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists ## Wages + tips ## Hours + Working conditions ## Unions # References ## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide ### Available on Internet Archive ## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page ## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] ## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending == Bartending for Beginners == === Introduction === Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for anyone wanting to learn the trade of bartending, whether that be for a job or at home. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history. This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse it's contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting it's contents will be formally assigned as part of the course. === Structure of the Course === This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below: # Bartending Basics # Mixing Drinks # Hospitality and Industry === Recommended Materials === Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are: # Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.) # Hawthorn Strainer # Bar Spoon # Jigger #A glass for mixing, and glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10oz of liquid.) [[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]] [[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]] [[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]] In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one. Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics. == Bartending Basics == What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At it's simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars. This lesson covers *Types of alcohol * Tools and their uses * Preparation * Glasses * Safety === Types of Alcohol === Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol. There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world. The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]]. ==== Fermentation ==== [[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]] Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. "Sugars" is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and the source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. You can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. Fermentation happens in a couple of steps. '''Milling and Mashing''': Grains like barley are milled into a coarse flour called grist. This is mixed with hot water in a process called mashing, where enzymes convert starches to sugars, creating a sweet liquid called wort. # '''Lautering and Boiling''': The wort is separated from the solids (spent grains) through lautering. It’s then boiled with hops, which add bitterness, aroma, and act as a preservative. This step also sterilizes the mixture. # '''Cooling and Fermentation''': The hopped wort is cooled to around 20-25°C (68-77°F) and transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is pitched (added), and fermentation begins. Over 5-10 days, yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and CO2. This is primary fermentation. # '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, the beer undergoes secondary fermentation or conditioning to mature flavors and clarify. It’s then carbonated (naturally or forced) and packaged. ==== Distilled Beverages ==== bgds2smafxiejf2am7isxf9e5c5vw6l 2817556 2817555 2026-07-02T00:03:12Z Sabbier 3098112 2817556 wikitext text/x-wiki Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity. == Things I'm working on == [[Creating Wikiversity Courses]] === Bartending Wikiversity Course === ==== Things Yet to Do ==== # Look at structures of other wiki courses ## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity? ## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson? # Gather Wikimedia photos for use ==== Notes to Myself ==== # Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize. # Types of alcohol from [[wikipedia:Ethanol_fermentation|Ethanol fermentation]] wiki page Alcohol products: #* Natural sugars present in grapes; #** Fermented: Wine, cider and perry are produced by similar fermentation of natural sugar in apples and pears, respectively; and other fruit wines are produced from the fermentation of the sugars in any other kinds of fruit. #** Liquors: Brandy and eaux de vie (e.g. slivovitz) are produced by distillation of these fruit-fermented beverages. #* Mead is produced by fermentation of the natural sugars present in honey. #* Grain starches that have been converted to sugar by the enzyme amylase, which is present in grain kernels that have been malted (i.e. germinated). Other sources of starch (e.g. potatoes and unmalted grain) may be added to the mixture, as the amylase will act on those starches as well. It may also be amylase-induce fermented with saliva in a few countries. #** Fermented: Beer #** Liquors: Whiskey, and sometimes vodka. Gin and related beverages are produced by the addition of flavoring agents to a vodka-like feedstock during distillation. #* Rice grain starches converted to sugar by the mold ''Aspergillus oryzae''. #** Fermented: Rice wines (including sake) #** Liquors: ''Baijiu'', ''soju'', and ''shōchū'' #* Sugarcane product molasses. #** Liquors: Rum ==== Course Outline ==== # What is bartending?/Bartending basics ## Types of alcohol ### Spirits portal ## Tools and their uses ## Preparation ## Glasses ## Safety # Mixing Drinks ## Taxonomy of cocktails ## All the basic recipes # Hospitality and Industry ## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists ## Wages + tips ## Hours + Working conditions ## Unions # References ## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide ### Available on Internet Archive ## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page ## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] ## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending == Bartending for Beginners == === Introduction === Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for anyone wanting to learn the trade of bartending, whether that be for a job or at home. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history. This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse it's contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting it's contents will be formally assigned as part of the course. === Structure of the Course === This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below: # Bartending Basics # Mixing Drinks # Hospitality and Industry === Recommended Materials === Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are: # Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.) # Hawthorn Strainer # Bar Spoon # Jigger #A glass for mixing, and glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10oz of liquid.) [[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]] [[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]] [[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]] In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one. Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics. == Bartending Basics == What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At it's simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars. This lesson covers *Types of alcohol * Tools and their uses * Preparation * Glasses * Safety === Sources of Alcohol === Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol. There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world. The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]]. ==== Fermentation ==== [[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]] Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. "Sugars" is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. Fermentation happens in a couple of steps. # '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled. # '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation. # '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged. Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. ==== Distillation ==== [[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia.]] Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps: # The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name). # The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind. # The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state. # The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation. The result of distillation is a liquor erfjvpht2cwqp90sfuvvt9ag89of1sr 2817559 2817556 2026-07-02T01:01:33Z Sabbier 3098112 2817559 wikitext text/x-wiki Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity. == Things I'm working on == [[Creating Wikiversity Courses]] === Bartending Wikiversity Course === ==== Things Yet to Do ==== # Look at structures of other wiki courses ## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity? ## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson? # Gather Wikimedia photos for use ==== Notes to Myself ==== # Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize. # Types of alcohol from [[wikipedia:Ethanol_fermentation|Ethanol fermentation]] wiki page Alcohol products: #* Natural sugars present in grapes; #** Fermented: Wine, cider and perry are produced by similar fermentation of natural sugar in apples and pears, respectively; and other fruit wines are produced from the fermentation of the sugars in any other kinds of fruit. #** Liquors: Brandy and eaux de vie (e.g. slivovitz) are produced by distillation of these fruit-fermented beverages. #* Mead is produced by fermentation of the natural sugars present in honey. #* Grain starches that have been converted to sugar by the enzyme amylase, which is present in grain kernels that have been malted (i.e. germinated). Other sources of starch (e.g. potatoes and unmalted grain) may be added to the mixture, as the amylase will act on those starches as well. It may also be amylase-induce fermented with saliva in a few countries. #** Fermented: Beer #** Liquors: Whiskey, and sometimes vodka. Gin and related beverages are produced by the addition of flavoring agents to a vodka-like feedstock during distillation. #* Rice grain starches converted to sugar by the mold ''Aspergillus oryzae''. #** Fermented: Rice wines (including sake) #** Liquors: ''Baijiu'', ''soju'', and ''shōchū'' #* Sugarcane product molasses. #** Liquors: Rum ==== Course Outline ==== # What is bartending?/Bartending basics ## Types of alcohol ### Spirits portal ## Tools and their uses ## Preparation ## Glasses ## Safety # Mixing Drinks ## Taxonomy of cocktails ## All the basic recipes # Hospitality and Industry ## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists ## Wages + tips ## Hours + Working conditions ## Unions # References ## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide ### Available on Internet Archive ## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page ## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] ## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending == Bartending for Beginners == === Introduction === Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for anyone wanting to learn the trade of bartending, whether that be for a job or at home. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history. This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse it's contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting it's contents will be formally assigned as part of the course. === Structure of the Course === This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below: # Bartending Basics # Mixing Drinks # Hospitality and Industry === Recommended Materials === Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are: # Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.) # Hawthorn Strainer # Bar Spoon # Jigger #A glass for mixing, and glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10oz of liquid.) [[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]] [[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]] [[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]] In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one. Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics. == Bartending Basics == What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At it's simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars. This lesson covers *Types of alcohol * Tools and their uses * Preparation * Glasses * Safety === Sources of Alcohol === Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol. There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world. The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]]. ==== Fermentation ==== [[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]] Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. "Sugars" is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. Fermentation happens in a couple of steps. # '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled. # '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation. # '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged. Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. ==== Distillation ==== [[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia.]] Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps: # The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name). # The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind. # The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state. # The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation. The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. Lets briefly discuss ABV in drinks. === Types of Alcohol === Now that we know how alcohol is made, let's discuss all the variations that come from these processes. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that makes different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products. [[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]] Now let's simplify these into categories. ==== Wine ==== We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: red, white, rosé, and orange. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine. {| class="wikitable" |+Colors of wine ! !Long contact with grape skins !Short contact with grape skins |- !Red grapes |'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties,{{sfn|Robinson|2006|p=322}} and the actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black.{{sfn|Robinson|2006|p=564}} The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray;{{sfn|Robinson|2006|p=322}}{{efn|An exception to this is the family of ''[[teinturier]]'' varieties, which actually have red flesh.{{sfn|Robinson|2006|pp=688-689}}}} the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice.{{sfn|Robinson|2006|p=414}} |'''''Rosé wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.{{sfn|Robinson|2006|p=593}} There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine.{{sfn|Robinson|2006|p=593}}{{efn|This practise is not allowed in most controlled wine regions, although [[Champagne wine region|Champagne]] is a notable exception.{{sfn|Robinson|2006|p=593}}}} |- !White grapes |'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result.{{sfn|Johnson|Robinson|2019|p=33}} |'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden.{{sfn|Robinson|2006|pp=765-766}} {{efn|Red grapes may be used to make a white wine if the winemaker separates the skins from the juice quickly after pressing to minimize skin contact, and white [[champagne]] commonly uses red grapes in this way.{{sfn|Robinson|2006|pp=765-766}}}} When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness.{{sfn|Robinson|2006|p=632}} |} pz2opzx43psu08rv8hdu7gvbda73gaq 2817561 2817559 2026-07-02T01:46:14Z Sabbier 3098112 2817561 wikitext text/x-wiki Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity. == Things I'm working on == [[Creating Wikiversity Courses]] === Bartending Wikiversity Course === ==== Things Yet to Do ==== # Look at structures of other wiki courses ## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity? ## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson? # Gather Wikimedia photos for use ==== Notes to Myself ==== # Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize. # Types of alcohol from [[wikipedia:Ethanol_fermentation|Ethanol fermentation]] wiki page Alcohol products: #* Natural sugars present in grapes; #** Fermented: Wine, cider and perry are produced by similar fermentation of natural sugar in apples and pears, respectively; and other fruit wines are produced from the fermentation of the sugars in any other kinds of fruit. #** Liquors: Brandy and eaux de vie (e.g. slivovitz) are produced by distillation of these fruit-fermented beverages. #* Mead is produced by fermentation of the natural sugars present in honey. #* Grain starches that have been converted to sugar by the enzyme amylase, which is present in grain kernels that have been malted (i.e. germinated). Other sources of starch (e.g. potatoes and unmalted grain) may be added to the mixture, as the amylase will act on those starches as well. It may also be amylase-induce fermented with saliva in a few countries. #** Fermented: Beer #** Liquors: Whiskey, and sometimes vodka. Gin and related beverages are produced by the addition of flavoring agents to a vodka-like feedstock during distillation. #* Rice grain starches converted to sugar by the mold ''Aspergillus oryzae''. #** Fermented: Rice wines (including sake) #** Liquors: ''Baijiu'', ''soju'', and ''shōchū'' #* Sugarcane product molasses. #** Liquors: Rum ==== Course Outline ==== # What is bartending?/Bartending basics ## Types of alcohol ### Spirits portal ## Tools and their uses ## Preparation ## Glasses ## Safety # Mixing Drinks ## Taxonomy of cocktails ## All the basic recipes # Hospitality and Industry ## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists ## Wages + tips ## Hours + Working conditions ## Unions # References ## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide ### Available on Internet Archive ## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page ## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] ## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending == Bartending for Beginners == === Introduction === Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for anyone wanting to learn the trade of bartending, whether that be for a job or at home. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history. This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse it's contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting it's contents will be formally assigned as part of the course. === Structure of the Course === This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below: # Bartending Basics # Mixing Drinks # Hospitality and Industry === Recommended Materials === Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are: # Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.) # Hawthorn Strainer # Bar Spoon # Jigger #A glass for mixing, and glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10oz of liquid.) [[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]] [[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]] [[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]] In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one. Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics. == Bartending Basics == What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At it's simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars. This lesson covers *Types of alcohol * Tools and their uses * Preparation * Glasses * Safety === Sources of Alcohol === Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol. There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world. The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]]. ==== Fermentation ==== [[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]] Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. "Sugars" is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. Fermentation happens in a couple of steps. # '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled. # '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation. # '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged. Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. ==== Distillation ==== [[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia.]] Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps: # The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name). # The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind. # The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state. # The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation. The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. Lets briefly discuss ABV in drinks. === Types of Alcohol === Now that we know how alcohol is made, let's discuss all the variations that come from these processes. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that makes different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products. [[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]] Now let's simplify these into categories. ==== Wine ==== We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: [[wikipedia:Red_wine|red]], [[wikipedia:white_wine|white]], [[wikipedia:rose_wine|rosé]], and [[wikipedia:Orange_wine|orange]]. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine. {| class="wikitable" |+Colors of wine ! !Long contact with grape skins !Short contact with grape skins |- !Red grapes |'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray; the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice. |'''''Rosé wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red. There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine. |- !White grapes |'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result. |'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness. |} In addition to the colors of wine, wine can be [[wikipedia:Sparkling_wine|sparkling]] or still. Sparkling wine includes Champagne and other Brut wines. There are hundreds of wine varietals. Many names you may recognize like the red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Zinfandel; white wines like Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Riesling; and rosé wines like Provence, White Zinfandel and Pink Moscato. Your bar should have a list of wines held in the ===== Fruit Wine ===== [[wikipedia:Fruit_wine|Fruit wine]] is mostly what it sounds like it is; wine made from fruits other than grapes. Making a 3qldihttqs2i5nc7hid3quvfk0u6wan 2817562 2817561 2026-07-02T01:59:22Z Sabbier 3098112 2817562 wikitext text/x-wiki Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity. == Things I'm working on == [[Creating Wikiversity Courses]] === Bartending Wikiversity Course === ==== Things Yet to Do ==== # Look at structures of other wiki courses ## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity? ## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson? # Gather Wikimedia photos for use ==== Notes to Myself ==== # Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize. # Types of alcohol from [[wikipedia:Ethanol_fermentation|Ethanol fermentation]] wiki page Alcohol products: #* Natural sugars present in grapes; #** Fermented: Wine, cider and perry are produced by similar fermentation of natural sugar in apples and pears, respectively; and other fruit wines are produced from the fermentation of the sugars in any other kinds of fruit. #** Liquors: Brandy and eaux de vie (e.g. slivovitz) are produced by distillation of these fruit-fermented beverages. #* Mead is produced by fermentation of the natural sugars present in honey. #* Grain starches that have been converted to sugar by the enzyme amylase, which is present in grain kernels that have been malted (i.e. germinated). Other sources of starch (e.g. potatoes and unmalted grain) may be added to the mixture, as the amylase will act on those starches as well. It may also be amylase-induce fermented with saliva in a few countries. #** Fermented: Beer #** Liquors: Whiskey, and sometimes vodka. Gin and related beverages are produced by the addition of flavoring agents to a vodka-like feedstock during distillation. #* Rice grain starches converted to sugar by the mold ''Aspergillus oryzae''. #** Fermented: Rice wines (including sake) #** Liquors: ''Baijiu'', ''soju'', and ''shōchū'' #* Sugarcane product molasses. #** Liquors: Rum ==== Course Outline ==== # What is bartending?/Bartending basics ## Types of alcohol ### Spirits portal ## Tools and their uses ## Preparation ## Glasses ## Safety # Mixing Drinks ## Taxonomy of cocktails ## All the basic recipes # Hospitality and Industry ## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists ## Wages + tips ## Hours + Working conditions ## Unions # References ## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide ### Available on Internet Archive ## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page ## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] ## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending == Bartending for Beginners == === Introduction === Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for anyone wanting to learn the trade of bartending, whether that be for a job or at home. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history. This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse it's contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting it's contents will be formally assigned as part of the course. === Structure of the Course === This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below: # Bartending Basics # Mixing Drinks # Hospitality and Industry === Recommended Materials === Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are: # Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.) # Hawthorn Strainer # Bar Spoon # Jigger #A glass for mixing, and glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10oz of liquid.) [[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]] [[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]] [[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]] In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one. Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics. == Bartending Basics == What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At it's simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars. This lesson covers *Types of alcohol * Tools and their uses * Preparation * Glasses * Safety === Sources of Alcohol === Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol. There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world. The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]]. ==== Fermentation ==== [[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]] Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. "Sugars" is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. Fermentation happens in a couple of steps. # '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled. # '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation. # '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged. Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. ==== Distillation ==== [[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia.]] Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps: # The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name). # The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind. # The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state. # The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation. The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. Lets briefly discuss ABV in drinks. === Types of Alcohol === Now that we know how alcohol is made, let's discuss all the variations that come from these processes. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that makes different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products. [[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]] Now let's simplify these into categories. ==== Wine ==== We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: [[wikipedia:Red_wine|red]], [[wikipedia:white_wine|white]], [[wikipedia:rose_wine|rosé]], and [[wikipedia:Orange_wine|orange]]. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine. {| class="wikitable" |+Colors of wine ! !Long contact with grape skins !Short contact with grape skins |- !Red grapes |'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray; the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice. |'''''Rosé wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red. There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine. |- !White grapes |'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result. |'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness. |} In addition to the colors of wine, wine can be [[wikipedia:Sparkling_wine|sparkling]] or still. Sparkling wine includes Champagne and other Brut wines. There are hundreds of wine varietals. Many names you may recognize like the red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Zinfandel; white wines like Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Riesling; and rosé wines like Provence, White Zinfandel and Pink Moscato. Your bar should have a list of wines held in the ===== Fruit Wine ===== [[wikipedia:Fruit_wine|Fruit wine]] is mostly what it sounds like it is; wine made from fruits other than grapes. ===== Cider ===== ===== Brandy ===== l1t0xfdhaiuyi2uomiy1a11u4cnuz9r 0 330426 2817512 2817511 2026-07-01T12:01:46Z James500 297601 /* Linguistics */ Add 2817512 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This page is part of [[Universal Bibliography/Languages|bibliography of languages]]. This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of Japanese. Bibliography *Oskar Nachod. "Linguistics". Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754. *Wenckstern. "Philology: The Japanese Language". A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89. General *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Kokugo *Paul H Clark. The Kokugo Revolution: Education, Identity, and Language Policy in Imperial Japan. (Japan Research Monograph 16). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F6jSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeounsuk Lee. The Ideology of Kokugo: Nationalizing Language in Modern Japan. University of Hawaii Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=54wBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Kokugo To Iu Shisō: Kindai Nihon No Gengo Ninshiki. (Japanese: 「国語」という思想: 近代日本の言語認識). Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1996. Nihongo *Makoto Sugawara. Nihongo: A Japanese Approach to Japanese. East Publications. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKkPAAAAYAAJ] *Roy Andrew Miller. Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese. The Athlone Press. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oRxkAAAAMAAJ] *Nihongo Notes. The Japan Times. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdkpAQAAIAAJ] *Yutaka Sato and Margaret Y. Yamashita. Nihongo: Introductory Japanese. 1994. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ptACuS6HnpUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Minna No Nihongo I. 3A Corporation. (スリーエーネットワーク). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G-bl2P5lRl4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Minna No Nihongo II. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4nHnMa4Zw-MC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Muneo Kimura. Learning Japanese: Techniques for Intermediate and Advanced Student. (Orientation Seminars on Japan, number 23). Office for the Japanese Studies Center, The Japan Foundation. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZyUHAQAAIAAJ] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Study *Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] *Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ] *Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W P Lehmann and Lloyd Faust. A Grammar of Formal Written Japanese. (Harvard-Yenching Institute Studies, vol 5). 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=50s0AAAAIAAJ] Written; Writing *David Ashworth and Ikumi Hitosugi. Written Japanese: An Introduction. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fLDhgDHj7_EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Heath Rose. The Japanese Writing System: Challenges, Strategies and Self-regulation for Learning Kanji. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDU8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1924#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Basil Hall Chamberlain. A Practical Introduction to the Study of Japanese Writing. 1899. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-SWFGQkuJN8C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Handwritten *P G O'Neill. A Reader of Handwritten Japanese. Kodansha International. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r-MZAQAAIAAJ] Hiragana and katakana *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana for Beginners. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZPs8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kenneth G Henshall and Tetsuo Takagaki. Learning Japanese Hiragana and Katakana. Revised 2nd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QyfRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Guide to Learning Hiragana & Katakana. Tuttle. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=18i1QgAACAAJ] *Glen McCabe. Japanese Hiragana and Katakana Flash Cards. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aSFFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA34#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard S Keirstead. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana: Language Practice Pad. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yPxHDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Hiragana *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Hiragana. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CvQZAQAAIAAJ] *James W Heisig. Remembering the Hiragana: a complete course on how to teach yourself the Japanese syllabary in 3 hours. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VdEPAAAAYAAJ] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana for Beginners. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dR_RAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Hiragana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YtZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Yuko Green. My First Hiragana Activity Book. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C-OKxX_cdpgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Katakana *Tina Wells. Easy Katakana: How to Read and Write English Words Used in Japanese. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-ZSDP-9i9oUC] *Helmut Morsbach, Kazue Kurebayashi and James W. Heisig. Remembering the Katakana. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeAPAAAAYAAJ] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Katakana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rNZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Katakana for Beginners: First Steps to Mastering the Japanese Writing System. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W5sdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji and kana *Wolfgang Hadamitzky and Mark Spahn. Japanese Kanji and Kana: A Complete Guide to the Japanese Writing System. 1981. 2nd Ed: 1997. 3rd Ed: 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3w7QAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji *James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji. 1977. 5th Ed: 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TtEaylKrGaMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. Remembering the Kanji 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PYOUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji: A systematic guide to reading Japanese characters. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *James W Heisig and Tanya Sienko. Remembering the Kanji 3. 1994. 2nd Ed: 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wTZ4x_BHe5EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Editorial staff of The East magazine. Kanji Kanji. The East Publications Inc. Tokyo. 1972: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HcYPAAAAYAAJ]. Revised Ed: 1983: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T8YPAAAAYAAJ]. *Andrew Dykstra. Kanji 1-2-3. Kanji Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SnBWAAAAYAAJ] *Naoomi Kuratani, Akemi Kobayashi and Shunsuke Okunishi (eds). A New Dictionary of Kanji Usage あたらしい漢字用法辞典. Gakken. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5-C4AAAAIAAJ]. Review: "The Slimline Kanji Dictionaries" (1996) 9 International Journal of Lexicography 132 (No 2: June). Abstracts: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vYPAQAAMAAJ] [https://academic.oup.com/ijl/article-abstract/9/2/132/930154] *Jack Halpern. The Kodansha Kanji Usage Guide: An A to Z of Kun Homophones. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qgWQEAAAQBAJ] *Laurence Matthews. Kanji Fast Finder 漢字早引き辞典. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7SdpPwAACAAJ] *Glen Nolan Grant. Mastering Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0L1GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. *John Millen. Kanji Power: A Workbook for Mastering Japanese Characters. Tuttle Publishing. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uPu4AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari. Standard Kanji. Revised Ed. 1949. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=b1Q98sCcgV0C] *P G O'Neill. Essential Kanji. Weatherhill. 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VYadVK-DqSYC]. Paperback Ed: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dQ25AAAAIAAJ]. *Essential Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gr5GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8A0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Kanji. Passport Books. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R7ZM9Dao7NMC] *Erik Sato. Learning Japanese Kanji: Practice Book. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IcA0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *The Second 100 Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gUjRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn Kanji: An Introduction to Radicals, Components and 250 Very Basic Kanji. Kodansha International. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=khnrnBXLciIC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Richard Glenn Covington, Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn More Kanji: Family Groups, Learning Strategies, and 300 Complex Kanji. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLEOAAAACAAJ] Read; Reading *Eleanor Harz Jorden and Hamako Ito Chaplin. Reading Japanese. Yale University Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1MF6kCogEx0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jiří Jelínek and Patricia A Heron. Reading Japanese: A self-instructional manual for beginners, leading to independent translating ability. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1975. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *Dale P Crowley, with the assistance of Yoshiyuki Kawata and Yoko Kawata. Manual for Reading Japanese. University Press of Hawaii. Honolulu. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nK0PAAAAYAAJ] *John Braden. Read Practical Japanese. Kenkyusha. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3MAPAAAAYAAJ] *Setsuko Aihara, with Graham Parkes. Strategies for Reading Japanese: A Rational Approach to the Japanese Sentence. Japan Publications Trading Company. Tokyo. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tMs_AQAAIAAJ] *Len Walsh. Read Japanese Today: The Easy Way to Learn Hiragana, Katakana and Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hjBEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Arthur Rose-Innes. Japanese Reading for Beginners. K Yoshikawa & Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cP1z4IcbiO4C] ==Linguistics== *Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/48828212] [https://online.ucpress.edu/jjs/article-abstract/46/2/536/210735/Review-The-Cambridge-Handbook-of-Japanese] *Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ] *Tetsuo Harada. Outlines of Modern Japanese Linguistics. Tateshina Print Company. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jTcHAQAAIAAJ] Periodicals, Linguistics *Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ] *Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ] Issues *Takashi Imai and Mamoru Saito (eds). Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (Studies in Generative Grammar 29). Foris Publications. Dordrecht, Holland. 1987. ISBN 90-6765-284-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bYiFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kokugogaku and nihongogaku *Lidia Tanaka. "Japanese language studies: Kokugo as an ideology, nihongo as an autonomous and global scholarship?". Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. 2018.Chapter 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false 32] to 52. Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies) *[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]]. Cf. Kokugogaku (Japanese: [[en:wikt:国語学|国語学]]) (English: national language studies) Syntax and semantics *Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ] Semantics and pragmatics *Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] Morphology and phonology *Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Phonetics and Phonology *Haruo Kubozono (ed). Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8vFeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiromi Otaka. Phonetics and Phonology of Moras, Feet and Geminate Consonants in Japanese. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=39Q_AQAAIAAJ] *James D McCawley. The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese. Mouton & Co NV. The Hague. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3JoPAAAAYAAJ] Syntax *Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ] Phonetics *Daniel Lepetit and Reiko Makino. Japanese Phonetics: A Thematic Bibliography. Canadian Scholars. 1996. ISBN 1551300923. Catalogue: Canadian Books in Print: Author and Title Index 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q2WLJa9rY5MC&pg=PA1063#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1063]. *Society Newsletter. 1926 to 1996. [[w:ja:日本音声学会|The Phonetic Society of Japan]]. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication/society-newsletter] **Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan. 1997 onwards. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonetics: Theory and Practice. Lincom Europa. 1997. [https://books.google.com/books?id=guUZAQAAIAAJ] *P M Suski. The Phonetics of Japanese Language: With Reference to Japanese Script. 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpthAAAAMAAJ]. 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9DuiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Phonology *Laurence Labrune. The Phonology of Japanese. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ix9r6CbEl6IC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonology: A Functional Approach. Lincom Europa. 2000. [https://books.google.com/books?id=R-QZAQAAIAAJ] *Mieko Shimizu Han. Japanese Phonology: An Analysis Based on Sound Spectrograms. Kenkyusha. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T3Xl7SviXB4C] Pragmatics *Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Yoshiko Matsumoto, Junko Mori (eds). Pragmatics of Japanese: Perspectives on grammar, interaction and culture. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2wZTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gabriele Kasper. Pragmatics of Japanese as Native and Target Language. Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaiʼi at Mānoa. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2_8ifcjhpYQC] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] ==Translation== *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Dialects and regions== Dialects *Nobuko Kibe, Tetsuo Nitta and Kan Sasaki (eds). Handbook of Japanese Dialects. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8_Y9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kansai *Peter Tse. Kansai Japanese: The Language of Osaka, Kyoto, and Western Japan. (Tuttle Language Library). 1993. Reprinted 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvVkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *DC Palter and Kaoru Slotsve. Colloquial Kansai Japanese: The Dialects and Culture of the Kansai Region. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rJEdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==History== *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] ==Old Japanese== *John R Bentley. A Descriptive Grammar of Early Old Japanese Prose. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Eoqv_NcLJ4gC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Alexander Vovin. A Descriptive and Comparative Grammar of Western Old Japanese. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ba1xEQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] 2nd Ed: 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xfP_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. ==Classical Japanese== Introduction *Akira Komai and Thomas H Rohlich. An Introduction to Classical Japanese. Bonjinsha. Tokyo. 1991. Review: "Textbook Review by Questionnaire" (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tClnAAAAMAAJ 26] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 50 (No 1: April 1992) Grammar *Noriko Katsuki-Pestemer. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Lincom Europa. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PHoLAQAAMAAJ] *Haruo Shirane. Classical Japanese: A Grammar. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=M5-vVlcVEDkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/209495/summary] *Alexander Vovin. A Reference Grammar of Classical Japanese Prose. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=24GTVscUCX0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Akira Komai. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Culver Publishing. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sL0PAAAAYAAJ] *Tadashi Ikeda. Classical Japanese Grammar Illustrated with Texts. The Toho Gakkai (The Institute of Eastern Culture). 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQjUAAAAMAAJ] Dictionary *Ivan Morris. Dictionary of Selected Forms in Classical Japanese Literature. Columbia University Press. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O70PAAAAYAAJ] *Jiří Jelínek. Classical Japanese-English Grammar Dictionary. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qOEPAAAAYAAJ] Clauses *Stefan Kaiser. Circumnominal Relative Clauses in Classical Japanese: An Historical Study. Otto Harrassowitz. Wiesbaden. 1991. ISBN 344703212X. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GHsPAAAAYAAJ] [[Category:Japanese]] ig6sk703udqc60quwlh4tt1imsje4ep 2817513 2817512 2026-07-01T12:07:53Z James500 297601 /* Linguistics */ Add 2817513 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This page is part of [[Universal Bibliography/Languages|bibliography of languages]]. This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of Japanese. Bibliography *Oskar Nachod. "Linguistics". Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754. *Wenckstern. "Philology: The Japanese Language". A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89. General *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Kokugo *Paul H Clark. The Kokugo Revolution: Education, Identity, and Language Policy in Imperial Japan. (Japan Research Monograph 16). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F6jSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeounsuk Lee. The Ideology of Kokugo: Nationalizing Language in Modern Japan. University of Hawaii Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=54wBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Kokugo To Iu Shisō: Kindai Nihon No Gengo Ninshiki. (Japanese: 「国語」という思想: 近代日本の言語認識). Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1996. Nihongo *Makoto Sugawara. Nihongo: A Japanese Approach to Japanese. East Publications. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKkPAAAAYAAJ] *Roy Andrew Miller. Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese. The Athlone Press. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oRxkAAAAMAAJ] *Nihongo Notes. The Japan Times. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdkpAQAAIAAJ] *Yutaka Sato and Margaret Y. Yamashita. Nihongo: Introductory Japanese. 1994. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ptACuS6HnpUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Minna No Nihongo I. 3A Corporation. (スリーエーネットワーク). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G-bl2P5lRl4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Minna No Nihongo II. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4nHnMa4Zw-MC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Muneo Kimura. Learning Japanese: Techniques for Intermediate and Advanced Student. (Orientation Seminars on Japan, number 23). Office for the Japanese Studies Center, The Japan Foundation. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZyUHAQAAIAAJ] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Study *Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] *Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ] *Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W P Lehmann and Lloyd Faust. A Grammar of Formal Written Japanese. (Harvard-Yenching Institute Studies, vol 5). 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=50s0AAAAIAAJ] Written; Writing *David Ashworth and Ikumi Hitosugi. Written Japanese: An Introduction. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fLDhgDHj7_EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Heath Rose. The Japanese Writing System: Challenges, Strategies and Self-regulation for Learning Kanji. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDU8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1924#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Basil Hall Chamberlain. A Practical Introduction to the Study of Japanese Writing. 1899. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-SWFGQkuJN8C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Handwritten *P G O'Neill. A Reader of Handwritten Japanese. Kodansha International. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r-MZAQAAIAAJ] Hiragana and katakana *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana for Beginners. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZPs8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kenneth G Henshall and Tetsuo Takagaki. Learning Japanese Hiragana and Katakana. Revised 2nd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QyfRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Guide to Learning Hiragana & Katakana. Tuttle. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=18i1QgAACAAJ] *Glen McCabe. Japanese Hiragana and Katakana Flash Cards. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aSFFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA34#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard S Keirstead. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana: Language Practice Pad. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yPxHDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Hiragana *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Hiragana. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CvQZAQAAIAAJ] *James W Heisig. Remembering the Hiragana: a complete course on how to teach yourself the Japanese syllabary in 3 hours. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VdEPAAAAYAAJ] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana for Beginners. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dR_RAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Hiragana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YtZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Yuko Green. My First Hiragana Activity Book. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C-OKxX_cdpgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Katakana *Tina Wells. Easy Katakana: How to Read and Write English Words Used in Japanese. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-ZSDP-9i9oUC] *Helmut Morsbach, Kazue Kurebayashi and James W. Heisig. Remembering the Katakana. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeAPAAAAYAAJ] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Katakana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rNZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Katakana for Beginners: First Steps to Mastering the Japanese Writing System. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W5sdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji and kana *Wolfgang Hadamitzky and Mark Spahn. Japanese Kanji and Kana: A Complete Guide to the Japanese Writing System. 1981. 2nd Ed: 1997. 3rd Ed: 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3w7QAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji *James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji. 1977. 5th Ed: 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TtEaylKrGaMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. Remembering the Kanji 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PYOUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji: A systematic guide to reading Japanese characters. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *James W Heisig and Tanya Sienko. Remembering the Kanji 3. 1994. 2nd Ed: 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wTZ4x_BHe5EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Editorial staff of The East magazine. Kanji Kanji. The East Publications Inc. Tokyo. 1972: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HcYPAAAAYAAJ]. Revised Ed: 1983: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T8YPAAAAYAAJ]. *Andrew Dykstra. Kanji 1-2-3. Kanji Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SnBWAAAAYAAJ] *Naoomi Kuratani, Akemi Kobayashi and Shunsuke Okunishi (eds). A New Dictionary of Kanji Usage あたらしい漢字用法辞典. Gakken. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5-C4AAAAIAAJ]. Review: "The Slimline Kanji Dictionaries" (1996) 9 International Journal of Lexicography 132 (No 2: June). Abstracts: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vYPAQAAMAAJ] [https://academic.oup.com/ijl/article-abstract/9/2/132/930154] *Jack Halpern. The Kodansha Kanji Usage Guide: An A to Z of Kun Homophones. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qgWQEAAAQBAJ] *Laurence Matthews. Kanji Fast Finder 漢字早引き辞典. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7SdpPwAACAAJ] *Glen Nolan Grant. Mastering Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0L1GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. *John Millen. Kanji Power: A Workbook for Mastering Japanese Characters. Tuttle Publishing. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uPu4AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari. Standard Kanji. Revised Ed. 1949. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=b1Q98sCcgV0C] *P G O'Neill. Essential Kanji. Weatherhill. 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VYadVK-DqSYC]. Paperback Ed: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dQ25AAAAIAAJ]. *Essential Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gr5GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8A0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Kanji. Passport Books. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R7ZM9Dao7NMC] *Erik Sato. Learning Japanese Kanji: Practice Book. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IcA0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *The Second 100 Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gUjRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn Kanji: An Introduction to Radicals, Components and 250 Very Basic Kanji. Kodansha International. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=khnrnBXLciIC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Richard Glenn Covington, Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn More Kanji: Family Groups, Learning Strategies, and 300 Complex Kanji. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLEOAAAACAAJ] Read; Reading *Eleanor Harz Jorden and Hamako Ito Chaplin. Reading Japanese. Yale University Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1MF6kCogEx0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jiří Jelínek and Patricia A Heron. Reading Japanese: A self-instructional manual for beginners, leading to independent translating ability. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1975. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *Dale P Crowley, with the assistance of Yoshiyuki Kawata and Yoko Kawata. Manual for Reading Japanese. University Press of Hawaii. Honolulu. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nK0PAAAAYAAJ] *John Braden. Read Practical Japanese. Kenkyusha. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3MAPAAAAYAAJ] *Setsuko Aihara, with Graham Parkes. Strategies for Reading Japanese: A Rational Approach to the Japanese Sentence. Japan Publications Trading Company. Tokyo. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tMs_AQAAIAAJ] *Len Walsh. Read Japanese Today: The Easy Way to Learn Hiragana, Katakana and Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hjBEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Arthur Rose-Innes. Japanese Reading for Beginners. K Yoshikawa & Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cP1z4IcbiO4C] ==Linguistics== *Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/48828212] [https://online.ucpress.edu/jjs/article-abstract/46/2/536/210735/Review-The-Cambridge-Handbook-of-Japanese] *Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ] *Tetsuo Harada. Outlines of Modern Japanese Linguistics. Tateshina Print Company. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jTcHAQAAIAAJ] Periodicals, Linguistics *Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ] *Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ] Issues *Takashi Imai and Mamoru Saito (eds). Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (Studies in Generative Grammar 29). Foris Publications. Dordrecht, Holland. 1987. ISBN 90-6765-284-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bYiFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yukio Otsu and Ann Farmer (eds). Theoretical Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 2). 1980. [https://books.google.com/books?id=RDeBAAAAIAAJ] Kokugogaku and nihongogaku *Lidia Tanaka. "Japanese language studies: Kokugo as an ideology, nihongo as an autonomous and global scholarship?". Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. 2018.Chapter 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false 32] to 52. Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies) *[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]]. Cf. Kokugogaku (Japanese: [[en:wikt:国語学|国語学]]) (English: national language studies) Syntax and semantics *Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ] Semantics and pragmatics *Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] Morphology and phonology *Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Phonetics and Phonology *Haruo Kubozono (ed). Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8vFeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiromi Otaka. Phonetics and Phonology of Moras, Feet and Geminate Consonants in Japanese. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=39Q_AQAAIAAJ] *James D McCawley. The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese. Mouton & Co NV. The Hague. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3JoPAAAAYAAJ] Syntax *Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ] Phonetics *Daniel Lepetit and Reiko Makino. Japanese Phonetics: A Thematic Bibliography. Canadian Scholars. 1996. ISBN 1551300923. Catalogue: Canadian Books in Print: Author and Title Index 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q2WLJa9rY5MC&pg=PA1063#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1063]. *Society Newsletter. 1926 to 1996. [[w:ja:日本音声学会|The Phonetic Society of Japan]]. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication/society-newsletter] **Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan. 1997 onwards. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonetics: Theory and Practice. Lincom Europa. 1997. [https://books.google.com/books?id=guUZAQAAIAAJ] *P M Suski. The Phonetics of Japanese Language: With Reference to Japanese Script. 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpthAAAAMAAJ]. 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9DuiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Phonology *Laurence Labrune. The Phonology of Japanese. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ix9r6CbEl6IC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonology: A Functional Approach. Lincom Europa. 2000. [https://books.google.com/books?id=R-QZAQAAIAAJ] *Mieko Shimizu Han. Japanese Phonology: An Analysis Based on Sound Spectrograms. Kenkyusha. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T3Xl7SviXB4C] Pragmatics *Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Yoshiko Matsumoto, Junko Mori (eds). Pragmatics of Japanese: Perspectives on grammar, interaction and culture. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2wZTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gabriele Kasper. Pragmatics of Japanese as Native and Target Language. Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaiʼi at Mānoa. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2_8ifcjhpYQC] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] ==Translation== *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Dialects and regions== Dialects *Nobuko Kibe, Tetsuo Nitta and Kan Sasaki (eds). Handbook of Japanese Dialects. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8_Y9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kansai *Peter Tse. Kansai Japanese: The Language of Osaka, Kyoto, and Western Japan. (Tuttle Language Library). 1993. Reprinted 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvVkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *DC Palter and Kaoru Slotsve. Colloquial Kansai Japanese: The Dialects and Culture of the Kansai Region. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rJEdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==History== *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] ==Old Japanese== *John R Bentley. A Descriptive Grammar of Early Old Japanese Prose. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Eoqv_NcLJ4gC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Alexander Vovin. A Descriptive and Comparative Grammar of Western Old Japanese. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ba1xEQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] 2nd Ed: 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xfP_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. ==Classical Japanese== Introduction *Akira Komai and Thomas H Rohlich. An Introduction to Classical Japanese. Bonjinsha. Tokyo. 1991. Review: "Textbook Review by Questionnaire" (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tClnAAAAMAAJ 26] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 50 (No 1: April 1992) Grammar *Noriko Katsuki-Pestemer. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Lincom Europa. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PHoLAQAAMAAJ] *Haruo Shirane. Classical Japanese: A Grammar. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=M5-vVlcVEDkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/209495/summary] *Alexander Vovin. A Reference Grammar of Classical Japanese Prose. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=24GTVscUCX0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Akira Komai. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Culver Publishing. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sL0PAAAAYAAJ] *Tadashi Ikeda. Classical Japanese Grammar Illustrated with Texts. The Toho Gakkai (The Institute of Eastern Culture). 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQjUAAAAMAAJ] Dictionary *Ivan Morris. Dictionary of Selected Forms in Classical Japanese Literature. Columbia University Press. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O70PAAAAYAAJ] *Jiří Jelínek. Classical Japanese-English Grammar Dictionary. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qOEPAAAAYAAJ] Clauses *Stefan Kaiser. Circumnominal Relative Clauses in Classical Japanese: An Historical Study. Otto Harrassowitz. Wiesbaden. 1991. ISBN 344703212X. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GHsPAAAAYAAJ] [[Category:Japanese]] bk2trk3l67lqs7h48lc2w52pdzm593a 2817514 2817513 2026-07-01T12:14:24Z James500 297601 /* Linguistics */ Add 2817514 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This page is part of [[Universal Bibliography/Languages|bibliography of languages]]. This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of Japanese. Bibliography *Oskar Nachod. "Linguistics". Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754. *Wenckstern. "Philology: The Japanese Language". A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89. General *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Kokugo *Paul H Clark. The Kokugo Revolution: Education, Identity, and Language Policy in Imperial Japan. (Japan Research Monograph 16). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F6jSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeounsuk Lee. The Ideology of Kokugo: Nationalizing Language in Modern Japan. University of Hawaii Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=54wBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Kokugo To Iu Shisō: Kindai Nihon No Gengo Ninshiki. (Japanese: 「国語」という思想: 近代日本の言語認識). Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1996. Nihongo *Makoto Sugawara. Nihongo: A Japanese Approach to Japanese. East Publications. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKkPAAAAYAAJ] *Roy Andrew Miller. Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese. The Athlone Press. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oRxkAAAAMAAJ] *Nihongo Notes. The Japan Times. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdkpAQAAIAAJ] *Yutaka Sato and Margaret Y. Yamashita. Nihongo: Introductory Japanese. 1994. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ptACuS6HnpUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Minna No Nihongo I. 3A Corporation. (スリーエーネットワーク). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G-bl2P5lRl4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Minna No Nihongo II. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4nHnMa4Zw-MC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Muneo Kimura. Learning Japanese: Techniques for Intermediate and Advanced Student. (Orientation Seminars on Japan, number 23). Office for the Japanese Studies Center, The Japan Foundation. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZyUHAQAAIAAJ] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Study *Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] *Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ] *Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W P Lehmann and Lloyd Faust. A Grammar of Formal Written Japanese. (Harvard-Yenching Institute Studies, vol 5). 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=50s0AAAAIAAJ] Written; Writing *David Ashworth and Ikumi Hitosugi. Written Japanese: An Introduction. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fLDhgDHj7_EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Heath Rose. The Japanese Writing System: Challenges, Strategies and Self-regulation for Learning Kanji. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDU8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1924#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Basil Hall Chamberlain. A Practical Introduction to the Study of Japanese Writing. 1899. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-SWFGQkuJN8C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Handwritten *P G O'Neill. A Reader of Handwritten Japanese. Kodansha International. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r-MZAQAAIAAJ] Hiragana and katakana *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana for Beginners. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZPs8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kenneth G Henshall and Tetsuo Takagaki. Learning Japanese Hiragana and Katakana. Revised 2nd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QyfRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Guide to Learning Hiragana & Katakana. Tuttle. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=18i1QgAACAAJ] *Glen McCabe. Japanese Hiragana and Katakana Flash Cards. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aSFFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA34#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard S Keirstead. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana: Language Practice Pad. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yPxHDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Hiragana *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Hiragana. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CvQZAQAAIAAJ] *James W Heisig. Remembering the Hiragana: a complete course on how to teach yourself the Japanese syllabary in 3 hours. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VdEPAAAAYAAJ] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana for Beginners. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dR_RAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Hiragana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YtZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Yuko Green. My First Hiragana Activity Book. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C-OKxX_cdpgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Katakana *Tina Wells. Easy Katakana: How to Read and Write English Words Used in Japanese. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-ZSDP-9i9oUC] *Helmut Morsbach, Kazue Kurebayashi and James W. Heisig. Remembering the Katakana. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeAPAAAAYAAJ] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Katakana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rNZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Katakana for Beginners: First Steps to Mastering the Japanese Writing System. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W5sdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji and kana *Wolfgang Hadamitzky and Mark Spahn. Japanese Kanji and Kana: A Complete Guide to the Japanese Writing System. 1981. 2nd Ed: 1997. 3rd Ed: 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3w7QAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji *James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji. 1977. 5th Ed: 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TtEaylKrGaMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. Remembering the Kanji 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PYOUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji: A systematic guide to reading Japanese characters. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *James W Heisig and Tanya Sienko. Remembering the Kanji 3. 1994. 2nd Ed: 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wTZ4x_BHe5EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Editorial staff of The East magazine. Kanji Kanji. The East Publications Inc. Tokyo. 1972: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HcYPAAAAYAAJ]. Revised Ed: 1983: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T8YPAAAAYAAJ]. *Andrew Dykstra. Kanji 1-2-3. Kanji Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SnBWAAAAYAAJ] *Naoomi Kuratani, Akemi Kobayashi and Shunsuke Okunishi (eds). A New Dictionary of Kanji Usage あたらしい漢字用法辞典. Gakken. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5-C4AAAAIAAJ]. Review: "The Slimline Kanji Dictionaries" (1996) 9 International Journal of Lexicography 132 (No 2: June). Abstracts: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vYPAQAAMAAJ] [https://academic.oup.com/ijl/article-abstract/9/2/132/930154] *Jack Halpern. The Kodansha Kanji Usage Guide: An A to Z of Kun Homophones. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qgWQEAAAQBAJ] *Laurence Matthews. Kanji Fast Finder 漢字早引き辞典. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7SdpPwAACAAJ] *Glen Nolan Grant. Mastering Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0L1GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. *John Millen. Kanji Power: A Workbook for Mastering Japanese Characters. Tuttle Publishing. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uPu4AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari. Standard Kanji. Revised Ed. 1949. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=b1Q98sCcgV0C] *P G O'Neill. Essential Kanji. Weatherhill. 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VYadVK-DqSYC]. Paperback Ed: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dQ25AAAAIAAJ]. *Essential Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gr5GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8A0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Kanji. Passport Books. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R7ZM9Dao7NMC] *Erik Sato. Learning Japanese Kanji: Practice Book. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IcA0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *The Second 100 Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gUjRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn Kanji: An Introduction to Radicals, Components and 250 Very Basic Kanji. Kodansha International. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=khnrnBXLciIC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Richard Glenn Covington, Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn More Kanji: Family Groups, Learning Strategies, and 300 Complex Kanji. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLEOAAAACAAJ] Read; Reading *Eleanor Harz Jorden and Hamako Ito Chaplin. Reading Japanese. Yale University Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1MF6kCogEx0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jiří Jelínek and Patricia A Heron. Reading Japanese: A self-instructional manual for beginners, leading to independent translating ability. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1975. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *Dale P Crowley, with the assistance of Yoshiyuki Kawata and Yoko Kawata. Manual for Reading Japanese. University Press of Hawaii. Honolulu. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nK0PAAAAYAAJ] *John Braden. Read Practical Japanese. Kenkyusha. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3MAPAAAAYAAJ] *Setsuko Aihara, with Graham Parkes. Strategies for Reading Japanese: A Rational Approach to the Japanese Sentence. Japan Publications Trading Company. Tokyo. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tMs_AQAAIAAJ] *Len Walsh. Read Japanese Today: The Easy Way to Learn Hiragana, Katakana and Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hjBEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Arthur Rose-Innes. Japanese Reading for Beginners. K Yoshikawa & Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cP1z4IcbiO4C] ==Linguistics== *Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/48828212] [https://online.ucpress.edu/jjs/article-abstract/46/2/536/210735/Review-The-Cambridge-Handbook-of-Japanese] *Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/417343]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2007. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ] *Tetsuo Harada. Outlines of Modern Japanese Linguistics. Tateshina Print Company. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jTcHAQAAIAAJ] Periodicals, Linguistics *Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ] *Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ] Issues *Takashi Imai and Mamoru Saito (eds). Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (Studies in Generative Grammar 29). Foris Publications. Dordrecht, Holland. 1987. ISBN 90-6765-284-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bYiFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yukio Otsu and Ann Farmer (eds). Theoretical Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 2). 1980. [https://books.google.com/books?id=RDeBAAAAIAAJ] Kokugogaku and nihongogaku *Lidia Tanaka. "Japanese language studies: Kokugo as an ideology, nihongo as an autonomous and global scholarship?". Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. 2018.Chapter 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false 32] to 52. Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies) *[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]]. Cf. Kokugogaku (Japanese: [[en:wikt:国語学|国語学]]) (English: national language studies) Syntax and semantics *Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ] Semantics and pragmatics *Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] Morphology and phonology *Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Phonetics and Phonology *Haruo Kubozono (ed). Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8vFeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiromi Otaka. Phonetics and Phonology of Moras, Feet and Geminate Consonants in Japanese. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=39Q_AQAAIAAJ] *James D McCawley. The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese. Mouton & Co NV. The Hague. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3JoPAAAAYAAJ] Syntax *Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ] Phonetics *Daniel Lepetit and Reiko Makino. Japanese Phonetics: A Thematic Bibliography. Canadian Scholars. 1996. ISBN 1551300923. Catalogue: Canadian Books in Print: Author and Title Index 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q2WLJa9rY5MC&pg=PA1063#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1063]. *Society Newsletter. 1926 to 1996. [[w:ja:日本音声学会|The Phonetic Society of Japan]]. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication/society-newsletter] **Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan. 1997 onwards. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonetics: Theory and Practice. Lincom Europa. 1997. [https://books.google.com/books?id=guUZAQAAIAAJ] *P M Suski. The Phonetics of Japanese Language: With Reference to Japanese Script. 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpthAAAAMAAJ]. 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9DuiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Phonology *Laurence Labrune. The Phonology of Japanese. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ix9r6CbEl6IC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonology: A Functional Approach. Lincom Europa. 2000. [https://books.google.com/books?id=R-QZAQAAIAAJ] *Mieko Shimizu Han. Japanese Phonology: An Analysis Based on Sound Spectrograms. Kenkyusha. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T3Xl7SviXB4C] Pragmatics *Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Yoshiko Matsumoto, Junko Mori (eds). Pragmatics of Japanese: Perspectives on grammar, interaction and culture. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2wZTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gabriele Kasper. Pragmatics of Japanese as Native and Target Language. Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaiʼi at Mānoa. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2_8ifcjhpYQC] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] ==Translation== *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Dialects and regions== Dialects *Nobuko Kibe, Tetsuo Nitta and Kan Sasaki (eds). Handbook of Japanese Dialects. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8_Y9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kansai *Peter Tse. Kansai Japanese: The Language of Osaka, Kyoto, and Western Japan. (Tuttle Language Library). 1993. Reprinted 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvVkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *DC Palter and Kaoru Slotsve. Colloquial Kansai Japanese: The Dialects and Culture of the Kansai Region. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rJEdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==History== *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] ==Old Japanese== *John R Bentley. A Descriptive Grammar of Early Old Japanese Prose. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Eoqv_NcLJ4gC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Alexander Vovin. A Descriptive and Comparative Grammar of Western Old Japanese. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ba1xEQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] 2nd Ed: 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xfP_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. ==Classical Japanese== Introduction *Akira Komai and Thomas H Rohlich. An Introduction to Classical Japanese. Bonjinsha. Tokyo. 1991. Review: "Textbook Review by Questionnaire" (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tClnAAAAMAAJ 26] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 50 (No 1: April 1992) Grammar *Noriko Katsuki-Pestemer. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Lincom Europa. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PHoLAQAAMAAJ] *Haruo Shirane. Classical Japanese: A Grammar. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=M5-vVlcVEDkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/209495/summary] *Alexander Vovin. A Reference Grammar of Classical Japanese Prose. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=24GTVscUCX0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Akira Komai. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Culver Publishing. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sL0PAAAAYAAJ] *Tadashi Ikeda. Classical Japanese Grammar Illustrated with Texts. The Toho Gakkai (The Institute of Eastern Culture). 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQjUAAAAMAAJ] Dictionary *Ivan Morris. Dictionary of Selected Forms in Classical Japanese Literature. Columbia University Press. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O70PAAAAYAAJ] *Jiří Jelínek. Classical Japanese-English Grammar Dictionary. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qOEPAAAAYAAJ] Clauses *Stefan Kaiser. Circumnominal Relative Clauses in Classical Japanese: An Historical Study. Otto Harrassowitz. Wiesbaden. 1991. ISBN 344703212X. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GHsPAAAAYAAJ] [[Category:Japanese]] rhmirgmwbz045yko8dyunhn42zwv2fc 2817515 2817514 2026-07-01T12:19:21Z James500 297601 /* Linguistics */ Add 2817515 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This page is part of [[Universal Bibliography/Languages|bibliography of languages]]. This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of Japanese. Bibliography *Oskar Nachod. "Linguistics". Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754. *Wenckstern. "Philology: The Japanese Language". A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89. General *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Kokugo *Paul H Clark. The Kokugo Revolution: Education, Identity, and Language Policy in Imperial Japan. (Japan Research Monograph 16). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F6jSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeounsuk Lee. The Ideology of Kokugo: Nationalizing Language in Modern Japan. University of Hawaii Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=54wBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Kokugo To Iu Shisō: Kindai Nihon No Gengo Ninshiki. (Japanese: 「国語」という思想: 近代日本の言語認識). Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1996. Nihongo *Makoto Sugawara. Nihongo: A Japanese Approach to Japanese. East Publications. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKkPAAAAYAAJ] *Roy Andrew Miller. Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese. The Athlone Press. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oRxkAAAAMAAJ] *Nihongo Notes. The Japan Times. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdkpAQAAIAAJ] *Yutaka Sato and Margaret Y. Yamashita. Nihongo: Introductory Japanese. 1994. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ptACuS6HnpUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Minna No Nihongo I. 3A Corporation. (スリーエーネットワーク). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G-bl2P5lRl4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Minna No Nihongo II. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4nHnMa4Zw-MC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Muneo Kimura. Learning Japanese: Techniques for Intermediate and Advanced Student. (Orientation Seminars on Japan, number 23). Office for the Japanese Studies Center, The Japan Foundation. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZyUHAQAAIAAJ] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Study *Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] *Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ] *Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W P Lehmann and Lloyd Faust. A Grammar of Formal Written Japanese. (Harvard-Yenching Institute Studies, vol 5). 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=50s0AAAAIAAJ] Written; Writing *David Ashworth and Ikumi Hitosugi. Written Japanese: An Introduction. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fLDhgDHj7_EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Heath Rose. The Japanese Writing System: Challenges, Strategies and Self-regulation for Learning Kanji. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDU8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1924#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Basil Hall Chamberlain. A Practical Introduction to the Study of Japanese Writing. 1899. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-SWFGQkuJN8C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Handwritten *P G O'Neill. A Reader of Handwritten Japanese. Kodansha International. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r-MZAQAAIAAJ] Hiragana and katakana *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana for Beginners. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZPs8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kenneth G Henshall and Tetsuo Takagaki. Learning Japanese Hiragana and Katakana. Revised 2nd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QyfRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Guide to Learning Hiragana & Katakana. Tuttle. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=18i1QgAACAAJ] *Glen McCabe. Japanese Hiragana and Katakana Flash Cards. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aSFFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA34#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard S Keirstead. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana: Language Practice Pad. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yPxHDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Hiragana *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Hiragana. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CvQZAQAAIAAJ] *James W Heisig. Remembering the Hiragana: a complete course on how to teach yourself the Japanese syllabary in 3 hours. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VdEPAAAAYAAJ] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana for Beginners. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dR_RAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Hiragana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YtZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Yuko Green. My First Hiragana Activity Book. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C-OKxX_cdpgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Katakana *Tina Wells. Easy Katakana: How to Read and Write English Words Used in Japanese. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-ZSDP-9i9oUC] *Helmut Morsbach, Kazue Kurebayashi and James W. Heisig. Remembering the Katakana. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeAPAAAAYAAJ] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Katakana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rNZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Katakana for Beginners: First Steps to Mastering the Japanese Writing System. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W5sdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji and kana *Wolfgang Hadamitzky and Mark Spahn. Japanese Kanji and Kana: A Complete Guide to the Japanese Writing System. 1981. 2nd Ed: 1997. 3rd Ed: 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3w7QAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji *James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji. 1977. 5th Ed: 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TtEaylKrGaMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. Remembering the Kanji 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PYOUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji: A systematic guide to reading Japanese characters. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *James W Heisig and Tanya Sienko. Remembering the Kanji 3. 1994. 2nd Ed: 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wTZ4x_BHe5EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Editorial staff of The East magazine. Kanji Kanji. The East Publications Inc. Tokyo. 1972: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HcYPAAAAYAAJ]. Revised Ed: 1983: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T8YPAAAAYAAJ]. *Andrew Dykstra. Kanji 1-2-3. Kanji Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SnBWAAAAYAAJ] *Naoomi Kuratani, Akemi Kobayashi and Shunsuke Okunishi (eds). A New Dictionary of Kanji Usage あたらしい漢字用法辞典. Gakken. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5-C4AAAAIAAJ]. Review: "The Slimline Kanji Dictionaries" (1996) 9 International Journal of Lexicography 132 (No 2: June). Abstracts: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vYPAQAAMAAJ] [https://academic.oup.com/ijl/article-abstract/9/2/132/930154] *Jack Halpern. The Kodansha Kanji Usage Guide: An A to Z of Kun Homophones. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qgWQEAAAQBAJ] *Laurence Matthews. Kanji Fast Finder 漢字早引き辞典. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7SdpPwAACAAJ] *Glen Nolan Grant. Mastering Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0L1GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. *John Millen. Kanji Power: A Workbook for Mastering Japanese Characters. Tuttle Publishing. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uPu4AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari. Standard Kanji. Revised Ed. 1949. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=b1Q98sCcgV0C] *P G O'Neill. Essential Kanji. Weatherhill. 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VYadVK-DqSYC]. Paperback Ed: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dQ25AAAAIAAJ]. *Essential Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gr5GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8A0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Kanji. Passport Books. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R7ZM9Dao7NMC] *Erik Sato. Learning Japanese Kanji: Practice Book. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IcA0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *The Second 100 Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gUjRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn Kanji: An Introduction to Radicals, Components and 250 Very Basic Kanji. Kodansha International. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=khnrnBXLciIC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Richard Glenn Covington, Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn More Kanji: Family Groups, Learning Strategies, and 300 Complex Kanji. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLEOAAAACAAJ] Read; Reading *Eleanor Harz Jorden and Hamako Ito Chaplin. Reading Japanese. Yale University Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1MF6kCogEx0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jiří Jelínek and Patricia A Heron. Reading Japanese: A self-instructional manual for beginners, leading to independent translating ability. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1975. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *Dale P Crowley, with the assistance of Yoshiyuki Kawata and Yoko Kawata. Manual for Reading Japanese. University Press of Hawaii. Honolulu. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nK0PAAAAYAAJ] *John Braden. Read Practical Japanese. Kenkyusha. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3MAPAAAAYAAJ] *Setsuko Aihara, with Graham Parkes. Strategies for Reading Japanese: A Rational Approach to the Japanese Sentence. Japan Publications Trading Company. Tokyo. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tMs_AQAAIAAJ] *Len Walsh. Read Japanese Today: The Easy Way to Learn Hiragana, Katakana and Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hjBEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Arthur Rose-Innes. Japanese Reading for Beginners. K Yoshikawa & Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cP1z4IcbiO4C] ==Linguistics== *Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/48828212] [https://online.ucpress.edu/jjs/article-abstract/46/2/536/210735/Review-The-Cambridge-Handbook-of-Japanese] *Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/417343]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Linguistics: An Introduction. 2007. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25173131] **Japanese Language in Use: An Introduction. 2007. *Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ] *Tetsuo Harada. Outlines of Modern Japanese Linguistics. Tateshina Print Company. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jTcHAQAAIAAJ] Periodicals, Linguistics *Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ] *Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ] Issues *Takashi Imai and Mamoru Saito (eds). Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (Studies in Generative Grammar 29). Foris Publications. Dordrecht, Holland. 1987. ISBN 90-6765-284-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bYiFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yukio Otsu and Ann Farmer (eds). Theoretical Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 2). 1980. [https://books.google.com/books?id=RDeBAAAAIAAJ] Kokugogaku and nihongogaku *Lidia Tanaka. "Japanese language studies: Kokugo as an ideology, nihongo as an autonomous and global scholarship?". Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. 2018.Chapter 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false 32] to 52. Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies) *[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]]. Cf. Kokugogaku (Japanese: [[en:wikt:国語学|国語学]]) (English: national language studies) Syntax and semantics *Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ] Semantics and pragmatics *Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] Morphology and phonology *Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Phonetics and Phonology *Haruo Kubozono (ed). Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8vFeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiromi Otaka. Phonetics and Phonology of Moras, Feet and Geminate Consonants in Japanese. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=39Q_AQAAIAAJ] *James D McCawley. The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese. Mouton & Co NV. The Hague. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3JoPAAAAYAAJ] Syntax *Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ] Phonetics *Daniel Lepetit and Reiko Makino. Japanese Phonetics: A Thematic Bibliography. Canadian Scholars. 1996. ISBN 1551300923. Catalogue: Canadian Books in Print: Author and Title Index 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q2WLJa9rY5MC&pg=PA1063#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1063]. *Society Newsletter. 1926 to 1996. [[w:ja:日本音声学会|The Phonetic Society of Japan]]. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication/society-newsletter] **Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan. 1997 onwards. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonetics: Theory and Practice. Lincom Europa. 1997. [https://books.google.com/books?id=guUZAQAAIAAJ] *P M Suski. The Phonetics of Japanese Language: With Reference to Japanese Script. 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpthAAAAMAAJ]. 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9DuiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Phonology *Laurence Labrune. The Phonology of Japanese. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ix9r6CbEl6IC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonology: A Functional Approach. Lincom Europa. 2000. [https://books.google.com/books?id=R-QZAQAAIAAJ] *Mieko Shimizu Han. Japanese Phonology: An Analysis Based on Sound Spectrograms. Kenkyusha. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T3Xl7SviXB4C] Pragmatics *Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Yoshiko Matsumoto, Junko Mori (eds). Pragmatics of Japanese: Perspectives on grammar, interaction and culture. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2wZTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gabriele Kasper. Pragmatics of Japanese as Native and Target Language. Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaiʼi at Mānoa. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2_8ifcjhpYQC] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] ==Translation== *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Dialects and regions== Dialects *Nobuko Kibe, Tetsuo Nitta and Kan Sasaki (eds). Handbook of Japanese Dialects. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8_Y9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kansai *Peter Tse. Kansai Japanese: The Language of Osaka, Kyoto, and Western Japan. (Tuttle Language Library). 1993. Reprinted 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvVkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *DC Palter and Kaoru Slotsve. Colloquial Kansai Japanese: The Dialects and Culture of the Kansai Region. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rJEdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==History== *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] ==Old Japanese== *John R Bentley. A Descriptive Grammar of Early Old Japanese Prose. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Eoqv_NcLJ4gC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Alexander Vovin. A Descriptive and Comparative Grammar of Western Old Japanese. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ba1xEQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] 2nd Ed: 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xfP_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. ==Classical Japanese== Introduction *Akira Komai and Thomas H Rohlich. An Introduction to Classical Japanese. Bonjinsha. Tokyo. 1991. Review: "Textbook Review by Questionnaire" (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tClnAAAAMAAJ 26] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 50 (No 1: April 1992) Grammar *Noriko Katsuki-Pestemer. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Lincom Europa. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PHoLAQAAMAAJ] *Haruo Shirane. Classical Japanese: A Grammar. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=M5-vVlcVEDkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/209495/summary] *Alexander Vovin. A Reference Grammar of Classical Japanese Prose. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=24GTVscUCX0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Akira Komai. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Culver Publishing. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sL0PAAAAYAAJ] *Tadashi Ikeda. Classical Japanese Grammar Illustrated with Texts. The Toho Gakkai (The Institute of Eastern Culture). 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQjUAAAAMAAJ] Dictionary *Ivan Morris. Dictionary of Selected Forms in Classical Japanese Literature. Columbia University Press. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O70PAAAAYAAJ] *Jiří Jelínek. Classical Japanese-English Grammar Dictionary. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qOEPAAAAYAAJ] Clauses *Stefan Kaiser. Circumnominal Relative Clauses in Classical Japanese: An Historical Study. Otto Harrassowitz. Wiesbaden. 1991. ISBN 344703212X. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GHsPAAAAYAAJ] [[Category:Japanese]] qf24fbe5esw9dmhb7hihic6bsh0efd4 2817516 2817515 2026-07-01T12:36:10Z James500 297601 /* */ Add 2817516 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This page is part of [[Universal Bibliography/Languages|bibliography of languages]]. This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of Japanese. Bibliography *Oskar Nachod. "Linguistics". Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754. *Wenckstern. "Philology: The Japanese Language". A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89. General *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Kokugo *Paul H Clark. The Kokugo Revolution: Education, Identity, and Language Policy in Imperial Japan. (Japan Research Monograph 16). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F6jSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeounsuk Lee. The Ideology of Kokugo: Nationalizing Language in Modern Japan. University of Hawaii Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=54wBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Kokugo To Iu Shisō: Kindai Nihon No Gengo Ninshiki. (Japanese: 「国語」という思想: 近代日本の言語認識). Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1996. Nihongo *Makoto Sugawara. Nihongo: A Japanese Approach to Japanese. East Publications. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKkPAAAAYAAJ] *Roy Andrew Miller. Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese. The Athlone Press. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oRxkAAAAMAAJ] *Nihongo Notes. The Japan Times. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdkpAQAAIAAJ] *Yutaka Sato and Margaret Y. Yamashita. Nihongo: Introductory Japanese. 1994. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ptACuS6HnpUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Minna No Nihongo I. 3A Corporation. (スリーエーネットワーク). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G-bl2P5lRl4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Minna No Nihongo II. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4nHnMa4Zw-MC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Muneo Kimura. Learning Japanese: Techniques for Intermediate and Advanced Student. (Orientation Seminars on Japan, number 23). Office for the Japanese Studies Center, The Japan Foundation. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZyUHAQAAIAAJ] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Study *Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] *Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Copula *Tomiko Narahara. The Japanese Copula: Forms and Functions. 2002: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UKOHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25064474] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/44486751] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4176893] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ] *Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W P Lehmann and Lloyd Faust. A Grammar of Formal Written Japanese. (Harvard-Yenching Institute Studies, vol 5). 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=50s0AAAAIAAJ] Written; Writing *David Ashworth and Ikumi Hitosugi. Written Japanese: An Introduction. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fLDhgDHj7_EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Heath Rose. The Japanese Writing System: Challenges, Strategies and Self-regulation for Learning Kanji. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDU8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1924#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Basil Hall Chamberlain. A Practical Introduction to the Study of Japanese Writing. 1899. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-SWFGQkuJN8C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Handwritten *P G O'Neill. A Reader of Handwritten Japanese. Kodansha International. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r-MZAQAAIAAJ] Hiragana and katakana *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana for Beginners. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZPs8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kenneth G Henshall and Tetsuo Takagaki. Learning Japanese Hiragana and Katakana. Revised 2nd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QyfRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Guide to Learning Hiragana & Katakana. Tuttle. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=18i1QgAACAAJ] *Glen McCabe. Japanese Hiragana and Katakana Flash Cards. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aSFFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA34#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard S Keirstead. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana: Language Practice Pad. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yPxHDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Hiragana *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Hiragana. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CvQZAQAAIAAJ] *James W Heisig. Remembering the Hiragana: a complete course on how to teach yourself the Japanese syllabary in 3 hours. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VdEPAAAAYAAJ] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana for Beginners. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dR_RAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Hiragana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YtZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Yuko Green. My First Hiragana Activity Book. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C-OKxX_cdpgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Katakana *Tina Wells. Easy Katakana: How to Read and Write English Words Used in Japanese. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-ZSDP-9i9oUC] *Helmut Morsbach, Kazue Kurebayashi and James W. Heisig. Remembering the Katakana. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeAPAAAAYAAJ] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Katakana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rNZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Katakana for Beginners: First Steps to Mastering the Japanese Writing System. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W5sdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji and kana *Wolfgang Hadamitzky and Mark Spahn. Japanese Kanji and Kana: A Complete Guide to the Japanese Writing System. 1981. 2nd Ed: 1997. 3rd Ed: 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3w7QAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji *James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji. 1977. 5th Ed: 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TtEaylKrGaMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. Remembering the Kanji 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PYOUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji: A systematic guide to reading Japanese characters. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *James W Heisig and Tanya Sienko. Remembering the Kanji 3. 1994. 2nd Ed: 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wTZ4x_BHe5EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Editorial staff of The East magazine. Kanji Kanji. The East Publications Inc. Tokyo. 1972: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HcYPAAAAYAAJ]. Revised Ed: 1983: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T8YPAAAAYAAJ]. *Andrew Dykstra. Kanji 1-2-3. Kanji Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SnBWAAAAYAAJ] *Naoomi Kuratani, Akemi Kobayashi and Shunsuke Okunishi (eds). A New Dictionary of Kanji Usage あたらしい漢字用法辞典. Gakken. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5-C4AAAAIAAJ]. Review: "The Slimline Kanji Dictionaries" (1996) 9 International Journal of Lexicography 132 (No 2: June). Abstracts: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vYPAQAAMAAJ] [https://academic.oup.com/ijl/article-abstract/9/2/132/930154] *Jack Halpern. The Kodansha Kanji Usage Guide: An A to Z of Kun Homophones. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qgWQEAAAQBAJ] *Laurence Matthews. Kanji Fast Finder 漢字早引き辞典. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7SdpPwAACAAJ] *Glen Nolan Grant. Mastering Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0L1GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. *John Millen. Kanji Power: A Workbook for Mastering Japanese Characters. Tuttle Publishing. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uPu4AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari. Standard Kanji. Revised Ed. 1949. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=b1Q98sCcgV0C] *P G O'Neill. Essential Kanji. Weatherhill. 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VYadVK-DqSYC]. Paperback Ed: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dQ25AAAAIAAJ]. *Essential Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gr5GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8A0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Kanji. Passport Books. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R7ZM9Dao7NMC] *Erik Sato. Learning Japanese Kanji: Practice Book. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IcA0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *The Second 100 Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gUjRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn Kanji: An Introduction to Radicals, Components and 250 Very Basic Kanji. Kodansha International. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=khnrnBXLciIC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Richard Glenn Covington, Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn More Kanji: Family Groups, Learning Strategies, and 300 Complex Kanji. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLEOAAAACAAJ] Read; Reading *Eleanor Harz Jorden and Hamako Ito Chaplin. Reading Japanese. Yale University Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1MF6kCogEx0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jiří Jelínek and Patricia A Heron. Reading Japanese: A self-instructional manual for beginners, leading to independent translating ability. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1975. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *Dale P Crowley, with the assistance of Yoshiyuki Kawata and Yoko Kawata. Manual for Reading Japanese. University Press of Hawaii. Honolulu. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nK0PAAAAYAAJ] *John Braden. Read Practical Japanese. Kenkyusha. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3MAPAAAAYAAJ] *Setsuko Aihara, with Graham Parkes. Strategies for Reading Japanese: A Rational Approach to the Japanese Sentence. Japan Publications Trading Company. Tokyo. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tMs_AQAAIAAJ] *Len Walsh. Read Japanese Today: The Easy Way to Learn Hiragana, Katakana and Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hjBEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Arthur Rose-Innes. Japanese Reading for Beginners. K Yoshikawa & Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cP1z4IcbiO4C] ==Linguistics== *Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/48828212] [https://online.ucpress.edu/jjs/article-abstract/46/2/536/210735/Review-The-Cambridge-Handbook-of-Japanese] *Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/417343]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Linguistics: An Introduction. 2007. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25173131] **Japanese Language in Use: An Introduction. 2007. *Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ] *Tetsuo Harada. Outlines of Modern Japanese Linguistics. Tateshina Print Company. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jTcHAQAAIAAJ] Periodicals, Linguistics *Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ] *Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ] Issues *Takashi Imai and Mamoru Saito (eds). Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (Studies in Generative Grammar 29). Foris Publications. Dordrecht, Holland. 1987. ISBN 90-6765-284-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bYiFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yukio Otsu and Ann Farmer (eds). Theoretical Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 2). 1980. [https://books.google.com/books?id=RDeBAAAAIAAJ] Kokugogaku and nihongogaku *Lidia Tanaka. "Japanese language studies: Kokugo as an ideology, nihongo as an autonomous and global scholarship?". Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. 2018.Chapter 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false 32] to 52. Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies) *[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]]. Cf. Kokugogaku (Japanese: [[en:wikt:国語学|国語学]]) (English: national language studies) Syntax and semantics *Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ] Semantics and pragmatics *Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] Morphology and phonology *Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Phonetics and Phonology *Haruo Kubozono (ed). Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8vFeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiromi Otaka. Phonetics and Phonology of Moras, Feet and Geminate Consonants in Japanese. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=39Q_AQAAIAAJ] *James D McCawley. The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese. Mouton & Co NV. The Hague. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3JoPAAAAYAAJ] Syntax *Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ] Phonetics *Daniel Lepetit and Reiko Makino. Japanese Phonetics: A Thematic Bibliography. Canadian Scholars. 1996. ISBN 1551300923. Catalogue: Canadian Books in Print: Author and Title Index 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q2WLJa9rY5MC&pg=PA1063#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1063]. *Society Newsletter. 1926 to 1996. [[w:ja:日本音声学会|The Phonetic Society of Japan]]. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication/society-newsletter] **Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan. 1997 onwards. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonetics: Theory and Practice. Lincom Europa. 1997. [https://books.google.com/books?id=guUZAQAAIAAJ] *P M Suski. The Phonetics of Japanese Language: With Reference to Japanese Script. 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpthAAAAMAAJ]. 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9DuiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Phonology *Laurence Labrune. The Phonology of Japanese. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ix9r6CbEl6IC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonology: A Functional Approach. Lincom Europa. 2000. [https://books.google.com/books?id=R-QZAQAAIAAJ] *Mieko Shimizu Han. Japanese Phonology: An Analysis Based on Sound Spectrograms. Kenkyusha. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T3Xl7SviXB4C] Pragmatics *Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Yoshiko Matsumoto, Junko Mori (eds). Pragmatics of Japanese: Perspectives on grammar, interaction and culture. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2wZTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gabriele Kasper. Pragmatics of Japanese as Native and Target Language. Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaiʼi at Mānoa. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2_8ifcjhpYQC] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] ==Translation== *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Dialects and regions== Dialects *Nobuko Kibe, Tetsuo Nitta and Kan Sasaki (eds). Handbook of Japanese Dialects. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8_Y9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kansai *Peter Tse. Kansai Japanese: The Language of Osaka, Kyoto, and Western Japan. (Tuttle Language Library). 1993. Reprinted 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvVkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *DC Palter and Kaoru Slotsve. Colloquial Kansai Japanese: The Dialects and Culture of the Kansai Region. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rJEdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==History== *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] ==Old Japanese== *John R Bentley. A Descriptive Grammar of Early Old Japanese Prose. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Eoqv_NcLJ4gC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Alexander Vovin. A Descriptive and Comparative Grammar of Western Old Japanese. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ba1xEQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] 2nd Ed: 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xfP_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. ==Classical Japanese== Introduction *Akira Komai and Thomas H Rohlich. An Introduction to Classical Japanese. Bonjinsha. Tokyo. 1991. Review: "Textbook Review by Questionnaire" (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tClnAAAAMAAJ 26] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 50 (No 1: April 1992) Grammar *Noriko Katsuki-Pestemer. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Lincom Europa. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PHoLAQAAMAAJ] *Haruo Shirane. Classical Japanese: A Grammar. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=M5-vVlcVEDkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/209495/summary] *Alexander Vovin. A Reference Grammar of Classical Japanese Prose. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=24GTVscUCX0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Akira Komai. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Culver Publishing. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sL0PAAAAYAAJ] *Tadashi Ikeda. Classical Japanese Grammar Illustrated with Texts. The Toho Gakkai (The Institute of Eastern Culture). 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQjUAAAAMAAJ] Dictionary *Ivan Morris. Dictionary of Selected Forms in Classical Japanese Literature. Columbia University Press. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O70PAAAAYAAJ] *Jiří Jelínek. Classical Japanese-English Grammar Dictionary. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qOEPAAAAYAAJ] Clauses *Stefan Kaiser. Circumnominal Relative Clauses in Classical Japanese: An Historical Study. Otto Harrassowitz. Wiesbaden. 1991. ISBN 344703212X. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GHsPAAAAYAAJ] [[Category:Japanese]] 3fvfyxik2b9ubd39l2i61z4rk1y3qlm 2817528 2817516 2026-07-01T14:13:25Z James500 297601 /* */ Add 2817528 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This page is part of [[Universal Bibliography/Languages|bibliography of languages]]. This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of Japanese. Bibliography *Oskar Nachod. "Linguistics". Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754. *Wenckstern. "Philology: The Japanese Language". A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89. General *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Kokugo *Paul H Clark. The Kokugo Revolution: Education, Identity, and Language Policy in Imperial Japan. (Japan Research Monograph 16). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F6jSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeounsuk Lee. The Ideology of Kokugo: Nationalizing Language in Modern Japan. University of Hawaii Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=54wBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Kokugo To Iu Shisō: Kindai Nihon No Gengo Ninshiki. (Japanese: 「国語」という思想: 近代日本の言語認識). Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1996. Nihongo *Makoto Sugawara. Nihongo: A Japanese Approach to Japanese. East Publications. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKkPAAAAYAAJ] *Roy Andrew Miller. Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese. The Athlone Press. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oRxkAAAAMAAJ] *Nihongo Notes. The Japan Times. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdkpAQAAIAAJ] *Yutaka Sato and Margaret Y. Yamashita. Nihongo: Introductory Japanese. 1994. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ptACuS6HnpUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Minna No Nihongo I. 3A Corporation. (スリーエーネットワーク). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G-bl2P5lRl4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Minna No Nihongo II. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4nHnMa4Zw-MC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Muneo Kimura. Learning Japanese: Techniques for Intermediate and Advanced Student. (Orientation Seminars on Japan, number 23). Office for the Japanese Studies Center, The Japan Foundation. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZyUHAQAAIAAJ] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Study *Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Fundamentals *Toyoaki Uehara and Gisaburo N Kiyose. Fundamentals of Japanese. Indiana University Press. Bloomington and London. Tenri University Press. Tenri 1974. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/598969] and Hiroshi Miyaji, "Book Reviews" (1976) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EilkAAAAMAAJ 11] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 106 (No 1: January 1976) Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] *Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Copula *Tomiko Narahara. The Japanese Copula: Forms and Functions. 2002: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UKOHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25064474] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/44486751] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4176893] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ] *Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W P Lehmann and Lloyd Faust. A Grammar of Formal Written Japanese. (Harvard-Yenching Institute Studies, vol 5). 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=50s0AAAAIAAJ] Written; Writing *David Ashworth and Ikumi Hitosugi. Written Japanese: An Introduction. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fLDhgDHj7_EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Heath Rose. The Japanese Writing System: Challenges, Strategies and Self-regulation for Learning Kanji. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDU8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1924#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Basil Hall Chamberlain. A Practical Introduction to the Study of Japanese Writing. 1899. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-SWFGQkuJN8C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Handwritten *P G O'Neill. A Reader of Handwritten Japanese. Kodansha International. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r-MZAQAAIAAJ] Hiragana and katakana *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana for Beginners. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZPs8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kenneth G Henshall and Tetsuo Takagaki. Learning Japanese Hiragana and Katakana. Revised 2nd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QyfRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Guide to Learning Hiragana & Katakana. Tuttle. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=18i1QgAACAAJ] *Glen McCabe. Japanese Hiragana and Katakana Flash Cards. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aSFFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA34#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard S Keirstead. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana: Language Practice Pad. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yPxHDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Hiragana *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Hiragana. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CvQZAQAAIAAJ] *James W Heisig. Remembering the Hiragana: a complete course on how to teach yourself the Japanese syllabary in 3 hours. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VdEPAAAAYAAJ] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana for Beginners. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dR_RAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Hiragana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YtZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Yuko Green. My First Hiragana Activity Book. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C-OKxX_cdpgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Katakana *Tina Wells. Easy Katakana: How to Read and Write English Words Used in Japanese. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-ZSDP-9i9oUC] *Helmut Morsbach, Kazue Kurebayashi and James W. Heisig. Remembering the Katakana. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeAPAAAAYAAJ] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Katakana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rNZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Katakana for Beginners: First Steps to Mastering the Japanese Writing System. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W5sdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji and kana *Wolfgang Hadamitzky and Mark Spahn. Japanese Kanji and Kana: A Complete Guide to the Japanese Writing System. 1981. 2nd Ed: 1997. 3rd Ed: 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3w7QAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji *James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji. 1977. 5th Ed: 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TtEaylKrGaMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. Remembering the Kanji 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PYOUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji: A systematic guide to reading Japanese characters. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *James W Heisig and Tanya Sienko. Remembering the Kanji 3. 1994. 2nd Ed: 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wTZ4x_BHe5EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Editorial staff of The East magazine. Kanji Kanji. The East Publications Inc. Tokyo. 1972: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HcYPAAAAYAAJ]. Revised Ed: 1983: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T8YPAAAAYAAJ]. *Andrew Dykstra. Kanji 1-2-3. Kanji Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SnBWAAAAYAAJ] *Naoomi Kuratani, Akemi Kobayashi and Shunsuke Okunishi (eds). A New Dictionary of Kanji Usage あたらしい漢字用法辞典. Gakken. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5-C4AAAAIAAJ]. Review: "The Slimline Kanji Dictionaries" (1996) 9 International Journal of Lexicography 132 (No 2: June). Abstracts: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vYPAQAAMAAJ] [https://academic.oup.com/ijl/article-abstract/9/2/132/930154] *Jack Halpern. The Kodansha Kanji Usage Guide: An A to Z of Kun Homophones. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qgWQEAAAQBAJ] *Laurence Matthews. Kanji Fast Finder 漢字早引き辞典. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7SdpPwAACAAJ] *Glen Nolan Grant. Mastering Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0L1GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. *John Millen. Kanji Power: A Workbook for Mastering Japanese Characters. Tuttle Publishing. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uPu4AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari. Standard Kanji. Revised Ed. 1949. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=b1Q98sCcgV0C] *P G O'Neill. Essential Kanji. Weatherhill. 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VYadVK-DqSYC]. Paperback Ed: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dQ25AAAAIAAJ]. *Essential Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gr5GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8A0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Kanji. Passport Books. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R7ZM9Dao7NMC] *Erik Sato. Learning Japanese Kanji: Practice Book. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IcA0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *The Second 100 Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gUjRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn Kanji: An Introduction to Radicals, Components and 250 Very Basic Kanji. Kodansha International. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=khnrnBXLciIC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Richard Glenn Covington, Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn More Kanji: Family Groups, Learning Strategies, and 300 Complex Kanji. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLEOAAAACAAJ] Read; Reading *Eleanor Harz Jorden and Hamako Ito Chaplin. Reading Japanese. Yale University Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1MF6kCogEx0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jiří Jelínek and Patricia A Heron. Reading Japanese: A self-instructional manual for beginners, leading to independent translating ability. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1975. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *Dale P Crowley, with the assistance of Yoshiyuki Kawata and Yoko Kawata. Manual for Reading Japanese. University Press of Hawaii. Honolulu. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nK0PAAAAYAAJ] *John Braden. Read Practical Japanese. Kenkyusha. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3MAPAAAAYAAJ] *Setsuko Aihara, with Graham Parkes. Strategies for Reading Japanese: A Rational Approach to the Japanese Sentence. Japan Publications Trading Company. Tokyo. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tMs_AQAAIAAJ] *Len Walsh. Read Japanese Today: The Easy Way to Learn Hiragana, Katakana and Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hjBEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Arthur Rose-Innes. Japanese Reading for Beginners. K Yoshikawa & Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cP1z4IcbiO4C] ==Linguistics== *Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/48828212] [https://online.ucpress.edu/jjs/article-abstract/46/2/536/210735/Review-The-Cambridge-Handbook-of-Japanese] *Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/417343]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Linguistics: An Introduction. 2007. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25173131] **Japanese Language in Use: An Introduction. 2007. *Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ] *Tetsuo Harada. Outlines of Modern Japanese Linguistics. Tateshina Print Company. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jTcHAQAAIAAJ] Periodicals, Linguistics *Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ] *Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ] Issues *Takashi Imai and Mamoru Saito (eds). Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (Studies in Generative Grammar 29). Foris Publications. Dordrecht, Holland. 1987. ISBN 90-6765-284-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bYiFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yukio Otsu and Ann Farmer (eds). Theoretical Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 2). 1980. [https://books.google.com/books?id=RDeBAAAAIAAJ] Kokugogaku and nihongogaku *Lidia Tanaka. "Japanese language studies: Kokugo as an ideology, nihongo as an autonomous and global scholarship?". Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. 2018.Chapter 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false 32] to 52. Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies) *[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]]. Cf. Kokugogaku (Japanese: [[en:wikt:国語学|国語学]]) (English: national language studies) Syntax and semantics *Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ] Semantics and pragmatics *Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] Morphology and phonology *Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Phonetics and Phonology *Haruo Kubozono (ed). Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8vFeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiromi Otaka. Phonetics and Phonology of Moras, Feet and Geminate Consonants in Japanese. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=39Q_AQAAIAAJ] *James D McCawley. The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese. Mouton & Co NV. The Hague. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3JoPAAAAYAAJ] Syntax *Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ] Phonetics *Daniel Lepetit and Reiko Makino. Japanese Phonetics: A Thematic Bibliography. Canadian Scholars. 1996. ISBN 1551300923. Catalogue: Canadian Books in Print: Author and Title Index 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q2WLJa9rY5MC&pg=PA1063#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1063]. *Society Newsletter. 1926 to 1996. [[w:ja:日本音声学会|The Phonetic Society of Japan]]. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication/society-newsletter] **Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan. 1997 onwards. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonetics: Theory and Practice. Lincom Europa. 1997. [https://books.google.com/books?id=guUZAQAAIAAJ] *P M Suski. The Phonetics of Japanese Language: With Reference to Japanese Script. 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpthAAAAMAAJ]. 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9DuiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Phonology *Laurence Labrune. The Phonology of Japanese. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ix9r6CbEl6IC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonology: A Functional Approach. Lincom Europa. 2000. [https://books.google.com/books?id=R-QZAQAAIAAJ] *Mieko Shimizu Han. Japanese Phonology: An Analysis Based on Sound Spectrograms. Kenkyusha. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T3Xl7SviXB4C] Pragmatics *Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Yoshiko Matsumoto, Junko Mori (eds). Pragmatics of Japanese: Perspectives on grammar, interaction and culture. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2wZTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gabriele Kasper. Pragmatics of Japanese as Native and Target Language. Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaiʼi at Mānoa. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2_8ifcjhpYQC] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] ==Translation== *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Dialects and regions== Dialects *Nobuko Kibe, Tetsuo Nitta and Kan Sasaki (eds). Handbook of Japanese Dialects. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8_Y9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kansai *Peter Tse. Kansai Japanese: The Language of Osaka, Kyoto, and Western Japan. (Tuttle Language Library). 1993. Reprinted 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvVkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *DC Palter and Kaoru Slotsve. Colloquial Kansai Japanese: The Dialects and Culture of the Kansai Region. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rJEdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==History== *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] ==Old Japanese== *John R Bentley. A Descriptive Grammar of Early Old Japanese Prose. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Eoqv_NcLJ4gC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Alexander Vovin. A Descriptive and Comparative Grammar of Western Old Japanese. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ba1xEQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] 2nd Ed: 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xfP_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. ==Classical Japanese== Introduction *Akira Komai and Thomas H Rohlich. An Introduction to Classical Japanese. Bonjinsha. Tokyo. 1991. Review: "Textbook Review by Questionnaire" (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tClnAAAAMAAJ 26] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 50 (No 1: April 1992) Grammar *Noriko Katsuki-Pestemer. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Lincom Europa. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PHoLAQAAMAAJ] *Haruo Shirane. Classical Japanese: A Grammar. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=M5-vVlcVEDkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/209495/summary] *Alexander Vovin. A Reference Grammar of Classical Japanese Prose. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=24GTVscUCX0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Akira Komai. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Culver Publishing. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sL0PAAAAYAAJ] *Tadashi Ikeda. Classical Japanese Grammar Illustrated with Texts. The Toho Gakkai (The Institute of Eastern Culture). 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQjUAAAAMAAJ] Dictionary *Ivan Morris. Dictionary of Selected Forms in Classical Japanese Literature. Columbia University Press. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O70PAAAAYAAJ] *Jiří Jelínek. Classical Japanese-English Grammar Dictionary. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qOEPAAAAYAAJ] Clauses *Stefan Kaiser. Circumnominal Relative Clauses in Classical Japanese: An Historical Study. Otto Harrassowitz. Wiesbaden. 1991. ISBN 344703212X. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GHsPAAAAYAAJ] [[Category:Japanese]] 9vg2gcuk1dw6ivzljv19yxxm8ypkpts 2817529 2817528 2026-07-01T14:15:07Z James500 297601 /* */ Add 2817529 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This page is part of [[Universal Bibliography/Languages|bibliography of languages]]. This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of Japanese. Bibliography *Oskar Nachod. "Linguistics". Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754. *Wenckstern. "Philology: The Japanese Language". A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89. General *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Kokugo *Paul H Clark. The Kokugo Revolution: Education, Identity, and Language Policy in Imperial Japan. (Japan Research Monograph 16). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F6jSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeounsuk Lee. The Ideology of Kokugo: Nationalizing Language in Modern Japan. University of Hawaii Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=54wBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Kokugo To Iu Shisō: Kindai Nihon No Gengo Ninshiki. (Japanese: 「国語」という思想: 近代日本の言語認識). Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1996. Nihongo *Makoto Sugawara. Nihongo: A Japanese Approach to Japanese. East Publications. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKkPAAAAYAAJ] *Roy Andrew Miller. Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese. The Athlone Press. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oRxkAAAAMAAJ] *Nihongo Notes. The Japan Times. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdkpAQAAIAAJ] *Yutaka Sato and Margaret Y. Yamashita. Nihongo: Introductory Japanese. 1994. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ptACuS6HnpUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Minna No Nihongo I. 3A Corporation. (スリーエーネットワーク). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G-bl2P5lRl4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Minna No Nihongo II. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4nHnMa4Zw-MC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Muneo Kimura. Learning Japanese: Techniques for Intermediate and Advanced Student. (Orientation Seminars on Japan, number 23). Office for the Japanese Studies Center, The Japan Foundation. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZyUHAQAAIAAJ] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Study *Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Fundamentals *Toyoaki Uehara and Gisaburo N Kiyose. Fundamentals of Japanese. Indiana University Press. Bloomington and London. Tenri University Press. Tenri 1974. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/598969] and Hiroshi Miyaji, "Book Reviews" (1976) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EilkAAAAMAAJ 11] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 106 (No 1: January 1976) Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Schaum's Outline of Japanese Vocabulary [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fV0NAAAACAAJ] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] *Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Copula *Tomiko Narahara. The Japanese Copula: Forms and Functions. 2002: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UKOHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25064474] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/44486751] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4176893] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ] *Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W P Lehmann and Lloyd Faust. A Grammar of Formal Written Japanese. (Harvard-Yenching Institute Studies, vol 5). 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=50s0AAAAIAAJ] Written; Writing *David Ashworth and Ikumi Hitosugi. Written Japanese: An Introduction. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fLDhgDHj7_EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Heath Rose. The Japanese Writing System: Challenges, Strategies and Self-regulation for Learning Kanji. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDU8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1924#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Basil Hall Chamberlain. A Practical Introduction to the Study of Japanese Writing. 1899. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-SWFGQkuJN8C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Handwritten *P G O'Neill. A Reader of Handwritten Japanese. Kodansha International. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r-MZAQAAIAAJ] Hiragana and katakana *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana for Beginners. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZPs8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kenneth G Henshall and Tetsuo Takagaki. Learning Japanese Hiragana and Katakana. Revised 2nd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QyfRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Guide to Learning Hiragana & Katakana. Tuttle. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=18i1QgAACAAJ] *Glen McCabe. Japanese Hiragana and Katakana Flash Cards. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aSFFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA34#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard S Keirstead. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana: Language Practice Pad. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yPxHDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Hiragana *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Hiragana. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CvQZAQAAIAAJ] *James W Heisig. Remembering the Hiragana: a complete course on how to teach yourself the Japanese syllabary in 3 hours. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VdEPAAAAYAAJ] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana for Beginners. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dR_RAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Hiragana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YtZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Yuko Green. My First Hiragana Activity Book. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C-OKxX_cdpgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Katakana *Tina Wells. Easy Katakana: How to Read and Write English Words Used in Japanese. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-ZSDP-9i9oUC] *Helmut Morsbach, Kazue Kurebayashi and James W. Heisig. Remembering the Katakana. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeAPAAAAYAAJ] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Katakana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rNZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Katakana for Beginners: First Steps to Mastering the Japanese Writing System. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W5sdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji and kana *Wolfgang Hadamitzky and Mark Spahn. Japanese Kanji and Kana: A Complete Guide to the Japanese Writing System. 1981. 2nd Ed: 1997. 3rd Ed: 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3w7QAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji *James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji. 1977. 5th Ed: 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TtEaylKrGaMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. Remembering the Kanji 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PYOUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji: A systematic guide to reading Japanese characters. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *James W Heisig and Tanya Sienko. Remembering the Kanji 3. 1994. 2nd Ed: 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wTZ4x_BHe5EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Editorial staff of The East magazine. Kanji Kanji. The East Publications Inc. Tokyo. 1972: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HcYPAAAAYAAJ]. Revised Ed: 1983: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T8YPAAAAYAAJ]. *Andrew Dykstra. Kanji 1-2-3. Kanji Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SnBWAAAAYAAJ] *Naoomi Kuratani, Akemi Kobayashi and Shunsuke Okunishi (eds). A New Dictionary of Kanji Usage あたらしい漢字用法辞典. Gakken. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5-C4AAAAIAAJ]. Review: "The Slimline Kanji Dictionaries" (1996) 9 International Journal of Lexicography 132 (No 2: June). Abstracts: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vYPAQAAMAAJ] [https://academic.oup.com/ijl/article-abstract/9/2/132/930154] *Jack Halpern. The Kodansha Kanji Usage Guide: An A to Z of Kun Homophones. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qgWQEAAAQBAJ] *Laurence Matthews. Kanji Fast Finder 漢字早引き辞典. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7SdpPwAACAAJ] *Glen Nolan Grant. Mastering Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0L1GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. *John Millen. Kanji Power: A Workbook for Mastering Japanese Characters. Tuttle Publishing. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uPu4AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari. Standard Kanji. Revised Ed. 1949. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=b1Q98sCcgV0C] *P G O'Neill. Essential Kanji. Weatherhill. 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VYadVK-DqSYC]. Paperback Ed: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dQ25AAAAIAAJ]. *Essential Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gr5GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8A0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Kanji. Passport Books. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R7ZM9Dao7NMC] *Erik Sato. Learning Japanese Kanji: Practice Book. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IcA0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *The Second 100 Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gUjRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn Kanji: An Introduction to Radicals, Components and 250 Very Basic Kanji. Kodansha International. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=khnrnBXLciIC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Richard Glenn Covington, Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn More Kanji: Family Groups, Learning Strategies, and 300 Complex Kanji. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLEOAAAACAAJ] Read; Reading *Eleanor Harz Jorden and Hamako Ito Chaplin. Reading Japanese. Yale University Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1MF6kCogEx0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jiří Jelínek and Patricia A Heron. Reading Japanese: A self-instructional manual for beginners, leading to independent translating ability. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1975. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *Dale P Crowley, with the assistance of Yoshiyuki Kawata and Yoko Kawata. Manual for Reading Japanese. University Press of Hawaii. Honolulu. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nK0PAAAAYAAJ] *John Braden. Read Practical Japanese. Kenkyusha. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3MAPAAAAYAAJ] *Setsuko Aihara, with Graham Parkes. Strategies for Reading Japanese: A Rational Approach to the Japanese Sentence. Japan Publications Trading Company. Tokyo. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tMs_AQAAIAAJ] *Len Walsh. Read Japanese Today: The Easy Way to Learn Hiragana, Katakana and Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hjBEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Arthur Rose-Innes. Japanese Reading for Beginners. K Yoshikawa & Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cP1z4IcbiO4C] ==Linguistics== *Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/48828212] [https://online.ucpress.edu/jjs/article-abstract/46/2/536/210735/Review-The-Cambridge-Handbook-of-Japanese] *Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/417343]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Linguistics: An Introduction. 2007. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25173131] **Japanese Language in Use: An Introduction. 2007. *Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ] *Tetsuo Harada. Outlines of Modern Japanese Linguistics. Tateshina Print Company. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jTcHAQAAIAAJ] Periodicals, Linguistics *Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ] *Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ] Issues *Takashi Imai and Mamoru Saito (eds). Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (Studies in Generative Grammar 29). Foris Publications. Dordrecht, Holland. 1987. ISBN 90-6765-284-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bYiFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yukio Otsu and Ann Farmer (eds). Theoretical Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 2). 1980. [https://books.google.com/books?id=RDeBAAAAIAAJ] Kokugogaku and nihongogaku *Lidia Tanaka. "Japanese language studies: Kokugo as an ideology, nihongo as an autonomous and global scholarship?". Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. 2018.Chapter 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false 32] to 52. Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies) *[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]]. Cf. Kokugogaku (Japanese: [[en:wikt:国語学|国語学]]) (English: national language studies) Syntax and semantics *Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ] Semantics and pragmatics *Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] Morphology and phonology *Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Phonetics and Phonology *Haruo Kubozono (ed). Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8vFeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiromi Otaka. Phonetics and Phonology of Moras, Feet and Geminate Consonants in Japanese. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=39Q_AQAAIAAJ] *James D McCawley. The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese. Mouton & Co NV. The Hague. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3JoPAAAAYAAJ] Syntax *Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ] Phonetics *Daniel Lepetit and Reiko Makino. Japanese Phonetics: A Thematic Bibliography. Canadian Scholars. 1996. ISBN 1551300923. Catalogue: Canadian Books in Print: Author and Title Index 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q2WLJa9rY5MC&pg=PA1063#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1063]. *Society Newsletter. 1926 to 1996. [[w:ja:日本音声学会|The Phonetic Society of Japan]]. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication/society-newsletter] **Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan. 1997 onwards. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonetics: Theory and Practice. Lincom Europa. 1997. [https://books.google.com/books?id=guUZAQAAIAAJ] *P M Suski. The Phonetics of Japanese Language: With Reference to Japanese Script. 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpthAAAAMAAJ]. 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9DuiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Phonology *Laurence Labrune. The Phonology of Japanese. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ix9r6CbEl6IC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonology: A Functional Approach. Lincom Europa. 2000. [https://books.google.com/books?id=R-QZAQAAIAAJ] *Mieko Shimizu Han. Japanese Phonology: An Analysis Based on Sound Spectrograms. Kenkyusha. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T3Xl7SviXB4C] Pragmatics *Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Yoshiko Matsumoto, Junko Mori (eds). Pragmatics of Japanese: Perspectives on grammar, interaction and culture. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2wZTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gabriele Kasper. Pragmatics of Japanese as Native and Target Language. Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaiʼi at Mānoa. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2_8ifcjhpYQC] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] ==Translation== *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Dialects and regions== Dialects *Nobuko Kibe, Tetsuo Nitta and Kan Sasaki (eds). Handbook of Japanese Dialects. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8_Y9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kansai *Peter Tse. Kansai Japanese: The Language of Osaka, Kyoto, and Western Japan. (Tuttle Language Library). 1993. Reprinted 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvVkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *DC Palter and Kaoru Slotsve. Colloquial Kansai Japanese: The Dialects and Culture of the Kansai Region. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rJEdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==History== *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] ==Old Japanese== *John R Bentley. A Descriptive Grammar of Early Old Japanese Prose. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Eoqv_NcLJ4gC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Alexander Vovin. A Descriptive and Comparative Grammar of Western Old Japanese. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ba1xEQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] 2nd Ed: 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xfP_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. ==Classical Japanese== Introduction *Akira Komai and Thomas H Rohlich. An Introduction to Classical Japanese. Bonjinsha. Tokyo. 1991. Review: "Textbook Review by Questionnaire" (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tClnAAAAMAAJ 26] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 50 (No 1: April 1992) Grammar *Noriko Katsuki-Pestemer. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Lincom Europa. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PHoLAQAAMAAJ] *Haruo Shirane. Classical Japanese: A Grammar. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=M5-vVlcVEDkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/209495/summary] *Alexander Vovin. A Reference Grammar of Classical Japanese Prose. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=24GTVscUCX0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Akira Komai. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Culver Publishing. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sL0PAAAAYAAJ] *Tadashi Ikeda. Classical Japanese Grammar Illustrated with Texts. The Toho Gakkai (The Institute of Eastern Culture). 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQjUAAAAMAAJ] Dictionary *Ivan Morris. Dictionary of Selected Forms in Classical Japanese Literature. Columbia University Press. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O70PAAAAYAAJ] *Jiří Jelínek. Classical Japanese-English Grammar Dictionary. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qOEPAAAAYAAJ] Clauses *Stefan Kaiser. Circumnominal Relative Clauses in Classical Japanese: An Historical Study. Otto Harrassowitz. Wiesbaden. 1991. ISBN 344703212X. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GHsPAAAAYAAJ] [[Category:Japanese]] atktfiway6iof4kpwzdecgzsel8j504 2817530 2817529 2026-07-01T14:16:01Z James500 297601 /* */ Add 2817530 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This page is part of [[Universal Bibliography/Languages|bibliography of languages]]. This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of Japanese. Bibliography *Oskar Nachod. "Linguistics". Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754. *Wenckstern. "Philology: The Japanese Language". A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89. General *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Kokugo *Paul H Clark. The Kokugo Revolution: Education, Identity, and Language Policy in Imperial Japan. (Japan Research Monograph 16). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F6jSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeounsuk Lee. The Ideology of Kokugo: Nationalizing Language in Modern Japan. University of Hawaii Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=54wBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Kokugo To Iu Shisō: Kindai Nihon No Gengo Ninshiki. (Japanese: 「国語」という思想: 近代日本の言語認識). Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1996. Nihongo *Makoto Sugawara. Nihongo: A Japanese Approach to Japanese. East Publications. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKkPAAAAYAAJ] *Roy Andrew Miller. Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese. The Athlone Press. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oRxkAAAAMAAJ] *Nihongo Notes. The Japan Times. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdkpAQAAIAAJ] *Yutaka Sato and Margaret Y. Yamashita. Nihongo: Introductory Japanese. 1994. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ptACuS6HnpUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Minna No Nihongo I. 3A Corporation. (スリーエーネットワーク). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G-bl2P5lRl4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Minna No Nihongo II. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4nHnMa4Zw-MC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Muneo Kimura. Learning Japanese: Techniques for Intermediate and Advanced Student. (Orientation Seminars on Japan, number 23). Office for the Japanese Studies Center, The Japan Foundation. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZyUHAQAAIAAJ] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Study *Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Fundamentals *Toyoaki Uehara and Gisaburo N Kiyose. Fundamentals of Japanese. Indiana University Press. Bloomington and London. Tenri University Press. Tenri 1974. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/598969] and Hiroshi Miyaji, "Book Reviews" (1976) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EilkAAAAMAAJ 11] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 106 (No 1: January 1976) Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Schaum's Outline of Japanese Vocabulary [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fV0NAAAACAAJ] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] *Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Copula *Tomiko Narahara. The Japanese Copula: Forms and Functions. 2002: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UKOHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25064474] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/44486751] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4176893] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ] *Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Schaum's Outline of Japanese Grammar [https://books.google.com/books?id=oZMYsHvuhXIC] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W P Lehmann and Lloyd Faust. A Grammar of Formal Written Japanese. (Harvard-Yenching Institute Studies, vol 5). 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=50s0AAAAIAAJ] Written; Writing *David Ashworth and Ikumi Hitosugi. Written Japanese: An Introduction. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fLDhgDHj7_EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Heath Rose. The Japanese Writing System: Challenges, Strategies and Self-regulation for Learning Kanji. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDU8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1924#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Basil Hall Chamberlain. A Practical Introduction to the Study of Japanese Writing. 1899. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-SWFGQkuJN8C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Handwritten *P G O'Neill. A Reader of Handwritten Japanese. Kodansha International. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r-MZAQAAIAAJ] Hiragana and katakana *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana for Beginners. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZPs8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kenneth G Henshall and Tetsuo Takagaki. Learning Japanese Hiragana and Katakana. Revised 2nd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QyfRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Guide to Learning Hiragana & Katakana. Tuttle. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=18i1QgAACAAJ] *Glen McCabe. Japanese Hiragana and Katakana Flash Cards. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aSFFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA34#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard S Keirstead. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana: Language Practice Pad. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yPxHDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Hiragana *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Hiragana. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CvQZAQAAIAAJ] *James W Heisig. Remembering the Hiragana: a complete course on how to teach yourself the Japanese syllabary in 3 hours. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VdEPAAAAYAAJ] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana for Beginners. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dR_RAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Hiragana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YtZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Yuko Green. My First Hiragana Activity Book. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C-OKxX_cdpgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Katakana *Tina Wells. Easy Katakana: How to Read and Write English Words Used in Japanese. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-ZSDP-9i9oUC] *Helmut Morsbach, Kazue Kurebayashi and James W. Heisig. Remembering the Katakana. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeAPAAAAYAAJ] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Katakana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rNZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Katakana for Beginners: First Steps to Mastering the Japanese Writing System. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W5sdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji and kana *Wolfgang Hadamitzky and Mark Spahn. Japanese Kanji and Kana: A Complete Guide to the Japanese Writing System. 1981. 2nd Ed: 1997. 3rd Ed: 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3w7QAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji *James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji. 1977. 5th Ed: 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TtEaylKrGaMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. Remembering the Kanji 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PYOUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji: A systematic guide to reading Japanese characters. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *James W Heisig and Tanya Sienko. Remembering the Kanji 3. 1994. 2nd Ed: 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wTZ4x_BHe5EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Editorial staff of The East magazine. Kanji Kanji. The East Publications Inc. Tokyo. 1972: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HcYPAAAAYAAJ]. Revised Ed: 1983: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T8YPAAAAYAAJ]. *Andrew Dykstra. Kanji 1-2-3. Kanji Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SnBWAAAAYAAJ] *Naoomi Kuratani, Akemi Kobayashi and Shunsuke Okunishi (eds). A New Dictionary of Kanji Usage あたらしい漢字用法辞典. Gakken. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5-C4AAAAIAAJ]. Review: "The Slimline Kanji Dictionaries" (1996) 9 International Journal of Lexicography 132 (No 2: June). Abstracts: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vYPAQAAMAAJ] [https://academic.oup.com/ijl/article-abstract/9/2/132/930154] *Jack Halpern. The Kodansha Kanji Usage Guide: An A to Z of Kun Homophones. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qgWQEAAAQBAJ] *Laurence Matthews. Kanji Fast Finder 漢字早引き辞典. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7SdpPwAACAAJ] *Glen Nolan Grant. Mastering Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0L1GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. *John Millen. Kanji Power: A Workbook for Mastering Japanese Characters. Tuttle Publishing. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uPu4AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari. Standard Kanji. Revised Ed. 1949. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=b1Q98sCcgV0C] *P G O'Neill. Essential Kanji. Weatherhill. 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VYadVK-DqSYC]. Paperback Ed: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dQ25AAAAIAAJ]. *Essential Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gr5GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8A0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Kanji. Passport Books. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R7ZM9Dao7NMC] *Erik Sato. Learning Japanese Kanji: Practice Book. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IcA0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *The Second 100 Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gUjRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn Kanji: An Introduction to Radicals, Components and 250 Very Basic Kanji. Kodansha International. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=khnrnBXLciIC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Richard Glenn Covington, Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn More Kanji: Family Groups, Learning Strategies, and 300 Complex Kanji. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLEOAAAACAAJ] Read; Reading *Eleanor Harz Jorden and Hamako Ito Chaplin. Reading Japanese. Yale University Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1MF6kCogEx0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jiří Jelínek and Patricia A Heron. Reading Japanese: A self-instructional manual for beginners, leading to independent translating ability. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1975. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *Dale P Crowley, with the assistance of Yoshiyuki Kawata and Yoko Kawata. Manual for Reading Japanese. University Press of Hawaii. Honolulu. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nK0PAAAAYAAJ] *John Braden. Read Practical Japanese. Kenkyusha. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3MAPAAAAYAAJ] *Setsuko Aihara, with Graham Parkes. Strategies for Reading Japanese: A Rational Approach to the Japanese Sentence. Japan Publications Trading Company. Tokyo. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tMs_AQAAIAAJ] *Len Walsh. Read Japanese Today: The Easy Way to Learn Hiragana, Katakana and Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hjBEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Arthur Rose-Innes. Japanese Reading for Beginners. K Yoshikawa & Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cP1z4IcbiO4C] ==Linguistics== *Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/48828212] [https://online.ucpress.edu/jjs/article-abstract/46/2/536/210735/Review-The-Cambridge-Handbook-of-Japanese] *Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/417343]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Linguistics: An Introduction. 2007. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25173131] **Japanese Language in Use: An Introduction. 2007. *Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ] *Tetsuo Harada. Outlines of Modern Japanese Linguistics. Tateshina Print Company. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jTcHAQAAIAAJ] Periodicals, Linguistics *Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ] *Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ] Issues *Takashi Imai and Mamoru Saito (eds). Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (Studies in Generative Grammar 29). Foris Publications. Dordrecht, Holland. 1987. ISBN 90-6765-284-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bYiFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yukio Otsu and Ann Farmer (eds). Theoretical Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 2). 1980. [https://books.google.com/books?id=RDeBAAAAIAAJ] Kokugogaku and nihongogaku *Lidia Tanaka. "Japanese language studies: Kokugo as an ideology, nihongo as an autonomous and global scholarship?". Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. 2018.Chapter 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false 32] to 52. Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies) *[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]]. Cf. Kokugogaku (Japanese: [[en:wikt:国語学|国語学]]) (English: national language studies) Syntax and semantics *Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ] Semantics and pragmatics *Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] Morphology and phonology *Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Phonetics and Phonology *Haruo Kubozono (ed). Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8vFeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiromi Otaka. Phonetics and Phonology of Moras, Feet and Geminate Consonants in Japanese. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=39Q_AQAAIAAJ] *James D McCawley. The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese. Mouton & Co NV. The Hague. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3JoPAAAAYAAJ] Syntax *Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ] Phonetics *Daniel Lepetit and Reiko Makino. Japanese Phonetics: A Thematic Bibliography. Canadian Scholars. 1996. ISBN 1551300923. Catalogue: Canadian Books in Print: Author and Title Index 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q2WLJa9rY5MC&pg=PA1063#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1063]. *Society Newsletter. 1926 to 1996. [[w:ja:日本音声学会|The Phonetic Society of Japan]]. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication/society-newsletter] **Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan. 1997 onwards. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonetics: Theory and Practice. Lincom Europa. 1997. [https://books.google.com/books?id=guUZAQAAIAAJ] *P M Suski. The Phonetics of Japanese Language: With Reference to Japanese Script. 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpthAAAAMAAJ]. 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9DuiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Phonology *Laurence Labrune. The Phonology of Japanese. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ix9r6CbEl6IC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonology: A Functional Approach. Lincom Europa. 2000. [https://books.google.com/books?id=R-QZAQAAIAAJ] *Mieko Shimizu Han. Japanese Phonology: An Analysis Based on Sound Spectrograms. Kenkyusha. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T3Xl7SviXB4C] Pragmatics *Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Yoshiko Matsumoto, Junko Mori (eds). Pragmatics of Japanese: Perspectives on grammar, interaction and culture. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2wZTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gabriele Kasper. Pragmatics of Japanese as Native and Target Language. Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaiʼi at Mānoa. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2_8ifcjhpYQC] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] ==Translation== *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Dialects and regions== Dialects *Nobuko Kibe, Tetsuo Nitta and Kan Sasaki (eds). Handbook of Japanese Dialects. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8_Y9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kansai *Peter Tse. Kansai Japanese: The Language of Osaka, Kyoto, and Western Japan. (Tuttle Language Library). 1993. Reprinted 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvVkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *DC Palter and Kaoru Slotsve. Colloquial Kansai Japanese: The Dialects and Culture of the Kansai Region. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rJEdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==History== *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] ==Old Japanese== *John R Bentley. A Descriptive Grammar of Early Old Japanese Prose. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Eoqv_NcLJ4gC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Alexander Vovin. A Descriptive and Comparative Grammar of Western Old Japanese. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ba1xEQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] 2nd Ed: 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xfP_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. ==Classical Japanese== Introduction *Akira Komai and Thomas H Rohlich. An Introduction to Classical Japanese. Bonjinsha. Tokyo. 1991. Review: "Textbook Review by Questionnaire" (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tClnAAAAMAAJ 26] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 50 (No 1: April 1992) Grammar *Noriko Katsuki-Pestemer. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Lincom Europa. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PHoLAQAAMAAJ] *Haruo Shirane. Classical Japanese: A Grammar. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=M5-vVlcVEDkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/209495/summary] *Alexander Vovin. A Reference Grammar of Classical Japanese Prose. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=24GTVscUCX0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Akira Komai. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Culver Publishing. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sL0PAAAAYAAJ] *Tadashi Ikeda. Classical Japanese Grammar Illustrated with Texts. The Toho Gakkai (The Institute of Eastern Culture). 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQjUAAAAMAAJ] Dictionary *Ivan Morris. Dictionary of Selected Forms in Classical Japanese Literature. Columbia University Press. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O70PAAAAYAAJ] *Jiří Jelínek. Classical Japanese-English Grammar Dictionary. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qOEPAAAAYAAJ] Clauses *Stefan Kaiser. Circumnominal Relative Clauses in Classical Japanese: An Historical Study. Otto Harrassowitz. Wiesbaden. 1991. ISBN 344703212X. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GHsPAAAAYAAJ] [[Category:Japanese]] 832ddbo86midnkrfxi27h1ms0pv8af0 2817532 2817530 2026-07-01T14:32:15Z James500 297601 /* */ Add 2817532 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This page is part of [[Universal Bibliography/Languages|bibliography of languages]]. This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of Japanese. Bibliography *Oskar Nachod. "Linguistics". Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754. *Wenckstern. "Philology: The Japanese Language". A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89. General *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Kokugo *Paul H Clark. The Kokugo Revolution: Education, Identity, and Language Policy in Imperial Japan. (Japan Research Monograph 16). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F6jSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeounsuk Lee. The Ideology of Kokugo: Nationalizing Language in Modern Japan. University of Hawaii Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=54wBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Kokugo To Iu Shisō: Kindai Nihon No Gengo Ninshiki. (Japanese: 「国語」という思想: 近代日本の言語認識). Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1996. Nihongo *Makoto Sugawara. Nihongo: A Japanese Approach to Japanese. East Publications. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKkPAAAAYAAJ] *Roy Andrew Miller. Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese. The Athlone Press. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oRxkAAAAMAAJ] *Nihongo Notes. The Japan Times. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdkpAQAAIAAJ] *Yutaka Sato and Margaret Y. Yamashita. Nihongo: Introductory Japanese. 1994. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ptACuS6HnpUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Minna No Nihongo I. 3A Corporation. (スリーエーネットワーク). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G-bl2P5lRl4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Minna No Nihongo II. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4nHnMa4Zw-MC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Muneo Kimura. Learning Japanese: Techniques for Intermediate and Advanced Student. (Orientation Seminars on Japan, number 23). Office for the Japanese Studies Center, The Japan Foundation. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZyUHAQAAIAAJ] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Study *Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Fundamentals *Toyoaki Uehara and Gisaburo N Kiyose. Fundamentals of Japanese. Indiana University Press. Bloomington and London. Tenri University Press. Tenri 1974. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/598969] and Hiroshi Miyaji, "Book Reviews" (1976) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EilkAAAAMAAJ 11] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 106 (No 1: January 1976) Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For high school students; High school programs *Esther M T Sato, Loren I Shishido and Masako Sakihara. Japanese Now. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k17cHllNfTAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1] **Esther M T Sato and Masako Sakihara. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vufHtRpVZt4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 4]. For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Schaum's Outline of Japanese Vocabulary [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fV0NAAAACAAJ] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] *Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Copula *Tomiko Narahara. The Japanese Copula: Forms and Functions. 2002: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UKOHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25064474] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/44486751] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4176893] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ] *Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Schaum's Outline of Japanese Grammar [https://books.google.com/books?id=oZMYsHvuhXIC] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W P Lehmann and Lloyd Faust. A Grammar of Formal Written Japanese. (Harvard-Yenching Institute Studies, vol 5). 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=50s0AAAAIAAJ] Written; Writing *David Ashworth and Ikumi Hitosugi. Written Japanese: An Introduction. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fLDhgDHj7_EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Heath Rose. The Japanese Writing System: Challenges, Strategies and Self-regulation for Learning Kanji. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDU8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1924#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Basil Hall Chamberlain. A Practical Introduction to the Study of Japanese Writing. 1899. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-SWFGQkuJN8C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Handwritten *P G O'Neill. A Reader of Handwritten Japanese. Kodansha International. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r-MZAQAAIAAJ] Hiragana and katakana *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana for Beginners. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZPs8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kenneth G Henshall and Tetsuo Takagaki. Learning Japanese Hiragana and Katakana. Revised 2nd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QyfRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Guide to Learning Hiragana & Katakana. Tuttle. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=18i1QgAACAAJ] *Glen McCabe. Japanese Hiragana and Katakana Flash Cards. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aSFFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA34#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard S Keirstead. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana: Language Practice Pad. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yPxHDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Hiragana *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Hiragana. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CvQZAQAAIAAJ] *James W Heisig. Remembering the Hiragana: a complete course on how to teach yourself the Japanese syllabary in 3 hours. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VdEPAAAAYAAJ] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana for Beginners. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dR_RAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Hiragana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YtZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Yuko Green. My First Hiragana Activity Book. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C-OKxX_cdpgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Katakana *Tina Wells. Easy Katakana: How to Read and Write English Words Used in Japanese. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-ZSDP-9i9oUC] *Helmut Morsbach, Kazue Kurebayashi and James W. Heisig. Remembering the Katakana. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeAPAAAAYAAJ] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Katakana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rNZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Katakana for Beginners: First Steps to Mastering the Japanese Writing System. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W5sdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji and kana *Wolfgang Hadamitzky and Mark Spahn. Japanese Kanji and Kana: A Complete Guide to the Japanese Writing System. 1981. 2nd Ed: 1997. 3rd Ed: 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3w7QAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji *James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji. 1977. 5th Ed: 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TtEaylKrGaMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. Remembering the Kanji 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PYOUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji: A systematic guide to reading Japanese characters. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *James W Heisig and Tanya Sienko. Remembering the Kanji 3. 1994. 2nd Ed: 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wTZ4x_BHe5EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Editorial staff of The East magazine. Kanji Kanji. The East Publications Inc. Tokyo. 1972: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HcYPAAAAYAAJ]. Revised Ed: 1983: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T8YPAAAAYAAJ]. *Andrew Dykstra. Kanji 1-2-3. Kanji Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SnBWAAAAYAAJ] *Naoomi Kuratani, Akemi Kobayashi and Shunsuke Okunishi (eds). A New Dictionary of Kanji Usage あたらしい漢字用法辞典. Gakken. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5-C4AAAAIAAJ]. Review: "The Slimline Kanji Dictionaries" (1996) 9 International Journal of Lexicography 132 (No 2: June). Abstracts: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vYPAQAAMAAJ] [https://academic.oup.com/ijl/article-abstract/9/2/132/930154] *Jack Halpern. The Kodansha Kanji Usage Guide: An A to Z of Kun Homophones. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qgWQEAAAQBAJ] *Laurence Matthews. Kanji Fast Finder 漢字早引き辞典. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7SdpPwAACAAJ] *Glen Nolan Grant. Mastering Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0L1GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. *John Millen. Kanji Power: A Workbook for Mastering Japanese Characters. Tuttle Publishing. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uPu4AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari. Standard Kanji. Revised Ed. 1949. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=b1Q98sCcgV0C] *P G O'Neill. Essential Kanji. Weatherhill. 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VYadVK-DqSYC]. Paperback Ed: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dQ25AAAAIAAJ]. *Essential Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gr5GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8A0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Kanji. Passport Books. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R7ZM9Dao7NMC] *Erik Sato. Learning Japanese Kanji: Practice Book. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IcA0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *The Second 100 Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gUjRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn Kanji: An Introduction to Radicals, Components and 250 Very Basic Kanji. Kodansha International. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=khnrnBXLciIC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Richard Glenn Covington, Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn More Kanji: Family Groups, Learning Strategies, and 300 Complex Kanji. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLEOAAAACAAJ] Read; Reading *Eleanor Harz Jorden and Hamako Ito Chaplin. Reading Japanese. Yale University Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1MF6kCogEx0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jiří Jelínek and Patricia A Heron. Reading Japanese: A self-instructional manual for beginners, leading to independent translating ability. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1975. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *Dale P Crowley, with the assistance of Yoshiyuki Kawata and Yoko Kawata. Manual for Reading Japanese. University Press of Hawaii. Honolulu. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nK0PAAAAYAAJ] *John Braden. Read Practical Japanese. Kenkyusha. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3MAPAAAAYAAJ] *Setsuko Aihara, with Graham Parkes. Strategies for Reading Japanese: A Rational Approach to the Japanese Sentence. Japan Publications Trading Company. Tokyo. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tMs_AQAAIAAJ] *Len Walsh. Read Japanese Today: The Easy Way to Learn Hiragana, Katakana and Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hjBEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Arthur Rose-Innes. Japanese Reading for Beginners. K Yoshikawa & Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cP1z4IcbiO4C] ==Linguistics== *Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/48828212] [https://online.ucpress.edu/jjs/article-abstract/46/2/536/210735/Review-The-Cambridge-Handbook-of-Japanese] *Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/417343]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Linguistics: An Introduction. 2007. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25173131] **Japanese Language in Use: An Introduction. 2007. *Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ] *Tetsuo Harada. Outlines of Modern Japanese Linguistics. Tateshina Print Company. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jTcHAQAAIAAJ] Periodicals, Linguistics *Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ] *Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ] Issues *Takashi Imai and Mamoru Saito (eds). Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (Studies in Generative Grammar 29). Foris Publications. Dordrecht, Holland. 1987. ISBN 90-6765-284-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bYiFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yukio Otsu and Ann Farmer (eds). Theoretical Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 2). 1980. [https://books.google.com/books?id=RDeBAAAAIAAJ] Kokugogaku and nihongogaku *Lidia Tanaka. "Japanese language studies: Kokugo as an ideology, nihongo as an autonomous and global scholarship?". Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. 2018.Chapter 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false 32] to 52. Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies) *[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]]. Cf. Kokugogaku (Japanese: [[en:wikt:国語学|国語学]]) (English: national language studies) Syntax and semantics *Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ] Semantics and pragmatics *Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] Morphology and phonology *Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Phonetics and Phonology *Haruo Kubozono (ed). Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8vFeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiromi Otaka. Phonetics and Phonology of Moras, Feet and Geminate Consonants in Japanese. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=39Q_AQAAIAAJ] *James D McCawley. The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese. Mouton & Co NV. The Hague. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3JoPAAAAYAAJ] Syntax *Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ] Phonetics *Daniel Lepetit and Reiko Makino. Japanese Phonetics: A Thematic Bibliography. Canadian Scholars. 1996. ISBN 1551300923. Catalogue: Canadian Books in Print: Author and Title Index 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q2WLJa9rY5MC&pg=PA1063#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1063]. *Society Newsletter. 1926 to 1996. [[w:ja:日本音声学会|The Phonetic Society of Japan]]. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication/society-newsletter] **Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan. 1997 onwards. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonetics: Theory and Practice. Lincom Europa. 1997. [https://books.google.com/books?id=guUZAQAAIAAJ] *P M Suski. The Phonetics of Japanese Language: With Reference to Japanese Script. 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpthAAAAMAAJ]. 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9DuiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Phonology *Laurence Labrune. The Phonology of Japanese. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ix9r6CbEl6IC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonology: A Functional Approach. Lincom Europa. 2000. [https://books.google.com/books?id=R-QZAQAAIAAJ] *Mieko Shimizu Han. Japanese Phonology: An Analysis Based on Sound Spectrograms. Kenkyusha. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T3Xl7SviXB4C] Pragmatics *Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Yoshiko Matsumoto, Junko Mori (eds). Pragmatics of Japanese: Perspectives on grammar, interaction and culture. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2wZTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gabriele Kasper. Pragmatics of Japanese as Native and Target Language. Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaiʼi at Mānoa. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2_8ifcjhpYQC] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] ==Translation== *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Dialects and regions== Dialects *Nobuko Kibe, Tetsuo Nitta and Kan Sasaki (eds). Handbook of Japanese Dialects. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8_Y9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kansai *Peter Tse. Kansai Japanese: The Language of Osaka, Kyoto, and Western Japan. (Tuttle Language Library). 1993. Reprinted 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvVkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *DC Palter and Kaoru Slotsve. Colloquial Kansai Japanese: The Dialects and Culture of the Kansai Region. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rJEdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==History== *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] ==Old Japanese== *John R Bentley. A Descriptive Grammar of Early Old Japanese Prose. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Eoqv_NcLJ4gC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Alexander Vovin. A Descriptive and Comparative Grammar of Western Old Japanese. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ba1xEQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] 2nd Ed: 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xfP_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. ==Classical Japanese== Introduction *Akira Komai and Thomas H Rohlich. An Introduction to Classical Japanese. Bonjinsha. Tokyo. 1991. Review: "Textbook Review by Questionnaire" (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tClnAAAAMAAJ 26] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 50 (No 1: April 1992) Grammar *Noriko Katsuki-Pestemer. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Lincom Europa. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PHoLAQAAMAAJ] *Haruo Shirane. Classical Japanese: A Grammar. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=M5-vVlcVEDkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/209495/summary] *Alexander Vovin. A Reference Grammar of Classical Japanese Prose. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=24GTVscUCX0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Akira Komai. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Culver Publishing. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sL0PAAAAYAAJ] *Tadashi Ikeda. Classical Japanese Grammar Illustrated with Texts. The Toho Gakkai (The Institute of Eastern Culture). 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQjUAAAAMAAJ] Dictionary *Ivan Morris. Dictionary of Selected Forms in Classical Japanese Literature. Columbia University Press. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O70PAAAAYAAJ] *Jiří Jelínek. Classical Japanese-English Grammar Dictionary. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qOEPAAAAYAAJ] Clauses *Stefan Kaiser. Circumnominal Relative Clauses in Classical Japanese: An Historical Study. Otto Harrassowitz. Wiesbaden. 1991. ISBN 344703212X. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GHsPAAAAYAAJ] [[Category:Japanese]] 1lumw5h0z6vuagpoh2nua09fqyjpvel 2817533 2817532 2026-07-01T15:06:30Z James500 297601 /* */ Add 2817533 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This page is part of [[Universal Bibliography/Languages|bibliography of languages]]. This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of Japanese. Bibliography *Harald Suppanschitsch and Jürgen Stalph. Japanische Sprache und Schrift: eine Bibliographie des in deutscher Sprache veröffentlichten Schrifttums. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7tBw_wLMOagC&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Oskar Nachod. "Linguistics". Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754. *Wenckstern. "Philology: The Japanese Language". A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89. General *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Kokugo *Paul H Clark. The Kokugo Revolution: Education, Identity, and Language Policy in Imperial Japan. (Japan Research Monograph 16). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F6jSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeounsuk Lee. The Ideology of Kokugo: Nationalizing Language in Modern Japan. University of Hawaii Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=54wBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Kokugo To Iu Shisō: Kindai Nihon No Gengo Ninshiki. (Japanese: 「国語」という思想: 近代日本の言語認識). Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1996. Nihongo *Makoto Sugawara. Nihongo: A Japanese Approach to Japanese. East Publications. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKkPAAAAYAAJ] *Roy Andrew Miller. Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese. The Athlone Press. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oRxkAAAAMAAJ] *Nihongo Notes. The Japan Times. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdkpAQAAIAAJ] *Yutaka Sato and Margaret Y. Yamashita. Nihongo: Introductory Japanese. 1994. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ptACuS6HnpUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Minna No Nihongo I. 3A Corporation. (スリーエーネットワーク). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G-bl2P5lRl4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Minna No Nihongo II. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4nHnMa4Zw-MC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Muneo Kimura. Learning Japanese: Techniques for Intermediate and Advanced Student. (Orientation Seminars on Japan, number 23). Office for the Japanese Studies Center, The Japan Foundation. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZyUHAQAAIAAJ] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Study *Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Fundamentals *Toyoaki Uehara and Gisaburo N Kiyose. Fundamentals of Japanese. Indiana University Press. Bloomington and London. Tenri University Press. Tenri 1974. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/598969] and Hiroshi Miyaji, "Book Reviews" (1976) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EilkAAAAMAAJ 11] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 106 (No 1: January 1976) Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For high school students; High school programs *Esther M T Sato, Loren I Shishido and Masako Sakihara. Japanese Now. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k17cHllNfTAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1] **Esther M T Sato and Masako Sakihara. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vufHtRpVZt4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 4]. For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Schaum's Outline of Japanese Vocabulary [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fV0NAAAACAAJ] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] *Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Copula *Tomiko Narahara. The Japanese Copula: Forms and Functions. 2002: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UKOHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25064474] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/44486751] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4176893] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ] *Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Schaum's Outline of Japanese Grammar [https://books.google.com/books?id=oZMYsHvuhXIC] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W P Lehmann and Lloyd Faust. A Grammar of Formal Written Japanese. (Harvard-Yenching Institute Studies, vol 5). 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=50s0AAAAIAAJ] Written; Writing *David Ashworth and Ikumi Hitosugi. Written Japanese: An Introduction. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fLDhgDHj7_EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Heath Rose. The Japanese Writing System: Challenges, Strategies and Self-regulation for Learning Kanji. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDU8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1924#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Basil Hall Chamberlain. A Practical Introduction to the Study of Japanese Writing. 1899. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-SWFGQkuJN8C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Handwritten *P G O'Neill. A Reader of Handwritten Japanese. Kodansha International. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r-MZAQAAIAAJ] Hiragana and katakana *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana for Beginners. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZPs8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kenneth G Henshall and Tetsuo Takagaki. Learning Japanese Hiragana and Katakana. Revised 2nd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QyfRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Guide to Learning Hiragana & Katakana. Tuttle. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=18i1QgAACAAJ] *Glen McCabe. Japanese Hiragana and Katakana Flash Cards. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aSFFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA34#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard S Keirstead. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana: Language Practice Pad. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yPxHDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Hiragana *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Hiragana. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CvQZAQAAIAAJ] *James W Heisig. Remembering the Hiragana: a complete course on how to teach yourself the Japanese syllabary in 3 hours. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VdEPAAAAYAAJ] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana for Beginners. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dR_RAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Hiragana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YtZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Yuko Green. My First Hiragana Activity Book. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C-OKxX_cdpgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Katakana *Tina Wells. Easy Katakana: How to Read and Write English Words Used in Japanese. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-ZSDP-9i9oUC] *Helmut Morsbach, Kazue Kurebayashi and James W. Heisig. Remembering the Katakana. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeAPAAAAYAAJ] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Katakana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rNZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Katakana for Beginners: First Steps to Mastering the Japanese Writing System. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W5sdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji and kana *Wolfgang Hadamitzky and Mark Spahn. Japanese Kanji and Kana: A Complete Guide to the Japanese Writing System. 1981. 2nd Ed: 1997. 3rd Ed: 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3w7QAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji *James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji. 1977. 5th Ed: 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TtEaylKrGaMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. Remembering the Kanji 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PYOUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji: A systematic guide to reading Japanese characters. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *James W Heisig and Tanya Sienko. Remembering the Kanji 3. 1994. 2nd Ed: 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wTZ4x_BHe5EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Editorial staff of The East magazine. Kanji Kanji. The East Publications Inc. Tokyo. 1972: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HcYPAAAAYAAJ]. Revised Ed: 1983: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T8YPAAAAYAAJ]. *Andrew Dykstra. Kanji 1-2-3. Kanji Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SnBWAAAAYAAJ] *Naoomi Kuratani, Akemi Kobayashi and Shunsuke Okunishi (eds). A New Dictionary of Kanji Usage あたらしい漢字用法辞典. Gakken. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5-C4AAAAIAAJ]. Review: "The Slimline Kanji Dictionaries" (1996) 9 International Journal of Lexicography 132 (No 2: June). Abstracts: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vYPAQAAMAAJ] [https://academic.oup.com/ijl/article-abstract/9/2/132/930154] *Jack Halpern. The Kodansha Kanji Usage Guide: An A to Z of Kun Homophones. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qgWQEAAAQBAJ] *Laurence Matthews. Kanji Fast Finder 漢字早引き辞典. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7SdpPwAACAAJ] *Glen Nolan Grant. Mastering Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0L1GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. *John Millen. Kanji Power: A Workbook for Mastering Japanese Characters. Tuttle Publishing. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uPu4AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari. Standard Kanji. Revised Ed. 1949. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=b1Q98sCcgV0C] *P G O'Neill. Essential Kanji. Weatherhill. 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VYadVK-DqSYC]. Paperback Ed: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dQ25AAAAIAAJ]. *Essential Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gr5GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8A0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Kanji. Passport Books. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R7ZM9Dao7NMC] *Erik Sato. Learning Japanese Kanji: Practice Book. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IcA0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *The Second 100 Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gUjRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn Kanji: An Introduction to Radicals, Components and 250 Very Basic Kanji. Kodansha International. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=khnrnBXLciIC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Richard Glenn Covington, Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn More Kanji: Family Groups, Learning Strategies, and 300 Complex Kanji. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLEOAAAACAAJ] Read; Reading *Eleanor Harz Jorden and Hamako Ito Chaplin. Reading Japanese. Yale University Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1MF6kCogEx0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jiří Jelínek and Patricia A Heron. Reading Japanese: A self-instructional manual for beginners, leading to independent translating ability. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1975. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *Dale P Crowley, with the assistance of Yoshiyuki Kawata and Yoko Kawata. Manual for Reading Japanese. University Press of Hawaii. Honolulu. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nK0PAAAAYAAJ] *John Braden. Read Practical Japanese. Kenkyusha. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3MAPAAAAYAAJ] *Setsuko Aihara, with Graham Parkes. Strategies for Reading Japanese: A Rational Approach to the Japanese Sentence. Japan Publications Trading Company. Tokyo. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tMs_AQAAIAAJ] *Len Walsh. Read Japanese Today: The Easy Way to Learn Hiragana, Katakana and Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hjBEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Arthur Rose-Innes. Japanese Reading for Beginners. K Yoshikawa & Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cP1z4IcbiO4C] ==Linguistics== *Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/48828212] [https://online.ucpress.edu/jjs/article-abstract/46/2/536/210735/Review-The-Cambridge-Handbook-of-Japanese] *Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/417343]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Linguistics: An Introduction. 2007. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25173131] **Japanese Language in Use: An Introduction. 2007. *Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ] *Tetsuo Harada. Outlines of Modern Japanese Linguistics. Tateshina Print Company. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jTcHAQAAIAAJ] Periodicals, Linguistics *Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ] *Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ] Issues *Takashi Imai and Mamoru Saito (eds). Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (Studies in Generative Grammar 29). Foris Publications. Dordrecht, Holland. 1987. ISBN 90-6765-284-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bYiFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yukio Otsu and Ann Farmer (eds). Theoretical Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 2). 1980. [https://books.google.com/books?id=RDeBAAAAIAAJ] Kokugogaku and nihongogaku *Lidia Tanaka. "Japanese language studies: Kokugo as an ideology, nihongo as an autonomous and global scholarship?". Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. 2018.Chapter 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false 32] to 52. Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies) *[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]]. Cf. Kokugogaku (Japanese: [[en:wikt:国語学|国語学]]) (English: national language studies) Syntax and semantics *Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ] Semantics and pragmatics *Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] Morphology and phonology *Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Phonetics and Phonology *Haruo Kubozono (ed). Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8vFeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiromi Otaka. Phonetics and Phonology of Moras, Feet and Geminate Consonants in Japanese. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=39Q_AQAAIAAJ] *James D McCawley. The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese. Mouton & Co NV. The Hague. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3JoPAAAAYAAJ] Syntax *Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ] Phonetics *Daniel Lepetit and Reiko Makino. Japanese Phonetics: A Thematic Bibliography. Canadian Scholars. 1996. ISBN 1551300923. Catalogue: Canadian Books in Print: Author and Title Index 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q2WLJa9rY5MC&pg=PA1063#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1063]. *Society Newsletter. 1926 to 1996. [[w:ja:日本音声学会|The Phonetic Society of Japan]]. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication/society-newsletter] **Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan. 1997 onwards. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonetics: Theory and Practice. Lincom Europa. 1997. [https://books.google.com/books?id=guUZAQAAIAAJ] *P M Suski. The Phonetics of Japanese Language: With Reference to Japanese Script. 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpthAAAAMAAJ]. 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9DuiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Phonology *Laurence Labrune. The Phonology of Japanese. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ix9r6CbEl6IC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonology: A Functional Approach. Lincom Europa. 2000. [https://books.google.com/books?id=R-QZAQAAIAAJ] *Mieko Shimizu Han. Japanese Phonology: An Analysis Based on Sound Spectrograms. Kenkyusha. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T3Xl7SviXB4C] Pragmatics *Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Yoshiko Matsumoto, Junko Mori (eds). Pragmatics of Japanese: Perspectives on grammar, interaction and culture. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2wZTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gabriele Kasper. Pragmatics of Japanese as Native and Target Language. Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaiʼi at Mānoa. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2_8ifcjhpYQC] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] ==Translation== *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Dialects and regions== Dialects *Nobuko Kibe, Tetsuo Nitta and Kan Sasaki (eds). Handbook of Japanese Dialects. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8_Y9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kansai *Peter Tse. Kansai Japanese: The Language of Osaka, Kyoto, and Western Japan. (Tuttle Language Library). 1993. Reprinted 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvVkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *DC Palter and Kaoru Slotsve. Colloquial Kansai Japanese: The Dialects and Culture of the Kansai Region. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rJEdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==History== *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] ==Old Japanese== *John R Bentley. A Descriptive Grammar of Early Old Japanese Prose. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Eoqv_NcLJ4gC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Alexander Vovin. A Descriptive and Comparative Grammar of Western Old Japanese. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ba1xEQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] 2nd Ed: 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xfP_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. ==Classical Japanese== Introduction *Akira Komai and Thomas H Rohlich. An Introduction to Classical Japanese. Bonjinsha. Tokyo. 1991. Review: "Textbook Review by Questionnaire" (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tClnAAAAMAAJ 26] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 50 (No 1: April 1992) Grammar *Noriko Katsuki-Pestemer. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Lincom Europa. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PHoLAQAAMAAJ] *Haruo Shirane. Classical Japanese: A Grammar. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=M5-vVlcVEDkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/209495/summary] *Alexander Vovin. A Reference Grammar of Classical Japanese Prose. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=24GTVscUCX0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Akira Komai. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Culver Publishing. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sL0PAAAAYAAJ] *Tadashi Ikeda. Classical Japanese Grammar Illustrated with Texts. The Toho Gakkai (The Institute of Eastern Culture). 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQjUAAAAMAAJ] Dictionary *Ivan Morris. Dictionary of Selected Forms in Classical Japanese Literature. Columbia University Press. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O70PAAAAYAAJ] *Jiří Jelínek. Classical Japanese-English Grammar Dictionary. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qOEPAAAAYAAJ] Clauses *Stefan Kaiser. Circumnominal Relative Clauses in Classical Japanese: An Historical Study. Otto Harrassowitz. Wiesbaden. 1991. ISBN 344703212X. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GHsPAAAAYAAJ] [[Category:Japanese]] 05httmqoh8fd4duoor887svz60wgjpf 2817534 2817533 2026-07-01T15:29:51Z James500 297601 /* */ Add 2817534 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This page is part of [[Universal Bibliography/Languages|bibliography of languages]]. This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of Japanese. Bibliography *Harald Suppanschitsch and Jürgen Stalph. Japanische Sprache und Schrift: eine Bibliographie des in deutscher Sprache veröffentlichten Schrifttums. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7tBw_wLMOagC&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Oskar Nachod. "Linguistics". Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754. *Wenckstern. "Philology: The Japanese Language". A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89. General *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Kokugo *Paul H Clark. The Kokugo Revolution: Education, Identity, and Language Policy in Imperial Japan. (Japan Research Monograph 16). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F6jSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeounsuk Lee. The Ideology of Kokugo: Nationalizing Language in Modern Japan. University of Hawaii Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=54wBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Kokugo To Iu Shisō: Kindai Nihon No Gengo Ninshiki. (Japanese: 「国語」という思想: 近代日本の言語認識). Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1996. Nihongo *Makoto Sugawara. Nihongo: A Japanese Approach to Japanese. East Publications. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKkPAAAAYAAJ] *Roy Andrew Miller. Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese. The Athlone Press. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oRxkAAAAMAAJ] *Nihongo Notes. The Japan Times. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdkpAQAAIAAJ] *Yutaka Sato and Margaret Y. Yamashita. Nihongo: Introductory Japanese. 1994. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ptACuS6HnpUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Minna No Nihongo I. 3A Corporation. (スリーエーネットワーク). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G-bl2P5lRl4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Minna No Nihongo II. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4nHnMa4Zw-MC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Muneo Kimura. Learning Japanese: Techniques for Intermediate and Advanced Student. (Orientation Seminars on Japan, number 23). Office for the Japanese Studies Center, The Japan Foundation. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZyUHAQAAIAAJ] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Study *Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Fundamentals *Toyoaki Uehara and Gisaburo N Kiyose. Fundamentals of Japanese. Indiana University Press. Bloomington and London. Tenri University Press. Tenri 1974. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/598969] and Hiroshi Miyaji, "Book Reviews" (1976) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EilkAAAAMAAJ 11] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 106 (No 1: January 1976) Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For high school students; High school programs *Esther M T Sato, Loren I Shishido and Masako Sakihara. Japanese Now. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k17cHllNfTAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1] **Esther M T Sato and Masako Sakihara. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vufHtRpVZt4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 4]. For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Schaum's Outline of Japanese Vocabulary [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fV0NAAAACAAJ] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] *Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Copula *Tomiko Narahara. The Japanese Copula: Forms and Functions. 2002: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UKOHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25064474] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/44486751] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4176893] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ] *Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Schaum's Outline of Japanese Grammar [https://books.google.com/books?id=oZMYsHvuhXIC] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W P Lehmann and Lloyd Faust. A Grammar of Formal Written Japanese. (Harvard-Yenching Institute Studies, vol 5). 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=50s0AAAAIAAJ] Written; Writing *David Ashworth and Ikumi Hitosugi. Written Japanese: An Introduction. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fLDhgDHj7_EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Heath Rose. The Japanese Writing System: Challenges, Strategies and Self-regulation for Learning Kanji. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDU8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1924#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Basil Hall Chamberlain. A Practical Introduction to the Study of Japanese Writing. 1899. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-SWFGQkuJN8C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Handwritten *P G O'Neill. A Reader of Handwritten Japanese. Kodansha International. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r-MZAQAAIAAJ] Hiragana and katakana *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana for Beginners. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZPs8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kenneth G Henshall and Tetsuo Takagaki. Learning Japanese Hiragana and Katakana. Revised 2nd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QyfRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Guide to Learning Hiragana & Katakana. Tuttle. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=18i1QgAACAAJ] *Glen McCabe. Japanese Hiragana and Katakana Flash Cards. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aSFFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA34#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard S Keirstead. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana: Language Practice Pad. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yPxHDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Hiragana *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Hiragana. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CvQZAQAAIAAJ] *James W Heisig. Remembering the Hiragana: a complete course on how to teach yourself the Japanese syllabary in 3 hours. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VdEPAAAAYAAJ] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana for Beginners. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dR_RAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Hiragana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YtZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Yuko Green. My First Hiragana Activity Book. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C-OKxX_cdpgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Katakana *Tina Wells. Easy Katakana: How to Read and Write English Words Used in Japanese. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-ZSDP-9i9oUC] *Helmut Morsbach, Kazue Kurebayashi and James W. Heisig. Remembering the Katakana. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeAPAAAAYAAJ] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Katakana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rNZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Katakana for Beginners: First Steps to Mastering the Japanese Writing System. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W5sdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji and kana *Wolfgang Hadamitzky and Mark Spahn. Japanese Kanji and Kana: A Complete Guide to the Japanese Writing System. 1981. 2nd Ed: 1997. 3rd Ed: 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3w7QAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji *James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji. 1977. 5th Ed: 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TtEaylKrGaMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. Remembering the Kanji 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PYOUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji: A systematic guide to reading Japanese characters. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *James W Heisig and Tanya Sienko. Remembering the Kanji 3. 1994. 2nd Ed: 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wTZ4x_BHe5EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Editorial staff of The East magazine. Kanji Kanji. The East Publications Inc. Tokyo. 1972: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HcYPAAAAYAAJ]. Revised Ed: 1983: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T8YPAAAAYAAJ]. *Andrew Dykstra. Kanji 1-2-3. Kanji Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SnBWAAAAYAAJ] *Naoomi Kuratani, Akemi Kobayashi and Shunsuke Okunishi (eds). A New Dictionary of Kanji Usage あたらしい漢字用法辞典. Gakken. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5-C4AAAAIAAJ]. Review: "The Slimline Kanji Dictionaries" (1996) 9 International Journal of Lexicography 132 (No 2: June). Abstracts: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vYPAQAAMAAJ] [https://academic.oup.com/ijl/article-abstract/9/2/132/930154] *Jack Halpern. The Kodansha Kanji Usage Guide: An A to Z of Kun Homophones. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qgWQEAAAQBAJ] *Laurence Matthews. Kanji Fast Finder 漢字早引き辞典. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7SdpPwAACAAJ] *Glen Nolan Grant. Mastering Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0L1GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. *John Millen. Kanji Power: A Workbook for Mastering Japanese Characters. Tuttle Publishing. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uPu4AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari. Standard Kanji. Revised Ed. 1949. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=b1Q98sCcgV0C] *P G O'Neill. Essential Kanji. Weatherhill. 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VYadVK-DqSYC]. Paperback Ed: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dQ25AAAAIAAJ]. *Essential Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gr5GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8A0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *Kodansha's Compact Kanji Guide: A new character dictionary for students and professionals. Kodansha International. 1991. Review: Gerald B Mathias and Timothy J Vance (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2loLAQAAMAAJ 26] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 47 (No 1: April 1992) *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Kanji. Passport Books. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R7ZM9Dao7NMC] *Erik Sato. Learning Japanese Kanji: Practice Book. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IcA0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *The Second 100 Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gUjRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn Kanji: An Introduction to Radicals, Components and 250 Very Basic Kanji. Kodansha International. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=khnrnBXLciIC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Richard Glenn Covington, Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn More Kanji: Family Groups, Learning Strategies, and 300 Complex Kanji. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLEOAAAACAAJ] Read; Reading *Eleanor Harz Jorden and Hamako Ito Chaplin. Reading Japanese. Yale University Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1MF6kCogEx0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jiří Jelínek and Patricia A Heron. Reading Japanese: A self-instructional manual for beginners, leading to independent translating ability. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1975. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *Dale P Crowley, with the assistance of Yoshiyuki Kawata and Yoko Kawata. Manual for Reading Japanese. University Press of Hawaii. Honolulu. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nK0PAAAAYAAJ] *John Braden. Read Practical Japanese. Kenkyusha. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3MAPAAAAYAAJ] *Setsuko Aihara, with Graham Parkes. Strategies for Reading Japanese: A Rational Approach to the Japanese Sentence. Japan Publications Trading Company. Tokyo. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tMs_AQAAIAAJ] *Len Walsh. Read Japanese Today: The Easy Way to Learn Hiragana, Katakana and Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hjBEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Arthur Rose-Innes. Japanese Reading for Beginners. K Yoshikawa & Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cP1z4IcbiO4C] ==Linguistics== *Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/48828212] [https://online.ucpress.edu/jjs/article-abstract/46/2/536/210735/Review-The-Cambridge-Handbook-of-Japanese] *Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/417343]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Linguistics: An Introduction. 2007. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25173131] **Japanese Language in Use: An Introduction. 2007. *Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ] *Tetsuo Harada. Outlines of Modern Japanese Linguistics. Tateshina Print Company. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jTcHAQAAIAAJ] Periodicals, Linguistics *Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ] *Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ] Issues *Takashi Imai and Mamoru Saito (eds). Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (Studies in Generative Grammar 29). Foris Publications. Dordrecht, Holland. 1987. ISBN 90-6765-284-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bYiFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yukio Otsu and Ann Farmer (eds). Theoretical Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 2). 1980. [https://books.google.com/books?id=RDeBAAAAIAAJ] Kokugogaku and nihongogaku *Lidia Tanaka. "Japanese language studies: Kokugo as an ideology, nihongo as an autonomous and global scholarship?". Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. 2018.Chapter 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false 32] to 52. Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies) *[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]]. Cf. Kokugogaku (Japanese: [[en:wikt:国語学|国語学]]) (English: national language studies) Syntax and semantics *Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ] Semantics and pragmatics *Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] Morphology and phonology *Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Phonetics and Phonology *Haruo Kubozono (ed). Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8vFeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiromi Otaka. Phonetics and Phonology of Moras, Feet and Geminate Consonants in Japanese. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=39Q_AQAAIAAJ] *James D McCawley. The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese. Mouton & Co NV. The Hague. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3JoPAAAAYAAJ] Syntax *Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ] Phonetics *Daniel Lepetit and Reiko Makino. Japanese Phonetics: A Thematic Bibliography. Canadian Scholars. 1996. ISBN 1551300923. Catalogue: Canadian Books in Print: Author and Title Index 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q2WLJa9rY5MC&pg=PA1063#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1063]. *Society Newsletter. 1926 to 1996. [[w:ja:日本音声学会|The Phonetic Society of Japan]]. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication/society-newsletter] **Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan. 1997 onwards. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonetics: Theory and Practice. Lincom Europa. 1997. [https://books.google.com/books?id=guUZAQAAIAAJ] *P M Suski. The Phonetics of Japanese Language: With Reference to Japanese Script. 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpthAAAAMAAJ]. 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9DuiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Phonology *Laurence Labrune. The Phonology of Japanese. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ix9r6CbEl6IC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonology: A Functional Approach. Lincom Europa. 2000. [https://books.google.com/books?id=R-QZAQAAIAAJ] *Mieko Shimizu Han. Japanese Phonology: An Analysis Based on Sound Spectrograms. Kenkyusha. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T3Xl7SviXB4C] Pragmatics *Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Yoshiko Matsumoto, Junko Mori (eds). Pragmatics of Japanese: Perspectives on grammar, interaction and culture. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2wZTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gabriele Kasper. Pragmatics of Japanese as Native and Target Language. Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaiʼi at Mānoa. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2_8ifcjhpYQC] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] ==Translation== *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Dialects and regions== Dialects *Nobuko Kibe, Tetsuo Nitta and Kan Sasaki (eds). Handbook of Japanese Dialects. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8_Y9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kansai *Peter Tse. Kansai Japanese: The Language of Osaka, Kyoto, and Western Japan. (Tuttle Language Library). 1993. Reprinted 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvVkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *DC Palter and Kaoru Slotsve. Colloquial Kansai Japanese: The Dialects and Culture of the Kansai Region. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rJEdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==History== *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] ==Old Japanese== *John R Bentley. A Descriptive Grammar of Early Old Japanese Prose. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Eoqv_NcLJ4gC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Alexander Vovin. A Descriptive and Comparative Grammar of Western Old Japanese. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ba1xEQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] 2nd Ed: 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xfP_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. ==Classical Japanese== Introduction *Akira Komai and Thomas H Rohlich. An Introduction to Classical Japanese. Bonjinsha. Tokyo. 1991. Review: "Textbook Review by Questionnaire" (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tClnAAAAMAAJ 26] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 50 (No 1: April 1992) Grammar *Noriko Katsuki-Pestemer. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Lincom Europa. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PHoLAQAAMAAJ] *Haruo Shirane. Classical Japanese: A Grammar. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=M5-vVlcVEDkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/209495/summary] *Alexander Vovin. A Reference Grammar of Classical Japanese Prose. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=24GTVscUCX0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Akira Komai. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Culver Publishing. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sL0PAAAAYAAJ] *Tadashi Ikeda. Classical Japanese Grammar Illustrated with Texts. The Toho Gakkai (The Institute of Eastern Culture). 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQjUAAAAMAAJ] Dictionary *Ivan Morris. Dictionary of Selected Forms in Classical Japanese Literature. Columbia University Press. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O70PAAAAYAAJ] *Jiří Jelínek. Classical Japanese-English Grammar Dictionary. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qOEPAAAAYAAJ] Clauses *Stefan Kaiser. Circumnominal Relative Clauses in Classical Japanese: An Historical Study. Otto Harrassowitz. Wiesbaden. 1991. ISBN 344703212X. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GHsPAAAAYAAJ] [[Category:Japanese]] e8e5n4ge9rmvim05fjympbrg11vajxy 2817535 2817534 2026-07-01T15:38:25Z James500 297601 /* Translation */ Add 2817535 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This page is part of [[Universal Bibliography/Languages|bibliography of languages]]. This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of Japanese. Bibliography *Harald Suppanschitsch and Jürgen Stalph. Japanische Sprache und Schrift: eine Bibliographie des in deutscher Sprache veröffentlichten Schrifttums. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7tBw_wLMOagC&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Oskar Nachod. "Linguistics". Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754. *Wenckstern. "Philology: The Japanese Language". A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89. General *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Kokugo *Paul H Clark. The Kokugo Revolution: Education, Identity, and Language Policy in Imperial Japan. (Japan Research Monograph 16). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F6jSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeounsuk Lee. The Ideology of Kokugo: Nationalizing Language in Modern Japan. University of Hawaii Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=54wBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Kokugo To Iu Shisō: Kindai Nihon No Gengo Ninshiki. (Japanese: 「国語」という思想: 近代日本の言語認識). Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1996. Nihongo *Makoto Sugawara. Nihongo: A Japanese Approach to Japanese. East Publications. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKkPAAAAYAAJ] *Roy Andrew Miller. Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese. The Athlone Press. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oRxkAAAAMAAJ] *Nihongo Notes. The Japan Times. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdkpAQAAIAAJ] *Yutaka Sato and Margaret Y. Yamashita. Nihongo: Introductory Japanese. 1994. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ptACuS6HnpUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Minna No Nihongo I. 3A Corporation. (スリーエーネットワーク). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G-bl2P5lRl4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Minna No Nihongo II. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4nHnMa4Zw-MC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Muneo Kimura. Learning Japanese: Techniques for Intermediate and Advanced Student. (Orientation Seminars on Japan, number 23). Office for the Japanese Studies Center, The Japan Foundation. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZyUHAQAAIAAJ] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Study *Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Fundamentals *Toyoaki Uehara and Gisaburo N Kiyose. Fundamentals of Japanese. Indiana University Press. Bloomington and London. Tenri University Press. Tenri 1974. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/598969] and Hiroshi Miyaji, "Book Reviews" (1976) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EilkAAAAMAAJ 11] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 106 (No 1: January 1976) Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For high school students; High school programs *Esther M T Sato, Loren I Shishido and Masako Sakihara. Japanese Now. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k17cHllNfTAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1] **Esther M T Sato and Masako Sakihara. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vufHtRpVZt4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 4]. For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Schaum's Outline of Japanese Vocabulary [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fV0NAAAACAAJ] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] *Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Copula *Tomiko Narahara. The Japanese Copula: Forms and Functions. 2002: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UKOHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25064474] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/44486751] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4176893] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ] *Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Schaum's Outline of Japanese Grammar [https://books.google.com/books?id=oZMYsHvuhXIC] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W P Lehmann and Lloyd Faust. A Grammar of Formal Written Japanese. (Harvard-Yenching Institute Studies, vol 5). 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=50s0AAAAIAAJ] Written; Writing *David Ashworth and Ikumi Hitosugi. Written Japanese: An Introduction. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fLDhgDHj7_EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Heath Rose. The Japanese Writing System: Challenges, Strategies and Self-regulation for Learning Kanji. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDU8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1924#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Basil Hall Chamberlain. A Practical Introduction to the Study of Japanese Writing. 1899. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-SWFGQkuJN8C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Handwritten *P G O'Neill. A Reader of Handwritten Japanese. Kodansha International. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r-MZAQAAIAAJ] Hiragana and katakana *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana for Beginners. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZPs8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kenneth G Henshall and Tetsuo Takagaki. Learning Japanese Hiragana and Katakana. Revised 2nd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QyfRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Guide to Learning Hiragana & Katakana. Tuttle. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=18i1QgAACAAJ] *Glen McCabe. Japanese Hiragana and Katakana Flash Cards. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aSFFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA34#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard S Keirstead. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana: Language Practice Pad. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yPxHDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Hiragana *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Hiragana. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CvQZAQAAIAAJ] *James W Heisig. Remembering the Hiragana: a complete course on how to teach yourself the Japanese syllabary in 3 hours. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VdEPAAAAYAAJ] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana for Beginners. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dR_RAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Hiragana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YtZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Yuko Green. My First Hiragana Activity Book. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C-OKxX_cdpgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Katakana *Tina Wells. Easy Katakana: How to Read and Write English Words Used in Japanese. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-ZSDP-9i9oUC] *Helmut Morsbach, Kazue Kurebayashi and James W. Heisig. Remembering the Katakana. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeAPAAAAYAAJ] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Katakana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rNZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Katakana for Beginners: First Steps to Mastering the Japanese Writing System. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W5sdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji and kana *Wolfgang Hadamitzky and Mark Spahn. Japanese Kanji and Kana: A Complete Guide to the Japanese Writing System. 1981. 2nd Ed: 1997. 3rd Ed: 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3w7QAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji *James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji. 1977. 5th Ed: 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TtEaylKrGaMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. Remembering the Kanji 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PYOUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji: A systematic guide to reading Japanese characters. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *James W Heisig and Tanya Sienko. Remembering the Kanji 3. 1994. 2nd Ed: 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wTZ4x_BHe5EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Editorial staff of The East magazine. Kanji Kanji. The East Publications Inc. Tokyo. 1972: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HcYPAAAAYAAJ]. Revised Ed: 1983: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T8YPAAAAYAAJ]. *Andrew Dykstra. Kanji 1-2-3. Kanji Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SnBWAAAAYAAJ] *Naoomi Kuratani, Akemi Kobayashi and Shunsuke Okunishi (eds). A New Dictionary of Kanji Usage あたらしい漢字用法辞典. Gakken. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5-C4AAAAIAAJ]. Review: "The Slimline Kanji Dictionaries" (1996) 9 International Journal of Lexicography 132 (No 2: June). Abstracts: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vYPAQAAMAAJ] [https://academic.oup.com/ijl/article-abstract/9/2/132/930154] *Jack Halpern. The Kodansha Kanji Usage Guide: An A to Z of Kun Homophones. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qgWQEAAAQBAJ] *Laurence Matthews. Kanji Fast Finder 漢字早引き辞典. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7SdpPwAACAAJ] *Glen Nolan Grant. Mastering Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0L1GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. *John Millen. Kanji Power: A Workbook for Mastering Japanese Characters. Tuttle Publishing. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uPu4AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari. Standard Kanji. Revised Ed. 1949. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=b1Q98sCcgV0C] *P G O'Neill. Essential Kanji. Weatherhill. 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VYadVK-DqSYC]. Paperback Ed: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dQ25AAAAIAAJ]. *Essential Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gr5GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8A0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *Kodansha's Compact Kanji Guide: A new character dictionary for students and professionals. Kodansha International. 1991. Review: Gerald B Mathias and Timothy J Vance (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2loLAQAAMAAJ 26] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 47 (No 1: April 1992) *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Kanji. Passport Books. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R7ZM9Dao7NMC] *Erik Sato. Learning Japanese Kanji: Practice Book. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IcA0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *The Second 100 Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gUjRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn Kanji: An Introduction to Radicals, Components and 250 Very Basic Kanji. Kodansha International. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=khnrnBXLciIC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Richard Glenn Covington, Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn More Kanji: Family Groups, Learning Strategies, and 300 Complex Kanji. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLEOAAAACAAJ] Read; Reading *Eleanor Harz Jorden and Hamako Ito Chaplin. Reading Japanese. Yale University Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1MF6kCogEx0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jiří Jelínek and Patricia A Heron. Reading Japanese: A self-instructional manual for beginners, leading to independent translating ability. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1975. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *Dale P Crowley, with the assistance of Yoshiyuki Kawata and Yoko Kawata. Manual for Reading Japanese. University Press of Hawaii. Honolulu. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nK0PAAAAYAAJ] *John Braden. Read Practical Japanese. Kenkyusha. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3MAPAAAAYAAJ] *Setsuko Aihara, with Graham Parkes. Strategies for Reading Japanese: A Rational Approach to the Japanese Sentence. Japan Publications Trading Company. Tokyo. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tMs_AQAAIAAJ] *Len Walsh. Read Japanese Today: The Easy Way to Learn Hiragana, Katakana and Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hjBEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Arthur Rose-Innes. Japanese Reading for Beginners. K Yoshikawa & Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cP1z4IcbiO4C] ==Linguistics== *Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/48828212] [https://online.ucpress.edu/jjs/article-abstract/46/2/536/210735/Review-The-Cambridge-Handbook-of-Japanese] *Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/417343]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Linguistics: An Introduction. 2007. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25173131] **Japanese Language in Use: An Introduction. 2007. *Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ] *Tetsuo Harada. Outlines of Modern Japanese Linguistics. Tateshina Print Company. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jTcHAQAAIAAJ] Periodicals, Linguistics *Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ] *Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ] Issues *Takashi Imai and Mamoru Saito (eds). Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (Studies in Generative Grammar 29). Foris Publications. Dordrecht, Holland. 1987. ISBN 90-6765-284-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bYiFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yukio Otsu and Ann Farmer (eds). Theoretical Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 2). 1980. [https://books.google.com/books?id=RDeBAAAAIAAJ] Kokugogaku and nihongogaku *Lidia Tanaka. "Japanese language studies: Kokugo as an ideology, nihongo as an autonomous and global scholarship?". Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. 2018.Chapter 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false 32] to 52. Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies) *[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]]. Cf. Kokugogaku (Japanese: [[en:wikt:国語学|国語学]]) (English: national language studies) Syntax and semantics *Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ] Semantics and pragmatics *Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] Morphology and phonology *Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Phonetics and Phonology *Haruo Kubozono (ed). Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8vFeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiromi Otaka. Phonetics and Phonology of Moras, Feet and Geminate Consonants in Japanese. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=39Q_AQAAIAAJ] *James D McCawley. The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese. Mouton & Co NV. The Hague. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3JoPAAAAYAAJ] Syntax *Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ] Phonetics *Daniel Lepetit and Reiko Makino. Japanese Phonetics: A Thematic Bibliography. Canadian Scholars. 1996. ISBN 1551300923. Catalogue: Canadian Books in Print: Author and Title Index 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q2WLJa9rY5MC&pg=PA1063#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1063]. *Society Newsletter. 1926 to 1996. [[w:ja:日本音声学会|The Phonetic Society of Japan]]. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication/society-newsletter] **Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan. 1997 onwards. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonetics: Theory and Practice. Lincom Europa. 1997. [https://books.google.com/books?id=guUZAQAAIAAJ] *P M Suski. The Phonetics of Japanese Language: With Reference to Japanese Script. 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpthAAAAMAAJ]. 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9DuiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Phonology *Laurence Labrune. The Phonology of Japanese. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ix9r6CbEl6IC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonology: A Functional Approach. Lincom Europa. 2000. [https://books.google.com/books?id=R-QZAQAAIAAJ] *Mieko Shimizu Han. Japanese Phonology: An Analysis Based on Sound Spectrograms. Kenkyusha. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T3Xl7SviXB4C] Pragmatics *Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Yoshiko Matsumoto, Junko Mori (eds). Pragmatics of Japanese: Perspectives on grammar, interaction and culture. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2wZTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gabriele Kasper. Pragmatics of Japanese as Native and Target Language. Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaiʼi at Mānoa. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2_8ifcjhpYQC] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] ==Translation== *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24394410] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Dialects and regions== Dialects *Nobuko Kibe, Tetsuo Nitta and Kan Sasaki (eds). Handbook of Japanese Dialects. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8_Y9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kansai *Peter Tse. Kansai Japanese: The Language of Osaka, Kyoto, and Western Japan. (Tuttle Language Library). 1993. Reprinted 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvVkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *DC Palter and Kaoru Slotsve. Colloquial Kansai Japanese: The Dialects and Culture of the Kansai Region. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rJEdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==History== *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] ==Old Japanese== *John R Bentley. A Descriptive Grammar of Early Old Japanese Prose. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Eoqv_NcLJ4gC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Alexander Vovin. A Descriptive and Comparative Grammar of Western Old Japanese. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ba1xEQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] 2nd Ed: 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xfP_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. ==Classical Japanese== Introduction *Akira Komai and Thomas H Rohlich. An Introduction to Classical Japanese. Bonjinsha. Tokyo. 1991. Review: "Textbook Review by Questionnaire" (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tClnAAAAMAAJ 26] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 50 (No 1: April 1992) Grammar *Noriko Katsuki-Pestemer. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Lincom Europa. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PHoLAQAAMAAJ] *Haruo Shirane. Classical Japanese: A Grammar. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=M5-vVlcVEDkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/209495/summary] *Alexander Vovin. A Reference Grammar of Classical Japanese Prose. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=24GTVscUCX0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Akira Komai. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Culver Publishing. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sL0PAAAAYAAJ] *Tadashi Ikeda. Classical Japanese Grammar Illustrated with Texts. The Toho Gakkai (The Institute of Eastern Culture). 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQjUAAAAMAAJ] Dictionary *Ivan Morris. Dictionary of Selected Forms in Classical Japanese Literature. Columbia University Press. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O70PAAAAYAAJ] *Jiří Jelínek. Classical Japanese-English Grammar Dictionary. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qOEPAAAAYAAJ] Clauses *Stefan Kaiser. Circumnominal Relative Clauses in Classical Japanese: An Historical Study. Otto Harrassowitz. Wiesbaden. 1991. ISBN 344703212X. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GHsPAAAAYAAJ] [[Category:Japanese]] at6pw11xgmmpz151ppvyzhmrwqfmdbn 2817542 2817535 2026-07-01T17:32:05Z James500 297601 /* */ Add 2817542 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This page is part of [[Universal Bibliography/Languages|bibliography of languages]]. This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of Japanese. Bibliography *Harald Suppanschitsch and Jürgen Stalph. Japanische Sprache und Schrift: eine Bibliographie des in deutscher Sprache veröffentlichten Schrifttums. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7tBw_wLMOagC&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Oskar Nachod. "Linguistics". Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754. *Wenckstern. "Philology: The Japanese Language". A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89. General *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Kokugo *Paul H Clark. The Kokugo Revolution: Education, Identity, and Language Policy in Imperial Japan. (Japan Research Monograph 16). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F6jSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeounsuk Lee. The Ideology of Kokugo: Nationalizing Language in Modern Japan. University of Hawaii Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=54wBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Kokugo To Iu Shisō: Kindai Nihon No Gengo Ninshiki. (Japanese: 「国語」という思想: 近代日本の言語認識). Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1996. Nihongo *Makoto Sugawara. Nihongo: A Japanese Approach to Japanese. East Publications. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKkPAAAAYAAJ] *Roy Andrew Miller. Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese. The Athlone Press. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oRxkAAAAMAAJ] *Nihongo Notes. The Japan Times. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdkpAQAAIAAJ] *Yutaka Sato and Margaret Y. Yamashita. Nihongo: Introductory Japanese. 1994. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ptACuS6HnpUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Minna No Nihongo I. 3A Corporation. (スリーエーネットワーク). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G-bl2P5lRl4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Minna No Nihongo II. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4nHnMa4Zw-MC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Muneo Kimura. Learning Japanese: Techniques for Intermediate and Advanced Student. (Orientation Seminars on Japan, number 23). Office for the Japanese Studies Center, The Japan Foundation. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZyUHAQAAIAAJ] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Study *Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Fundamentals *Toyoaki Uehara and Gisaburo N Kiyose. Fundamentals of Japanese. Indiana University Press. Bloomington and London. Tenri University Press. Tenri 1974. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/598969] and Hiroshi Miyaji, "Book Reviews" (1976) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EilkAAAAMAAJ 11] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 106 (No 1: January 1976) Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For high school students; High school programs *Esther M T Sato, Loren I Shishido and Masako Sakihara. Japanese Now. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k17cHllNfTAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1] **Esther M T Sato and Masako Sakihara. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vufHtRpVZt4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 4]. For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Schaum's Outline of Japanese Vocabulary [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fV0NAAAACAAJ] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] *Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Copula *Tomiko Narahara. The Japanese Copula: Forms and Functions. 2002: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UKOHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25064474] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/44486751] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4176893] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ] *Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Schaum's Outline of Japanese Grammar [https://books.google.com/books?id=oZMYsHvuhXIC] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W P Lehmann and Lloyd Faust. A Grammar of Formal Written Japanese. (Harvard-Yenching Institute Studies, vol 5). 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=50s0AAAAIAAJ] Written; Writing *David Ashworth and Ikumi Hitosugi. Written Japanese: An Introduction. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fLDhgDHj7_EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Heath Rose. The Japanese Writing System: Challenges, Strategies and Self-regulation for Learning Kanji. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDU8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1924#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Basil Hall Chamberlain. A Practical Introduction to the Study of Japanese Writing. 1899. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-SWFGQkuJN8C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Handwritten *P G O'Neill. A Reader of Handwritten Japanese. Kodansha International. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r-MZAQAAIAAJ] Read; Reading *Eleanor Harz Jorden and Hamako Ito Chaplin. Reading Japanese. Yale University Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1MF6kCogEx0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jiří Jelínek and Patricia A Heron. Reading Japanese: A self-instructional manual for beginners, leading to independent translating ability. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1975. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *Dale P Crowley, with the assistance of Yoshiyuki Kawata and Yoko Kawata. Manual for Reading Japanese. University Press of Hawaii. Honolulu. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nK0PAAAAYAAJ] *John Braden. Read Practical Japanese. Kenkyusha. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3MAPAAAAYAAJ] *Setsuko Aihara, with Graham Parkes. Strategies for Reading Japanese: A Rational Approach to the Japanese Sentence. Japan Publications Trading Company. Tokyo. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tMs_AQAAIAAJ] *Len Walsh. Read Japanese Today: The Easy Way to Learn Hiragana, Katakana and Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hjBEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Arthur Rose-Innes. Japanese Reading for Beginners. K Yoshikawa & Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cP1z4IcbiO4C] Hiragana and katakana *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana for Beginners. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZPs8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kenneth G Henshall and Tetsuo Takagaki. Learning Japanese Hiragana and Katakana. Revised 2nd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QyfRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Guide to Learning Hiragana & Katakana. Tuttle. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=18i1QgAACAAJ] *Glen McCabe. Japanese Hiragana and Katakana Flash Cards. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aSFFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA34#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard S Keirstead. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana: Language Practice Pad. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yPxHDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Hiragana *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Hiragana. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CvQZAQAAIAAJ] *James W Heisig. Remembering the Hiragana: a complete course on how to teach yourself the Japanese syllabary in 3 hours. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VdEPAAAAYAAJ] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana for Beginners. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dR_RAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Hiragana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YtZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Yuko Green. My First Hiragana Activity Book. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C-OKxX_cdpgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Katakana *Tina Wells. Easy Katakana: How to Read and Write English Words Used in Japanese. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-ZSDP-9i9oUC] *Helmut Morsbach, Kazue Kurebayashi and James W. Heisig. Remembering the Katakana. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeAPAAAAYAAJ] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Katakana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rNZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Katakana for Beginners: First Steps to Mastering the Japanese Writing System. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W5sdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji and kana *Wolfgang Hadamitzky and Mark Spahn. Japanese Kanji and Kana: A Complete Guide to the Japanese Writing System. 1981. 2nd Ed: 1997. 3rd Ed: 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3w7QAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji *James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji. 1977. 5th Ed: 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TtEaylKrGaMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. Remembering the Kanji 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PYOUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji: A systematic guide to reading Japanese characters. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *James W Heisig and Tanya Sienko. Remembering the Kanji 3. 1994. 2nd Ed: 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wTZ4x_BHe5EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Editorial staff of The East magazine. Kanji Kanji. The East Publications Inc. Tokyo. 1972: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HcYPAAAAYAAJ]. Revised Ed: 1983: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T8YPAAAAYAAJ]. *Andrew Dykstra. Kanji 1-2-3. Kanji Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SnBWAAAAYAAJ] *Naoomi Kuratani, Akemi Kobayashi and Shunsuke Okunishi (eds). A New Dictionary of Kanji Usage あたらしい漢字用法辞典. Gakken. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5-C4AAAAIAAJ]. Review: "The Slimline Kanji Dictionaries" (1996) 9 International Journal of Lexicography 132 (No 2: June). Abstracts: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vYPAQAAMAAJ] [https://academic.oup.com/ijl/article-abstract/9/2/132/930154] *Jack Halpern. The Kodansha Kanji Usage Guide: An A to Z of Kun Homophones. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qgWQEAAAQBAJ] *Laurence Matthews. Kanji Fast Finder 漢字早引き辞典. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7SdpPwAACAAJ] *Glen Nolan Grant. Mastering Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0L1GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. *John Millen. Kanji Power: A Workbook for Mastering Japanese Characters. Tuttle Publishing. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uPu4AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari. Standard Kanji. Revised Ed. 1949. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=b1Q98sCcgV0C] *P G O'Neill. Essential Kanji. Weatherhill. 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VYadVK-DqSYC]. Paperback Ed: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dQ25AAAAIAAJ]. *Essential Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gr5GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8A0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *Kodansha's Compact Kanji Guide: A new character dictionary for students and professionals. Kodansha International. 1991. Review: Gerald B Mathias and Timothy J Vance (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2loLAQAAMAAJ 26] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 47 (No 1: April 1992) *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Kanji. Passport Books. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R7ZM9Dao7NMC] *Erik Sato. Learning Japanese Kanji: Practice Book. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IcA0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *The Second 100 Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gUjRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn Kanji: An Introduction to Radicals, Components and 250 Very Basic Kanji. Kodansha International. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=khnrnBXLciIC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Richard Glenn Covington, Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn More Kanji: Family Groups, Learning Strategies, and 300 Complex Kanji. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLEOAAAACAAJ] ==Linguistics== *Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/48828212] [https://online.ucpress.edu/jjs/article-abstract/46/2/536/210735/Review-The-Cambridge-Handbook-of-Japanese] *Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/417343]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Linguistics: An Introduction. 2007. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25173131] **Japanese Language in Use: An Introduction. 2007. *Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ] *Tetsuo Harada. Outlines of Modern Japanese Linguistics. Tateshina Print Company. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jTcHAQAAIAAJ] Periodicals, Linguistics *Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ] *Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ] Issues *Takashi Imai and Mamoru Saito (eds). Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (Studies in Generative Grammar 29). Foris Publications. Dordrecht, Holland. 1987. ISBN 90-6765-284-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bYiFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yukio Otsu and Ann Farmer (eds). Theoretical Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 2). 1980. [https://books.google.com/books?id=RDeBAAAAIAAJ] Kokugogaku and nihongogaku *Lidia Tanaka. "Japanese language studies: Kokugo as an ideology, nihongo as an autonomous and global scholarship?". Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. 2018.Chapter 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false 32] to 52. Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies) *[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]]. Cf. Kokugogaku (Japanese: [[en:wikt:国語学|国語学]]) (English: national language studies) Syntax and semantics *Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ] Semantics and pragmatics *Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] Morphology and phonology *Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Phonetics and Phonology *Haruo Kubozono (ed). Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8vFeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiromi Otaka. Phonetics and Phonology of Moras, Feet and Geminate Consonants in Japanese. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=39Q_AQAAIAAJ] *James D McCawley. The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese. Mouton & Co NV. The Hague. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3JoPAAAAYAAJ] Syntax *Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ] Phonetics *Daniel Lepetit and Reiko Makino. Japanese Phonetics: A Thematic Bibliography. Canadian Scholars. 1996. ISBN 1551300923. Catalogue: Canadian Books in Print: Author and Title Index 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q2WLJa9rY5MC&pg=PA1063#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1063]. *Society Newsletter. 1926 to 1996. [[w:ja:日本音声学会|The Phonetic Society of Japan]]. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication/society-newsletter] **Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan. 1997 onwards. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonetics: Theory and Practice. Lincom Europa. 1997. [https://books.google.com/books?id=guUZAQAAIAAJ] *P M Suski. The Phonetics of Japanese Language: With Reference to Japanese Script. 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpthAAAAMAAJ]. 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9DuiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Phonology *Laurence Labrune. The Phonology of Japanese. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ix9r6CbEl6IC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonology: A Functional Approach. Lincom Europa. 2000. [https://books.google.com/books?id=R-QZAQAAIAAJ] *Mieko Shimizu Han. Japanese Phonology: An Analysis Based on Sound Spectrograms. Kenkyusha. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T3Xl7SviXB4C] Pragmatics *Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Yoshiko Matsumoto, Junko Mori (eds). Pragmatics of Japanese: Perspectives on grammar, interaction and culture. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2wZTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gabriele Kasper. Pragmatics of Japanese as Native and Target Language. Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaiʼi at Mānoa. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2_8ifcjhpYQC] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] ==Translation== *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24394410] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Dialects and regions== Dialects *Nobuko Kibe, Tetsuo Nitta and Kan Sasaki (eds). Handbook of Japanese Dialects. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8_Y9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kansai *Peter Tse. Kansai Japanese: The Language of Osaka, Kyoto, and Western Japan. (Tuttle Language Library). 1993. Reprinted 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvVkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *DC Palter and Kaoru Slotsve. Colloquial Kansai Japanese: The Dialects and Culture of the Kansai Region. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rJEdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==History== *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] ==Old Japanese== *John R Bentley. A Descriptive Grammar of Early Old Japanese Prose. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Eoqv_NcLJ4gC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Alexander Vovin. A Descriptive and Comparative Grammar of Western Old Japanese. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ba1xEQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] 2nd Ed: 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xfP_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. ==Classical Japanese== Introduction *Akira Komai and Thomas H Rohlich. An Introduction to Classical Japanese. Bonjinsha. Tokyo. 1991. Review: "Textbook Review by Questionnaire" (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tClnAAAAMAAJ 26] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 50 (No 1: April 1992) Grammar *Noriko Katsuki-Pestemer. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Lincom Europa. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PHoLAQAAMAAJ] *Haruo Shirane. Classical Japanese: A Grammar. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=M5-vVlcVEDkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/209495/summary] *Alexander Vovin. A Reference Grammar of Classical Japanese Prose. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=24GTVscUCX0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Akira Komai. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Culver Publishing. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sL0PAAAAYAAJ] *Tadashi Ikeda. Classical Japanese Grammar Illustrated with Texts. The Toho Gakkai (The Institute of Eastern Culture). 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQjUAAAAMAAJ] Dictionary *Ivan Morris. Dictionary of Selected Forms in Classical Japanese Literature. Columbia University Press. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O70PAAAAYAAJ] *Jiří Jelínek. Classical Japanese-English Grammar Dictionary. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qOEPAAAAYAAJ] Clauses *Stefan Kaiser. Circumnominal Relative Clauses in Classical Japanese: An Historical Study. Otto Harrassowitz. Wiesbaden. 1991. ISBN 344703212X. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GHsPAAAAYAAJ] [[Category:Japanese]] s6iwhtp2tp5n96gyluhzirznlz4ccrp 2817543 2817542 2026-07-01T17:33:21Z James500 297601 /* */ Add 2817543 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This page is part of [[Universal Bibliography/Languages|bibliography of languages]]. This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of Japanese. Bibliography *Harald Suppanschitsch and Jürgen Stalph. Japanische Sprache und Schrift: eine Bibliographie des in deutscher Sprache veröffentlichten Schrifttums. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7tBw_wLMOagC&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Oskar Nachod. "Linguistics". Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754. *Wenckstern. "Philology: The Japanese Language". A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89. General *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Kokugo *Paul H Clark. The Kokugo Revolution: Education, Identity, and Language Policy in Imperial Japan. (Japan Research Monograph 16). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F6jSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeounsuk Lee. The Ideology of Kokugo: Nationalizing Language in Modern Japan. University of Hawaii Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=54wBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Kokugo To Iu Shisō: Kindai Nihon No Gengo Ninshiki. (Japanese: 「国語」という思想: 近代日本の言語認識). Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1996. Nihongo *Makoto Sugawara. Nihongo: A Japanese Approach to Japanese. East Publications. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKkPAAAAYAAJ] *Roy Andrew Miller. Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese. The Athlone Press. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oRxkAAAAMAAJ] *Nihongo Notes. The Japan Times. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdkpAQAAIAAJ] *Yutaka Sato and Margaret Y. Yamashita. Nihongo: Introductory Japanese. 1994. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ptACuS6HnpUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Minna No Nihongo I. 3A Corporation. (スリーエーネットワーク). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G-bl2P5lRl4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Minna No Nihongo II. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4nHnMa4Zw-MC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Muneo Kimura. Learning Japanese: Techniques for Intermediate and Advanced Student. (Orientation Seminars on Japan, number 23). Office for the Japanese Studies Center, The Japan Foundation. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZyUHAQAAIAAJ] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Study *Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Fundamentals *Toyoaki Uehara and Gisaburo N Kiyose. Fundamentals of Japanese. Indiana University Press. Bloomington and London. Tenri University Press. Tenri 1974. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/598969] and Hiroshi Miyaji, "Book Reviews" (1976) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EilkAAAAMAAJ 11] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 106 (No 1: January 1976) Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For high school students; High school programs *Esther M T Sato, Loren I Shishido and Masako Sakihara. Japanese Now. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k17cHllNfTAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1] **Esther M T Sato and Masako Sakihara. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vufHtRpVZt4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 4]. For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Schaum's Outline of Japanese Vocabulary [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fV0NAAAACAAJ] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] *Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Copula *Tomiko Narahara. The Japanese Copula: Forms and Functions. 2002: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UKOHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25064474] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/44486751] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4176893] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ] *Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Schaum's Outline of Japanese Grammar [https://books.google.com/books?id=oZMYsHvuhXIC] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W P Lehmann and Lloyd Faust. A Grammar of Formal Written Japanese. (Harvard-Yenching Institute Studies, vol 5). 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=50s0AAAAIAAJ] Written; Writing *David Ashworth and Ikumi Hitosugi. Written Japanese: An Introduction. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fLDhgDHj7_EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Heath Rose. The Japanese Writing System: Challenges, Strategies and Self-regulation for Learning Kanji. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDU8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1924#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Basil Hall Chamberlain. A Practical Introduction to the Study of Japanese Writing. 1899. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-SWFGQkuJN8C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Handwritten *P G O'Neill. A Reader of Handwritten Japanese. Kodansha International. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r-MZAQAAIAAJ] Read; Reading *Eleanor Harz Jorden and Hamako Ito Chaplin. Reading Japanese. Yale University Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1MF6kCogEx0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jiří Jelínek and Patricia A Heron. Reading Japanese: A self-instructional manual for beginners, leading to independent translating ability. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1975. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *Dale P Crowley, with the assistance of Yoshiyuki Kawata and Yoko Kawata. Manual for Reading Japanese. University Press of Hawaii. Honolulu. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nK0PAAAAYAAJ] *John Braden. Read Practical Japanese. Kenkyusha. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3MAPAAAAYAAJ] *Setsuko Aihara, with Graham Parkes. Strategies for Reading Japanese: A Rational Approach to the Japanese Sentence. Japan Publications Trading Company. Tokyo. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tMs_AQAAIAAJ] *Len Walsh. Read Japanese Today: The Easy Way to Learn Hiragana, Katakana and Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hjBEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Arthur Rose-Innes. Japanese Reading for Beginners. K Yoshikawa & Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cP1z4IcbiO4C] ==Characters and syllabaries== *Andrew N Nelson. Modern Reader's Japanese-English Character Dictionary. 1962. 1st Revised Ed: 1966. 2nd Revised Ed: 1974. Classic Ed: 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKuHCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: The Incorporated Linguist, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E2MtAQAAMAAJ vol 5], no 1, p 24. **John H Haig. The Compact Nelson: Japanese - English Character Dictionary. Tuttle. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3bzewAEACAAJ] *Mark Spahn and Wolfgang Hadamitzky. Japanese Character Dictionary: With Compound Lookup via Any Kanji. 漢英熟語リバ一ス字典. Nichigai Associates. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RqEPAAAAYAAJ] *NTC's New Japanese-English Character Dictionary. 1993. ISBN 0844284343. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rZoFwQEACAAJ] **New Japanese-English Character Dictionary. Kenyusha. Tokyo. 1990. ISBN 4767490405. Hiragana and katakana *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana for Beginners. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZPs8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kenneth G Henshall and Tetsuo Takagaki. Learning Japanese Hiragana and Katakana. Revised 2nd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QyfRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Guide to Learning Hiragana & Katakana. Tuttle. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=18i1QgAACAAJ] *Glen McCabe. Japanese Hiragana and Katakana Flash Cards. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aSFFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA34#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard S Keirstead. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana: Language Practice Pad. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yPxHDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Hiragana *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Hiragana. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CvQZAQAAIAAJ] *James W Heisig. Remembering the Hiragana: a complete course on how to teach yourself the Japanese syllabary in 3 hours. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VdEPAAAAYAAJ] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana for Beginners. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dR_RAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Hiragana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YtZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Yuko Green. My First Hiragana Activity Book. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C-OKxX_cdpgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Katakana *Tina Wells. Easy Katakana: How to Read and Write English Words Used in Japanese. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-ZSDP-9i9oUC] *Helmut Morsbach, Kazue Kurebayashi and James W. Heisig. Remembering the Katakana. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeAPAAAAYAAJ] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Katakana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rNZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Katakana for Beginners: First Steps to Mastering the Japanese Writing System. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W5sdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji and kana *Wolfgang Hadamitzky and Mark Spahn. Japanese Kanji and Kana: A Complete Guide to the Japanese Writing System. 1981. 2nd Ed: 1997. 3rd Ed: 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3w7QAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji *James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji. 1977. 5th Ed: 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TtEaylKrGaMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. Remembering the Kanji 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PYOUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji: A systematic guide to reading Japanese characters. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *James W Heisig and Tanya Sienko. Remembering the Kanji 3. 1994. 2nd Ed: 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wTZ4x_BHe5EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Editorial staff of The East magazine. Kanji Kanji. The East Publications Inc. Tokyo. 1972: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HcYPAAAAYAAJ]. Revised Ed: 1983: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T8YPAAAAYAAJ]. *Andrew Dykstra. Kanji 1-2-3. Kanji Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SnBWAAAAYAAJ] *Naoomi Kuratani, Akemi Kobayashi and Shunsuke Okunishi (eds). A New Dictionary of Kanji Usage あたらしい漢字用法辞典. Gakken. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5-C4AAAAIAAJ]. Review: "The Slimline Kanji Dictionaries" (1996) 9 International Journal of Lexicography 132 (No 2: June). Abstracts: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vYPAQAAMAAJ] [https://academic.oup.com/ijl/article-abstract/9/2/132/930154] *Jack Halpern. The Kodansha Kanji Usage Guide: An A to Z of Kun Homophones. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qgWQEAAAQBAJ] *Laurence Matthews. Kanji Fast Finder 漢字早引き辞典. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7SdpPwAACAAJ] *Glen Nolan Grant. Mastering Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0L1GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. *John Millen. Kanji Power: A Workbook for Mastering Japanese Characters. Tuttle Publishing. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uPu4AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari. Standard Kanji. Revised Ed. 1949. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=b1Q98sCcgV0C] *P G O'Neill. Essential Kanji. Weatherhill. 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VYadVK-DqSYC]. Paperback Ed: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dQ25AAAAIAAJ]. *Essential Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gr5GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8A0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *Kodansha's Compact Kanji Guide: A new character dictionary for students and professionals. Kodansha International. 1991. Review: Gerald B Mathias and Timothy J Vance (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2loLAQAAMAAJ 26] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 47 (No 1: April 1992) *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Kanji. Passport Books. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R7ZM9Dao7NMC] *Erik Sato. Learning Japanese Kanji: Practice Book. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IcA0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *The Second 100 Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gUjRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn Kanji: An Introduction to Radicals, Components and 250 Very Basic Kanji. Kodansha International. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=khnrnBXLciIC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Richard Glenn Covington, Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn More Kanji: Family Groups, Learning Strategies, and 300 Complex Kanji. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLEOAAAACAAJ] ==Linguistics== *Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/48828212] [https://online.ucpress.edu/jjs/article-abstract/46/2/536/210735/Review-The-Cambridge-Handbook-of-Japanese] *Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/417343]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Linguistics: An Introduction. 2007. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25173131] **Japanese Language in Use: An Introduction. 2007. *Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ] *Tetsuo Harada. Outlines of Modern Japanese Linguistics. Tateshina Print Company. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jTcHAQAAIAAJ] Periodicals, Linguistics *Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ] *Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ] Issues *Takashi Imai and Mamoru Saito (eds). Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (Studies in Generative Grammar 29). Foris Publications. Dordrecht, Holland. 1987. ISBN 90-6765-284-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bYiFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yukio Otsu and Ann Farmer (eds). Theoretical Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 2). 1980. [https://books.google.com/books?id=RDeBAAAAIAAJ] Kokugogaku and nihongogaku *Lidia Tanaka. "Japanese language studies: Kokugo as an ideology, nihongo as an autonomous and global scholarship?". Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. 2018.Chapter 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false 32] to 52. Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies) *[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]]. Cf. Kokugogaku (Japanese: [[en:wikt:国語学|国語学]]) (English: national language studies) Syntax and semantics *Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ] Semantics and pragmatics *Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] Morphology and phonology *Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Phonetics and Phonology *Haruo Kubozono (ed). Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8vFeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiromi Otaka. Phonetics and Phonology of Moras, Feet and Geminate Consonants in Japanese. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=39Q_AQAAIAAJ] *James D McCawley. The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese. Mouton & Co NV. The Hague. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3JoPAAAAYAAJ] Syntax *Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ] Phonetics *Daniel Lepetit and Reiko Makino. Japanese Phonetics: A Thematic Bibliography. Canadian Scholars. 1996. ISBN 1551300923. Catalogue: Canadian Books in Print: Author and Title Index 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q2WLJa9rY5MC&pg=PA1063#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1063]. *Society Newsletter. 1926 to 1996. [[w:ja:日本音声学会|The Phonetic Society of Japan]]. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication/society-newsletter] **Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan. 1997 onwards. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonetics: Theory and Practice. Lincom Europa. 1997. [https://books.google.com/books?id=guUZAQAAIAAJ] *P M Suski. The Phonetics of Japanese Language: With Reference to Japanese Script. 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpthAAAAMAAJ]. 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9DuiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Phonology *Laurence Labrune. The Phonology of Japanese. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ix9r6CbEl6IC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonology: A Functional Approach. Lincom Europa. 2000. [https://books.google.com/books?id=R-QZAQAAIAAJ] *Mieko Shimizu Han. Japanese Phonology: An Analysis Based on Sound Spectrograms. Kenkyusha. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T3Xl7SviXB4C] Pragmatics *Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Yoshiko Matsumoto, Junko Mori (eds). Pragmatics of Japanese: Perspectives on grammar, interaction and culture. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2wZTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gabriele Kasper. Pragmatics of Japanese as Native and Target Language. Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaiʼi at Mānoa. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2_8ifcjhpYQC] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] ==Translation== *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24394410] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Dialects and regions== Dialects *Nobuko Kibe, Tetsuo Nitta and Kan Sasaki (eds). Handbook of Japanese Dialects. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8_Y9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kansai *Peter Tse. Kansai Japanese: The Language of Osaka, Kyoto, and Western Japan. (Tuttle Language Library). 1993. Reprinted 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvVkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *DC Palter and Kaoru Slotsve. Colloquial Kansai Japanese: The Dialects and Culture of the Kansai Region. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rJEdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==History== *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] ==Old Japanese== *John R Bentley. A Descriptive Grammar of Early Old Japanese Prose. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Eoqv_NcLJ4gC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Alexander Vovin. A Descriptive and Comparative Grammar of Western Old Japanese. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ba1xEQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] 2nd Ed: 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xfP_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. ==Classical Japanese== Introduction *Akira Komai and Thomas H Rohlich. An Introduction to Classical Japanese. Bonjinsha. Tokyo. 1991. Review: "Textbook Review by Questionnaire" (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tClnAAAAMAAJ 26] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 50 (No 1: April 1992) Grammar *Noriko Katsuki-Pestemer. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Lincom Europa. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PHoLAQAAMAAJ] *Haruo Shirane. Classical Japanese: A Grammar. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=M5-vVlcVEDkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/209495/summary] *Alexander Vovin. A Reference Grammar of Classical Japanese Prose. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=24GTVscUCX0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Akira Komai. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Culver Publishing. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sL0PAAAAYAAJ] *Tadashi Ikeda. Classical Japanese Grammar Illustrated with Texts. The Toho Gakkai (The Institute of Eastern Culture). 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQjUAAAAMAAJ] Dictionary *Ivan Morris. Dictionary of Selected Forms in Classical Japanese Literature. Columbia University Press. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O70PAAAAYAAJ] *Jiří Jelínek. Classical Japanese-English Grammar Dictionary. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qOEPAAAAYAAJ] Clauses *Stefan Kaiser. Circumnominal Relative Clauses in Classical Japanese: An Historical Study. Otto Harrassowitz. Wiesbaden. 1991. ISBN 344703212X. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GHsPAAAAYAAJ] [[Category:Japanese]] ckoxq9dy3fltte5syk99199nu8dvdiq 2817544 2817543 2026-07-01T17:38:20Z James500 297601 /* */ Add 2817544 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} See also [[w:en:Japanese dictionary]] This page is part of [[Universal Bibliography/Languages|bibliography of languages]]. This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of Japanese. Bibliography *Harald Suppanschitsch and Jürgen Stalph. Japanische Sprache und Schrift: eine Bibliographie des in deutscher Sprache veröffentlichten Schrifttums. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7tBw_wLMOagC&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Oskar Nachod. "Linguistics". Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754. *Wenckstern. "Philology: The Japanese Language". A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89. General *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Kokugo *Paul H Clark. The Kokugo Revolution: Education, Identity, and Language Policy in Imperial Japan. (Japan Research Monograph 16). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F6jSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yeounsuk Lee. The Ideology of Kokugo: Nationalizing Language in Modern Japan. University of Hawaii Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=54wBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Kokugo To Iu Shisō: Kindai Nihon No Gengo Ninshiki. (Japanese: 「国語」という思想: 近代日本の言語認識). Iwanami Shoten. Tokyo. 1996. Nihongo *Makoto Sugawara. Nihongo: A Japanese Approach to Japanese. East Publications. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKkPAAAAYAAJ] *Roy Andrew Miller. Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese. The Athlone Press. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oRxkAAAAMAAJ] *Nihongo Notes. The Japan Times. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdkpAQAAIAAJ] *Yutaka Sato and Margaret Y. Yamashita. Nihongo: Introductory Japanese. 1994. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ptACuS6HnpUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Minna No Nihongo I. 3A Corporation. (スリーエーネットワーク). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G-bl2P5lRl4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Minna No Nihongo II. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4nHnMa4Zw-MC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Muneo Kimura. Learning Japanese: Techniques for Intermediate and Advanced Student. (Orientation Seminars on Japan, number 23). Office for the Japanese Studies Center, The Japan Foundation. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZyUHAQAAIAAJ] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Study *Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Fundamentals *Toyoaki Uehara and Gisaburo N Kiyose. Fundamentals of Japanese. Indiana University Press. Bloomington and London. Tenri University Press. Tenri 1974. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/598969] and Hiroshi Miyaji, "Book Reviews" (1976) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EilkAAAAMAAJ 11] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 106 (No 1: January 1976) Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For high school students; High school programs *Esther M T Sato, Loren I Shishido and Masako Sakihara. Japanese Now. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k17cHllNfTAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1] **Esther M T Sato and Masako Sakihara. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vufHtRpVZt4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 4]. For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Schaum's Outline of Japanese Vocabulary [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fV0NAAAACAAJ] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] *Tadao Miyamoto. The Light Verb Construction in Japanese: The Role of the Verbal Noun. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pHKVTctA-WwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Copula *Tomiko Narahara. The Japanese Copula: Forms and Functions. 2002: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UKOHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25064474] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/44486751] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4176893] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Kazuhiro Teruya. A Systemic Functional Grammar of Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SJcqAQAAIAAJ] *Kimihiko Nomura. Japanese Grammar: The Connecting Point. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I913EQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Schaum's Outline of Japanese Grammar [https://books.google.com/books?id=oZMYsHvuhXIC] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W P Lehmann and Lloyd Faust. A Grammar of Formal Written Japanese. (Harvard-Yenching Institute Studies, vol 5). 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=50s0AAAAIAAJ] Written; Writing *David Ashworth and Ikumi Hitosugi. Written Japanese: An Introduction. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fLDhgDHj7_EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Heath Rose. The Japanese Writing System: Challenges, Strategies and Self-regulation for Learning Kanji. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDU8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1924#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Basil Hall Chamberlain. A Practical Introduction to the Study of Japanese Writing. 1899. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-SWFGQkuJN8C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Handwritten *P G O'Neill. A Reader of Handwritten Japanese. Kodansha International. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r-MZAQAAIAAJ] Read; Reading *Eleanor Harz Jorden and Hamako Ito Chaplin. Reading Japanese. Yale University Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1MF6kCogEx0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jiří Jelínek and Patricia A Heron. Reading Japanese: A self-instructional manual for beginners, leading to independent translating ability. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1975. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *Dale P Crowley, with the assistance of Yoshiyuki Kawata and Yoko Kawata. Manual for Reading Japanese. University Press of Hawaii. Honolulu. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nK0PAAAAYAAJ] *John Braden. Read Practical Japanese. Kenkyusha. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3MAPAAAAYAAJ] *Setsuko Aihara, with Graham Parkes. Strategies for Reading Japanese: A Rational Approach to the Japanese Sentence. Japan Publications Trading Company. Tokyo. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tMs_AQAAIAAJ] *Len Walsh. Read Japanese Today: The Easy Way to Learn Hiragana, Katakana and Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hjBEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Arthur Rose-Innes. Japanese Reading for Beginners. K Yoshikawa & Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cP1z4IcbiO4C] ==Characters and syllabaries== *Andrew N Nelson. Modern Reader's Japanese-English Character Dictionary. 1962. 1st Revised Ed: 1966. 2nd Revised Ed: 1974. Classic Ed: 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKuHCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: The Incorporated Linguist, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E2MtAQAAMAAJ vol 5], no 1, p 24. **John H Haig. The Compact Nelson: Japanese - English Character Dictionary. Tuttle. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3bzewAEACAAJ] *Mark Spahn and Wolfgang Hadamitzky. Japanese Character Dictionary: With Compound Lookup via Any Kanji. 漢英熟語リバ一ス字典. Nichigai Associates. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RqEPAAAAYAAJ] *NTC's New Japanese-English Character Dictionary. 1993. ISBN 0844284343. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rZoFwQEACAAJ] **New Japanese-English Character Dictionary. Kenyusha. Tokyo. 1990. ISBN 4767490405. Hiragana and katakana *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana for Beginners. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZPs8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kenneth G Henshall and Tetsuo Takagaki. Learning Japanese Hiragana and Katakana. Revised 2nd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QyfRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Guide to Learning Hiragana & Katakana. Tuttle. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=18i1QgAACAAJ] *Glen McCabe. Japanese Hiragana and Katakana Flash Cards. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aSFFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA34#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Richard S Keirstead. Japanese Hiragana & Katakana: Language Practice Pad. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yPxHDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Hiragana *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Hiragana. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CvQZAQAAIAAJ] *James W Heisig. Remembering the Hiragana: a complete course on how to teach yourself the Japanese syllabary in 3 hours. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VdEPAAAAYAAJ] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Hiragana for Beginners. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dR_RAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Hiragana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YtZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Yuko Green. My First Hiragana Activity Book. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C-OKxX_cdpgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Katakana *Tina Wells. Easy Katakana: How to Read and Write English Words Used in Japanese. Passport Books. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-ZSDP-9i9oUC] *Helmut Morsbach, Kazue Kurebayashi and James W. Heisig. Remembering the Katakana. Japan Publications Trading Co. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeAPAAAAYAAJ] *Jim Gleeson. Writing Japanese Katakana: An Introductory Japanese Language Workbook. 1996. Revised Ed: 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rNZGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Timothy G Stout. Japanese Katakana for Beginners: First Steps to Mastering the Japanese Writing System. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W5sdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji and kana *Wolfgang Hadamitzky and Mark Spahn. Japanese Kanji and Kana: A Complete Guide to the Japanese Writing System. 1981. 2nd Ed: 1997. 3rd Ed: 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3w7QAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kanji *James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji. 1977. 5th Ed: 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TtEaylKrGaMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. Remembering the Kanji 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PYOUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **James W Heisig. Remembering the Kanji: A systematic guide to reading Japanese characters. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IKQPAAAAYAAJ] *James W Heisig and Tanya Sienko. Remembering the Kanji 3. 1994. 2nd Ed: 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wTZ4x_BHe5EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Editorial staff of The East magazine. Kanji Kanji. The East Publications Inc. Tokyo. 1972: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HcYPAAAAYAAJ]. Revised Ed: 1983: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T8YPAAAAYAAJ]. *Andrew Dykstra. Kanji 1-2-3. Kanji Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SnBWAAAAYAAJ] *Naoomi Kuratani, Akemi Kobayashi and Shunsuke Okunishi (eds). A New Dictionary of Kanji Usage あたらしい漢字用法辞典. Gakken. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5-C4AAAAIAAJ]. Review: "The Slimline Kanji Dictionaries" (1996) 9 International Journal of Lexicography 132 (No 2: June). Abstracts: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vYPAQAAMAAJ] [https://academic.oup.com/ijl/article-abstract/9/2/132/930154] *Jack Halpern. The Kodansha Kanji Usage Guide: An A to Z of Kun Homophones. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qgWQEAAAQBAJ] *Laurence Matthews. Kanji Fast Finder 漢字早引き辞典. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7SdpPwAACAAJ] *Glen Nolan Grant. Mastering Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0L1GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. *John Millen. Kanji Power: A Workbook for Mastering Japanese Characters. Tuttle Publishing. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uPu4AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari. Standard Kanji. Revised Ed. 1949. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=b1Q98sCcgV0C] *P G O'Neill. Essential Kanji. Weatherhill. 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VYadVK-DqSYC]. Paperback Ed: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dQ25AAAAIAAJ]. *Essential Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gr5GCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8A0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *Kodansha's Compact Kanji Guide: A new character dictionary for students and professionals. Kodansha International. 1991. Review: Gerald B Mathias and Timothy J Vance (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2loLAQAAMAAJ 26] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 47 (No 1: April 1992) *Fujihiko Kaneda. Easy Kanji. Passport Books. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R7ZM9Dao7NMC] *Erik Sato. Learning Japanese Kanji: Practice Book. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IcA0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. *The Second 100 Japanese Kanji. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gUjRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn Kanji: An Introduction to Radicals, Components and 250 Very Basic Kanji. Kodansha International. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=khnrnBXLciIC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Richard Glenn Covington, Yasuko Kosaka Mitamura and Joyce Yumi Mitamura. Let's Learn More Kanji: Family Groups, Learning Strategies, and 300 Complex Kanji. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLEOAAAACAAJ] ==Linguistics== *Yoko Hasegawa (ed). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CC5RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/48828212] [https://online.ucpress.edu/jjs/article-abstract/46/2/536/210735/Review-The-Cambridge-Handbook-of-Japanese] *Shigeru Miyagawa and Mamoru Saito (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CS07LRO8O8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Natsuko Tsujimura. An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics. 1996. Reviews: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/489672] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/417343]. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LdaYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yoko Hasegawa. Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpeiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Toshiko Yamaguchi. Japanese Linguistics in Use: An Introduction for Language Learners. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QP-YEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Linguistics: An Introduction. 2007. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25173131] **Japanese Language in Use: An Introduction. 2007. *Natsuko Tsujimura. Japanese Linguistics. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bgJ8PgAACAAJ] *Tetsuo Harada. Outlines of Modern Japanese Linguistics. Tateshina Print Company. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jTcHAQAAIAAJ] Periodicals, Linguistics *Papers in Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iZomAQAAIAAJ] *Journal of Japanese Linguistics [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=458mAQAAIAAJ] Issues *Takashi Imai and Mamoru Saito (eds). Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (Studies in Generative Grammar 29). Foris Publications. Dordrecht, Holland. 1987. ISBN 90-6765-284-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bYiFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yukio Otsu and Ann Farmer (eds). Theoretical Issues in Japanese Linguistics. (MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 2). 1980. [https://books.google.com/books?id=RDeBAAAAIAAJ] Kokugogaku and nihongogaku *Lidia Tanaka. "Japanese language studies: Kokugo as an ideology, nihongo as an autonomous and global scholarship?". Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. 2018.Chapter 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false 32] to 52. Nihongogaku (Japanese: [[w:ja:日本語学|日本語学]]) (English: Japanese linguistics; Japanese language studies) *[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/humanities/post_198 日本語学に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. [[w:en:National Diet Library|NDL]]. Cf. Kokugogaku (Japanese: [[en:wikt:国語学|国語学]]) (English: national language studies) Syntax and semantics *Masayoshi Shibatani. Syntax and Semantics. Japanese Generative Grammar 5. Academic Press. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPJZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kuroda. Japanese Syntax and Semantics: Collected Papers. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OXnrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Hinds and Irwin Howard (eds). Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics. Kaitakusha Co Ltd. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_yBkAAAAMAAJ] Semantics and pragmatics *Wesley M Jacobsen and Yukinori Takubo (eds). Handbook of Japanese Semantics and Pragmatics. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUUCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Elin McCready, Katsuhiko Yabushita and Kei Yoshimoto (eds). Formal Approaches to Semantics and Pragmatics: Japanese and Beyond. 2014. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZeBcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] Morphology and phonology *Jeroen Maarten van de Weijer and Tetsuo Nishihara (eds). Issues in Japanese Phonology and Morphology. (Studies in Generative Grammar 51).  2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4p_t7jy28AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Phonetics and Phonology *Haruo Kubozono (ed). Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8vFeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiromi Otaka. Phonetics and Phonology of Moras, Feet and Geminate Consonants in Japanese. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=39Q_AQAAIAAJ] *James D McCawley. The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese. Mouton & Co NV. The Hague. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3JoPAAAAYAAJ] Syntax *Masayoshi Shibatani, Shigeru Miyagawa and Hisashi Noda (eds). Handbook of Japanese Syntax. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tk8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuko Hasegawa. Japanese Syntax in Comparative Grammar. Kuroshio Publishers. Tokyo. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ztApAQAAIAAJ] Phonetics *Daniel Lepetit and Reiko Makino. Japanese Phonetics: A Thematic Bibliography. Canadian Scholars. 1996. ISBN 1551300923. Catalogue: Canadian Books in Print: Author and Title Index 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q2WLJa9rY5MC&pg=PA1063#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1063]. *Society Newsletter. 1926 to 1996. [[w:ja:日本音声学会|The Phonetic Society of Japan]]. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication/society-newsletter] **Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan. 1997 onwards. [https://www.psj.gr.jp/eng/publication] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonetics: Theory and Practice. Lincom Europa. 1997. [https://books.google.com/books?id=guUZAQAAIAAJ] *P M Suski. The Phonetics of Japanese Language: With Reference to Japanese Script. 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gpthAAAAMAAJ]. 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9DuiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Phonology *Laurence Labrune. The Phonology of Japanese. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ix9r6CbEl6IC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tsutomu Akamatsu. Japanese Phonology: A Functional Approach. Lincom Europa. 2000. [https://books.google.com/books?id=R-QZAQAAIAAJ] *Mieko Shimizu Han. Japanese Phonology: An Analysis Based on Sound Spectrograms. Kenkyusha. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T3Xl7SviXB4C] Pragmatics *Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Yoshiko Matsumoto, Junko Mori (eds). Pragmatics of Japanese: Perspectives on grammar, interaction and culture. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2wZTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gabriele Kasper. Pragmatics of Japanese as Native and Target Language. Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaiʼi at Mānoa. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2_8ifcjhpYQC] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] ==Translation== *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24394410] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Dialects and regions== Dialects *Nobuko Kibe, Tetsuo Nitta and Kan Sasaki (eds). Handbook of Japanese Dialects. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8_Y9EQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kansai *Peter Tse. Kansai Japanese: The Language of Osaka, Kyoto, and Western Japan. (Tuttle Language Library). 1993. Reprinted 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvVkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *DC Palter and Kaoru Slotsve. Colloquial Kansai Japanese: The Dialects and Culture of the Kansai Region. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rJEdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==History== *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] ==Old Japanese== *John R Bentley. A Descriptive Grammar of Early Old Japanese Prose. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Eoqv_NcLJ4gC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Alexander Vovin. A Descriptive and Comparative Grammar of Western Old Japanese. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ba1xEQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] 2nd Ed: 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xfP_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. ==Classical Japanese== Introduction *Akira Komai and Thomas H Rohlich. An Introduction to Classical Japanese. Bonjinsha. Tokyo. 1991. Review: "Textbook Review by Questionnaire" (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tClnAAAAMAAJ 26] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 50 (No 1: April 1992) Grammar *Noriko Katsuki-Pestemer. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Lincom Europa. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PHoLAQAAMAAJ] *Haruo Shirane. Classical Japanese: A Grammar. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=M5-vVlcVEDkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Review: [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/209495/summary] *Alexander Vovin. A Reference Grammar of Classical Japanese Prose. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=24GTVscUCX0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Akira Komai. A Grammar of Classical Japanese. Culver Publishing. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sL0PAAAAYAAJ] *Tadashi Ikeda. Classical Japanese Grammar Illustrated with Texts. The Toho Gakkai (The Institute of Eastern Culture). 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQjUAAAAMAAJ] Dictionary *Ivan Morris. Dictionary of Selected Forms in Classical Japanese Literature. Columbia University Press. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O70PAAAAYAAJ] *Jiří Jelínek. Classical Japanese-English Grammar Dictionary. University of Sheffield, Centre of Japanese Studies. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qOEPAAAAYAAJ] Clauses *Stefan Kaiser. Circumnominal Relative Clauses in Classical Japanese: An Historical Study. Otto Harrassowitz. Wiesbaden. 1991. ISBN 344703212X. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GHsPAAAAYAAJ] [[Category:Japanese]] r4oztmltt2lfxrj78ipt4us2196rukl 0 330427 2817517 2817509 2026-07-01T13:15:53Z Projet PEP 3002502 2817517 wikitext text/x-wiki == Starting activity == Select three different images that, for you, represent communication. For each image, answer briefly these sentences: * What kind of communication does this image show? * What languages or codes are being used? (spoken, written, signed, visual…) * Who is communicating and how do they understand each other? * What helps make the message clear, even without sound? * In what ways do you think deaf and hard-of-hearing learners experience communication differently from hearing learners? Try to consider both challenges and strengths (e.g., visual learning, bilingualism, multimodality). Optional (for Sign language users): Record a short Sign language video (30 seconds) where you introduce one of your chosen images and sign the main idea of your reflection. == Keywords == multilingual, deaf, hard of hearing, sign languages, spoken languages, education, foreign languages teaching and learning == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * Explain the main goals and principles of multilingual education for deaf and hard of hearing learners. * Distinguish between different communication modalities (spoken, written, signed, visual) and describe how they interact in bimodal and bilingual contexts. * Identify the differences between Deaf (cultural-linguistic identity) and deaf/hard of hearing (audiological condition). * Recognize the linguistic, cognitive, and cultural factors influencing language learning among deaf and hard of hearing students. * Describe the roles of sign language, spoken language, and assistive technologies in promoting accessibility and inclusion. * Reflect on how multimodal and inclusive teaching strategies can enhance communication and learning outcomes. == Table of contents == # Introduction # Theoretical overview # Research Projects # Activities: get inspired # Bibliography == 1. Introduction == Multilingual education for D/deaf and hard of hearing people is an interdisciplinary field that combines language studies, pedagogy, neuroscience, and Deaf studies. Its main goal is to ensure equitable access to education using multiple languages, including sign language, written language, and, in some cases, spoken language with technological or visual supports. The adoption of inclusive teaching strategies, multimodality and the use of assistive technologies are critical to improving accessibility and fostering academic and vocational success for people who are deaf and hard of hearing. This resource will explore theoretical principles, educational models, and best practices for effective multilingual education in this field, taking into consideration specifically the cultural context and the fact that we have to distinguish between two groups of  a) deaf and hard of hearing  people who are learners of sign languages, b) deaf and hard of hearing people who are learning spoken languages. {| class="wikitable" !Term !Focus !Typical Communication Mode !Cultural Aspect |- |Deaf (capital D) |Cultural and linguistic identity |Sign language |Member of Deaf community |- |deaf (lowercase d) |General term |May vary |Not necessarily |- |Hard of Hearing |Medical / audiological condition Partial hearing loss |Spoken language, sometimes with supports or signs |Not necessarily |} == 2. Theoretical overview == When talking about deafness and hearing loss in the context of language acquisition—such as questions about the best learning methods, communication strategies, or possible outcomes for deaf and hard of hearing learners—there is often only one possible answer: ‘It depends’. This is because generalizing about multilingualism is already extremely difficult, and even more so when considering individuals with deafness or hearing loss. These learners exhibit unique linguistic features influenced not only by environmental, personal, cultural, and emotional factors (as with all language users), but also by perceptual, articulatory, and educational/rehabilitative factors. Therefore, any reflection, hypothesis, or suggestion about specific teaching techniques, methods, or approaches in language learning may be effective for some and wholly unproductive for others.” This bilingual condition can be described as bimodal, dilalic, and simultaneous. * Bimodal means that two different communication channels are used: one spoken and auditory (for example Italian language) and one visual and gestural (LIS – Italian Sign Language). * Dilalic describes a situation in which a person can use two linguistic codes that belong to the same linguistic system or community, choosing one or the other depending on the context, the interlocutor, or the communicative purpose. * Simultaneous means that both languages can sometimes be used together, since they operate through different channels (voice and hands at the same time). Deafness manifests its most profound and significant effects precisely in the sphere of linguistic communication. Almost all deaf and hard of hearing signers, for example, in Italy, know and use the Italian language, which guarantees them access to social and professional life. In these cases, we refer to a form of bilingualism that is extremely complex and idiosyncratic, which we might call “bimodal, dilalic, and simultaneous.” Bimodal means the use of Spoken language and Signed language, that rely on two different communicative channels (phono-acoustic and visual-gestural); dilalic     means a deaf or hard of hearing person that can use either of the two codes in their repertoire depending on contextual variables, such as the communicative situation, the characteristics of the interlocutor, the communicative purpose, etc.; simultaneous means that the speaker/signer can exploit both language systems at the same time, as they operate on different communicative channels. Depending on the linguistic, educational, and rehabilitative path undertaken by the deaf and hard of hearing learner, this determines how oral and written messages are perceived and processed both cognitively and linguistically. Concerning deaf and hard-of-hearing as multilingual learners (DMLs), we have to consider that these students not only navigate the challenges of hearing differences but also face a range of different languages and modalities while growing up. In this sense, the underlying idea is the distinction between vertical identity, which comes from family and heritage, and horizontal identity, which develops through interactions with the broader community. This is especially significant for DMLs, as they often balance multiple languages and cultural influences. Moreover, plurilingual development can happen in different ways, as the wide range of variational factors characterize d/daf and hard-of-hearing learners’ experiences. Some children learn languages sequentially (one after another), while others acquire them simultaneously. On the one hand, the way languages are learned can be additive, when new languages enhance existing ones; on the other hand, it can result in subtractive learning, when a new language replaces a home language. Learning a second sign language for individuals whose first language is a sign language presents unique opportunities and challenges. Just like spoken languages, sign languages differ significantly in grammar, vocabulary, and structure. Therefore, teaching a new sign language to deaf individuals requires specialized instructional approaches that consider their existing linguistic competencies and the distinct characteristics of the languages involved. In this sense, it is relevant to take into account a bilingual approach, thus the use of both the native sign language and the target sign language, that can facilitate learning through comparison and translation of the two visual languages, leading to a deep understanding of the differences and similarities between languages and cultures. Moreover, the involvement of deaf educators is essential to ensure authentic linguistic modeling, values deaf culture, and to promote an inclusive learning environment. Additionally, it is impossible to ignore the challenges and considerations of the linguistic diversity between sign languages, as well as the lack of educational resources that are limited and need to be developed by adapting existing materials or creating new ones. Furthermore, the official recognition of sign languages still varies across countries, making the situation more and more heterogeneous: For example, in Italy, LIS has only recently been officially recognized, impacting the availability of formal courses and the development of structured educational programs. Teaching foreign spoken languages to deaf and hard of hearing learners can involve challenges, as traditional communicative approaches may not be suitable because these learners cannot hear spoken input. They can have limited exposure to auditory language, which makes engagement with listening and speaking-based methods difficult. Additionally, each deaf and hard of hearing learner can have a unique linguistic background, with varying proficiency in their first language (L1) and different starting points for learning a second language (L2). Therefore, language learning approaches can be tailored to individual needs, especially for bimodal learners who may even have a third language. Motivation and emotional well-being can also play a significant role in language success for deaf and hard of hearing learners. Their self-esteem can influence their learning environment, and teachers can foster a positive atmosphere by addressing these factors. Since deaf and hard of hearing learners primarily process information visually, teaching methods can be adapted to leverage this strength through visual strategies like color-coding, information chunking, and visual memory exercises, which can support language retention. Moreover, incorporating playful and collaborative activities, such as group work and role-playing, can create a more relaxed atmosphere, encouraging interaction and making language acquisition more effective for these students. == 3. Research Projects == These projects have been chosen to be featured here because they represent unique examples of initiatives acknowledged by European authorities that closely relate to the core themes addressed in this lesson     . === ''PRO-Sign'' === https://www.ecml.at/en/ECML-Programme/Programme-2012-2015/ProSign ''The PRO-Sign project'' adapts the CEFR to sign languages, creating the first European proficiency standards for sign languages, particularly for Deaf Studies and interpreting programs in higher education across Europe and beyond. The website serves as a resource for educators, teacher trainers, and curriculum developers in tertiary education and supports organizations like the European Union of the Deaf (EUD) and the World Federation of the Deaf (WFD). It provides "Can Do" descriptors for sign language skills (reception, interaction, production) across levels from A1 to C2, including "plus levels" (e.g., A2+). As with other CEFR tools, not all sub-categories are covered at every level. The system should be used critically, as the CEFR may need further adaptation for specific contexts. An International Sign (IS) version and assessment framework aligned with the CEFR are also available on the site. === ''SpreadTheSign'' === https://www.spreadthesign.com/it.it/search/ SpreadTheSign is an online platform developed in collaboration with Ca’ Foscari University, aimed at promoting sign languages from around the world. It provides video dictionaries, learning resources, and tools for both hearing and Deaf users to explore and learn different sign languages, fostering accessibility and intercultural communication. === ''LangSkills II'' === https://www.teiresias.muni.cz/en/veda-a-vyzkum/projects/language-skills-and-learning-preferences-of-deaf The project ''Language Skills and Learning Preferences of Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students'' supported by the Teiresias Centre at Masaryk University and funded by the European Union under Key Action 2 of the Erasmus+ programme, was running from November 2021 to October 2024. It aimed to improve the foreign language learning experience for Deaf, deaf, and hard of hearing learners. It focused on identifying learning styles and strategies that can enhance the effectiveness of learning, promoting a more autonomous approach to education. This collaboration between Masaryk University, John Paul II Catholic University, Siena School for Liberal Arts, and supported by EUDY aimed at enhancing foreign language learning for deaf and hard of hearing learners by raising awareness of their learning preferences, leveraging strengths, and promoting self-reflection and autonomy. Its key outcomes include adapted surveys, research on learning strategies, a resource pack, and a best practices bank, all designed to foster better understanding, inclusivity, and improved opportunities for deaf and hard of hearing learners in language education. === ''The SigHub Project'' === https://thesignhub.eu/ The SIGN-HUB platform is an innovative and inclusive resource hub for the linguistic, historical and cultural documentation of European sign languages and their Deaf communities' heritage. This platform has been developed during the SIGN-HUB project which was funded by the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant Agreement No 693349. If you would like to find out more about the SIGN-HUB project itself and the consortium of institutions and countries that developed this platform, please visit the section “SIGN-HUB Project” in the upper right corner. The platform provides four major sections that can be used independently as an information resource for researchers, scholars, teachers, interpreters, and anybody interested in sign languages. === ''LIS-A project'' === ''https://research.uniroma1.it/fis2-lis-constructing-first-european-framework-teaching-and-assessing-italian-sign-language-lis-lis'' This FIS project, funded by MUR for the years 2025-2028, aims to develop the LIS-A standardized proficiency test for Italian Sign Language (LIS), addressing the lack of structured assessment tools in Italy. Despite significant advances in sign language research over the past fifty years, LIS teaching and evaluation have mainly relied on informal methods and practitioner insights, which are not systematically grounded. With growing interest in LIS courses across several Italian universities, the need for a formal, reliable assessment framework becomes increasingly important to evaluate and certify learners’ proficiency levels effectively. LIS-A project main goal is the development of a valid and reliable LIS proficiency exam, from a methodological point of view, as well as a more precise skills definition for LIS professionals, promoting inclusivity and reducing inequalities. Overall, it seeks to establish a structured, fair assessment system aligned with Italy’s changing educational and professional needs. == 3. Activities: get inspired == To help learners build vocabulary, sentence structure, and storytelling skills using sign language, spoken and written text independently. '''Materials Needed:''' * Picture cards or storybook with simple sentences * Notebook or digital document for writing * Access to digital sign language vocabulary (e.g., SpreadTheSign) '''Activity Steps:''' '''Warm-Up (5-10 mins)''' # Choose 3–5 picture cards or images with common objects or actions (e.g., a dog running, a child eating). # Look up the corresponding signs for each word using SpreadTheSign https://www.spreadthesign.com/it.it/search/. # Write the word, watch the sign, and say it aloud. Repeat each word 3–5 times. # Optional: Record yourself signing or speaking each word for review. '''Building Sentences''' # Pick one picture card or image. # Create a simple sentence using that image # Break the sentence into individual words and review: #* Vocabulary meaning #* Word order and sentence structure # Practice: #* Sign the sentence #* Speak the sentence aloud #* Write the sentence in your notebook # Repeat with 2–3 more sentences using different images. '''Reflection & Wrap-Up''' # Choose your favorite new word or sentence from the activity. # Write a short story or paragraph using at least 3 new words learned. # Optional: Record a short video signing and speaking your story. Now try to translate this sentence into a sign language using three steps: Use LIS signs but follow exactly the spoken Italian grammar and word order, including fingerspelling for grammatical words (articles, prepositions, pronouns, etc.). Example: Sign each word in the order used in Italian, fingerspell Now use sign language, maintaining Italian word order and structure, but without the strictness of fingerspelling of small grammatical words. Translate in a natural Sign Language Translate the meaning into a sign language using its natural grammar and spatial features (e.g., showing bookcase location through hand position rather than a linear sequence of signs). Reflect on differences in structure, grammar, and meaning at each step. == 4. Bibliography == Bettini, V., Battista, C. (1999). Talking Hands: Basic English Course for Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Learners. Bologna: Zanichelli. Calabrò, L.; Carrazza, M.; Roccaforte, M. (2023). Foreign languages and deafness: how to build up TEFL on deaf students’ strengths and needs Rivista di psicolinguistica applicata. XXIII, 1:2023, pp. 29-46. Council of Europe. (2020). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Companion Volume. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages. Domagala-Zusk, E. (2010) ''Students with severe hearing impairments as competent learners of English as a second language''. Brno, Masaryk University. Dotter, F. (2008) ''English for Deaf sign language users: still a challenge''. Bern, Peter Lang. European Sign Language Center - ''Spread the Sign – Erasmus+ KA2 Strategic Partnership 2019–2022.'' https://www.unive.it/pag/fileadmin/user_upload/ateneo/internazionale/europrogettazione_didattica/risultati-progetti/2014-2020/StrategicPartnerships/2019_KA2_SPREAD.pdf Haug, T.; Keller, J. ESF Exploratory Workshop on Development of Theoretical and Practical Guidelines for the Adaptation of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) to sign languages: Scientific Report. Summary of the European Science Foundation Exploratory Workshop, Zurich, Switzerland, 16-18 September 2011. Zurich, Switzerland, 2012. Janakova, D. (2005) ''Teaching English to deaf and hard of hearing students at secondary and tertiary levels of education''. Prague, Eurolex Leeson, L.; Van den Bogarde, B.; Rathmann, C.; Haug, T. Sign languages and the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Common Reference Level Descriptors. Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2016. Marshark, M., Spencer, P.E. (2016) ''The Oxford Handbook of Deaf Studies in Language.'' Oxford University Press Onofrio, D., Rinaldi, P., & Pettenati, P. (2012). "Il primo sviluppo del linguaggio in bambini che imparano più lingue: una proposta per la valutazione e l'interpretazione del profilo linguistico". RIVISTEWEB.ITinica dello Sviluppo, 16(3), 661-670. Rinaldi, P., Caselli, M. C., Stefanini, S., Bello, A., & Pasqualetti, P. (2019). "From action to spoken and signed language through gesture: Some basic developmental issues for a discussion on the evolution of the human language-ready brain". Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2750. Rinaldi, P., Tomasuolo, E., & Resca, A. (2018). "La sordità infantile. Nuove prospettive di intervento". Erickson. Roccaforte, M. (2022). Verso la definizione di un sillabo per la valutazione della competenza linguistica nella lingua dei segni italiana (LIS). Bollettino di italianistica 2/2022, pp. 175-189. Timmermans, N. (Ed.) in co-operation with the Committee on the Rehabilitation and Integration of People with disabilities (CD-P-RR), The status of sign languages in Europe. F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2005. ONG, W. J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. Routledge, 1982. Trovato, S. (2014). Insegno in segni. Linguaggio, cognizione, successo scolastico per gli studenti sordi. Milano: Raffaello Cortina Editore Volterra, V., Roccaforte, M., Di Renzo, A., Fontana, S. (2022). Spoken and signed languages between cognition and semiotics. The case of Italian Sign Language. Benjamins Woll, B. A sign of the times. The New Scientist, v. 27, 2022. World Health Organization. World report on hearing. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2021. == Credits == This resource has been added by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Maria Roccaforte (Sapienza Università di Roma) * Martina Corrazza (Sapienza Università di Roma) 9kl0343nyjujui1aja6i2ifqbb570ja 2817521 2817517 2026-07-01T13:31:27Z Projet PEP 3002502 2817521 wikitext text/x-wiki == Starting activity == Select three different images that, for you, represent communication. For each image, answer briefly these sentences: * What kind of communication does this image show? * What languages or codes are being used? (spoken, written, signed, visual…) * Who is communicating and how do they understand each other? * What helps make the message clear, even without sound? * In what ways do you think deaf and hard-of-hearing learners experience communication differently from hearing learners? Try to consider both challenges and strengths (e.g., visual learning, bilingualism, multimodality). Optional (for Sign language users): Record a short Sign language video (30 seconds) where you introduce one of your chosen images and sign the main idea of your reflection. == Keywords == multilingual, deaf, hard of hearing, sign languages, spoken languages, education, foreign languages teaching and learning == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * Explain the main goals and principles of multilingual education for deaf and hard of hearing learners. * Distinguish between different communication modalities (spoken, written, signed, visual) and describe how they interact in bimodal and bilingual contexts. * Identify the differences between Deaf (cultural-linguistic identity) and deaf/hard of hearing (audiological condition). * Recognize the linguistic, cognitive, and cultural factors influencing language learning among deaf and hard of hearing students. * Describe the roles of sign language, spoken language, and assistive technologies in promoting accessibility and inclusion. * Reflect on how multimodal and inclusive teaching strategies can enhance communication and learning outcomes. == Table of contents == # Introduction # Theoretical overview # Research Projects # Activities: get inspired # Bibliography == 1. Introduction == Multilingual education for D/deaf and hard of hearing people is an interdisciplinary field that combines language studies, pedagogy, neuroscience, and Deaf studies. Its main goal is to ensure equitable access to education using multiple languages, including sign language, written language, and, in some cases, spoken language with technological or visual supports. The adoption of inclusive teaching strategies, multimodality and the use of assistive technologies are critical to improving accessibility and fostering academic and vocational success for people who are deaf and hard of hearing. This resource will explore theoretical principles, educational models, and best practices for effective multilingual education in this field, taking into consideration specifically the cultural context and the fact that we have to distinguish between two groups of  a) deaf and hard of hearing  people who are learners of sign languages, b) deaf and hard of hearing people who are learning spoken languages. == 2. Theoretical overview == {| class="wikitable" !Term !Focus !Typical Communication Mode !Cultural Aspect |- |Deaf (capital D) |Cultural and linguistic identity |Sign language |Member of Deaf community |- |deaf (lowercase d) |General term |May vary |Not necessarily |- |Hard of Hearing |Medical / audiological condition Partial hearing loss |Spoken language, sometimes with supports or signs |Not necessarily |} When talking about deafness and hearing loss in the context of language acquisition—such as questions about the best learning methods, communication strategies, or possible outcomes for deaf and hard of hearing learners—there is often only one possible answer: ‘It depends’. This is because generalizing about multilingualism is already extremely difficult, and even more so when considering individuals with deafness or hearing loss. These learners exhibit unique linguistic features influenced not only by environmental, personal, cultural, and emotional factors (as with all language users), but also by perceptual, articulatory, and educational/rehabilitative factors. Therefore, any reflection, hypothesis, or suggestion about specific teaching techniques, methods, or approaches in language learning may be effective for some and wholly unproductive for others.” This bilingual condition can be described as bimodal, dilalic, and simultaneous. * Bimodal means that two different communication channels are used: one spoken and auditory (for example Italian language) and one visual and gestural (LIS – Italian Sign Language). * Dilalic describes a situation in which a person can use two linguistic codes that belong to the same linguistic system or community, choosing one or the other depending on the context, the interlocutor, or the communicative purpose. * Simultaneous means that both languages can sometimes be used together, since they operate through different channels (voice and hands at the same time). Deafness manifests its most profound and significant effects precisely in the sphere of linguistic communication. Almost all deaf and hard of hearing signers, for example, in Italy, know and use the Italian language, which guarantees them access to social and professional life. In these cases, we refer to a form of bilingualism that is extremely complex and idiosyncratic, which we might call “bimodal, dilalic, and simultaneous.” Bimodal means the use of Spoken language and Signed language, that rely on two different communicative channels (phono-acoustic and visual-gestural); dilalic     means a deaf or hard of hearing person that can use either of the two codes in their repertoire depending on contextual variables, such as the communicative situation, the characteristics of the interlocutor, the communicative purpose, etc.; simultaneous means that the speaker/signer can exploit both language systems at the same time, as they operate on different communicative channels. Depending on the linguistic, educational, and rehabilitative path undertaken by the deaf and hard of hearing learner, this determines how oral and written messages are perceived and processed both cognitively and linguistically. Concerning deaf and hard-of-hearing as multilingual learners (DMLs), we have to consider that these students not only navigate the challenges of hearing differences but also face a range of different languages and modalities while growing up. In this sense, the underlying idea is the distinction between vertical identity, which comes from family and heritage, and horizontal identity, which develops through interactions with the broader community. This is especially significant for DMLs, as they often balance multiple languages and cultural influences. Moreover, plurilingual development can happen in different ways, as the wide range of variational factors characterize d/daf and hard-of-hearing learners’ experiences. Some children learn languages sequentially (one after another), while others acquire them simultaneously. On the one hand, the way languages are learned can be additive, when new languages enhance existing ones; on the other hand, it can result in subtractive learning, when a new language replaces a home language. Learning a second sign language for individuals whose first language is a sign language presents unique opportunities and challenges. Just like spoken languages, sign languages differ significantly in grammar, vocabulary, and structure. Therefore, teaching a new sign language to deaf individuals requires specialized instructional approaches that consider their existing linguistic competencies and the distinct characteristics of the languages involved. In this sense, it is relevant to take into account a bilingual approach, thus the use of both the native sign language and the target sign language, that can facilitate learning through comparison and translation of the two visual languages, leading to a deep understanding of the differences and similarities between languages and cultures. Moreover, the involvement of deaf educators is essential to ensure authentic linguistic modeling, values deaf culture, and to promote an inclusive learning environment. Additionally, it is impossible to ignore the challenges and considerations of the linguistic diversity between sign languages, as well as the lack of educational resources that are limited and need to be developed by adapting existing materials or creating new ones. Furthermore, the official recognition of sign languages still varies across countries, making the situation more and more heterogeneous: For example, in Italy, LIS has only recently been officially recognized, impacting the availability of formal courses and the development of structured educational programs. Teaching foreign spoken languages to deaf and hard of hearing learners can involve challenges, as traditional communicative approaches may not be suitable because these learners cannot hear spoken input. They can have limited exposure to auditory language, which makes engagement with listening and speaking-based methods difficult. Additionally, each deaf and hard of hearing learner can have a unique linguistic background, with varying proficiency in their first language (L1) and different starting points for learning a second language (L2). Therefore, language learning approaches can be tailored to individual needs, especially for bimodal learners who may even have a third language. Motivation and emotional well-being can also play a significant role in language success for deaf and hard of hearing learners. Their self-esteem can influence their learning environment, and teachers can foster a positive atmosphere by addressing these factors. Since deaf and hard of hearing learners primarily process information visually, teaching methods can be adapted to leverage this strength through visual strategies like color-coding, information chunking, and visual memory exercises, which can support language retention. Moreover, incorporating playful and collaborative activities, such as group work and role-playing, can create a more relaxed atmosphere, encouraging interaction and making language acquisition more effective for these students. == Research Projects == These projects have been chosen to be featured here because they represent unique examples of initiatives acknowledged by European authorities that closely relate to the core themes addressed in this lesson     . === ''PRO-Sign'' === https://www.ecml.at/en/ECML-Programme/Programme-2012-2015/ProSign ''The PRO-Sign project'' adapts the CEFR to sign languages, creating the first European proficiency standards for sign languages, particularly for Deaf Studies and interpreting programs in higher education across Europe and beyond. The website serves as a resource for educators, teacher trainers, and curriculum developers in tertiary education and supports organizations like the European Union of the Deaf (EUD) and the World Federation of the Deaf (WFD). It provides "Can Do" descriptors for sign language skills (reception, interaction, production) across levels from A1 to C2, including "plus levels" (e.g., A2+). As with other CEFR tools, not all sub-categories are covered at every level. The system should be used critically, as the CEFR may need further adaptation for specific contexts. An International Sign (IS) version and assessment framework aligned with the CEFR are also available on the site. === ''SpreadTheSign'' === https://www.spreadthesign.com/it.it/search/ SpreadTheSign is an online platform developed in collaboration with Ca’ Foscari University, aimed at promoting sign languages from around the world. It provides video dictionaries, learning resources, and tools for both hearing and Deaf users to explore and learn different sign languages, fostering accessibility and intercultural communication. === ''LangSkills II'' === https://www.teiresias.muni.cz/en/veda-a-vyzkum/projects/language-skills-and-learning-preferences-of-deaf The project ''Language Skills and Learning Preferences of Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students'' supported by the Teiresias Centre at Masaryk University and funded by the European Union under Key Action 2 of the Erasmus+ programme, was running from November 2021 to October 2024. It aimed to improve the foreign language learning experience for Deaf, deaf, and hard of hearing learners. It focused on identifying learning styles and strategies that can enhance the effectiveness of learning, promoting a more autonomous approach to education. This collaboration between Masaryk University, John Paul II Catholic University, Siena School for Liberal Arts, and supported by EUDY aimed at enhancing foreign language learning for deaf and hard of hearing learners by raising awareness of their learning preferences, leveraging strengths, and promoting self-reflection and autonomy. Its key outcomes include adapted surveys, research on learning strategies, a resource pack, and a best practices bank, all designed to foster better understanding, inclusivity, and improved opportunities for deaf and hard of hearing learners in language education. === ''The SigHub Project'' === https://thesignhub.eu/ The SIGN-HUB platform is an innovative and inclusive resource hub for the linguistic, historical and cultural documentation of European sign languages and their Deaf communities' heritage. This platform has been developed during the SIGN-HUB project which was funded by the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant Agreement No 693349. If you would like to find out more about the SIGN-HUB project itself and the consortium of institutions and countries that developed this platform, please visit the section “SIGN-HUB Project” in the upper right corner. The platform provides four major sections that can be used independently as an information resource for researchers, scholars, teachers, interpreters, and anybody interested in sign languages. === ''LIS-A project'' === ''https://research.uniroma1.it/fis2-lis-constructing-first-european-framework-teaching-and-assessing-italian-sign-language-lis-lis'' This FIS project, funded by MUR for the years 2025-2028, aims to develop the LIS-A standardized proficiency test for Italian Sign Language (LIS), addressing the lack of structured assessment tools in Italy. Despite significant advances in sign language research over the past fifty years, LIS teaching and evaluation have mainly relied on informal methods and practitioner insights, which are not systematically grounded. With growing interest in LIS courses across several Italian universities, the need for a formal, reliable assessment framework becomes increasingly important to evaluate and certify learners’ proficiency levels effectively. LIS-A project main goal is the development of a valid and reliable LIS proficiency exam, from a methodological point of view, as well as a more precise skills definition for LIS professionals, promoting inclusivity and reducing inequalities. Overall, it seeks to establish a structured, fair assessment system aligned with Italy’s changing educational and professional needs. == Activities: get inspired == To help learners build vocabulary, sentence structure, and storytelling skills using sign language, spoken and written text independently. '''Materials Needed:''' * Picture cards or storybook with simple sentences * Notebook or digital document for writing * Access to digital sign language vocabulary (e.g., SpreadTheSign) '''Activity Steps:''' '''Warm-Up (5-10 mins)''' # Choose 3–5 picture cards or images with common objects or actions (e.g., a dog running, a child eating). # Look up the corresponding signs for each word using SpreadTheSign https://www.spreadthesign.com/it.it/search/. # Write the word, watch the sign, and say it aloud. Repeat each word 3–5 times. # Optional: Record yourself signing or speaking each word for review. '''Building Sentences''' # Pick one picture card or image. # Create a simple sentence using that image # Break the sentence into individual words and review: #* Vocabulary meaning #* Word order and sentence structure # Practice: #* Sign the sentence #* Speak the sentence aloud #* Write the sentence in your notebook # Repeat with 2–3 more sentences using different images. '''Reflection & Wrap-Up''' # Choose your favorite new word or sentence from the activity. # Write a short story or paragraph using at least 3 new words learned. # Optional: Record a short video signing and speaking your story. Now try to translate this sentence into a sign language using three steps: Use LIS signs but follow exactly the spoken Italian grammar and word order, including fingerspelling for grammatical words (articles, prepositions, pronouns, etc.). Example: Sign each word in the order used in Italian, fingerspell Now use sign language, maintaining Italian word order and structure, but without the strictness of fingerspelling of small grammatical words. Translate in a natural Sign Language Translate the meaning into a sign language using its natural grammar and spatial features (e.g., showing bookcase location through hand position rather than a linear sequence of signs). Reflect on differences in structure, grammar, and meaning at each step. == Take home messages == * Plurilingualism among deaf and hard of hearing people is multimodal. * Plurilingual education promotes linguistic access, cognitive flexibility, and social inclusion. * Sign languages are full linguistic systems, essential for identity and culture. * Deaf and hard of hearing learners benefit from multimodal and visual teaching strategies. * Collaboration between deaf and hearing educators strengthens the learning environment. * Technological and pedagogical tools should be adapted to each learner’s linguistic background. == Self-assessment == === Multiple choice quiz === <quiz display=simple> {What does “bimodal bilingualism” mean?} -a) Using two spoken languages +b) Using two communication channels (spoken and signed) -c) Learning languages sequentially {The capital “D” in “Deaf” refers to:} -a) A medical condition +b) A cultural-linguistic identity -c) A level of hearing loss {The goal of multilingual education for deaf learners is to:} -a) Focus exclusively on oral language +b) Ensure access to learning through multiple languages and modalities -c) Replace sign language with written communication </quiz> === Open reflection === * How does plurilingualism influence the identity of deaf and hard of hearing learners? * Which visual and multimodal strategies could improve inclusion in your classroom or learning environment? == Resources to go further == * Calabrò, L.; Carrazza, M.; Roccaforte, M. (2023). Foreign languages and deafness: how to build up TEFL on deaf students’ strengths and needs Rivista di psicolinguistica applicata. XXIII, 1:2023, pp. 29-46. * Domagala-Zusk, E. (2010) ''Students with severe hearing impairments as competent learners of English as a second language''. Brno, Masaryk University. * European Sign Language Center - ''Spread the Sign – Erasmus+ KA2 Strategic Partnership 2019–2022.'' <nowiki>https://www.unive.it/pag/fileadmin/user_upload/ateneo/internazionale/europrogettazione_didattica/risultati-progetti/2014-2020/StrategicPartnerships/2019_KA2_SPREAD.pdf</nowiki> * Rinaldi, P., Tomasuolo, E., & Resca, A. (2018). "La sordità infantile. Nuove prospettive di intervento". Erickson. * Timmermans, N. (Ed.) in co-operation with the Committee on the Rehabilitation and Integration of People with disabilities (CD-P-RR), The status of sign languages in Europe. F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2005. ONG, W. J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. London: Routledge, 1982. * World Health Organization. World report on hearing. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2021 == Bibliography == Bettini, V., Battista, C. (1999). Talking Hands: Basic English Course for Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Learners. Bologna: Zanichelli. Calabrò, L.; Carrazza, M.; Roccaforte, M. (2023). Foreign languages and deafness: how to build up TEFL on deaf students’ strengths and needs Rivista di psicolinguistica applicata. XXIII, 1:2023, pp. 29-46. Council of Europe. (2020). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Companion Volume. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages. Domagala-Zusk, E. (2010) ''Students with severe hearing impairments as competent learners of English as a second language''. Brno, Masaryk University. Dotter, F. (2008) ''English for Deaf sign language users: still a challenge''. Bern, Peter Lang. European Sign Language Center - ''Spread the Sign – Erasmus+ KA2 Strategic Partnership 2019–2022.'' https://www.unive.it/pag/fileadmin/user_upload/ateneo/internazionale/europrogettazione_didattica/risultati-progetti/2014-2020/StrategicPartnerships/2019_KA2_SPREAD.pdf Haug, T.; Keller, J. ESF Exploratory Workshop on Development of Theoretical and Practical Guidelines for the Adaptation of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) to sign languages: Scientific Report. Summary of the European Science Foundation Exploratory Workshop, Zurich, Switzerland, 16-18 September 2011. Zurich, Switzerland, 2012. Janakova, D. (2005) ''Teaching English to deaf and hard of hearing students at secondary and tertiary levels of education''. Prague, Eurolex Leeson, L.; Van den Bogarde, B.; Rathmann, C.; Haug, T. Sign languages and the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Common Reference Level Descriptors. Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2016. Marshark, M., Spencer, P.E. (2016) ''The Oxford Handbook of Deaf Studies in Language.'' Oxford University Press Onofrio, D., Rinaldi, P., & Pettenati, P. (2012). "Il primo sviluppo del linguaggio in bambini che imparano più lingue: una proposta per la valutazione e l'interpretazione del profilo linguistico". RIVISTEWEB.ITinica dello Sviluppo, 16(3), 661-670. Rinaldi, P., Caselli, M. C., Stefanini, S., Bello, A., & Pasqualetti, P. (2019). "From action to spoken and signed language through gesture: Some basic developmental issues for a discussion on the evolution of the human language-ready brain". Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2750. Rinaldi, P., Tomasuolo, E., & Resca, A. (2018). "La sordità infantile. Nuove prospettive di intervento". Erickson. Roccaforte, M. (2022). Verso la definizione di un sillabo per la valutazione della competenza linguistica nella lingua dei segni italiana (LIS). Bollettino di italianistica 2/2022, pp. 175-189. Timmermans, N. (Ed.) in co-operation with the Committee on the Rehabilitation and Integration of People with disabilities (CD-P-RR), The status of sign languages in Europe. F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2005. ONG, W. J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. Routledge, 1982. Trovato, S. (2014). Insegno in segni. Linguaggio, cognizione, successo scolastico per gli studenti sordi. Milano: Raffaello Cortina Editore Volterra, V., Roccaforte, M., Di Renzo, A., Fontana, S. (2022). Spoken and signed languages between cognition and semiotics. The case of Italian Sign Language. Benjamins Woll, B. A sign of the times. The New Scientist, v. 27, 2022. World Health Organization. World report on hearing. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2021. == Credits == This resource has been added by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Maria Roccaforte (Sapienza Università di Roma) * Martina Corrazza (Sapienza Università di Roma) prsms709bbf0e4el04342z3difejn6i 2817522 2817521 2026-07-01T13:32:40Z Projet PEP 3002502 /* Table of contents */ 2817522 wikitext text/x-wiki == Starting activity == Select three different images that, for you, represent communication. For each image, answer briefly these sentences: * What kind of communication does this image show? * What languages or codes are being used? (spoken, written, signed, visual…) * Who is communicating and how do they understand each other? * What helps make the message clear, even without sound? * In what ways do you think deaf and hard-of-hearing learners experience communication differently from hearing learners? Try to consider both challenges and strengths (e.g., visual learning, bilingualism, multimodality). Optional (for Sign language users): Record a short Sign language video (30 seconds) where you introduce one of your chosen images and sign the main idea of your reflection. == Keywords == multilingual, deaf, hard of hearing, sign languages, spoken languages, education, foreign languages teaching and learning == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * Explain the main goals and principles of multilingual education for deaf and hard of hearing learners. * Distinguish between different communication modalities (spoken, written, signed, visual) and describe how they interact in bimodal and bilingual contexts. * Identify the differences between Deaf (cultural-linguistic identity) and deaf/hard of hearing (audiological condition). * Recognize the linguistic, cognitive, and cultural factors influencing language learning among deaf and hard of hearing students. * Describe the roles of sign language, spoken language, and assistive technologies in promoting accessibility and inclusion. * Reflect on how multimodal and inclusive teaching strategies can enhance communication and learning outcomes. == Table of contents == # Introduction # Definitions and discussion of the definitions # Theoretical overview # Research Projects # Activities: get inspired # Take-home messages # Self-assessment # Resources to go further # Bibliography == 1. Introduction == Multilingual education for D/deaf and hard of hearing people is an interdisciplinary field that combines language studies, pedagogy, neuroscience, and Deaf studies. Its main goal is to ensure equitable access to education using multiple languages, including sign language, written language, and, in some cases, spoken language with technological or visual supports. The adoption of inclusive teaching strategies, multimodality and the use of assistive technologies are critical to improving accessibility and fostering academic and vocational success for people who are deaf and hard of hearing. This resource will explore theoretical principles, educational models, and best practices for effective multilingual education in this field, taking into consideration specifically the cultural context and the fact that we have to distinguish between two groups of  a) deaf and hard of hearing  people who are learners of sign languages, b) deaf and hard of hearing people who are learning spoken languages. == 2. Theoretical overview == {| class="wikitable" !Term !Focus !Typical Communication Mode !Cultural Aspect |- |Deaf (capital D) |Cultural and linguistic identity |Sign language |Member of Deaf community |- |deaf (lowercase d) |General term |May vary |Not necessarily |- |Hard of Hearing |Medical / audiological condition Partial hearing loss |Spoken language, sometimes with supports or signs |Not necessarily |} When talking about deafness and hearing loss in the context of language acquisition—such as questions about the best learning methods, communication strategies, or possible outcomes for deaf and hard of hearing learners—there is often only one possible answer: ‘It depends’. This is because generalizing about multilingualism is already extremely difficult, and even more so when considering individuals with deafness or hearing loss. These learners exhibit unique linguistic features influenced not only by environmental, personal, cultural, and emotional factors (as with all language users), but also by perceptual, articulatory, and educational/rehabilitative factors. Therefore, any reflection, hypothesis, or suggestion about specific teaching techniques, methods, or approaches in language learning may be effective for some and wholly unproductive for others.” This bilingual condition can be described as bimodal, dilalic, and simultaneous. * Bimodal means that two different communication channels are used: one spoken and auditory (for example Italian language) and one visual and gestural (LIS – Italian Sign Language). * Dilalic describes a situation in which a person can use two linguistic codes that belong to the same linguistic system or community, choosing one or the other depending on the context, the interlocutor, or the communicative purpose. * Simultaneous means that both languages can sometimes be used together, since they operate through different channels (voice and hands at the same time). Deafness manifests its most profound and significant effects precisely in the sphere of linguistic communication. Almost all deaf and hard of hearing signers, for example, in Italy, know and use the Italian language, which guarantees them access to social and professional life. In these cases, we refer to a form of bilingualism that is extremely complex and idiosyncratic, which we might call “bimodal, dilalic, and simultaneous.” Bimodal means the use of Spoken language and Signed language, that rely on two different communicative channels (phono-acoustic and visual-gestural); dilalic     means a deaf or hard of hearing person that can use either of the two codes in their repertoire depending on contextual variables, such as the communicative situation, the characteristics of the interlocutor, the communicative purpose, etc.; simultaneous means that the speaker/signer can exploit both language systems at the same time, as they operate on different communicative channels. Depending on the linguistic, educational, and rehabilitative path undertaken by the deaf and hard of hearing learner, this determines how oral and written messages are perceived and processed both cognitively and linguistically. Concerning deaf and hard-of-hearing as multilingual learners (DMLs), we have to consider that these students not only navigate the challenges of hearing differences but also face a range of different languages and modalities while growing up. In this sense, the underlying idea is the distinction between vertical identity, which comes from family and heritage, and horizontal identity, which develops through interactions with the broader community. This is especially significant for DMLs, as they often balance multiple languages and cultural influences. Moreover, plurilingual development can happen in different ways, as the wide range of variational factors characterize d/daf and hard-of-hearing learners’ experiences. Some children learn languages sequentially (one after another), while others acquire them simultaneously. On the one hand, the way languages are learned can be additive, when new languages enhance existing ones; on the other hand, it can result in subtractive learning, when a new language replaces a home language. Learning a second sign language for individuals whose first language is a sign language presents unique opportunities and challenges. Just like spoken languages, sign languages differ significantly in grammar, vocabulary, and structure. Therefore, teaching a new sign language to deaf individuals requires specialized instructional approaches that consider their existing linguistic competencies and the distinct characteristics of the languages involved. In this sense, it is relevant to take into account a bilingual approach, thus the use of both the native sign language and the target sign language, that can facilitate learning through comparison and translation of the two visual languages, leading to a deep understanding of the differences and similarities between languages and cultures. Moreover, the involvement of deaf educators is essential to ensure authentic linguistic modeling, values deaf culture, and to promote an inclusive learning environment. Additionally, it is impossible to ignore the challenges and considerations of the linguistic diversity between sign languages, as well as the lack of educational resources that are limited and need to be developed by adapting existing materials or creating new ones. Furthermore, the official recognition of sign languages still varies across countries, making the situation more and more heterogeneous: For example, in Italy, LIS has only recently been officially recognized, impacting the availability of formal courses and the development of structured educational programs. Teaching foreign spoken languages to deaf and hard of hearing learners can involve challenges, as traditional communicative approaches may not be suitable because these learners cannot hear spoken input. They can have limited exposure to auditory language, which makes engagement with listening and speaking-based methods difficult. Additionally, each deaf and hard of hearing learner can have a unique linguistic background, with varying proficiency in their first language (L1) and different starting points for learning a second language (L2). Therefore, language learning approaches can be tailored to individual needs, especially for bimodal learners who may even have a third language. Motivation and emotional well-being can also play a significant role in language success for deaf and hard of hearing learners. Their self-esteem can influence their learning environment, and teachers can foster a positive atmosphere by addressing these factors. Since deaf and hard of hearing learners primarily process information visually, teaching methods can be adapted to leverage this strength through visual strategies like color-coding, information chunking, and visual memory exercises, which can support language retention. Moreover, incorporating playful and collaborative activities, such as group work and role-playing, can create a more relaxed atmosphere, encouraging interaction and making language acquisition more effective for these students. == 3. Research Projects == These projects have been chosen to be featured here because they represent unique examples of initiatives acknowledged by European authorities that closely relate to the core themes addressed in this lesson     . === ''PRO-Sign'' === https://www.ecml.at/en/ECML-Programme/Programme-2012-2015/ProSign ''The PRO-Sign project'' adapts the CEFR to sign languages, creating the first European proficiency standards for sign languages, particularly for Deaf Studies and interpreting programs in higher education across Europe and beyond. The website serves as a resource for educators, teacher trainers, and curriculum developers in tertiary education and supports organizations like the European Union of the Deaf (EUD) and the World Federation of the Deaf (WFD). It provides "Can Do" descriptors for sign language skills (reception, interaction, production) across levels from A1 to C2, including "plus levels" (e.g., A2+). As with other CEFR tools, not all sub-categories are covered at every level. The system should be used critically, as the CEFR may need further adaptation for specific contexts. An International Sign (IS) version and assessment framework aligned with the CEFR are also available on the site. === ''SpreadTheSign'' === https://www.spreadthesign.com/it.it/search/ SpreadTheSign is an online platform developed in collaboration with Ca’ Foscari University, aimed at promoting sign languages from around the world. It provides video dictionaries, learning resources, and tools for both hearing and Deaf users to explore and learn different sign languages, fostering accessibility and intercultural communication. === ''LangSkills II'' === https://www.teiresias.muni.cz/en/veda-a-vyzkum/projects/language-skills-and-learning-preferences-of-deaf The project ''Language Skills and Learning Preferences of Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students'' supported by the Teiresias Centre at Masaryk University and funded by the European Union under Key Action 2 of the Erasmus+ programme, was running from November 2021 to October 2024. It aimed to improve the foreign language learning experience for Deaf, deaf, and hard of hearing learners. It focused on identifying learning styles and strategies that can enhance the effectiveness of learning, promoting a more autonomous approach to education. This collaboration between Masaryk University, John Paul II Catholic University, Siena School for Liberal Arts, and supported by EUDY aimed at enhancing foreign language learning for deaf and hard of hearing learners by raising awareness of their learning preferences, leveraging strengths, and promoting self-reflection and autonomy. Its key outcomes include adapted surveys, research on learning strategies, a resource pack, and a best practices bank, all designed to foster better understanding, inclusivity, and improved opportunities for deaf and hard of hearing learners in language education. === ''The SigHub Project'' === https://thesignhub.eu/ The SIGN-HUB platform is an innovative and inclusive resource hub for the linguistic, historical and cultural documentation of European sign languages and their Deaf communities' heritage. This platform has been developed during the SIGN-HUB project which was funded by the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant Agreement No 693349. If you would like to find out more about the SIGN-HUB project itself and the consortium of institutions and countries that developed this platform, please visit the section “SIGN-HUB Project” in the upper right corner. The platform provides four major sections that can be used independently as an information resource for researchers, scholars, teachers, interpreters, and anybody interested in sign languages. === ''LIS-A project'' === ''https://research.uniroma1.it/fis2-lis-constructing-first-european-framework-teaching-and-assessing-italian-sign-language-lis-lis'' This FIS project, funded by MUR for the years 2025-2028, aims to develop the LIS-A standardized proficiency test for Italian Sign Language (LIS), addressing the lack of structured assessment tools in Italy. Despite significant advances in sign language research over the past fifty years, LIS teaching and evaluation have mainly relied on informal methods and practitioner insights, which are not systematically grounded. With growing interest in LIS courses across several Italian universities, the need for a formal, reliable assessment framework becomes increasingly important to evaluate and certify learners’ proficiency levels effectively. LIS-A project main goal is the development of a valid and reliable LIS proficiency exam, from a methodological point of view, as well as a more precise skills definition for LIS professionals, promoting inclusivity and reducing inequalities. Overall, it seeks to establish a structured, fair assessment system aligned with Italy’s changing educational and professional needs. == 4. Activities: get inspired == To help learners build vocabulary, sentence structure, and storytelling skills using sign language, spoken and written text independently. '''Materials Needed:''' * Picture cards or storybook with simple sentences * Notebook or digital document for writing * Access to digital sign language vocabulary (e.g., SpreadTheSign) '''Activity Steps:''' '''Warm-Up (5-10 mins)''' # Choose 3–5 picture cards or images with common objects or actions (e.g., a dog running, a child eating). # Look up the corresponding signs for each word using SpreadTheSign https://www.spreadthesign.com/it.it/search/. # Write the word, watch the sign, and say it aloud. Repeat each word 3–5 times. # Optional: Record yourself signing or speaking each word for review. '''Building Sentences''' # Pick one picture card or image. # Create a simple sentence using that image # Break the sentence into individual words and review: #* Vocabulary meaning #* Word order and sentence structure # Practice: #* Sign the sentence #* Speak the sentence aloud #* Write the sentence in your notebook # Repeat with 2–3 more sentences using different images. '''Reflection & Wrap-Up''' # Choose your favorite new word or sentence from the activity. # Write a short story or paragraph using at least 3 new words learned. # Optional: Record a short video signing and speaking your story. Now try to translate this sentence into a sign language using three steps: Use LIS signs but follow exactly the spoken Italian grammar and word order, including fingerspelling for grammatical words (articles, prepositions, pronouns, etc.). Example: Sign each word in the order used in Italian, fingerspell Now use sign language, maintaining Italian word order and structure, but without the strictness of fingerspelling of small grammatical words. Translate in a natural Sign Language Translate the meaning into a sign language using its natural grammar and spatial features (e.g., showing bookcase location through hand position rather than a linear sequence of signs). Reflect on differences in structure, grammar, and meaning at each step. == 5. Take home messages == * Plurilingualism among deaf and hard of hearing people is multimodal. * Plurilingual education promotes linguistic access, cognitive flexibility, and social inclusion. * Sign languages are full linguistic systems, essential for identity and culture. * Deaf and hard of hearing learners benefit from multimodal and visual teaching strategies. * Collaboration between deaf and hearing educators strengthens the learning environment. * Technological and pedagogical tools should be adapted to each learner’s linguistic background. == 6. Self-assessment == === Multiple choice quiz === <quiz display=simple> {What does “bimodal bilingualism” mean?} -a) Using two spoken languages +b) Using two communication channels (spoken and signed) -c) Learning languages sequentially {The capital “D” in “Deaf” refers to:} -a) A medical condition +b) A cultural-linguistic identity -c) A level of hearing loss {The goal of multilingual education for deaf learners is to:} -a) Focus exclusively on oral language +b) Ensure access to learning through multiple languages and modalities -c) Replace sign language with written communication </quiz> === Open reflection === * How does plurilingualism influence the identity of deaf and hard of hearing learners? * Which visual and multimodal strategies could improve inclusion in your classroom or learning environment? == 7. Resources to go further == * Calabrò, L.; Carrazza, M.; Roccaforte, M. (2023). Foreign languages and deafness: how to build up TEFL on deaf students’ strengths and needs Rivista di psicolinguistica applicata. XXIII, 1:2023, pp. 29-46. * Domagala-Zusk, E. (2010) ''Students with severe hearing impairments as competent learners of English as a second language''. Brno, Masaryk University. * European Sign Language Center - ''Spread the Sign – Erasmus+ KA2 Strategic Partnership 2019–2022.'' <nowiki>https://www.unive.it/pag/fileadmin/user_upload/ateneo/internazionale/europrogettazione_didattica/risultati-progetti/2014-2020/StrategicPartnerships/2019_KA2_SPREAD.pdf</nowiki> * Rinaldi, P., Tomasuolo, E., & Resca, A. (2018). "La sordità infantile. Nuove prospettive di intervento". Erickson. * Timmermans, N. (Ed.) in co-operation with the Committee on the Rehabilitation and Integration of People with disabilities (CD-P-RR), The status of sign languages in Europe. F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2005. ONG, W. J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. London: Routledge, 1982. * World Health Organization. World report on hearing. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2021 == 8. Bibliography == Bettini, V., Battista, C. (1999). Talking Hands: Basic English Course for Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Learners. Bologna: Zanichelli. Calabrò, L.; Carrazza, M.; Roccaforte, M. (2023). Foreign languages and deafness: how to build up TEFL on deaf students’ strengths and needs Rivista di psicolinguistica applicata. XXIII, 1:2023, pp. 29-46. Council of Europe. (2020). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Companion Volume. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages. Domagala-Zusk, E. (2010) ''Students with severe hearing impairments as competent learners of English as a second language''. Brno, Masaryk University. Dotter, F. (2008) ''English for Deaf sign language users: still a challenge''. Bern, Peter Lang. European Sign Language Center - ''Spread the Sign – Erasmus+ KA2 Strategic Partnership 2019–2022.'' https://www.unive.it/pag/fileadmin/user_upload/ateneo/internazionale/europrogettazione_didattica/risultati-progetti/2014-2020/StrategicPartnerships/2019_KA2_SPREAD.pdf Haug, T.; Keller, J. ESF Exploratory Workshop on Development of Theoretical and Practical Guidelines for the Adaptation of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) to sign languages: Scientific Report. Summary of the European Science Foundation Exploratory Workshop, Zurich, Switzerland, 16-18 September 2011. Zurich, Switzerland, 2012. Janakova, D. (2005) ''Teaching English to deaf and hard of hearing students at secondary and tertiary levels of education''. Prague, Eurolex Leeson, L.; Van den Bogarde, B.; Rathmann, C.; Haug, T. Sign languages and the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Common Reference Level Descriptors. Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2016. Marshark, M., Spencer, P.E. (2016) ''The Oxford Handbook of Deaf Studies in Language.'' Oxford University Press Onofrio, D., Rinaldi, P., & Pettenati, P. (2012). "Il primo sviluppo del linguaggio in bambini che imparano più lingue: una proposta per la valutazione e l'interpretazione del profilo linguistico". RIVISTEWEB.ITinica dello Sviluppo, 16(3), 661-670. Rinaldi, P., Caselli, M. C., Stefanini, S., Bello, A., & Pasqualetti, P. (2019). "From action to spoken and signed language through gesture: Some basic developmental issues for a discussion on the evolution of the human language-ready brain". Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2750. Rinaldi, P., Tomasuolo, E., & Resca, A. (2018). "La sordità infantile. Nuove prospettive di intervento". Erickson. Roccaforte, M. (2022). Verso la definizione di un sillabo per la valutazione della competenza linguistica nella lingua dei segni italiana (LIS). Bollettino di italianistica 2/2022, pp. 175-189. Timmermans, N. (Ed.) in co-operation with the Committee on the Rehabilitation and Integration of People with disabilities (CD-P-RR), The status of sign languages in Europe. F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2005. ONG, W. J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. Routledge, 1982. Trovato, S. (2014). Insegno in segni. Linguaggio, cognizione, successo scolastico per gli studenti sordi. Milano: Raffaello Cortina Editore Volterra, V., Roccaforte, M., Di Renzo, A., Fontana, S. (2022). Spoken and signed languages between cognition and semiotics. The case of Italian Sign Language. Benjamins Woll, B. A sign of the times. The New Scientist, v. 27, 2022. World Health Organization. World report on hearing. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2021. == Credits == This resource has been added by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Maria Roccaforte (Sapienza Università di Roma) * Martina Corrazza (Sapienza Università di Roma) rpq9w23p7nz4jpq9rzk5epapdv0qb9s 2817523 2817522 2026-07-01T13:35:45Z Projet PEP 3002502 2817523 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Portal|Plurilingual education|Logo PEP.jpg}} {{Education}}{{Course}} == Starting activity == Select three different images that, for you, represent communication. For each image, answer briefly these sentences: * What kind of communication does this image show? * What languages or codes are being used? (spoken, written, signed, visual…) * Who is communicating and how do they understand each other? * What helps make the message clear, even without sound? * In what ways do you think deaf and hard-of-hearing learners experience communication differently from hearing learners? Try to consider both challenges and strengths (e.g., visual learning, bilingualism, multimodality). Optional (for Sign language users): Record a short Sign language video (30 seconds) where you introduce one of your chosen images and sign the main idea of your reflection. == Keywords == multilingual, deaf, hard of hearing, sign languages, spoken languages, education, foreign languages teaching and learning == Objectives == At the end of this section, you will be able to: * Explain the main goals and principles of multilingual education for deaf and hard of hearing learners. * Distinguish between different communication modalities (spoken, written, signed, visual) and describe how they interact in bimodal and bilingual contexts. * Identify the differences between Deaf (cultural-linguistic identity) and deaf/hard of hearing (audiological condition). * Recognize the linguistic, cognitive, and cultural factors influencing language learning among deaf and hard of hearing students. * Describe the roles of sign language, spoken language, and assistive technologies in promoting accessibility and inclusion. * Reflect on how multimodal and inclusive teaching strategies can enhance communication and learning outcomes. == Table of contents == # Introduction # Definitions and discussion of the definitions # Theoretical overview # Research Projects # Activities: get inspired # Take-home messages # Self-assessment # Resources to go further # Bibliography == 1. Introduction == Multilingual education for D/deaf and hard of hearing people is an interdisciplinary field that combines language studies, pedagogy, neuroscience, and Deaf studies. Its main goal is to ensure equitable access to education using multiple languages, including sign language, written language, and, in some cases, spoken language with technological or visual supports. The adoption of inclusive teaching strategies, multimodality and the use of assistive technologies are critical to improving accessibility and fostering academic and vocational success for people who are deaf and hard of hearing. This resource will explore theoretical principles, educational models, and best practices for effective multilingual education in this field, taking into consideration specifically the cultural context and the fact that we have to distinguish between two groups of  a) deaf and hard of hearing  people who are learners of sign languages, b) deaf and hard of hearing people who are learning spoken languages. == 2. Theoretical overview == {| class="wikitable" !Term !Focus !Typical Communication Mode !Cultural Aspect |- |Deaf (capital D) |Cultural and linguistic identity |Sign language |Member of Deaf community |- |deaf (lowercase d) |General term |May vary |Not necessarily |- |Hard of Hearing |Medical / audiological condition Partial hearing loss |Spoken language, sometimes with supports or signs |Not necessarily |} When talking about deafness and hearing loss in the context of language acquisition—such as questions about the best learning methods, communication strategies, or possible outcomes for deaf and hard of hearing learners—there is often only one possible answer: ‘It depends’. This is because generalizing about multilingualism is already extremely difficult, and even more so when considering individuals with deafness or hearing loss. These learners exhibit unique linguistic features influenced not only by environmental, personal, cultural, and emotional factors (as with all language users), but also by perceptual, articulatory, and educational/rehabilitative factors. Therefore, any reflection, hypothesis, or suggestion about specific teaching techniques, methods, or approaches in language learning may be effective for some and wholly unproductive for others.” This bilingual condition can be described as bimodal, dilalic, and simultaneous. * Bimodal means that two different communication channels are used: one spoken and auditory (for example Italian language) and one visual and gestural (LIS – Italian Sign Language). * Dilalic describes a situation in which a person can use two linguistic codes that belong to the same linguistic system or community, choosing one or the other depending on the context, the interlocutor, or the communicative purpose. * Simultaneous means that both languages can sometimes be used together, since they operate through different channels (voice and hands at the same time). Deafness manifests its most profound and significant effects precisely in the sphere of linguistic communication. Almost all deaf and hard of hearing signers, for example, in Italy, know and use the Italian language, which guarantees them access to social and professional life. In these cases, we refer to a form of bilingualism that is extremely complex and idiosyncratic, which we might call “bimodal, dilalic, and simultaneous.” Bimodal means the use of Spoken language and Signed language, that rely on two different communicative channels (phono-acoustic and visual-gestural); dilalic     means a deaf or hard of hearing person that can use either of the two codes in their repertoire depending on contextual variables, such as the communicative situation, the characteristics of the interlocutor, the communicative purpose, etc.; simultaneous means that the speaker/signer can exploit both language systems at the same time, as they operate on different communicative channels. Depending on the linguistic, educational, and rehabilitative path undertaken by the deaf and hard of hearing learner, this determines how oral and written messages are perceived and processed both cognitively and linguistically. Concerning deaf and hard-of-hearing as multilingual learners (DMLs), we have to consider that these students not only navigate the challenges of hearing differences but also face a range of different languages and modalities while growing up. In this sense, the underlying idea is the distinction between vertical identity, which comes from family and heritage, and horizontal identity, which develops through interactions with the broader community. This is especially significant for DMLs, as they often balance multiple languages and cultural influences. Moreover, plurilingual development can happen in different ways, as the wide range of variational factors characterize d/daf and hard-of-hearing learners’ experiences. Some children learn languages sequentially (one after another), while others acquire them simultaneously. On the one hand, the way languages are learned can be additive, when new languages enhance existing ones; on the other hand, it can result in subtractive learning, when a new language replaces a home language. Learning a second sign language for individuals whose first language is a sign language presents unique opportunities and challenges. Just like spoken languages, sign languages differ significantly in grammar, vocabulary, and structure. Therefore, teaching a new sign language to deaf individuals requires specialized instructional approaches that consider their existing linguistic competencies and the distinct characteristics of the languages involved. In this sense, it is relevant to take into account a bilingual approach, thus the use of both the native sign language and the target sign language, that can facilitate learning through comparison and translation of the two visual languages, leading to a deep understanding of the differences and similarities between languages and cultures. Moreover, the involvement of deaf educators is essential to ensure authentic linguistic modeling, values deaf culture, and to promote an inclusive learning environment. Additionally, it is impossible to ignore the challenges and considerations of the linguistic diversity between sign languages, as well as the lack of educational resources that are limited and need to be developed by adapting existing materials or creating new ones. Furthermore, the official recognition of sign languages still varies across countries, making the situation more and more heterogeneous: For example, in Italy, LIS has only recently been officially recognized, impacting the availability of formal courses and the development of structured educational programs. Teaching foreign spoken languages to deaf and hard of hearing learners can involve challenges, as traditional communicative approaches may not be suitable because these learners cannot hear spoken input. They can have limited exposure to auditory language, which makes engagement with listening and speaking-based methods difficult. Additionally, each deaf and hard of hearing learner can have a unique linguistic background, with varying proficiency in their first language (L1) and different starting points for learning a second language (L2). Therefore, language learning approaches can be tailored to individual needs, especially for bimodal learners who may even have a third language. Motivation and emotional well-being can also play a significant role in language success for deaf and hard of hearing learners. Their self-esteem can influence their learning environment, and teachers can foster a positive atmosphere by addressing these factors. Since deaf and hard of hearing learners primarily process information visually, teaching methods can be adapted to leverage this strength through visual strategies like color-coding, information chunking, and visual memory exercises, which can support language retention. Moreover, incorporating playful and collaborative activities, such as group work and role-playing, can create a more relaxed atmosphere, encouraging interaction and making language acquisition more effective for these students. == 3. Research Projects == These projects have been chosen to be featured here because they represent unique examples of initiatives acknowledged by European authorities that closely relate to the core themes addressed in this lesson     . === ''PRO-Sign'' === https://www.ecml.at/en/ECML-Programme/Programme-2012-2015/ProSign ''The PRO-Sign project'' adapts the CEFR to sign languages, creating the first European proficiency standards for sign languages, particularly for Deaf Studies and interpreting programs in higher education across Europe and beyond. The website serves as a resource for educators, teacher trainers, and curriculum developers in tertiary education and supports organizations like the European Union of the Deaf (EUD) and the World Federation of the Deaf (WFD). It provides "Can Do" descriptors for sign language skills (reception, interaction, production) across levels from A1 to C2, including "plus levels" (e.g., A2+). As with other CEFR tools, not all sub-categories are covered at every level. The system should be used critically, as the CEFR may need further adaptation for specific contexts. An International Sign (IS) version and assessment framework aligned with the CEFR are also available on the site. === ''SpreadTheSign'' === https://www.spreadthesign.com/it.it/search/ SpreadTheSign is an online platform developed in collaboration with Ca’ Foscari University, aimed at promoting sign languages from around the world. It provides video dictionaries, learning resources, and tools for both hearing and Deaf users to explore and learn different sign languages, fostering accessibility and intercultural communication. === ''LangSkills II'' === https://www.teiresias.muni.cz/en/veda-a-vyzkum/projects/language-skills-and-learning-preferences-of-deaf The project ''Language Skills and Learning Preferences of Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students'' supported by the Teiresias Centre at Masaryk University and funded by the European Union under Key Action 2 of the Erasmus+ programme, was running from November 2021 to October 2024. It aimed to improve the foreign language learning experience for Deaf, deaf, and hard of hearing learners. It focused on identifying learning styles and strategies that can enhance the effectiveness of learning, promoting a more autonomous approach to education. This collaboration between Masaryk University, John Paul II Catholic University, Siena School for Liberal Arts, and supported by EUDY aimed at enhancing foreign language learning for deaf and hard of hearing learners by raising awareness of their learning preferences, leveraging strengths, and promoting self-reflection and autonomy. Its key outcomes include adapted surveys, research on learning strategies, a resource pack, and a best practices bank, all designed to foster better understanding, inclusivity, and improved opportunities for deaf and hard of hearing learners in language education. === ''The SigHub Project'' === https://thesignhub.eu/ The SIGN-HUB platform is an innovative and inclusive resource hub for the linguistic, historical and cultural documentation of European sign languages and their Deaf communities' heritage. This platform has been developed during the SIGN-HUB project which was funded by the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant Agreement No 693349. If you would like to find out more about the SIGN-HUB project itself and the consortium of institutions and countries that developed this platform, please visit the section “SIGN-HUB Project” in the upper right corner. The platform provides four major sections that can be used independently as an information resource for researchers, scholars, teachers, interpreters, and anybody interested in sign languages. === ''LIS-A project'' === ''https://research.uniroma1.it/fis2-lis-constructing-first-european-framework-teaching-and-assessing-italian-sign-language-lis-lis'' This FIS project, funded by MUR for the years 2025-2028, aims to develop the LIS-A standardized proficiency test for Italian Sign Language (LIS), addressing the lack of structured assessment tools in Italy. Despite significant advances in sign language research over the past fifty years, LIS teaching and evaluation have mainly relied on informal methods and practitioner insights, which are not systematically grounded. With growing interest in LIS courses across several Italian universities, the need for a formal, reliable assessment framework becomes increasingly important to evaluate and certify learners’ proficiency levels effectively. LIS-A project main goal is the development of a valid and reliable LIS proficiency exam, from a methodological point of view, as well as a more precise skills definition for LIS professionals, promoting inclusivity and reducing inequalities. Overall, it seeks to establish a structured, fair assessment system aligned with Italy’s changing educational and professional needs. == 4. Activities: get inspired == To help learners build vocabulary, sentence structure, and storytelling skills using sign language, spoken and written text independently. '''Materials Needed:''' * Picture cards or storybook with simple sentences * Notebook or digital document for writing * Access to digital sign language vocabulary (e.g., SpreadTheSign) '''Activity Steps:''' '''Warm-Up (5-10 mins)''' # Choose 3–5 picture cards or images with common objects or actions (e.g., a dog running, a child eating). # Look up the corresponding signs for each word using SpreadTheSign https://www.spreadthesign.com/it.it/search/. # Write the word, watch the sign, and say it aloud. Repeat each word 3–5 times. # Optional: Record yourself signing or speaking each word for review. '''Building Sentences''' # Pick one picture card or image. # Create a simple sentence using that image # Break the sentence into individual words and review: #* Vocabulary meaning #* Word order and sentence structure # Practice: #* Sign the sentence #* Speak the sentence aloud #* Write the sentence in your notebook # Repeat with 2–3 more sentences using different images. '''Reflection & Wrap-Up''' # Choose your favorite new word or sentence from the activity. # Write a short story or paragraph using at least 3 new words learned. # Optional: Record a short video signing and speaking your story. Now try to translate this sentence into a sign language using three steps: Use LIS signs but follow exactly the spoken Italian grammar and word order, including fingerspelling for grammatical words (articles, prepositions, pronouns, etc.). Example: Sign each word in the order used in Italian, fingerspell Now use sign language, maintaining Italian word order and structure, but without the strictness of fingerspelling of small grammatical words. Translate in a natural Sign Language Translate the meaning into a sign language using its natural grammar and spatial features (e.g., showing bookcase location through hand position rather than a linear sequence of signs). Reflect on differences in structure, grammar, and meaning at each step. == 5. Take home messages == * Plurilingualism among deaf and hard of hearing people is multimodal. * Plurilingual education promotes linguistic access, cognitive flexibility, and social inclusion. * Sign languages are full linguistic systems, essential for identity and culture. * Deaf and hard of hearing learners benefit from multimodal and visual teaching strategies. * Collaboration between deaf and hearing educators strengthens the learning environment. * Technological and pedagogical tools should be adapted to each learner’s linguistic background. == 6. Self-assessment == === Multiple choice quiz === <quiz display=simple> {What does “bimodal bilingualism” mean?} -a) Using two spoken languages +b) Using two communication channels (spoken and signed) -c) Learning languages sequentially {The capital “D” in “Deaf” refers to:} -a) A medical condition +b) A cultural-linguistic identity -c) A level of hearing loss {The goal of multilingual education for deaf learners is to:} -a) Focus exclusively on oral language +b) Ensure access to learning through multiple languages and modalities -c) Replace sign language with written communication </quiz> === Open reflection === * How does plurilingualism influence the identity of deaf and hard of hearing learners? * Which visual and multimodal strategies could improve inclusion in your classroom or learning environment? == 7. Resources to go further == * Calabrò, L.; Carrazza, M.; Roccaforte, M. (2023). Foreign languages and deafness: how to build up TEFL on deaf students’ strengths and needs Rivista di psicolinguistica applicata. XXIII, 1:2023, pp. 29-46. * Domagala-Zusk, E. (2010) ''Students with severe hearing impairments as competent learners of English as a second language''. Brno, Masaryk University. * European Sign Language Center - ''Spread the Sign – Erasmus+ KA2 Strategic Partnership 2019–2022.'' <nowiki>https://www.unive.it/pag/fileadmin/user_upload/ateneo/internazionale/europrogettazione_didattica/risultati-progetti/2014-2020/StrategicPartnerships/2019_KA2_SPREAD.pdf</nowiki> * Rinaldi, P., Tomasuolo, E., & Resca, A. (2018). "La sordità infantile. Nuove prospettive di intervento". Erickson. * Timmermans, N. (Ed.) in co-operation with the Committee on the Rehabilitation and Integration of People with disabilities (CD-P-RR), The status of sign languages in Europe. F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2005. ONG, W. J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. London: Routledge, 1982. * World Health Organization. World report on hearing. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2021 == 8. Bibliography == Bettini, V., Battista, C. (1999). Talking Hands: Basic English Course for Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Learners. Bologna: Zanichelli. Calabrò, L.; Carrazza, M.; Roccaforte, M. (2023). Foreign languages and deafness: how to build up TEFL on deaf students’ strengths and needs Rivista di psicolinguistica applicata. XXIII, 1:2023, pp. 29-46. Council of Europe. (2020). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Companion Volume. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages. Domagala-Zusk, E. (2010) ''Students with severe hearing impairments as competent learners of English as a second language''. Brno, Masaryk University. Dotter, F. (2008) ''English for Deaf sign language users: still a challenge''. Bern, Peter Lang. European Sign Language Center - ''Spread the Sign – Erasmus+ KA2 Strategic Partnership 2019–2022.'' https://www.unive.it/pag/fileadmin/user_upload/ateneo/internazionale/europrogettazione_didattica/risultati-progetti/2014-2020/StrategicPartnerships/2019_KA2_SPREAD.pdf Haug, T.; Keller, J. ESF Exploratory Workshop on Development of Theoretical and Practical Guidelines for the Adaptation of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) to sign languages: Scientific Report. Summary of the European Science Foundation Exploratory Workshop, Zurich, Switzerland, 16-18 September 2011. Zurich, Switzerland, 2012. Janakova, D. (2005) ''Teaching English to deaf and hard of hearing students at secondary and tertiary levels of education''. Prague, Eurolex Leeson, L.; Van den Bogarde, B.; Rathmann, C.; Haug, T. Sign languages and the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Common Reference Level Descriptors. Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2016. Marshark, M., Spencer, P.E. (2016) ''The Oxford Handbook of Deaf Studies in Language.'' Oxford University Press Onofrio, D., Rinaldi, P., & Pettenati, P. (2012). "Il primo sviluppo del linguaggio in bambini che imparano più lingue: una proposta per la valutazione e l'interpretazione del profilo linguistico". RIVISTEWEB.ITinica dello Sviluppo, 16(3), 661-670. Rinaldi, P., Caselli, M. C., Stefanini, S., Bello, A., & Pasqualetti, P. (2019). "From action to spoken and signed language through gesture: Some basic developmental issues for a discussion on the evolution of the human language-ready brain". Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2750. Rinaldi, P., Tomasuolo, E., & Resca, A. (2018). "La sordità infantile. Nuove prospettive di intervento". Erickson. Roccaforte, M. (2022). Verso la definizione di un sillabo per la valutazione della competenza linguistica nella lingua dei segni italiana (LIS). Bollettino di italianistica 2/2022, pp. 175-189. Timmermans, N. (Ed.) in co-operation with the Committee on the Rehabilitation and Integration of People with disabilities (CD-P-RR), The status of sign languages in Europe. F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2005. ONG, W. J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. Routledge, 1982. Trovato, S. (2014). Insegno in segni. Linguaggio, cognizione, successo scolastico per gli studenti sordi. Milano: Raffaello Cortina Editore Volterra, V., Roccaforte, M., Di Renzo, A., Fontana, S. (2022). Spoken and signed languages between cognition and semiotics. The case of Italian Sign Language. Benjamins Woll, B. A sign of the times. The New Scientist, v. 27, 2022. World Health Organization. World report on hearing. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2021. == Credits == This resource has been added by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : * Maria Roccaforte (Sapienza Università di Roma) * Martina Corrazza (Sapienza Università di Roma) muyu1obzhb1phfonih4dfbkdatrz4vg 6 330428 2817519 2026-07-01T13:28:24Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2A traditional (20260701 - 20260630) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-07-01 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2817519 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2A traditional (20260701 - 20260630) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-07-01 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} onilb94wco4nj7ht5736zyb1ejtai42 6 330429 2817520 2026-07-01T13:29:16Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2B simplified (20260701 - 20260630) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-07-01 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2817520 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2B simplified (20260701 - 20260630) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-07-01 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} nqfdpoxpr2wk1zuoyxtvjnewcwuv5nd 6 330430 2817525 2026-07-01T13:40:25Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20260701 - 20260630) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-07-01 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2817525 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20260701 - 20260630) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-07-01 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} 03lzxktdce8xhtqzvfaag1rxfpab09g 6 330431 2817527 2026-07-01T13:48:07Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Laurent.5: Permutation 6C (20260701 - 20260630) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-07-01 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2817527 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Laurent.5: Permutation 6C (20260701 - 20260630) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-07-01 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} bg63vrb49lutwii8jtaf7x7i0rts4fz 6 330432 2817537 2026-07-01T16:23:25Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Sample: Tapped Delay (20260629 - 20260623) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-07-01 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2817537 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Sample: Tapped Delay (20260629 - 20260623) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-07-01 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} k2qo755707mc6d2jbyis299t0a4vrma 6 330433 2817539 2026-07-01T16:24:20Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Sample: Tapped Delay (20260630 - 20260629) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-07-01 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2817539 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Sample: Tapped Delay (20260630 - 20260629) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-07-01 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} ne4z9r92axqj42fr7ukzdiyiz1q576t 6 330434 2817541 2026-07-01T16:25:30Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Sample: Tapped Delay (20260701 - 20260630) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-07-01 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2817541 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Sample: Tapped Delay (20260701 - 20260630) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-07-01 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} oeleetsp775c4fvntoer4iy0ynl689f 6 330435 2817567 2026-07-02T08:16:16Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2A traditional (20260702 - 20260701) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-07-02 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2817567 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2A traditional (20260702 - 20260701) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-07-02 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} lq0xx55ippcuzauumsgw6726bmlyvpn 6 330436 2817568 2026-07-02T08:16:58Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2B simplified (20260702 - 20260701) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-07-02 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2817568 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2B simplified (20260702 - 20260701) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-07-02 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} cq2hxhnfex43v98a83pozo60333tzxz 6 330437 2817570 2026-07-02T08:19:26Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20260702 - 20260701) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-07-01 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2817570 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20260702 - 20260701) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-07-01 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} eksez3dpogz5czmpyhiftflj7xyxq4j 6 330438 2817572 2026-07-02T08:30:04Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Laurent.5: Permutation 6C (20260702 - 20260701) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-07-02 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2817572 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Laurent.5: Permutation 6C (20260702 - 20260701) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-07-02 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} rmp0r7o726kadu1n1qqpi9vp3at4nuo